COMI)OSI'rroN-Rr-IETORro
DESIGNED

FOR USE IN SEGONDAR Y SGI-IOOLS

v/

BY

FRED NEWTON SCOTT
JuN10R P1t01·· Esso1t" 0 1, R11ET01t10 1N THE

u~·1 vE1ts1Tv
~r•'

AND

oF M1c11rnA.N

J'

JOSEPH VILLIERS :QENNEY
Pl\OFESSOR OF HnETOl!lC AND ENG LISH LAN G UAGE IN

Omo

ST.ATE UNIVERSITY

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150.zton
ALLYN AND BACON
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PREFACE.
IN the prnpamtiun of this work the authors have been

CoPYR1u 11 T,

FltED N. SCUTT

AN[)

189i ,

BY

,J Ofl EPJl V. UENNJW .

N orbrnoll lOris!>
J . S. C11 sh i11g ·"Co. -llerwick & Smith
No rwood Mnss. U.S.A.

guitled by three considerations, which have seemed to them
to be of fundamental importance.
First, it is desirable that a closer union than has prevailed hitherto be brought about between secondary composition and secondary rhetoric. That rhetoric in the high
school should be regarded as a thing apart from composition, that it should be regarded simply as a "cours.e," to be
pursuetl and passed and put out of remembrance as quickly
as possible, is not good either for rhetoric or for composition. In this book, as the name signifies, no such apartness
. has been recognized. The rhetoric which is found in this
book is meant to be the theory of the pupil's practice,
nothing more, -the explicit statement of principles which
are implicit in all successful elementary composition. If
here and there the t emptation to put in rhetorical furniture
·which no gentleman's mind should be without, has not been
wholly thrust aside, such temptation has, at least, been ·
manfully resisted. To this let the treatment of figurative
' expressions bear witness.
Second, it is desirable m secondary composition that
greater use be made of the paragraph than has hitherto
been done in the majority of schools. 'rlte idea that the
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Preface.

paragraph may be maJ.c the basis of a systematic method
of instruction was advanced in Paragraph- Writing six years
ago. Since that tim e the method has been tested in many
schools under a variety of conditions, and has found its
way into other text-books. The authors believe that in the
main it has approved itself to every teacher who has tried
it fairly, and acting upon this belief they have made it the
central iLlc:i of LJ1e present work. 'l'ltcy would call attention, however, to the fact that a considerable proportion of
longer compositions - descriptive, narrative, and argumentative - are provided for in the exercises, the necessary
additional theory l>eing furnished in the tex t accompanying.
A third idea which underlies the work is the idea of
growth. A composition is reganled not as a dead form, to
be analyzed into its component parts, but as a living product of an active, creative mind. The paragraph is compared to a plant, springing up in the soil of the mind from
a germinal idea, and in the course of its development
assuming naturally a variety of forms. 1 This kinetic conception of discourse, besides being psychologically more
correct, has proved to be practically more h elpful and
inspirmg .in composition-classes than the static conception
which it is inten<l.e<l. to dis place. \'Vhere it has been
employed, pupils attempt various forms of self-expression
with greater willingness au<l. confidence, and their efforts
are atteu<l.e<l. with g reater success.
In working out these ideas, care has been taken to pro1 For a similar co11 ceptlo11 or judgment-forms, see the Preface to Bosanquet's L o,qic, Vol. I , p . vii. Mr . .Bosanquet acknowledges indebtedness for.
the idea to Mr. Alfred Robinson, of New College, Oxford.

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vide illustrative material of a kind that should be thoughtprovoking, interesting and valuable in itself, but not too
far above the standar<l. of literary practice, material which
the pupil can appreciate readily and can turn to account
at once in his own writt~n work. Many of the exercises are
suggested directly by the selections used in the same lessons, and ma..y be attacked by the pupil without furth er
help than that given in the text. vVith some of the topics
prescribed for class-room compositions, however, it will be
found advantageous to hold a fifteen-minute conversationlesson, in order to start the ideas of the class and bring
their total resources to light, before the writing begins.
Care has also been taken in the way the text is stated, as
well as in the way the exercises are presented, to suggest
at every step that th~ study is pursued for the purpose of
acquiring constructive rather than critical power, and the
authors venture to advise th?-t until chapter four is reached
minute criticism of the pupil's written work be avoided;
let the criticisms be made solely with reference to the matters treated in the current lesson, and to bad English that
may be used by the pupil.
'l'he attention of teachers is called to the caret and
bracket devices used in the later chapters of this book.
These devices avoid the evil of putting ba<l. English before
pupils, and compel the exercise of the pupils' judgment.
Attention is also called to the fact that by using the
method of marking shown in Appendix B, pupils will be
trained to correct their own errors. Persistence in this
method, it is believed, will beget in the pupil a habit of
attention to his writing, a habit of watchfulness, an ability

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Preface.

Preface.

to correct himself, a <lcsirc fol' scH-impru vemcnt, which will
la.st beyond his school days.
The following books and articles are recommended as
being helpful to the teachers of English in secondary
schools. Titles that are marke<l with an asterisk are
adapted to the pupil as well as to the tenclter, nncl may be
assigned as collateral reading.
AmsTOTLE. Rhetoric. 'Velldon's Translation. Macmillan.
BAIN. English Composition n.ml Rhetoric. 2 vols. Appleton.
*IlAINTON. Art of Aut.horship. Appleton.
l3AirnR. Principles of Argumentation. Ginn.
*BARER. Specimens of Argu1!1ent. Holt.
*BALDWIN. Specimens of l'rnsr. Drn;cription. ll olt.
*BA ·rnR. Tallrn on Wril.i 11 g l 1:11gfo; J1. llought.011.
*l31rnwinim. Specimcus of Narrntive. Holt.
BREWSTER. Stuuies in Structure and Style. Macmillan.
Buc1c Figures of H.hetoric: a ]>sychological Study. (Contributions
to Rhetorical Theory, ed ited by F. N. Scott. No. 1.)
CAMPBELL. Philosophy of Hh etoric. Harper.
CARPENTER. Exercises in Rhetoric. Advanced Course. Macmillan.
*CARPENTJm. Exercises in Hhctoric. lligh School Course. Macmillan.
Cot.ERIDGE. Style.
DE QUINCEY. Essays on Style, Rhetoric, and L anguage. Allyn &
Bacon.
EMERSON. History of the Engli sh J,angna.ge. Macmillan.
FLETCHER and CA1tPENTJm. Introduction to Theme-,¥riting. Allyn
& Bacon.
*GENUNG. Outli nes of Rhetoric . Ginn.
*GENUNG. Practical Rhetoric. Ginn.
*HAT,E. Constructive Hhnt,oric. l l"nlt.
*1fA1tT. A lla1H.ll>uuk of Hnglish Composition. Eldredge.
*HIGGINSON . Hints on ·writing and Speech-making. Lee & Shepard.
*HILL, A. S. Foundations of Rhetoric. Harper.
*HILL, A . S. Principles of Rhetoric. Harper.
HrLJ,, D. J. Science of Rhetoric. Sheldon.
JEnn. 'Hhetoric.' Encycl. llrit. 9th Ell.

Vll

.h;s1·1,;Rs1rn. .Progress in Language. Sounenschein.
and DA vis. Studies in English Composition. A ll yn &
llaco11.
*LAMONT. Specimens of Exposition . Holt.
LEWES.
J'rinciples of Success in Literature. Allyn & Bacon.
L1m.1s. T he History of the English Paragraph. Un iv. of Chicago
l'rcss.
McELIWY. Structure of Engl ish Prose . Armstrong.
*M1Nr o. J\Ianual of English Prose Literature. Ginn.
*MINTO. Plain Principles of Prose Composition. Blackwood.
*Nmvcmrn1t. A l'ractical Course in English Composition. Ginn.
PATEH. Literary Style. Macmillan.
PAUL. Principles of the History of Language. Macmillan.
QurnT1L 1AN. Institutes of Orat o ry~ llohn Library .
RENTON. Log ic of Style. Longmans.
*SAINTsnunY. Miscella,neous Essays. pp. 1-41. Scribner's.
*ScoTT and lh:NN lff. l'arn.graph- ' ¥rit in g. Allyn & Bacon .
.SJ11mMAN. AnalyLics of Litcrntnrn. Ginn .
SPENCER. Philosophy of Style. Allyn & Bacon.
STEVENSON. · Style in Literature. Contemporary l\fagazine, Vol.
XLVU, p. 548. •
SYMONDS. Essays, Speculative and Suggestive.' Vol. I, p. 256;
Vol. II, p. 1.
*WENDELL. English Composition. Scribner's.
vVnATEf,Y. Elements of BJietoric. Sheldon.

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CONTENTS.
CIIA.l'TJ~R

I.

ExTE JtNAL Fo1rn

oF

THE

PARAGllAPII.
PAOF:

Lesson
Lesson
Lesson
Lesson
Lesson

The Sentence-Group
2. Indention
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F
aults
of
Indention
:
Indenting
Every Sentence
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4. ]faults of Indention : Indentions .too Few
5. J<'aults of Indention: Indentions Irregular and
Meaningless
Lesson 0. Other Uses of Indention
1.

CHAPTER IL

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Lesson 7.

8.

Thought-Divisions

17
25

30
WHAT TO SAY.

Selecting a Subject

U. The l'aragraph-Theme
10. The Title
11. The Topic-Sentence· .
12. How Paragraphs Grow - Hepetition '·
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13. How Paragraphs Grow - Particulars and Details .
14. How Paragraphs Grow - Speci!J.~ Instances or Ex:

amples
Ilow Paragr~phs Grow- Comparisons and Analogies
How l'aragraphs Grow - Tcll iug what a T hiug is
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not .
.Lesson 17. llo\v l'aragraphs Grow - Contrasts
Lesson 18. How Paragraphs Grow - Cause and Effect
Lesson 19. I-Io_w Pn,ragraphs Grow - Proofs
Lesson 20. How Paragraphs Grow - Combination of Two or
More Methods
ix
Lesson 15.
Lesson Hi.

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11

p ARAGRAPH-STRUCTURE .

CHAPTER III.
L esson
Lesson
Lesson
Lesson
Lesson
L esson
Lesson

1
5

41
42
46

52
72
79

87
92
!)9

103
110
117

123

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Contents.
CH/\l:'' l'EI{ JV.

Jlow

TO SAY

IT.
PAGI"

Lesson 21. Short Sn11Lenccs and Lh e ir Uses
L esson 22. J,ong Sen te nces and their Uses .
J~esson 23. Uses of the J~oosc Se n te nce
L esson 24. Uses of the P eri od ic Sente nce
Lesson 25. Uses oft.he B a!n.11ced SAn toni:-e
L esson 2G. Cornbi natio ns of SenLence-Types
Lesson 27 . Choice of Ex rre8s ion .
J_,esson 28. lmagi n:Lt,i vc I•:xpressio11s

CHAPTBH. V . IN
Lesson
Lesson
Lesson
Lesson

134
151
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17[)
188

205
219

"\VllAl' 0HDE !l TO SAY

31.

32.

CHAPTER I.

IT.

Antithes is aml Clim ax
Tlt e Logical Ord er
Th e Tim e Ord er arnl tl1e Space Onl er
.
Sentence-Order for Clearness and Emphas is

2!).

30.

CO~IPOSITION-RHETORIC.

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241
24G
257

EXTERNAL FORM OF THE PARAGRAPH.

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CHAPTER VI.
Lesson 33.
L esson 34.
Lesson 35.
Lesson 36.
Lesson 37.

TO

SAY.

Scale of Treatment
l'roportion of Parts
Subordination of Parts
Expansion .
Condensation

CHAPTER VII.
Lesson 38.
Lesson 30.

How Mucu

W11AT

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Digress ion s .
Incoherence

314
323

APPENDIX

A.

Directions for Prepar in g Manuscript

339

APPRNl>JX

B.

Marks IJc;c:d i11 Cu1Tecli11 g

APPENDJX

c.

342

Material for Analysis and Reproduction

349

APPENDIX

D.

Subj ects for E ssays

361

APPENDJX

E.

Capitals, l'unctuat.ion, etc.

INDEX

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The Sentence-Group._
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281
291
297

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LESSON 1.

~68

371

THERE are two ways in which we may write an essay or
any other kind of composition. One way is to write it
sentence by sentence. A person who com.poses in this way
usually begi~s writing before he has given his subj ect very
much consideration. ' A sentence comes by chance into his
mind. . He traces it on the paper before him. The first sentence suggests a second, which also he writes down. The
second suggests a third, the third a fourth, and so on to the
end of the composition. This is one way, and a common
way, o( composing, but it is not a good way.
A LctLer way
to compose, not se11 tence Ly sentence,
but sentence-group by sentence-group. When a writer composes in this way, he does not begin with a single sentence,
but with a series or train of sentences. Before putting pen
to paper he thinks out carefully the topics on which he
means to write, and arranges them in the order in which

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Composition-Rlieto1·ic.

pen to write, this is what; ha1>po11 s : a succession of seutenees or o~ ideas for so11tencel::l, bearing upou tho topic to
be treated inst, pass rapidly through his miml. They seem
to flow or to grow naturally out of the topic, as n;tturally
as water How s Irom a l::llll'ing or a vine grows from a seed.
v~Then. he has written these seateni;es down, there arises in
lus m1:1d another series of sentences upon a secorul topic.
and tlus process goes on until the essay is completed.
'
One or two familiar illw:d:ration H will l1nlp Lo rnai<o cl e:u·
wl1at has beeJL sai\1 alJout this sccouJ met]w~l of composiug.
. A school-boy, let us suppose, is writing to a fri end about
lus pl~ns for the summer ;vacation. 'l'he first thing he nieans
to c~o is to make a trip on foot through some parts of the
vVlnte lVIouutains. Then 11 0 will go to Portland, and join
a party on board of a yacht, with whom he will go to
Bar Harbor. After a short stay a,t J3ar Harbor, ho will
return to Portland by steamer and to his home by the railroad. If i~ow he has given the subject some thought so that
h: k~ows Jnst what he wants to say, there will come into
Ins mmd when he begins to write, not one sentence alone
nor odds a~d ends of sentences from various parts of th~
~etter that is to be, but instead a chain or train of sentence~~e~s be[l.ri 11g 1.tpon tlio to!'ic 1.10 i11te11J.s to tl'cat first.
I e~lrnp~ they will be sometlung like this: "Start from Detroit July 1 . . . Excursion at lo\v i·ates
Le ave t.1am
·
at ll'abyan_'s . . . A week in the ·white Mountains . . . Up
Mt. vVashrngton on foot . . . Catch trout in the Saco
Train to Portland." 'Vheu the sentences for which tiie·s~
sl:eleton se~1tences sta,ntl have been put on paper, another set
will come mto his mind touching the yachting trip to Bar
Harbor; and so on until the letter is completed.
To take another illustration, suppose t11at some one has
just examined with great interest a remarkable bust of Emerson. He has seen it in a studio antl has talketl with the
sculptor about it. The sculptor has told him that one side
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of Emerson's face looks like the profile of a .Yankee and
that the other side looks like the profile of a Greek. If
now he sits down to write to a friend a brief account of hi s
visit to the st1ulio, he will not tlii11k merely, "J saw to-day
a fine bust of Emerson," or, "I went to-day to a sculptor's
studio," but something like the following: "Visited a studio
. .. Saw fine bust of Emerson . . . Talked with sculptor
. . . Sculptor said sides of face different . .. One side
Yti1ilrno, LILc oLhor si\lo llreok . . . Sa,id l~mcrson combiuetl
two natures, the modern and the classical." Just as in the
first illustration, these skeletons of sentences, or pictures
that answer to them, will race through his mind, before he
writes a, single wonl. If his mind works as it should, they _
will pass in just the order in which he wa,nts to write them.
Written in the manner suggested by these illustrations,
a composition will consist of a group, or of groups, of closely
connected sentences.
A good writer thinks a group of sentences upon one topic before
he writes the separate sentences which go to make up the group.1
Such sentence-groups we shall call paragraphs. A paragraph may
be a whole composition, or it may be a part of a whole composition.

It is these groups of sentences that we purpose studying
in this book.

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EXERCISE 1.

Select one of the · following questions~ Think about it
until you know just how yon will answer it. ·write the
1 This view is corroborated by tlie recent researches of Dr. E. H. Lewis,
set forth in the pamphlet entitled Jiist.oi·y of the English Paragraph
(Chicago: 18!)J) ; sec cspeciall,y p. 172: "There has been , from the earliest
days of our prose, a unit of in ve ntion much larger than the modern sentence, and always separated, in the mind of the wri te r, from the sentenceunit, of whatever length. In other wwds, English writers have.thought
roughly in long stages before they have analyzed such stages into smaller
steps."

4

Composition-Rhetoric.

answer in full. At e::tch poi11t in yonr :writing where you
are compelled to pause in or<..ler to think what comes next,
insert a sign like this: ir. When you have finished, note
how many sentences and parts of sentences have been
written without pausing.
1. How does the inside of yom hand. differ from the
other side ?
2. '¥hat does a photographer do in taking a person's
picture?
3. vVhat do yon see in mind when yon read the words
'Dunker Hill ' ?
4. vVhat would happen in the school-room if some one
outside shoul<l sudllenly cry, 'The school-house is on fire!'?
. 5. vVhat did you do in the algebra recitation yesterday?
6. vVhat do yon think of an<l see when the words ' Sunday
school' are pronom1ced?
7. How uiu the tramp look who came to your home, anu'
what did he say?
8. vVhat is suggested to you by the following sentence,
'Never give up the ship!'?
9. ·what is suggested to you by the following sentence,
'He sought the Fountain of Youth'?
10. How is the tire of a bicycle repaired when it has been
punctured ?
11. How does a baseball pitcher throw a ball so as to
make it curve?
. 12. What do you see in mind when you read the words,
'Boston Tea Party ' ?
If you were asked to write again on the same question,
could you alhl anythi11g to any pn.rl; of what yon have written? ·where woulu the new material Lest be brought in?
Can you improve what you have written? Try again, and
bring both your first an<l your second effort to the class.
Be ready to tell why you made additions to or changes in your
first writing.

External Form of the Paragraph.

5

_LESSON 2.

Indention.
To indicate to the reader's eye the sentence-gronps of a
composition, a device is employed known as indention.
The nature of this device may be illustrated by printing
side by side two a,rrangerncnts of the sa,me matter, as in the
parall~l columns below. 'l'he column on the left is indented
at three points, tlmt 011 tl1c right has no inucutions.
1. It wa.s dcLigh tful in the . 1. Jt was delightful in the councountry, for Summer was iu the try, for Summer was in the
height of its splendor. 2. The h eight of its splendor. 2. The
corn was yellow, the oats green,
corn was yellow, the oats green,
the hay, 11eaped into cocks in
the hay, heaped into cocks in
the meadow Lclow, looked like the meadow below, looked like
little grass hillocks ; and the little grass hillocks ; and the
stork strutted about on its long, stork strutted about on,its long,
red legs, chattering Egyptian, red legs, chattering Egyptian,
for that was the language it for that was the language it
had learned from its mother.
had learned from its mother.
a. The fields and meadows 3. The fields and meadows were
were s111TOLLJ1(led by more or smTotmded by more or less
thickly wooded forests, which
less thickly wooded forests,
also enclosed deep lakes, the
which also enclosed deep lakes,
the smooth vrnters of which smooth waters of which were
were sometimes ruffled by a sometimes rufllecl by a gentle
gentle breeze. 4. It ·w as, in- breeze. 4. It was, indeed, dedeed, deli ghtful in the country.
lightful in the country. 5. In
5. In the bright sunshine
the bright sunshine stood an
stood an old mn.usiori. stuTonnded old nir1,11i:;ion s111-ro1111ded by a
by a moat aud wall, strong and moat and wall, strong and
proud almost as in the feudal proud almost as .i n the feudal
times. 6. From the wall all the times. 6. ]from the wall all the
way down to the ·water grew way down to the water, grew
a complete forest of burdock
a complete fores~ of · ·burdock
leaves, w hiclt were so high tlta.t a
leaves, which were so high that

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Ovinposition-Blietoric.

little child could stand upright
among them. 7. It was :t real
wildern ess, so 11uiet and so111hrc,
mid here R:1t :t Duck npon li er
nes t hatcliin g a 11nantity of
eggs; but she was almost tired
of her tedions though irnporta11t
occupation , for it last.cd so very
long and sh e seldom hat! any
visitors. 8. Th e other ducks
preferred swi111mi11g about on
the moat, and t he canals t hat
ran t hrou g h the garden, to
visiting her in her solitude. -

a li ttle child co uld stand upright among them. 7. Jt was a
rc:tl wildern ess, so 11uict and
sombre, and here sat a Duck
upon her nest hatcbi11g a quantity of eggs; but sl1e was almost
tired of her ted ious tl1011gh i111porta11t occ npat in11 , fo r it, las ted
so very long, a nd s he seldom
had any v is itorn. 8. Th n other
duck s preferred swin1m i11 g about
on t he n1 oat, anrl t he canals that
ran through the garden, to visiting her in her soli t ude.

ANDEHSEN.

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The term "indention" refers to th e lJOsit ion of the first
word in a sentence. I:f such a word begin s at the left nrnrgin
lik e the word cc It" in sentence 1, on th e ri g ht, or if it follows directly after the close of a preceding sentence, like the
word cc The" at the beginnin g of sentences 2 and 8 in
the same column, the word and the sentence it begins are
said not to be indented. But if the first word of a sentence
begin s a Ji ttl e way to the right of t he margin, as the word
"It" (sente nce 1), the word cc The " (senteuce 3), an d the
word "Iu" (sentence u), in the left-hand columu, the word
and the sentence it begin s are said to be indented.
A group of related sentences making up a paragraph is
marked as such, and is separated from other similar groups
by an indention of the first word. In the foregoing selection the sentences in the left-ha nd column are by indention
made into three gro11ps. The first parag raph consists of
sentences 1 a nd 2; the set.:ollll of sentences 3 :i,nd 'l; the
third of sentences 5-8. Note the appearance of each paragraph: it seems to be a solid block of type; the various
sentences of which it is composed look as if they belon ged
together.

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A word is indented when it is begun to the right of the margin.
The first word of a paragraph should always be indented.

In printetl m:i.tter, the imlention is usu.ally s~ight. It is
of th e wi1ltli of the Jett.e r m of the type m wluch the matter is set, or of the letters ?n :111d n put together. In manuscrip t t he in<lcnti on sli o11 l<l Le wi <ler. The beginner should
make :t practice of indcnf;ing at lea.st one inch.
In priutcd Looks Lbe first wonl of a chapter is frequently
unindented.
LESSON 3.

Faults of Indention: Indenting Every Sentence.

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External Form of the Paragraph.

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A common fault in the use of indention may be illustrated.
by again puttiug side by side two arrangements of the same
selection : Once upon a t ime, a 11 otion
· was starte<l, that if all th e people in th e world would hout at
once, it mig ht be heard in t he
moon. So the projectors agreed
it shoultl be done in :just ten
years. Somo thousand shiploads of ch ronometers we re distributed to t he selectmen and
other g reat folks of all th e
di fferent i1 at ions. F or a year
beforehand, nothing else was
talked abont but t he awful
noise that was to he made on
the great occas io11. 'Vlte n the
time came, ern rybody lt rul his
ears so wid e open, to hear the
universal ejacu lation o[ Boo, the word agreed upon, - that

Once upon a tim e, a notion
w:is started, th at if all the people in the world would shout at
once, it might be heard in the
moon.
So the projectors agreed it
should be done in just ten
years.
Some t housand shiploads of
chronometers were distributed
to the selectrne11 a nd other
g reat folks of all the different
nations.
F or a 'year beforehand, nothing else was talked about but
tl1 e awful n oise that was to be
m ade on t he great occasion .
'Vhen the tirne came, everybody had his ears so wiLle open

8

E xternal Fann of the Paragraph.

Composition-lllietoric.

noborly spoke except a <le~if
rna11 in one uf tl1c Fiji l::dan<ls,
and a wo111n,11 in l'eki11, so that;
the world was 11 ever so still
since the creation. - IlOLl\I ES.

to hear tl1e universal ejaculation of Boo, - the word agreed
i1 pon, -that nobody spoke except a Jeaf 111au in one of the
Fiji Islands, ai1d a woman in
Pekin, so t hat U1e ·world was
11 ever so still si11ce the creatiou.

The arrangement in the left-hand column is preferable.
It gives us an illlpressiun tlia.t the se11tenccs belong together,
that is, it gives u s a trne impressio11; whereas the n,nangement in the right-hand column gives us a11 impression that
the sentences are iullcpernlcnt, that is, it giv es 11s a false
impression.
Almost primeval simplicity reigns over this Northern land, almost primeval solitude and stilln ess.
Yon paRs ouf; fro111 1.lie gate of Lit<' city, and, as if by magic, tl1e
scene clia11ges to a wild, woollla11d la.u<lscape.
Around you are forests of fir.
Overhead lia11 g Lite 1011g fan-like hrnnches trailing with moss,
and heavy with re<l a11J Llue cones.
Underfoot is a carpet of yellow leaves, and the air is warm aud
balmy.
On a ·wooden bridge you cross a little silver stream.
Ano11 yon come forth into a pleasant and sunny land of farms.
'Vooden fences divide the adjoiniug fields.
Across the road are gates, which are opened for you by troops
of flax en-haired children.
Tl1e peasants take off th eir hats as yo u pass.
You sneeze, and they cry, "God bless you!"
The l1ouses in the Yillages a ud Slllaller cities a re all built of
hewn timber, and for the 111 ost part pai11Led red.
The floors of the taverns arc strewn with the fragrant tips of fir
boughs.
In many villages there are no taverns, and the peasants take
turns in receiving travellers.
The thrifty house wife shows you in to the best chamber, the
walls of ·w hi ch are hung round \rith rude pictnres from the Bible;

9

n.nd brings you her heavy silver spoons - an heirloom - to dip the
curdled milk from the pan.
You hav e oaten cakes baked some months before; or bread with
anise-seed and coriander in it, and perhaps a little pine-bark. LONGFELLOW: Dr~flwood, 318.

Printed as it appears above, with each sentence separated
Ly irnlention from its neighbor, the selection seems jagged
n.1Hl uisjoiuteJ.. Re-write it, i11J.e11t.ii1g only the first word,
and now observe how smoothly each sentence flows into
the sentence thn.t follows, and how compact and orderly
the selection appears ancl is.
Beware of separating by indentions sentences that belong together.
EXERCISE 2.

Ite-write the following selections. Combine the sentences
of each group without changing the wording, or adding any
worJ.s, anJ. uote the difference in effect, and the greater ease
of understai:i,ding.
Twenty years had passed since Joey ran down the brae to play.
J ess, his mother, shook her staff fondly at him.
A cart rumbled liy, the driver nodding on the shaft.
It rounded the corner and stopped suddenly, and then a woman
screamed .
A handful of men carried Joey's dead body to his mother, and
that was the tragedy of Jess's life. - BARRIE: A Window in
Thrums.
[As written above, the third and fourth sentences do not seem to
havo any connection, in thought, with what precedes aml follows.
Close up the indentions, and the whole paragraph becomes an intelligible picture. ]
I used to imagine my mind a room in confusion, and I was. to
put it i11 order; so I swept out useless thoughts an? dusted foolish
fancies away, a nd furnished it with good resolutions and began
again.

10

Ooniposition-Bhetoric.

But cobwebs get in.
I'm not a good housekeeper, and never get my room in nice order.
I once wrote a poem about it when I was fourteen, and called it
"l\fy Little Kingdorn."
It is sLill lmnl Lo rule ii;, n.nd :11\ya.ys will be, I thi11k.-Lou1sA
MAY ALCOTT : Life, L etters, and Journals.
[As written above, the connection of th e thought is hard to keep.
Close up the indentions, and it becomes clear that the words "cobwchfl," "J1011sckocpcr," "room," " k i 11gd11111," :md "rule," .in the different sentences, all refer to the mind or the care one should give it.]
EXERCISE 3.

On on.e of the following topics write a single paragraph of
one or two pages. Indent the first worcl one inch. Except
at the close of the para.graph, Leware of leaving a noticeable
blank space at the end of a sentc11 ce. 1
1. An incident in the r ecitation room.
2. The priuci pal cause of the American Itevolutiou.
3. How to tell an oak leaf from a maple leaf.
4. Direct.a stranger at the railway station to the highschool building, describing the building so that he would
know it when lie r eached it.
u. One result of the Civil vVar.
6. The source of the water supply of this city.
7. How does a bank make any money?
8. How I usnally spend Saturday.
9. The way I used to make a kite.
10. The appearnnce of the school-honse from the street.
11. J,eaming to ride a bicycle.
12. The story of Ki11g J\l.ida,s.
13. The story of King li.ohcrt; of Sicil y.
14. ()eneral Howe nml the JJoston boys.
I For directions in r egard to the prepn,ration o[ the mannscript, see
Appeudix A. For the rnea11i11g o[ the signs used by your teacher iu cor-

RTternal Form of tlte Paragraph.

11

LESSON 4.

Fu,ulls uf Intlent'iun : Jntlentiuns l,uu f!'ew.
1. In a preceding paper I have spoken of an English Sunday
in the comd;ry, and its tranqui.llizing effect upon the landscape;
but where is its sacred inflnence m ore strikingly n.pparcnt t han
in the very heart oI U1at great Habel, LonJon? 2. On tl1is sacred
day, tl1e gigantic monster is charmed into repose. 3 . The intolerable din and struggle of the week are at an encl. 4. The shops
are shut. 5. The fires of forges and mannfactories are extinguished;. and the sun, no louger obscured by rn urky clouds of
smoke, pours down a sober, yellow radiance into the quiet streets.
6. The few pedestrianfl we meet, instead of hurrying forward
with anxious counte nances, move leisurely along; their brows are
smoothed frn111 the wrinkles of bnsiness and care; they have pnt
. 011 their Sunday looks, ai1d Sunday manners, with their Sunday
clothes, and are cleanseJ in mind as well as in person. 7. And
11ow the rn elodionfl clangor of bells from church towers summons
their various flocks to the fold. 8. Forth issues from his mansion
the family of the decent tradesman, the small childre n in advance;
then the citizen and his comely spotrne, followed by the grown-up
<laughters, with small morocco-bound prayer-books · laid in the
folds of their pocket-handkerchiefs. 9. The housemaid looks after
them from the window, admiri~1g the finery of the family, and
receiving, perhaps, a nod and smile from her young mistresses, at
whose toi let she has assisted. 10. Now rumbles along the carriage
of some magnate of the city, peradventure an alderman or a sheriff ;
and now the patter of many feet announces a procession of charity
scholars, iu uniforms of antique cut, and each with a prayer-book
under his arm. 11. The ri11ging of bollR is at an eutl; the ruml>liug
of the carriage has ceased; the pattering of feet is heard no more;
the flocks arc foldeJ in anc ie u t churches, cramped up in by-lanes
and corners of t he crowded city, whei·e the vigilant· beadle keeps
watch, like the shepherd's dog, round the threshold of the sanctuary. 12. For a time everything is hushed; but soon is heard
the deep, pervading sound of the organ, rolling and vibrating
throu!!h the emntv lan es aud courts: and the sweet chantinll of

12

13

Co11iposition-Rhetoric.

External Forrn of tlie Paragraph.

the choir making them r eso und with melody and prnise. 1:3. Never
have I Leen more se nsible of the sa11ct.ifying effect of church music
than when I have heard it thus poured forth, like a river of joy,
through the inmost recesses of this great metropolis, elevating it,
as it were, from all t.he sord id pollutions of tlie week; and bearing
the poor world-worn sonl on a tide of triumphant harnwny to
heaven. H. The morning service is at an end. 15. The streets are
again ali ve " ·ith the congregations returnin g to their horn es, but
soon again r elapse into silence. lG. Now co mes on 1,hc Sunday
dinn er, whicl1, to t.l1 n c: it.y tra1ks111a.n, is a nrnal of sollle i111por kt uce.
17. There is m ore leis ure for social enjoyme nt at the board.
18. 1\Iemhers of the fa,111ily can now gather togeth er, who are
separated by the laborious occupations of the week. 19. A schoolboy may be permitted on that day to come to the paternal home ;
an old friend of the family takes his accustomed Sunday seat at
the board, tells over hi s well-known stories, and rejoices young
and old with his ·well-known jokes. 20. On Sunday afternoon
tl1e city pours forth its leg ions t.o l1i·"a.Llic I.li e frcHh air and enj oy
the sunsh ine of tl1e parks a.11d rural environs. 21. Satirists may
say what they please about the rur;:i,l enjoyments of a London
citizen on Sunday, but to me there is something delightful in
beholding the poor prison er of the crowded and dusty city enabled
thus to come forth once a week aud thro\v himself upon the green
bosom of irnture. 22. Ile is like a child res tored to the rnotlter's
breast; and they who f'trRt Rpreacl out t.li ese noLlc pa.rks aud magnificent ple;:i,sure-grounds which surround this huge m etropolis,
have done at leas t as 111uch for its health and morality, as if th ey
had expended the amount of cost in hospitals, prisons, and penitentiaries. - ln.vuw: Sketch Book.

the bells begin ringing for church; these sentences should
form another paragraph. The same may be said of sentences
11-13, which tell what h appens during the service; of sentences 14-19, which tell of what happens after the service;
and of sentences 20-22, which tell of the enjoyments of Sunday afternoon. By indenting at the beginning of seutences
7, 11, 14, and 20, these paragraph-groups may be indicated
to the eye.

The pupil should make himself familiar with this selection by reading it a number of times. Let him then note
the connection of the s011t:mH~OR. Cnl'tain S('ntnnccR, h e wiU
olJServc, trea.t of 011e part of the subject; certain others treat
of another part. Thus, sentences 1-6 speak in genera.I terms
of the Sunday aspect of the city. 'fhese sentences, belonging together in thought, should form a single parag.raph.
Sentences 7-10 speak of the appearance of the streets when

Beware of running together in one group sentences that should
form separate groups.
EXERCISE 4.

I was received very kindly by the warden, and went for mauy
clays to the acarlcmy. Every room lms in it one or more projectors, and I believe I could not be in fewer than five hundred
room s. The first man I saw was of a meagre aspect, with sooty
hands and face, his h air and beard long, ragged and sin ged in
several places. His clot hes, shirt, and skin were all of the same
color. Ile 11 ad been eight years upon a project for extrncting
sunbeams out of cucumbers, which were to be put in vials hermetically sealed, and let out to warm the air in raw, inclement
smnmers. H e told me he did not doubt th at in eight years more
he should be able to supply the governor's gardens with sunshine
at a reasonable rate; but he complained that the stock wa.s low,
and entre;:i,ted me to give him something as an encouragement to
ingenuity, especially since this had been a very dear season for
cucumbers. I m ade him a small present, for my lord had furnished
me with mon ey, on purpose, because he kn ew their practice of
beggi ng frolll all wl10 go to Roe t.hc111. I saw another at work t.o
calcine ice i11Lo gunpowder, who likewise Rhowed me a treatise he
had written concerning the malleability of fire, which he intended
to puhlish. There was a most in gen ious architect, who had contrived a new rnetho¢1. for building houses, by beginning at the roof,
and working downwards to the foundation; which he justified to
me Ly the like practice of those two prndent insects, the bee and
the snider. Tn :mot.her anartment I was hiQ'hlv pleased with a

14

Ooniposition-lllietoric.

projector who had found a device of ploughing the ground with
hogs, to save the cliarges of ploughs, cattle, and labor. The method
is this: in an acre of grou11d, yon bury, at six i11ches distance, alld
eight deep, a quantity of acorns, dates, chestlluts, aml other masts
or vegetables, whereof these animals are fondest; then yo u drive
six h111~dred or more of them. into the field, where in a few days
they 'Nill root up the whole ground in search of their food, a11d
make it fit for sowing. 1t is true, upon experime11t they found
the charge and trouble very great, :w!l LIH\Y 11:1,!l lil.Ll o or 11 0 crop.
llowcV!)I" it; i:-i not <loul>trnl Ll1aL !.lii:-i i11venLiu11 111ay l.ie capal>Je of
great improvement. I went into another room, where the walls
ancl ceilin gs were all hung roun<l with cob webs, except a narrow
passage for the artist to go in and out. At rny entra11ce he called
aloud to me not to disturb his webs. Ile lamented the fatal
mistake the world had been so lon g in, of 11sing silk-worms, wliile
we had such plenty of domestic insects, who infinitely excelled the
forlller because they understood l1 ow to weave as 'vVcll as spin.
And h e proposed, farther, tliat by employing spiLlers, the charge of
dyeing silks should be wholly saved; whereof I Yrns fully convin ced
when he showed me a vast number of Hies most beautifully colored
.
'
wherewith he fed his spiders; assuring us that the webs woul<l
take a tincture from th ern ; aud as he h ad them of all hues, h~
hoped to fit everybody's fancy, as soon as he could find proper
food for the flies, of certain g nms, oils, and other glntiuuus matter,
to gi ~'~ a strength and cuui:;iste11ce to the threads. ·

In this selection there is :first a general statement regarding the author's visit to the Aca<lerny; then the author describes various rooms and their occupants. Vi7hat ·words
should be indented ?
The characteristic peculiarity of the Pilgrim's Progress is that
it is the only work of its kind which possesses a strong human
inter est. Other allegories only anrnse the fancy. The allegory
of Bunyan has b ee n read by rna.ny Ll1 ousa11ds with tears. There
are some good allegories in ,Joh11son's works, and some of still
higher merit by Addison. In these performances there is, perhaps, as much wit and ingenuity as in the Pilgrim's Progress. But
the pleasure which is produced Ly the Viflion o{ Mirza, the Vision

_External Form of the Paragraph.

15

of Theodore, the Genealogy of Wit, or the contest between Rest
and Labor, is exactly similar to the pleasure which '.Ve derive from
one of Cowley's odes or from a canto of Hudibras. It is a pleasure
which Leloll gs wholly to the understaudiug, and, in which tl1e feelings have 110 part whatever. 1t is not so with the Pilgrim's Progress. That womlerfnl Look, while it obtains admiration from the
most fastidious critics, is loved by those who are too simple to
admire it. DoCtor .Johnson, all whose studies were desultory, and
who l1a.Lctl, as lie Raitl, Lu read boolrn through, 111atle an exct~ption
in favor o.C Lhc Pil grilll's l'rngress. That work, he said, was one
of the two or three works which he wished longer. Jn the wildest
parts of Scotland the Pilgrim's Progress is the delight of the peasautry. In every musery the Pilgrim's Progress is a greater favorite than Jack the Giant-Killer. Every reader kuows the .straight
and narrow path as well as he knows a road in which he has gone
backward and forward a hundred times . This is the hi ghest miracle o~ genius, - t hat things which are not should be as though they
were; that the imagiuations of one mind should l>ecome the personal recollections of another. And this miracle the tinker has
wrought. There is no ascent, no declivity, 110 resting-place, no
turnstile, with which we are not perfectly acquainted. Tlie wicketgate, and the desolate S'<Yamp which separates it from the City of,
Destruc tion; the lon g line of road, as straight as a rule can make
it; the In tcrpreLcr's 11ousc and all its fair shows; nll Lhc stages of
the journey, all the forms which cross or overtake the pilgrims,
giants and h obgoblin s, ill-favored ones and shining ones; the tall,
comely, swarthy l\ladam Bnbble with her great purse by her side,
and her fingers playing with the money; the black man in the
Lright vesture; Mr. 'Vorldly " Tiseman and my Lord Hategood,
Mr. Talkative and Mrs. Timorous;- all are actually existing beings to us. \Ve follow the travellers through their allegorical
progress with interest not inferior to that with which we follow
Elizabeth from Siberia to l\loscow, or Jeanie Deans from Edinburgh to London.

Observe that in this selection there are three distinct
ideas: :first, Pilgrini's Progress is different from other allegories; second, Pilgr_iin's P1 ~ogress touches the heart and
im<1ginat io11 of every one; third, every event aml figure in

16

001 nposit ivn-.l

Ui et vr i (~ .

this allegory is in tcresting to ns. With tltis clu e, tlecide
wlin,t; sontcnees belong· Log·dl1cl' a1Hl wliem j1Hk11tions Kl1u11kl
Le llt:Ltlc.
The young prince Hamlet was not happy at Elsinore. It was
not because h e missed the gay 8tlllle11t-life of " ' itLe11be rg, and that
the lit tle Da11ish court wa8 i11t;olernbly rlnll. It was not Lecause
the tlidadic lord cha111l1nrhi 11 liorcd hi 111 with Jon g specche8, or
tliat tlie lord clm111bcrl1Li11 'R da ug htor was beco me a shade wearisome. Hamlet l1aJ 111<1rn R<' rin11 s c11n8 for 1111l1rtppi11n8s. He had
Leen s1u1uno11c<l 1rndde11 ly fro111 " ' iLLenbcrg to atte11d his father's
funeral; close upon this a.1111 wl1iln his grief wrts g ree u, his rn oLlicr
had marri ed wit.IL l1i ~ 1111el c Cla11dins, wliom Ua111l ct had n ever
liked. The indecorous h aste of these nuptials - they took place
within two months after the ki11g's death, the funeral baked meats,
as Hamlet cursorily remarked, fornishing forth the marriage-tables
- strnck the young pri11ce agl1ast. Ile had loved the queen his
mother, and h ad nearly id oliz()(l Lhe late ki11g; h11t 11ow he forgot
to la111e11t tlw (l nat,h of I.lie 011 e i11 co11Le1nplaLi11g the Jifo of Lhe
other. The billing a.ml cooin g of the newJy-manie<l couple filled
him with horror. A11ger, shame, pity, and despair seized upon
him by turns. Ile fell into a forlom condition, forsaking his
'books, eating little save of tl1e chameleon's dish, the air, drinking
deep of H.heniRh, lettin g his long, black locks go rn1kernpt, and
n egl ~cti 11g hi8 dress- h r~ wlto ha<l hith erto l1cc 11 "tl1c glass of
faslnon and the 111011ltl oI forn1," as Ophefot l1 a<l prettily said of
him. Often for half the night he " ·ould wander along the ram~)arts of the castle, at the imminent risk of tumbling off, gazmg seaward and muttering strangely to himself, and evolvi1w
frightful spectres out of the shadows cast by the turrets. Som:
times h e lapsed into a gent le melanchol y; lrnt 11ot seldom liis mood
was ferocious, an<l at such times the conversational Polollius, with
a discretion that Llid him credit, steered clear of rnv lord Hamlet.
He turned 110 more graceful co111plime11ts for Ophelia: The thoucrht
of marrying her, if he had ever seriously thought of it, was g~ne
now. Ile rather ruthlessly advised her to go into a unnn ery. His
mother had sickened him of women. It was of her he spoke the
notable words, "Frailty, thy name is woman!" which, some time
afterwards, a11 amiable French gentleman ha<l n eatly eugraved on

11

External Form of tlie Paragraph.

the head-ston e of his ·wifo, who had long been an invalid. Even
tho king a11J qu ee n Jhl not escape Ila1111et in his tlisternpered
morne11 ts. Passing Ii is J11other iu a corridor or on a staircase of
the palace, he would suddenly plant a verbal dagger in her heart;
and frequently; in full court, he would deal the king such a cutting
reply as caused him to blanch, and gnaw his lip.

Four ideas will be found in this selection: (1) reasons
for Hamlet's sadness; (2) the effect upon him of the hasty
marri:i,gc of the Queen; (~~) his varying moods; (4) his
harshness towards Ophelia, the Queen, and the King.
·where should the second paragraph begin ? the third ? the
fourth?
LESSON 5.

Faults <'.f llldention: Indentions· Irregnlcir and
~.Meaningless.

1. On one of those sober and rather melancholy days,.in the
latter part of Autumn, when the shadows of morni11g and evening
almost min gle together, and throw a gloom over the decline of
the year, I paRsed several hours in rambling ahont 'Vestrninster
ALbey. 2. There was something congenial to the season in the
mournful inagnificence of the old pile; and, as I passed its threshold, seemed like stepping back into the regions of antiquity,
and losin g myself among the shades of former ages. 3. I entered
from the inn er court of vVestminster School, through a lon g, low,
vaulted passage, that had an almost subterranean look, being
dimly lighted in one part by circular perforations in the massive
walls.
4. Through this dark avenue I had a distant view of the cloisters, with the figur e of an old verger, in hi s black gow11, 111oving
along their sh adowy vaults, and seem in g like a spectre from one
of the nei ghboring tombs. 5. The approach to the abbey through
these gloomy m onastic remains prepares the mind for its solemn
contemplation. 6. The cloisters still retain something of the
quiet and seclusion of former days.
I•

18

Gomposition-Rltetoi·ir:.

Rcternal Parm of the Paragraph.

7. Th e gray walls are discolored by clamps, and crumbling 1Yith
age; a coat of hoary moss has gath ered ove r th e i11scriptions of
th e mural mo11urn e11ts, aud obsc ured the death 's lte ad and ot her
f1rnereaJ em hi e nm.

upon the gloom and dilapidation of the cloister;. sentences
9 and 10 describe th e brightness of the extenor. Sentences 3-8, th e refore, should be put in one paragraph; sentences !) au<l 10 in anothe r paragraph. Arranged in accordance with the foregoing suggestions, the selection appears
as follows : -

8. Th e Hhaq1 t.011cltcs o[ Lite cl1i sc l ai·c go ne fro111 th e ri ch trace ry
of the arches; t.lt e roses which adorned the keyston es have Jos t;
t heir leafy bea uty; eYery tl1i ug Lears marks of the gradual dibp idations of time, which yet has someL ltin g t.011chi11g and pleasiug in
its very decay. !l. The san wa s pouring do1n1 a yellow antunu1 a l
ray into t he sq uare of th e cloi sters; beamin g upon a scanty plot
of grass in t.ltc cr:1t1.m, a11 d lig lil.i11g 11p U1 c a11 g le o[ Ll1 e 1·:wlLoll
passage with a kind of dusky sple nd or.
10. From bet wee u the arcad es. t.!11~ eye gla nced up to a bit of
blue sky or a passing cloll(l; n.11cl liel1 Hld the f:ll n-g ilt, pi11n acles of
t lt e auuey towering in Lo the azure l1<,are11.

I,",[
f

In this selection as it appears above, t.h ere are several
irregularities of liaragraphin g. Following the iJJdention,
on e ·would infer that sentences l -3 form a sentence-group;
that sentences 4-G form another ; arnl tlwt sentences 8 anll
9 form a third; while sentences 7 ancl 10 would seem to
be independent of the rest. But this is not the case. Sentences 1 and 2 are much more closely connected than sentences 2 and 3. Sentences 1 and 2 treat of the Abbey
in a general way; sentence 3 begins a description of the
interiOJ·. Sentence 3, theJJ, liecanse it introduces a new
subject, should Le separated from sentences l and 2 by au
indention. SenteHce 4, si11ce it dw ell s upon the ide<L of the
dark avenue described in sentence 3, should bear no mark
of separation from that sentence. Nor should sentence 7
be separated from sentences 6 and 8. It is the office of
sentences 7 and 8 to contiune t he idea of sentence G by
givi11g pa rticul arn regardillg t he gloom ri.nd dilapidation of
the cloister. Obviously sentences G, 7, and 8 belong together as much as do sentences 3-6. Note, however, that
whil e sentence 8 canies on the idea of seHtence 7, sentences
9 and lO are upon a different theme. Sentences 3-8 dw ell

i=======~------

I '

19

On one of th ose sober antl melanch oly clays, in the latter part
of Antumn, when the shadows of morning aud evening almost
mingle together, and throw a gloo m over th e declin e of the year,
I p a.gse d several homs in ra1nlili11 g auout; 'IVes tminster Abbey.
There was something congenial to the season in the mournful
m11g nificence of the old pile; and, as I passed its threshold, seemed
like steppi11 g· back int.o Uui regions of antiquity, and losing myself
among th e sh:ules of (or111 cr ages.
I entered from th e inner co mt of "Westminster School, through
a long, low, vaulted pn ssage, that had an almost subterranean look,
being dimly lig hted in one pn.rt by circ n]a.r perforations in the
massive wa.lls. T hrou gh this <lark avenue l had a distant view of
th e cloisters, with the fi gure of an old ve rger, in his black go wn,
movin g along t heir shadowy vault.s, and seeming like a spectre
from 011e of the neighboring tombs. The approach to the abbey
throtwh these gloomy monastic remains prepares the mind for its
solem~ con templation. The cloiste rs still reta.i1), something of the
quiet and seclusion of former days. The gray walls are discolored
by clamps, and crumblin g with age; a coat of hoary moss has gathered over t he in sc ri ption s of the mural rn o11uments, and obscured
the death's head and other fun ereal emblems. The sharp to uch es
of th e chi sel are go ne fr om the rich tracery of the arches ; the
roses which adorned th e keystones have lost their leafy beauty;
every thin g bea.rs m arks of the gradual dilapidations of time, which
yet has so methin g touching and pleasin g in its very decay.
The s un was pouring down a yellow autumnal rny into the
sqmtrc of the cloisters; beamin g npon a. scant.y plot. of grasR in
the centre, ::uid lighting up an angl e of the va ulted passage with
a kind of dusky splendor. From between the arcades, the · eye
glanced up to a. bit of blue sky or a passing cloud; a ntl beheld
the su11-g ilt, pi11nacles of the abbey toweriHg into th e azure h eaven.
- IRVING : Sketch Book.

20

Composition-Rhetoric.
Ex1mc1r-m r..

Criticise the following selection with reference to the
place of inclention. H.eacl the selection carefully, noting
the various ways in which the subj ect is t reateu, or the
various parts of the subj ect that :-tre taken up in succession.
Sentences that treat the subj ect in the same 1v:-ty or tell of
the same part of t he subj ect, shoultl Le brought together in
a single group.
The store was kept by a hard-faced lookin g ma11 who we11t by
the name of Slmba.el, so111 eti111 eR wiLh and RomeLim eR wHhout th e
prefix "Colonel." Ile >vas :m elderl y man, quiet and cool in his
air and mann er, and with a conn tenance placiJ but heartless in its
expression. There was a certain quick motion of his eye which
showed t h at he w as shi·ewd a nd observant. His store h ad a bad
, nam e, and yet no on e Reern c<l to kn ow exac tl y wl1 y. Colonel Rhnbael hirn sclf, 1,oo, was Lli e ol•j cd of a crn'(.ai11 n1 yi;Le ri o11 s Jcar, aml
even l1 ate; and yet no one h ad a11 y Ll1i11g very deciued to say against
him . He was believed to be a perfectly h onest man, so fa r as legal
hon esty is concerned . No man understood the Jaw better t han h e,
or the soun d p olicy of keeping on good terms with i t. l\Ir. Shubael's store was small, but it h ad a sn ug, social air within. It was
n early square, witl1 a door in the mi ddle of the front.
A co un ter extended along one side and across the back of t he
store ; and on the remaini 11g side, n ear the corner next t he road,
was a fireplace, with a barrel of oil an d another of cider near it,
to keep t hem from freezing. Th ere were other barrels and hogsheads, less likely t o freeze, Lel1i11d the coun ter against t he back
side of the room. A d oor between two g reat Llack hogsheads
rnou11ted 011 stickR, ope11 ed Lo a dark-looki11g Lack room behind.
Tubs, bundles of whip-handles, h oes and shovels, barrels, kegs of
nails, and iro11-w are, e11 c11111 he re1l l.11 n fl nor, l1 ~av i Ilg' 011 ly narrow
pasRagr,:; alon g i11 Jro11L of Ll1n co11nl .1~rs a.11d l.owa.nl Llie lire. There
was a liLt le area JJear the fire also trn occ npietl, and two or three
basket-bottorned chairs, wi th high " ·001len backs, stood there.
A half-keg of closely packed tobacco was near, with one loose
fig and an old h atch et ly in g on it ; and there was a n ink bottle,
with a blackened and dried-up q uill thrust through t he cork, in the

. E xternal Form of the Paragraph.

21

chimn ey corner. This was the aspect of the store in the winter;
but it \~as 11 ow summ er, between haying and harvest.ii1g.
The fire was dead, and a great tin fe nder concealed the ashes
and brands. The ch airs were put out Lefore the door, and t wo or
three men were Ritting and standing there, waiting for t he "stage."
It was a cabn and pleasant afternoon ; the forests around were in
their best dress, and the view up th e pond was picturesque in the
highest degree.
But the compa.11y paid litt le atteution to the beauty of the
scener y.
They were lookin g out for the "stage." Mr. Slrnbael was the
postmaster.
. .
A little high paling, at t he end of the counter opposite the fire,
was the post-office. The mail came once a week, bringin~ a few
nff'i·vspapers and sometimes some letters. The company winch was
collected on this occasion were not interested so much in the conte11 Ls o( t.hc m ail, as in a new team of horses, antl a large coach,
which was th at day for the first ti111 e to be put ou the road.
They were looking off beyond the bridge, where th e road could
be seen for a co nsider able distance wind in g around a hill, and talkino· with uoisy laughter about various subj ects that came up. By
th: side of t he door, outside, his chair tipped back against the side
of the buildin g a nd his feet resting upon a bar which passed along
between two posts placed there for fastening horses, sat a tall, darkcomplexioned man, with black bushy h aii· and eyebrows, and an
intelli gent but sinister express ion of countenance. They called
hirn l\.lcDonner.
EXERCISE 6.

On one of t he following outlines write an essay of about
300 words. 'l'he paragraph-sign shows the places where
i)l(lcnti on should be ma.do.

A Skating Scene.
ii- Time and place - weather favorable - condition of the ice
- number of skaters - different colors of clothes, scarfs, etc. il' Noticeable characters -fancy skaters - beginners - il' A raceresult- a collision - other mishaps- the return home.

22

Oo111position-1Vletoric.

External Form of t:he Paragraph.

23

The Human Hand.

Ad vantages of the Columbia.n Exposition.

ir General shape outside and in side - advantage of this shape
- divisions - parts en um erated a nd described - ii· Kinds of join t.s
and specii1l uses -ir Nails, descrip tion and uses-the enLls of the
fo1gers, why so sc11sitfre? - i r Tlic thumb, special situation and
form, and adaptedness to use - ir Strength of liand may be cultivated - relation of hand to occupation - ir vVhy two hands?superiority of man.

ir General education al value -every one could learn from itwhat tl1 e fa rm er, tradesrnan, mechanic, teacher, etc., could learn
of hi s ow n work-of the work of oLhers-ir Knowledge of foreign
nations - res ult of this -- ir 'Vhat other countries could learn of
us - ir 1\Ieeti 11 gs of men vvorking in the same departments of life
in different countries - scientific meetings - Parliament of Reli gions -result- ir Effect 011 patriotism and upon regard for
l1nllla11iLy.

Learuiug to <leLate.
ir Purpose in joining t he society-ir First experience, the question, what I in tended to say, diffidence, lack of words, forgettiug
pre-arranged plau, long aiid involved sentences, confused t hought,
led astray by objections, desperation and dissati sfactio n with my
effort-ir Resolutions for .future Llebates - if Secon d experi ence, the
question, more careful preparation, first sen teuces melll ori zcJ, plan
stated, greate r ease while speaking, less baste to get to new points,
shorter se11te11ces, refusal to be led off Ly objections, sticki ng to
original plan - res uH, less dissati sfac Lion --ir Later experi ences,
what I have learn ed from former efforts, as to need of previous
preparation, having a plan, statin g the plan, danger of haste in
beginning, treatment of objections, effor ts at copiousness of expression, attempts at eloquence, serious ness of method, ridicule of
opponents, hurry and nervous ness, talking over-time.

Intelligence of Dogs.
ir Decidedly greater th an in other domestic animals - contrast
briefly with the others - ir Know their masters, and ready to
protect them against assault- to bring assistance if needed ir Protect property - run errands - watch-dogs - shepherd dogs
- ir Save life - Newfoundlands - St. Bernards -ir Exceptional
instances of intelligence in dogs.

The Last Story I reacl.
ir Author, and something about him -ii Short summary of the
story - ir H ero - admirable? natural 'l like any one you know? ir Other characters-do they act aud talk like real people? instances
of this quoted - ir Purpose of the story, if any, besides entertainment - auy direct i11fluence felt after reading it?

Reasons for the Success of the American Revolution.
ir Righteousness of the American cam;e -practical nnanirni ty
of the colonists - co111 n1 on gr ievances - resulti 11g zenl-ir .English
support of the war agaiust th e colonies not un animous - parliamentary oppos ition to the war - classes of the English people
favorable to the colonies - i r Circurn sf.ances fo rt unate :for the
colonies - distance of England- England's tronbl cs with other
foreign 11ntions at th e ti1u e -ir Fre nch aid of t he colonies ir Superiority of American leaders an d genernls - Am~rioan methods of war- kno,,-vledge of th e country-if Faith and endurance
of the colonists - the spiri t of the times.

The Electric Telegraph.
if Inventor, date - first trials -ir Principle of the telegraph and
parts explained - the battery, sounder, key, line, relay, accessories
-ir Effect of its extensive use upon commel'ce and civilizatiou.

A Country Village.
ir Qeneral view from the railway station - apparent size evidences of activity or of dulness - the general store and postoffice, near by- impression of the inhabitants waiting for the

25

Composdion-llhelv ric.

E:vternal Fonn of tlte Paragraph.

mail- if A closer view of the village, gained by strolling Llirough
it -quiet, sliatly sl.reeLs - no;ti; eul.l.ages - ol(l-fas!t ion ell Howergardens - alljoi11i11g vegeLal1le ganlcus -ii The village commons
-grazin g cows - stray cl1ickeus-gronp of boys-ir The weatherbeaten mee ti11g-ho11se-U1 0 village scl1ool-ho11se--f.11e village i11n
- blacksmith shop- mill -ir Appearance from the bridge, n ear
by, of surrounding co1U1try, fields, wouds, 11ills - Lhe 11eglccted
buryiug-grouucl upon the hill side - if The cleauliness, freshn ess,
quiet, of the village as contrasted with the city.

ton's fo;an cial meas ures - in suppressing rebellion - in ma1Higing
foreifftl relations -iu repressing p<irty strife-if How Lincoln
solve:l hi s problems and showed hi s statesmanship,, in ~is at~itude
"oiith
at the b ogi1111i11rr
of the war - 111 lns choice of
.
•
•
o
t own.1 ·(1s tl 1e 1:-i
cabinet ollicers allll generals - in delaying emancipation until it
wn.s clearly a war n ecessit.y -in avoiding foreign corn~1licatious in repressin g party fury-in plans for easy reconstruction of states
_ ir Political methods compared - attitude towards the common
people - prrso11n.lit.y o( 'V1t8hi11~Lo11 and Lincoln ~0111pn.rcd as
ue:iring on their political inilue11ce -ir Hesults of then· work compared - the judgment of history on both as statesmen.

24

A Fire.
if The alarm - hurryin g people - engines rushing by- I run
after th em -if First view of it frou1 a distance-· what and where
it proved to be - its appearance on my arrfrat-if l{apid spread of
the flames - imminent danger of RmTounrling buildings -work
of the firemen begins to tell --ii Bravery of firem en - an accident
- gradual extingtiishment of the fire -if The loss- insuranceinquiry as to the cause - the prol.rn.Lle explanation.
f

~

vVashington tmd Lincoln c::nnpared as Statesmen.
if The two greatest Americans - each appeared at a great
crisis; "\Vashingto11 at the birth of the nation, Lincoln at its time
of greatest need- each was the one indispensal>le man of his
time- \Vashi11gL011's great wol'lc in estab lishing iml epcllllence and
administeri11g the new government, bri efly summarized- Lincoln 's
great work in suppressing rebellion, abolishiug slavery, a11d restoring
union, briefly summarized-if Their preparation for their work
as statesmen compared and contrasted - scanty yet practical education of both-knowledge of men, how gained by ·washington,
and how by Lincoln, before election to the Presi.dency?-lrnowledge of statecraft and contact with political life before election to
the Preside ncy, compareu - if Th e co untry's estimate of each at
the time of inauguration, contrasted- problems of state co11fro11ting each at the time of i11augurati ou, like nesses and differeuces
in kind-if How 'Vashin gto n solv ed his problems and showed his
statesmanship, in choice of caliiuet ofliccrs - in choice oE Supreme
Court judges favoraLle to the Constitution - in supporting Hamil-

LESSON 6.

Other Uses of Indention.
The indention that marks the beginning of a paragraph
should be distinguished from indentions made for other
purposes.
1. In conversational passages, the speeches of different
persons are separated by indention.
"Did you ever hear a tom-tom, sir?" sternly inquired the
captaiu, who lost no opport1rnity of showing off his travels, real or
preteuded.
"A- what?" asked Hardy, rather taken aback.
"A tom-tom."
"Never I"
" Nor a gum-gum?"
"Neve r I"
'' "\Vhat is a gum-g um?" eagerly inquired several young ladies.

Explanatory matter coming between the speeches is sometimes coml>incd with the speech to which it is most nearly
related, as in the following example: "How is this privileged person?" JJfrs. Blunt asked .
"You shall see," said Edith. "I am glad you came, for I

26

Ooniposition-Rlietoric.

wanted very much to co nsult you.
you."

External Forrn of the Parag'raph.

21

I was going to send for
for publication. Dedicating the book to his "Dear lady an d fair
.
sister the Countess of Pembroke," he says: "You desired me to do it, and your desire, to my heart, is an
absolute commandment. Now it is done only for you, only to
you." Aubrey tells us that Sidney "was '~ont ~o take his tablebook ont of his pocket and write down his not10ns as they came
into his head, as he was hunting on Sarum's pleasant plains." It
was in 1580 that Sidney began the composition of his romance. SAUNDERS: The Story of Sorne Famous Books.

"'Vell, here I am. But I didn't come about the baby. I
wanted to collsult you. 'Ve miss you, dear, every day." And then
JIIrs. Blunt began to speak about some social cmd charitable arrangements, but stopped suddenly. "J 'll see the baby first. Good-morning, l\1rs. Henderson." And site lejt the room. ·

But often such explanatory matter is allowed to stand by
itself, as in the followi11g: -

If the quotation occurs in the middle of a paragraph, the

"l\febbe ye would be better in yer bed," suggested Hendry.
J.Vo one spoke.

sentence which follows should not be indented.

"·when I had the headache," said Hendry, "I was better in my
bed."

Nothing remained of the Madre Dolorosa but a few float!ng
spars and struggling wretches, while a great awe fell upon all
men, and a solemn silence, broken only by the cry

2. Quotations, especially if they are of some length and
begin a new sentence, are often treated as separate paragraphs and distinguished Ly indention. If the quotation is
short, it is usually distinguished only by quotation marks, and
is not set off by itself; but if it is long, it may be set off by
itself (without indention) even though it does not begin a
new sentence. The following example illustrates (1) A short
quotation disti11gll ishcd only l>y quotation uHtrks and not set
off by itself, (2) A lon ger quotation beginning a new sentence,
set off by indention and quotation, (3) A part of a sentence
following quoted matter and not indented, (4) A quotation
not beginning a new sentence but set off by itself (without
indention) on account of its length, (5) A sentence following,
not indented.

"Of some strong swimmer in his agony."

And then, suddenly collecting themselves, as men awakened from
a dream, half-a-dozen desperate gallants, reckless of sharks au.d
eddies, leaped overboard, swam towards the flag, and towed it
alongside in triumph.
The good old times 1 Where and when were those good old
times 't
"All times when old are good,"

says Byron.
"And all our yesterdays have lighted fools
The way to dusty death,"
5

'Ye must 11ot forget the celebrated work that had so great an
influence upon the literature of that [the Elizabetliau J and the
following age, the Arcadia of Sir Philip Sidney. That quaint yet
poetic, pastoral romance was, in prose, like Spenser's Faerie
Queene in verse, a treasury of intellectual beauties. It should be
nimembered in judging the work of Sir Philip Siduey, that he
thought very meauly of it himself, aud that he JJever in tended it

t

says the great master of morals and humanity. But neith~r fools
nor sag~s, neither individuals nor nations, have any other light to
guide them along- the track which all must tread; save t.hat long,
glimmering vista of yesterdays which grows so swiftly !arnt~r and
fainter as the present fades into the past. And I behev~ it p~s­
sible to discover a law out of all this apparently .chao~ic ;vhirl
and bustle, this tangled skeih of human affairs, as it spuis itself
through the centuries. That law is Progress, - slow, confused,
contradictory, but ceaseless development, intellectual and moral,

28

Oornposition-Rhetorie.

External Form of the Paragraph.

o.f the lnunan race. - MoTJ,1•: Y: lhsloric Progress and Ame1"ica11
Democracy.

Have you been bathing yet iu the sea, and were you afraid 'l
I was, the first time. Oh, how I kicked and screamed! or at least
meant to scream; but the sea, ships and all, began to run into my
moutl1, so I shut up.
W ell, how happy yo u must be I Childhood is such a joyous,
rn eny time. I oHen wi sh I was a child again.
Please give my love to your mamma, and remember me as your
affectiu11ate friend,
THOMAS Hoon.

3. In letters, indent.ions are used to distinguish the various parts. If tho letter Leg ins with the name a,ll(l alluress
of the correspondent, the address is usually inrlentecl. 'J'he
salutation is more deeply indented than the address, and
the body of the letter more deeply still. Various grades of
indention also disti11gniRl1 tJ10 p:nLR of 1.ho co11el11siu11. Tho
following will illustrate: HEADQUAHT1m s DErAHTl\rnNT OP THE

RuFus

KING,

Esq.,

CrncJNNATI,

Orno,

01110, Sept. 8, 18G2.

President School Board, Cincinnati, Ohio:
Srn: In reply to yo ur 11ote of this <late I am instrncted to
say that the public schools of this ciLy will 11ot lie required to close
at 4 o'clock I'.i\L daily. Tlie company of teachers call assemble for
drill after the dismissal of school.
Very respectfully, your obe<lien t servant,
N. I-I. McLEAN.

Mr.

STRAHAN, -

'

You are a m ember of Parliament, anrl one of that majority which l1as doomed 111y cou11Lry Lo dnsLrncLion. Yon have
begun to burn our tow11s and 111nrder our people. Look upon
your hands, they are st:Lined with tlie blood of your relations !
Yotl and I were long friends; you are now my enemy, and I
ain

Yours,

n.

l\1 Y

DAHLING 1VfAY, -

FnANirLIN.

G r.ouc11:wnm l'LACF, LoN DON,
July 15, 1833.

How do you do, and how do you like the sea? I remember that when I saw the sea, it used sometimes to be very
fussy and fidgety. And what a rattle the waves made with the
stones, when they were rough!

29

4. Sometimes imlentions are made merely for the purpose
of attracting the reader's attention to something important.
This uevice should be used with great caution. Beginners
will do well to avoid it altogether.
.One idiotic habit of the people is to attribute to the king what
they do theruselves.
They fi ght: whose is the glory?
Tl1e king's.
They pay: whose is the generosity?
The king's.
The king receives a crown from the poor, and returns them a
farthing.
How generous he is I - V1cTOH HuGo.

Pa1·agrapli-Structure.

CHAPTER II.
PARAGRAPH-STRUCTURE.

LESSON 7.

Thought-D ivisions.
1. In the season of h ot weather i11 the central part of the Mississippi Valley, there often come successions of days when the
atmosphere is not stirred Ly the winds, bnt relllain s as still as the
air of a cave. 2. Desp ite the sLeauy gain in the heat, the sky stays
cloudless, or at most is flecked by those light clouds that lie five
miles or more above the surface of the earth. 3. All n ature seems
cowed beueath the fervent heat, yet there is nothing of distinct
portent in earth or air. 4. At last., towards evening, there may be
seen a sudden curdling of the western sky; in a few minutes the
clouds gather, coming from 11owhere, growi11g at once in tlie lurid
au-. 5. In less than half an hour the forces of the storm are organized, and its dreadful advance begins. G. If we were just beneath
the gathering clouds \Ve ·w ould find that the air over a space a
mile or so in diameter was spinning around in a great whirlpool,
and while the revolving mass slowly advanced, the central part
moved rapidly upwards. 7. Beginning slowly, all the movements
of the storm, the whirling action, the vertical streaming of the air,
its onward movement, all gain speed of motion with astonishing
rapi<lity. 8. .111a111inuLc ur Lwu So llie cubic miles of air are in a
state of intense gyratory movement, mounting upwards as violently as the gases over a volcano. 9. To replace this strong
whirling uprush, there is an indraught from every side towards
the centre of the whirlwind; and as this ce11tre moves quickly
forward, the rush of air is strongest from behind towards the

31

advancing hurricane. 10. The rate at which the storm goes forward is very variable, though it is generally as much as forty .to
one hu11Jred miles an honr; but this is not the measure of its
destructive power. lL The rending effect of the storm is much
greater than would be given by a simple blast of air moving. at
this speed. 12. Much of this peculiar capacity for destruct10n
may perhaps be due to the gyratory motion of the wind in the
storm centre, which on one side of the whirlwind adds the speed
arising from its circular movement to the tran slatory velocity of
the whirlwind itself. 13. Some of the records tell us that houses
with closed windows have been known to burst apart, as if from
an explosion of gunpowder, while others, that h ad their doors and
windows wide open, remained essentially unharmed. 14. It has
been conjectured that this action may be due to a sudden rarefaction of the air on the outside of the building; but this cause cannot
be sufficient to produce such effects, and if such explosions occur
the cause must be looked for el sew here. 15. After the storm is
once developed, it seems very quickly to acquire its maximum of
destructive power and its speed of translation. lG. At the outset
a nd during the period of most efficie11t actio11, the strip of couutry
affected is. generally very narrow, not often exceeding a mile in
width; as the storm advances the path seems gradually to grow
wider, and the gyratory movement as well as the translatory motion of the meteor less considerable, until at last it fades into an
ordiuary thunder-storm, or dies into a calm . 17. Through the
whole course of the hurricane, and especially during its closing
stages, there is generally more or less rain and hail. -Atlantic,
49: 331.

The sentences in this paragraph belong together, for all
treat of one topic - the tornado. But they not only belong
together, they belong together in n. pcc11liar wn.y, in a.
pa,rticular order. Sentence 1 belongs at the beginning.
It cannot be placed anywhere else in the paragraph. Sentence 11 must come after sentence 10; sentence 15 must
come before sentence 16; to put these sentences in any other
order would throw the paragraph into confusion. Again,
the sentences of this paragra,ph fall into gro:ups, each group

32

Composition-lllwtoric.

treating of some spec ifi c pmt of tl1e topic. Tlrns sentences
1-3 tell of what happens before the storm; sentences 4-6
tell of its begin11i11g; sentences 7-9 tell of its onward movement; sentences 10-14 tell of its <lcstn1di vc iiower. sentences 15-17 of its _culrni11 atiou and subs illeuce. -w~ may
~ven_ make a,n ou~lm~ of the pa,mgrapl1, showi 11 g just what
is sa1Ll of the subJect m each part.

A. Before the stol'11t ( t-:~) .
a. The air is still.
b. The sky is cloudless.
B. Beginning of the storm (4-G) .
a. The clouds ga,ther.
b. The stonn is orgm1ized.
C. Tl1e advance of the storm (7-!J).
a. The spcell of motion increases.
b. 'l'he wliirli 11g movement and the vertical streaming grow violent.
c. The rush of air is strongest from behind.
D. The destructiv_e power of the storm (10-14).
a. Its capacity for destruction is due both to the forward movement and to the whirling motion. b. The storm bursts open houses with closed
windows.
E. 'l'he c,t!lrninati~n and_ subsidence of the storm (15-17).
a. Ihe maxunurn is quickly reached.
b. The storm in creases in width arnl decreases in
speetl.
c. The closing stages are accompanied by rain and
hail.
. . 1.. In. my school-hons~, .. : I Reem to sec the square rnost
ieadily 111 the Scotch
mi st
filled it-, l OOSe lJ ·lll g tl- 18
.
- winch
_- ·
'f:O ofl-<'n
,,
st~nos a'.1d cholnn_g the drams. 2. Thero was t hen 110 rattle of
1:am agamst my wrndow sill , nor da11ci11g 0£ diamond drops on the
ioofs, but blobs of water grew on the panes of glass to reel heavily

Paragraph-Structure.

33

dovvll them. 3. Then the sodden square would have shed abundant tears if yon could have taken it in your hands and wrung it
like a dripping cloth. 4. At such a time the square would be
e lllpLy lmt for oue vegctaLle-cart left in the c:tre 0£ a lean colly,
whicl1, tied to the wheel, whined and shi vered underneath.
5. Pools of water gather in the coarse sacks that have been spread
over Lhe potatoes and bundles of greens, which turn to manure in
their lidl ess barrels. G. The eyes of the wl1i111pcri11g dog- 11ever
leave a Llack close over which hangs the sign of the Bull, probably
the refuge of the hawker. 7. At long intervals a farmer's gig
rumbles over the bumpy, ill-paved square, or a native, with his
head buried in his coat, peeps out-of-doors, skurries across the way,
and vanishes. 8. Most of the leading shops are here, and the
decorous draper ventures a few yards from the pa1;ement to scan
the sky, or note the effect of his new arrangement in scarfs.
9. Planted against his door is the butcher, Renders Todd, whiteaproned, and with a knife in his hand, gazing interestedly at the
draper, for a mere man may look at an elder. 10. The tinsmith
brings out his steps; and mounting them, stealthily removes the
sauce-pans and pepper-pots that dangle on a wire above his signboard. 11. Pulling to his door he shuts out the foggy light that
showed in his solder-strewn workshop. 12. The square is deserted
again. 13. A bundle of sloppy parsley slips from the hawker's
cart and topples over the wheel in driblets. 14. The puddles in
the sacks overflow and run together. 15. The dog has twisted his
chain round a barrel, and yelps sharply. lU. As if in response
comes a rush of other dogs. 17. A terrified fox terrier tears across
the square with half a score of mongrels, the butcher's mastiff and
some collies at his heels ; he is doubtless a stra,nger who lrns insulted them by his glossy coat. 18. For two seconds the square
shakes to an invasion of dogs, and then, again, there is only one
dog in sight. - BARRIE: J1 uld Licht Idylls, chap. I.

The selection given above may be outlined as follows : A. The sodden square (1-3).
a. Seen most readily in the Scotch mist.
b. The mist on the window.
c. 'l'he mist in the square.

aomposition-.lllietoric.
B. ·what is to be seen in the square (4-11).
a. 'l'he vegetaLle cart alHl the colly.
b. Passers-by.
c. Shopkeepers.
C. ·what happens in the square (12-18).
a. To the cart.
b. 'l'o the colly.
c. 'fhe invasion of dogs.

Paragraph-Structure.

35

Read carefully the followi11g p~1ragraphs and write outlines showing the di visions of the thought: -

unnatural energy. Settiug his long lance firmly on the wreck which
strewed the bottom of the lake, he sprang forward with all his
might, and cleared the wide gap at a leap! Aztecs and Tlascalans
gazed in stupid amazement, exclaiming, as they beheld the i11credible feat, "This is truly the Tonatiuh, - the child of the Sun I "
The breadth of the opening is not given . llut it was so great that
the valorous Captain Diaz, who well remembered the place, says
the leap was impossible to aJJy man. Other contemporaries, however, do 110t ll ise redit the story. It was, beyou<l <loubt, matter of
popular belief at the time; it is to_ this day familiarly known to
every i11lmbit:wt of the capital; aud the name of the Salto de
Alvarado, "Alvarado's Leap," given to the spot, still commemorates an exploit which rivalled those of the demi-gods of Grecian
· fable. -' 1'1mscorr: Conquest of Jlfexico.

The cavaliers found A I varado unlt orsetl, and defe ndi11 g hi rnself
with a poor handful of follow ers agai11st an ornrwhelming tide of
the enemy. His good steed, wl1i clt !tad borne hilll Lhro11glt many
a ltar<l fight, ha<l fall en und1~ 1· l1i111. J le wa.s ltilllscU wou.n<led in
several places, and was st rivi11 g in vai11 to rally his scattered
column, which was driven to tl1 e vcrg<J of t !te canal by the fury of
t!te enemy, then in possessio n of the whole rear of the causeway,
where they were reinforced every hour by fresh combatants from
the city. The artillery in t!te earlier part of the engagement had
not been i<lle, a11tl its iro11 show er, swncping along t.h e dike, lm<l
mowed down the assailants by l1uml re<ls. llut 11othi11g could
resist their impetuosity. The froJJt ranks, pushed on by those
behind, were at length forced up to the pieces, and, pouring over
them like a torrent, overthrew men and gm1s in one ge neral ruin.
The resolute charge of t.he SpaJJish cavaliers, who had now arrived, created a temporary check, and gave time for their countrymen to make a feeble rally. But t.hey were speedily borne down
by the returning flood. Cortes a nd Ii is co mpanions wore co mpelled
to plunge again iu to the lake, - t hough all did 11ot escape. Alvarado stood on the brink for a moment, hesitati11g what to do.
Unhorsed, as he was, to throw himself into the water, in the face
of the hostile canoes that now swarmed around the opening, afforded but a desperate chance of safety. He had but a second for
thought. Ile was a man of powerful frame, and despair gave him

There is a general impression in England, that the people of
the United States arc inirnical to t!tc parent .couutry. It is one
of the errors which hn.ve beeJJ diligently propagated by designing
writers. There is, doubtless, considerable political hostility, and
a general sore11ess at the illiberality of the English press; but,
geuerally speakin g, the prepossessions of the people are strongly
in favor of England. Indeed, at one time, they amounted, in
many parts of the Union, to an absurd degree of bigotry. The
bare nam e of Englishman was a passport to the confi<le11ce and hospitality of every farnily, and too often gave a transient currency to
the worthless and the ungrateful. Throughout the country there
was something of enthusiasm c9nnected with the idea of England.
'IV e looked to it with a hallowed feeling of tenderness and veneration , as the land of our forefathers - the august repository of the
monuments and antiquities of our race -the birthplace and mausoleum of the sages an<l heroes of our paternal history. After our
own country, there was none iu whose glory we more delightednone whose good opinion we vvere more anxious to possess -none
towards which on r hearts yearned with such throbbings of warm
consanguinity. Even during the late war, whenever there was
the leas t opportunity for kind feelings to spring forth, it was the
delight of the genero us spirits of our country to show that, in the
midst of hostilities, they still kept alive the sparks of future friendship. - IRVING: Sketch Book.

EXERCISE 7.

36

37

Composition-Rhetoric.

Paragraph-Structure.

The old South reste<l everytlii11g Oil slavery :t1Hl agricnlt,ure,
u.11co11scious that th ese conl(l nciLl1 ur give 11or rn:i.i11Lai11 ltnalLl1y
growth. The new Soutlt presents a perfect dernocracy, the oligarchs leading in the popular movemeut-a social system con1pact
and closely knitted, less splc1ulid Oil the snrface, hut stronger at
the core - a hundred farms for every pla11tn,tion, fifty homes for
every paln,ce, and a diversified industry that meets the comp.lex
needs of this complex age. Th e new Soutl1 is enamoured of li er
new work. Her soul is stirred with the ureath of a new life. The
light of a grnlldcr <lay iH l':dlin4· f:i.ir 011 11<!1' f:1,(!n. ~lie iH Ll1rilling·
with the c011scio11s11ess of g rowin g power antl prosperity. As she
stands upright, fnll-statnred and eq11:Ll amoug the people of the
earth, breathing the keen air, and looki ng out upon the expaudin g
horizon, she understands that; her emancipation came becanse in
the inscrutable wisdom of God her honest purpose was crossed. aml
her brave armies were beaten. - HENRY vV. GRADY: Speeches.

already brnken down in h ealth. Among all our yo un ger A merican 111e11 o[ lette rs tl1 erc i1> 110 such group of invalids. A111011g
women, we hear of Florence Nightingale as wholly invalided for
ma11y years, while our own Clara Barton, after all her ordeal in
our Civil War, - au onleal wl1icl1, if less intense antl concentrated
than that of Florence Nightingale, was far more prolonged,-is
still in active vigor, and always ready, on a click of the telegraphic
wire, to repair to auy scene of war or pestilence or inundation
where sl1 e and h er Reel Cross are u eeded. Dorothea Dix also
co11t,i111w(l her acLivc an(l llllCO:tHing labors nntil WPll into t.ho
eighties. Such comparisons, if Lhey do uot give conclusive ev idence, yet certainly appeal to the imagination, and set one thinking. - ll1GGINSON: Concerning All of Us.

It is the general testimouy of Americans who have lived much ill
England that appeani11ccs are deceptive, and that the g reate r
share· of flesh and color possessed by our trausatlantic cousins is
not always the indication of better health or greater strength.
Even these outward attribntes are not always the result of English
residence. The late Rev. 'William H enry Channing, a very slender
man, used to lament, on hi s occasional visits to this, his native
land, that long years of English life lm(l not; given l1i111 an atMed
pound of flesh, wh .ile all his early co111rndes had grown 8Lo11!,er
in America. But even ·where t,hese externals are possessed, they
do not necessarily indicat.e any other physical advantage. Certainly there are many parallels that might be drnwn, in Plutarch's
fashion, between conspicuous English and American examples.
l\Ir. Gladstone hardly affords a more striking instan ce of prolonged
intellectnal act.ivit-.y than dill , up to t.he same peri orl of lifo, the
late l\lr. Ran croft; and cerLai 11 ly l,J1e rlyr; peptic old rige of Carlyle
and the perturbed intellect of n11 r;ki11 have hecn painfully unlike
th e serene and wholesome clccli11i11g years of 'Vhitticr and Holmes.
Among younger English intcilcch1al "·orkcrs, it is understood that
Hamerton must live in France for l1is l1 ealth's sake, and Symonds
in Italy, and Stevenson in Sa111oa, while Ile11ley iR mai11ly known
from his poems written in a hospital, and Kipliug is lllentioned as

i\
1-

Never since literntnre became a calling in En·gJand had it been
a less gainful calling t.han at the time when Johnson took up his
residence in London. lu the preceding generation a writer of
eminen t merit was sure to be munificently rewarded by the
government. The least that he could expect was a pension or a
sinecure place; and, if he showed any aptitude for politics, he
might h ope to be a member of parliament, a lord of the treasury,
an ambassador, a secretary of state. It would · be easy, on the
other hand, to name several writers of the nineteenth century of
whom the leas t successful has received forty thousand pom1ds
from the hooksellern. Bnt; Johnson entered on his vocation in
tl1e most dreary part of the dreary i 11 terval w ltich separated two
ages of prosperity. Literatnre had ceased to flourish und er tl1e
patronage of the great, and had not begun to flourish under the
patronage ·of the public. One man of letters, indeed, Pope, had
acquired by his pen what was then considered as a handsome
fortune, and lived on a footing of equality with nobles an d
ministers of state. Dut this \'Vas a solitary exception. Even an
author wl1ose rep utation was established, and whose works were
popular - such a11 author ar; Th omso n, whose "Seasons" were in
every Ji.brary; Frnch an a uthor as Fielding, whose "Pasquin" had
11ad a g reate r run than any tlrama since the "Beggar's Opera" Wfts someti mes glad to 01Jtai11, by pawning his best coat, the means
of dini11g on tripe at a cook-shop underground, where he could
wipe his hands, afLer his greasy meal, on the back of a Newfound-

38

39

Composition-Rhetoric.

P aragmph-Striwture.

land dog. It is ear;y, therefore, Lo illl:tginc wl1al; l111111iliaLio11R and
privations 111ust lmvo aw:i,iLe<l Lit<\ 110vice \\ho lt:vl HLill lo earn
a name. Oue of Lhe pnulishers to wlio111 ~foh11so11 applied for
employment measured with a sco rnful eye that athleLie though
uncouth frame, and exclailll etl, "Yon had bettor get a porLer's
knot, and carry trunks." Nor was the advice bau, for a porter
was as likely to be as plentifully fed and as comfortably lodged
as a poet. -1\lACAULA Y: John son.

and Lite door was opened to him." llut that is iuealism, you will
say, and this is an only too practical world. I grant it; but I am
one of t.hose who believe that the real will never find an irremovable basis till it rests on the ideal. - LOWELL: D emocracy.

F ew people take the tronble o[ trying Lo fin1l 011(; wlml; democracy really is. Yet this woulu be a great help, for it is our lawless
aud uncertain tl1oughts, it is th e indefiniteness of our i111pressio us,
that fill darkness, whether mental or physical, with spectres aud
hobgoblins. Democracy is 11othing more than an experiment in
government, more likely to succeeLl in a uew soil, but likely to be
tried in all soils, ·which must stand or fall on its own merits as
others have done before it. For there is no trick of pe1 petual
motion in politics any 111orn Lha11 in 111<!chani eR. l'rnsi<l cnt Lincoln
<lefiucu de lllocrncy Lo be "the governlllent of the peop le by the
people for the people." This is a sufficiently compact statement
of it as a political arrangement. Theodore Parker said that
"Democracy meant not 'I'm as good as you are,' hut 'You're as
good as I am.'" A11d this is the ethi cal couceptio11 of it, necessary
as a complement of 1,he other; a conception which, could it be
made actual and practical, would easily solve all the riddles that
the old sphinx of political and social eco uomy who sits by the
roadside has bee n proposing to ma11ki11d from the beginning, and
which mankiud have shown such a singular talent for ausweriug
wrongly. In this sense Christ was the first true democrat that
ever breathed, as the old dramatist Dekker said he was the first
true gentleman. The characters may be easily doubled, so strong
is the likeness between them. · A beautiful and profound parable
of the Persian poet ,Jellaladeen tells 11s that "One kuocked at the
Bclove<l'H door, an1l a voi1:1! axknd fro111 wil,liin, 'Who ill I.here'?'
and he answered, 'lt is l.' Then the voice said, 'This house will
not hold me and thee'; and the door was not opened. Then weut
the lover into the dese rt, and fasted and prayed in solitude, and
after a year he return ed and knocked again at the door; and
again the voice asked, ' 'Vho is there?' and he said, 'It is thyself';

You would think it strange if I called Burns the most gifted
British soul we had in all that century of his: and yet I believe
the day is corning \<vhen there will be little danger in saying so.
His writings, all that he did under such obstructions, are only a poor
frag ment o.f him. I'rofossor Stewart remarked very justly, what,
indeed, is true of all Poets good for much, that his poetry was not
any particular faculty, hut the general result of a naturally vigorous
original mind expressing itself in that way. Burns's ~ifts, expre~sed
in conversation are the theme of all that ever heard him. All lunds
'
.
of gifts: from the gracefulest utterances of courtesy, to the lughest
fire of passionate speech; loud floods of mirth, soft waitings of
affection, laconic emphasis, clear, piercing insight; all was in him.
·w itty 1lnchesscs celebrate him as n. man whose speech "l.ed thPm
ofE Lheir feet." This is beautiful; but still more beautiful that
which Mr. Lockhart has recorded, which I }.lave more than once
allnded to. How the waiters and ostlers at inns would get out of
bed, and come crowding to hear this man speak I Waiters and
ostlers; - they too were men, and here was a man! I have heard
much about his speech; but one of the best things I ever heard of
it was, last year, from a venerable gentleman long familiar with
him. That it was speech distinguished by always having something
in it. "Ile spoke rather little than much," this old man told me;
"sat rather silent in those early days, as in the company of persons
above him; an d always when he did speak, it was to throw new
light on the matter." I know not why anyone should ever speak
otherwise! - But if we look at his general force of soul, his healthy
robustn~ss every way, the rugged downrightness, penetration, generous valour and manfuln ess that ·was in him, - when shall ·we
readily Jiml n. beLtcr-giCLcd lll:tll ?- CA ltLYLE: 1Jun1s.
The paragraphs iu Exercises 4 and 18 may be employed for further
practice if needed.
.
.
It is recommended that some time be spent upon tlus useful exercise,
enough at any rate to convince the pupil that paragraphs, whatever they
may be, are uot mere wayward concatenations of sentences.

40

Composition-lllwtoric.
SUMMAHY.

In outward form the paragraph is a group of sentences set off
from other similar groups by an indention of the first word. In
internal structure the paragraph is a group of sentence-ideas bearing upon one subject and arranged in an orderly way.
In writing a single paragraph, or a composition made · up
of several paragrnplrn, thr. pupil 11ernls find; to know w]1at
ideas to select and what means to eu111loy iu developing
them. Then he needs to know how to choose from the
great variety of sentence-forms, and from the infinite variety of words and expressions, the sentence-forms and the
words best adapted to express his ideas. He needs also to
learn what onler a,nd method to choose in presenting his
ideas. Fourthly, he needs to lem.·n how to proportion the
parts of what he writes, accordi11g to their relative importance. And fifthly, he needs to learn how to k eep out of his
composition everything that does not belong there; how to
make his composition represeut his thought in its unity.
In other words, the pupil must learn
I.
ll.
III.
IV.
V.

What to say.
How to say it.
In what order to say it.
How much to say.
·what not to say.

CHAPTER III.
WHAT TO SAY.

LESSON 8.

Selecting a Siibject.
'ro discover a subject on which, to write, the pupil may put
to himself these two questions: "In what am I especiaJly
interested?" and, "In what are the persons who will read
or hear what I write, especially interested?" If he can
find anything in the world that will stand as answer to both
these questions, he has a good subject, whether it be Baseball, Roman History, Bicycles, Stars, or Stamp-collecting.
Anything that answers but one of these questions may still
be a goo<l suuject, for he may
able to interest somebody
else in what interests him, or he may himself become inter- :
ested in what interests other people. But a subject which
is interesting neither to him nor, as far as he can ascertain,
to those about him, would better be let alone. Fortunately
the world is full of interesting things.

ue

In selecting a subject for composition, choose what is intel'esting
both to you and to those for whom you write.
EXERCISE 8.

Write in a column ten subjects that are of interest to
you. Underline those which in your opinion are of interest
41

42

Composition-Rhetoric.

to others as well, and opposite en,ch of these s11bjccts set
uown the person or class of persons to whom you think it
is of interest.
EXERCISE !J.

Write a list of ten subjects that interest others but do
not interest you.
EXERCISE 10.

·write ten subjects that are uninteresting Loth to you ancl
to others.
LESSON 9.

,

The Pciragraph-Theme.
Everything thaL is of iutcrcst Luth tu the pupil a,ud to his
reader is a good subject to write on, but not every such subject can be treated in a single paragraph. Indeed, most of
the subj ects which the pupil selects at first, cannot be so
treated. They are subjects like "Originality," "Genius,"
"The Future of Our Country." To treat aJ.equn,tely one
of these would be to write a long essay or even a large
volume. The subject of a paragraph must be smaller.
Thus it happens that after the stuclent has selected an interesting subject his next step is usually to narrow it until
it is just the right size for a pn,ragraph. InsteaJ. of considering the subject in its whole extent, he considers a single
side or phase of it. Instead of considering it as it is at all
times and in all places and uncler all conditions, he consiclers it as it is at a certain time, in a certain pl::tce, under
certain conditions.
To illustrate, we may suppose that a pupil selects as his
subject "Amusements." This is of general interest but
much too large for a single paragraph. To bring it within

What to Say.

43

proper bounds the pupil may begin by limiting it in time
to the present. It thus becomes " Amusements of the Present Day." If a limitation of place be made, the subject
may become, "Amusements in the United States," or
"Amuse ments iu the l'lace where I Live," or "Amusements at Our School." If the subject is still too large, a
particular kind of amusement may be chosen, as "Games
of Physical Strength at Our School," or "Baseball at Our
School." ·w hile these arn subjects uot too broad to be
treatecl in a single p::tragraph, the narrowin g process may
easily Le carried farther. For example, by treating baseball
in a particular way the pupil may derive such subj ects as
" Ho~ the Last Game of Baseball was 1von," "The Last
Game of Baseball from a Girl's Point of View," "Catching
a Swift Ball," "Making First Base," "Batting an In-curve,"
arnl so on.
'rhis process not only brings the subject within the compass of a paragraph, but h as the advantage of substituting a
definite for an indefinite subject of thought. Thus tl,te- subject, "Amusements," is extremely vague and unsuggestive.
There are so many amusements and so many ways in which
they may be treated that the writer does not know where
to begin nor what to say about them. On the other hand,
subjects like "How I leam ed to Skate," "\iVhy I like to
Play Tennis," are definite and pointed,, ancl to those who
are proficient in these sports suggest almost immediately
something interesting to say.
A properly worclecl theme will generally r eveal not only
the scope of the writer's treatment, but also his method, not
only what he is going to say, but how he is going to say it.
1'hus, the theme "How the Game was won" suggests a
story; "A View of the Ball-ground from Above" suggests
a description; "'rennis vs. Football" prepares us for argument; and "Advantages of Bicycling for Girls" points to
an expository treatment.

44

Composition-Rhetoric.

1Vhat to Say.

45

A general subject narrowed to the point where it expresses just
what the paragraph is to contain is called the theme or topic of the
paragraph. The theme is to the paragraph what the seed is to the
plant: it is the paragraph in embryo.

1. Athletic Sports. 2. Advertising. 3. \.Vealth. 4. In·1 1ence.
r-: Cl iarac t e r.
G. 11lu.i-an11ers at Table. 7. Slavery.
u.
uo
(\J, H. Ull 101· . 10. \,\Tork. 11. Newspapers.
,8. A
- lll b- 1.t.
,1011.
12. Wars. 13. Religions. 14. Novels.

EXERCISE 11.

EXERCISE 14.

[In making approaches to a theme by narrowing a ge neral
snlijccl., he ware of Ii 111 i l;al.io11s U1;i,I, arn 1111•:1,11i11g-losR or 1111 ~cl1:i.11 ical.
Sec Lo it Lltat eaelt s11eccssive 111udiJieaLio11 I.wings Ll1e sul>ject
nearer - nearer to yon pen;o11:tlly, a111l nearer f;o your readers.
Seleet a ti11Je in which yon are i11Lt~reste<l, a pln.ce with which
you are acquainted, a method of treatmeut that exactly suits your
purpose.]
Narrow three of tlie following subjects to a theme by limiting
first in time, second in place. Make successive lim itations until
the subject is so reduced that it may be treated in a single paragraph.

1. Houses. 2. Birds. 3. Trees. 4. Firearms. 5. Travelling. 6. Books. 7. Qneeus. 8. Lamps. 9. Skating.
10. Money. 11. Dogs. 12. -\.Var. 13. Churches. 14. H.ivers.
EXEllCISE 12.

Narrow three of the following subjects to a paragraph theme
by lirnitiug first iu til110, second in place, third in ki11tl or class: -

1. Boats. 2. Schools. 3. Poetry. 4. Panics. 5. Fishmg. 6. Inventions. 7. Music. 8. Animals. 9. Arts.
10. Studies.
11. Trades.
12. ·w inds.
13. Flowers.
·.
14. Governments.
EXERCISE 13.

Narrow three of the following subjects to a th eme by limiting
first in time, second in place, third in kind, fourth in method of
treatment: -

Narrow three of the following subjects in such a way as to make
them i11tcrnsti11g to a p:utic11lar reader ot· set of readers: -

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.

Hunting- to a girl.
Sewi11g - to a boy.
The l\1oon - to a child five years old.
This 'l'own - to a country boy.
This Town - to a manufacture'r seeking a location.
Th.is Town - to a retired merchant.
Sunday School- to a newsboy.
High School - to grammar school pupils.
Reading - to a busy man.
History- to a reader of novels.
Early Rising- to a lazy person.
J__,atin - to one opposed to studying it.
School Work -to a physician.
Th e He:wer - to a carpenter.
Foreign Missions - to business men.
Algebra- to a friencl who has never studied it.
Fann Life- to a city boy.
Housekeeping -to a boy.
Politics - to a girl.
EXERCISE 15.

From any one of the following subjects, by making such limitations as occur to you, draw out six good themes: -

1. Storms. 2. Electricity. 3. Pictures. 4. Vacation.
6. The English Language.
5. The vVar with Mexico.

46

Ooniposition-Rhetor ic.

7. Longfellow.
ll. '1'011 nyson.
14. 8ports. 15.
18. Voting. 1V.

8. I.mvell. 9. \Vhittier. 10. Irving.
12. Ma.11uf:1,ct.11ri11g.
1:3. Uoa.l-rn i11 ing.
Music. 1G. JJ:111cing. 17. ForeigHers.
Bees. 20. l 1 ets.
EXERCISE Hi.

The teacher assigns to t.lie class a ge neral subject to be narrowed
in as many ways as possible. At the close of the allotte<l time perhaps fi ve rnin utcf\ - tlic themes are rea<l an<l criticised. Jn
such exercises, it is profitable to note, first, which member of the
class has the longest list; second, wltich member of the class has
hit upon the topic of greatest interest.

LESSON 10.

'J.'hc 'l'itle.

· Nearly related to the theme is the title or heading. Placed
at the beginning of the paragr::tph, though sepa.rate from it,
the title is a brief announcement of the paragraph-theme.
It may be looked upon as an a<.lvertisement of the contents
of the paragraph. Like other advertisements, it serves its
purpose best when it is short an<.l suggestive. A goo<.l title
will excite the curiosity of the reader and allure him to read,
but it will not promise more information or enjoyment than
the paragraph can supply.
Effective titles are often drawn from a chance word or
phrase in the paragraph, but this practice is not to be commended; the best titles are those which are drawn from the
paragraph-theme. Thus if the theme of a paragra.ph is
"Baseball at Our School," the title might be, "Our Nine";
if the theme is "Incident of a Fishing Excursion iu Northern Michigan Last July," the title might be "My First
Trout." A con cisely wor<.led theme, if not too long, may
generally be made to do <.luty as a title. "Baseball at Our

lYhat to Say.

47

School " is a. go0<1 title, hut "Incident of a. Fishiug Excursion in Northem Michign.n Last July" is longer than a
title should be.
The title of the paragraph should be a brief and suggestive
advertisement of the theme. It should not promise more than
the paragraph can fulfil.
EXERCISE 17.

Re-staLe the following themes briefly as titles: -

1. The use of balloons in time of war for spying the

enemy's movements.
2. Industry is the lesson to be learned of the ant.
3. 'l'he life of the colored field-hands in the South before
the wa.r.
L1. A diploma from a city high school shoul<.l admit the
holder to college.
5. A free public library sustained by general taxation
should be maintained in every community.
6. The treatment of the Indian by the government has
been unjust.
7. A description of a two-weeks visit to the \Vorld's
Fair at Chicago.
8. A description of the process by which a city newspaper is made.
9. A narrative of the early years of General Grant.
10. A narrative of the journey made by Lieutenant
Peary's expedition to the North.
EXERCISE 18.

Find suitable titles for the following selections : Sydney Smith once ~lluded, if I remember rightly, to a person
who allowe<l himself to speak disrespectfully of the equator. I

48

Co111positio1i-Rheto1·ic.

have a Rtrong ol> jcction to -bP. srn:~pock1 l uf ll aLLe r.i11 g Ll1c cq11ator.
Yet were it 11ot for that little angle of: 2:J 0 27' 2(i", ·wl1iclt it is
go?u euough to lllake with_ the_plttne o.f ~~ 1 c eclip tic, 1.he hi sto ry of
this earth and of "all w inch it lnhent would have b_cen esse ntially modified, even if it lmd 11ot been alLogcth er a Llank. Out
of the obliquity of t l1 e equator has come forth our civilization.
It was long ago observed by on / of the most thoughtful wri ters
that ever dealt with hum an hi story, John vo11 H erde r, that it was
to th e gradual sh ading a.way of zones a111l altcrnal;io11 of 8caso118
Ll1:d. t.hn vig·or :tnd var idy 111' 111:111 W!\l'O aL1 . rib11t.:1,lih ~. - J\lo ·1·1.1·: Y:
Historic l'royress and American D emocracy.
There is, perhaps, 110 parL o( t.l1 c worhl, ccrtaiJ1ly 11 0 11 0 fami lia.r
to scie nce, where til e early geological p< ~ ri o<l s can be sLudicd wiLh
so Jll1tch ease aml prcci8 ion as i11 th e U11ited States. Along their
northern borders, betwee n Canada and the United States, there
runs th e low line of hill s known as the Laurentian Hills. Insignificant in height, 11owhnrc risi11g more than fi.[tccn lmndred or
two thousand feet above t he level of Lh c t>ea, these are nevertheless
the first mountains t hat broke the u11iform level of the earth's
surface, and Ji(ted thenrnelves above tl1c waters. Their low sLature, as co mpared with that of other more lofty mountai n-rauges,
is in accordance with an invariable rnle, by which the relative age
of mountains may be estimated. The oklest mountains are the
lowest, while tlie yo nn gc r and more recent ones tower above tl1eir
elders, aml arc usually more Lorn and uislocated also. This is
easily understood when we remember that all mountains an~
mountain-chains are the result of npheavals, a.ncl that. the violence
of Lhe ontbreak must have been i 11 proportion to th e stre11 gLh of
the resi stance. 'Vhen th e crust of the ear Lh was so thin that the
heated masses. wiLhin easily broke through it, they were not
thrown to so great a l1 eight, and formed comparatively low elevations, such as the Canadian Jiills, or the mountains of Bretagne
and Wales. Hut i11 btcr Li111eR, wl1cn yo1111g, vigoro11s giants, such
as the Alps, the Him alayas, or, later still , the 11.ocky Mountains,
forced their way out from their fiery prison-house, the crust of
the earth was much thicker, and fearful indeed must have been
the convulsions which attenueu their ex it. -AGASSIZ: Geological
Sketches.

TVliat to Say.

49

Aristides at first was loved aud respected for his surname of the
Just, and afterwards envied as much; the latter chiefly by the
management of Themistocles, who gave it out among the people
tl1at Aristides had abolished the courts of judicature, by drawing
the arl>itratiou of all causes to himself, and so was insensibly
gaining sovereig n power, t hough without guards and the other
ensigns of it. The people, elevated with the late victory at Marathon, thought themselves capable of everythin g, and the highest
rnHpncl; lit.Li o nno11gh for t.hc111. U1rnaHy, therefore, al; lindi11g any
one citizen rose to sueh exLraordiuary honor and distiuction, they
assemblcrl at Athens from all the towns in Attica, and banished
Aristides by the ostracism; disguising their envy of his character
UIH.ler the specious prete11ce of gun.ruing against tyranny. . . .
The Ostracism (to give a summary account of it) was conducted
in the following manner. Every citizen took a piece of a broken
pot, or a shell, on which he wrote the name of the person he
wanted to liave banished, and carried it to a part of the marketplace that was enclosed with wooden rails. The magistrates then
counted the number of the shells; and if it amounted not to six
thousand, the ostracism stood for nothing: if it did, they sorted
the shells, a.ml the person w l1ose name was found 011 the greatest
11umber, was declared an exile for ten years, but with permission
to enj oy his estate.
At tl1 e time that Aristides was banished, when the people were
inscribing the names on t he shells, it is reported tliat an illiterate
burgher came to Aristides, whom he took for some ordinary person,
and, giving him his shell, desired him to write Aristides upon it.
The good man, surprised at the adventure, asked him "whether
Aristides had e\·er injured him?" "No," said he, "nor do I even
know him; but it vexes me to hear him everywhere called the Just."
Aristides made no answer, but took the shell, and having written
his own name upon it, returned it to the man. When he quitted
Athens, he liHcd up his hands towards h eaven, and, agreeably to
his character, made a prayer, very different from that of Achilles;
namely, "That the people of Athens might never see the day which
should force them to remember Aristides." -PLUTAHCH: Lives.
Said Tom, "If I can't be at Rugby, I want to be at work in the
world, and not dawdling away t hree years at Oxford."

50

Composition-1Uieto1·ic.

"'Vii at <lo you 111 e:w by 'al; work i11 Llie wor ld ' '?" sai<l I.lie
master, paw;ing, with his lips elose to liis sa ucer.C ul of· tea, a11tl
peeri11g at Tom over it.
"'Vell, I mean real work; one's profess ion, whatev er one will
have really Lo do, a1Hl rnake one's li vin g by. I want to be doin g
some real good, feeling that I a111 11ot only at play in th e world,"
answered Tom, rather puzzled to fi11d out himself what he really
did mean .
"You are mixing up two very different things in yo m head, T
think, Rrowu," said the 111a;er, p11Lt.i11g tlow11 Llw e lllpty foia nce r,
"and you ough1; to g9-t clear ab011t th elll. You talk of 'working to
get your living ' and' doing so 111e real good in the wor ld,' in the
same breath. Now, you may be gettiu g a very goorl living in a
profession, and yet doi11g no good at all in the world, but quite
the contrary, at the same time. Keep the latter before you as
your one object, and you will be ri ght, whether you make a living
or not; but if yoLL dwell on the other, yo u'll vi;iry lik ely <lrop inLo
mere mo11 ey-maki11g, an<l lct 1.he wor ld Lake care o[ iLs1\ll', Jor goo< l
or evil. Don't be in a hurry about finding your work in t li e world
for yourself; you are not old enough to judge for yourself yet, but
just look about yo u in the place you find yourself i11, a nd try to
make things a little better :wd honeste r there. You' ll find plenty
to keep your hand in at Oxford, or wh erever else you go. A ud
don't be led away to think this part of the world important and
that unimportant. Every corner of the world is i111porta11t. No
man kuows whether this part or that is most so, but eve ry man
may do some honest work in his own corner." And then the
good man went on to talk ·wisely to Torn of the sort of work which
he might take up as an undergraduate; and warned him of the
prevalent university sins, arnl explained to him the many and
great differences between university and school life; till the twilight
changed into darkness, and they heard the truant servants stealing
in by the back entrance. - Ilumrns: Tom Tfrown's School Day.~.
Abo'ut six o'clock, on a fine morning in the summer, I set out
from Philadelphia, on a visit to a friend, at the distance of fifteen
miles; and, passing a brook where a gentleman was angling, I
inquired if he h ad caught anything. "No, sir," said he, "I have
not been here long; only two hours." I wished him a good morn-

1Vhat to Say.

51

ing, and pursued my journey . On my return in the evening, I
found him fixed to the identical spot where I had left him, and
again inquired if he had had any sport. "Very good, sir," said
he. "Caught agrnat man y fi sl1?" "None at all." "lla<l a great
man y bi tes, though, l sup1mse?" "Not one, but I had a most
glorious uibble." - FHANKLIN.
The <1u est io11 l1 as been much discussed, whether there was any
statesmanship, a11y good se nse, in making the war of 1812 at all.
lt is Lrne L11aL it was rcsolve1l upon without preparation, and that
it was wretche<lly managed. But if war is ever justified, there
was a 1uple provocation for it. The legitimate interests of the
United States had been trampled upon by the belligerent powers,
as if entitled to no respect. The American flag had been treated
with a contempt scarcely conceivable now. The question was
whether the American people should permit themselves not only
to be robbed, and maltreated, and insulted, but also to be despi scll, - al l thi s for !,he privilege of picking up tlte poor crumbs
of trade which the great powers of Europe would still let them
have. ·when a 11ation knowingly aud willing!y ·accepts the contern pt of others, it is in danger of losing also its respect for itself.
Against this the national pride of Young America rose in revolt.
'Vhen i11s uHe<l too grievously, it felt an irresistible impulse to
strike. It struck wildly, to be sure, and received ugly blows in
return . l3ut it proved, after all, that this young democracy could
not be trampled upon with impunity, that it felt an insult as
keenly as older n ations, and that it was capable of risking a fight
with the most formidable power on earth in resenting it. It
proved, too, tl1at this most formidable power might find in the
yo nn g democracy a very uncomfortable antagonist. - Sci-iunz:
H enry Clay, I, 119.
The paragraphs in Exercises 4, 7, and 1fl may be employed for further
practice if 11cctled.

52 /

53

Wliat to Say.

Composition-Bhetoric.

I

\

the lower part of the tower, quite down to its rocky foundations,
and which formerly h ad no entrance but the trap-door above. In
one corner of the chamuer stands a large cage of oaken timber, ·
in whicl1 Lhe royal prisoner is said to have bee n shut up- the
g rosses t lie that ever cheated the gapiog curiosity of a traveller. LONUFELLOW: Outre-mer, 272.

LESSON 11.

The Topic-Sentence.
Writing a letter to a frienu npon some topic of which he
as yet knows nothing, we rnitnrally begin by telli11g him
what it is we are going to write about. For this purpose we
generally use the opening sentence of tlie letter. 'rhus, an
account of a fishiug excursion might beg in, "J am going to
tell you about how I went fishing Saturday," or, "Ln,st
Saturdn,y I went fishing." The writer of rL pn,mgraph often
makes use of a similar <levice. Somewhere in the parngraph, usually at the beginning, he writes a sentence
announcing his theme. Such a sentence is called a topicsentence. In the following selections the topic-sentences
are in ita.lics: On the southern bank of the Danufie, about sixteen miles above
Vienna, stands th e ancient castle <!f C're ~fe nslein, where - if the tale
be trite, though many doiibt, and some deny it- Richard the Lion-heart
of England was imprisoned, when relitrning from the third crusade.

It is built upon the surnmit; ol: a steep aml rocky hill, that rises
just far e11ough from t he river's uri11k to leave a fo0Ll10ld for the
highway. At the uase of the hill stands the village of Greifenstein, from which a winding pathway leads you to the old castle.
You pass through an arched gate into a narrow courtyard, and
thence onward to a large, s<]_uare tower. Near the <loorway, and
deeply cut into the solid rock, upon ·which the castle stands, is
the form of a human hand, so perfect that your own lies in it as
iu a mould. Aud hence the 11ame of Greifenstein. In the square
tower is Richard's prison, completely iRohte(l from the rcHt of the
castle. A wooden staircase lea<ls up on the outside to a light
balcony, running entirely rou11d the tower, not far below its
turrets. From this balcony you enter the prison, - a small, square
chamber, lighted by two Gothic windows. The walls of the tower
are some fi ve feet thick; and in the pavement is a trap-door,
opening into a dismt=til vrmltj - a vast Llu11geo11, whioh ooonpies all

{.

I made a laiighable mistake this morning in giving alms. A man
stood on the shady side of the st reet with liis hat in his ha nd, and
as I passed he gave me a piteous look, though he said nothing.
H e had such a woe-begone face, and such a threadbare coat, that
I at ouce took 11im for one of those mendicants who uear the title
of poveri vergognosi, - bashful beggars; persons whom pinching
want compels to receive the stranger's charity, though pride
restrains them from asking it. Moved with compassion, I threw
iuto the h at the little I had to give; when, instead of thanking
me with a b1cssi11g, my man with the illl'caduarc coa,t showered
upon me the most sonorous lllaledictions 0£ hi s native tongue, and,
emptying his greasy hat upon the pavement, drew it down over
his ears with both han<ls, all(l stalked away with all the dignity of
a Ro111a11 semitor in tlie Lest days of the repuulic, - to the infinite
arnuserne11t of a green-grocer, who stood at his shop-door uursting
with laughter. No time vYaS given me for an apology; uut 1 resol vetl to be for the fntmc more discriminating in m y charities,
and u ot to take for a beggar every poor gentleman: who chose to
stand in the sha<le with his hat in his hand on a hot summer's
day. - LONGFELLOW : Outre-mer, 248.

Although the topic-sentence is most often found at the
very beginning of the paragraph, as in the foregoing illustratiolls, cn,ses not infrequently occur in which a. not indispensabl e pltmse, <>hnso, or oven sentence of introlluctiou
precedes the statement of the topic. A phrase of introduction (in italics) is seen in each of the following: After all, Germany must be a pretty good country. The latest
statistics, giving the percentage of illiteracy, show that out of
QVfiry thou1mnd thaN arn found oHly sixtaan who am uuabla

Gomposition-R,lietoric.

54

55

What to Say.

I

to read satisfactorily or write their names intelligently. - The
Lutheran 1Vorld.

ll may seem alinost incredible to modern ears, but the evidence of
antiqnity seems to point to the fact that football was once played sim-

An exemplary son,
he saw h1s beloved parents grow old in poverty 011 his acco1111t,
and irom a seuse of <luty he abstained from all pleasmes and \listractions; sometimes even asked himself, shudderingly, wheth er
he had not missed his career, and what was to become of him. CoPrEE : The Christmas Betrothal.

ply for amusement. Innocent individuals, as soon as their day's
work was ended, met together to find exercise and relaxation in
kicki11g about a ball. The pastime was a vigorous and healthy
one, and 110 doubt many energetic young townspeople looked forward annually with delight to their Shrovetide football match. Fortnightly R eview, 55 : 25.

Tn t.lw .fru:c <!f tc11.dr?111:ir.s 1171711r.?'m1.lly li<'Nm1.i11,q r/0111-i11011.t, in this
country and which, if not c!tcckerl, will in the end .mlionlinate the ·intelligence, honesty, and industry of the many to the self-iilterest of a
f ew, it is wholesome to pause and recur to the ftmdarnental prin-

J.11 Ll10 following :L w.ltulo so11ttmee of iutruduetion vrece<les the topic-sentence: -

On the whole, his youth was sad enough.

ciples of Jefferson, adherence to which will keep government and
the social order in the control of the judgment of the many, which
in the last analysis is always di sinterested, safe, and sound. L etter of Judg e Gaynor, quoted in Th e Literary Digest, 10: 753.

. Tl1e Puritans espo used the cause of civil liberty mainly because
it was the cause of religion. There was another party, by no .means
numerous, but distinguished by learning and ability, which co-operated with them 011 very different principles . . ·w e speak of those
whom. Cromwell was accustomed to call the Heathens ' men who
were, 111 the phraseology of t hat time, doubting Thomases or careless
Gallios with regard to religious subjects, but passionate worshippers of freedom. Heated by the study of ancient literature the'°
' .
set up their cou11try as their idol, and proposed to themselves the
h eroes of Plutarch as their examples. They seem to have borne
some resemblance to the Brissotines of the French Revolution.
But it is not very easy to draw the line of distinction between
them and their devout associates, whose tone and manner they
sometimes fonud it convenient to affect, and sometimes, it is probable, imperceptibly adopted. - MACA u LAY : Essay on ~Milton.
.

A clause of introduction (in italics) is seen in the followrng : Though his materials are often exotic, in style Southey aimed at
the simplicity and strength of undefiled English. If to these
melody was added, he had attained all he desired. To conversations with vVilliam Taylor about German poetry- certainly not
to Taylor's example - he ascribes his faith in the power of plain
words to express in poetry the highest thoughts and strongest
feelings. He perceived, i11 his own day, the rise of the ornate
style, which has since bee n perfected by T ennyson, and he regarded it as a vice iu art . - DowDEN : Robert Southey.
Whate ver may have been the origin of the new King, he vvas evidently i10t of the rulin g class, t he Popnlus Romanus, and for this
reason his sympathies were naturally with the Plebeians, or, as
they would 11ow be called, the commons. The 1011g reign of Servius was marked by the victories of peace, etc. - GILMAN: The
Story of Rome.

A somewhat longer introduction, of satirical character,
is seen in the following : -

In ,the following, · the topic-sentence is preceded by two
intro<luctory sentences : You of the North have had drawn for you with a master's
hand the picture of your returning armies. Yon have heard how,
in the pomp and circumstance of war, they came back to you,
marching with proud and victorious tread, reading their glory in
a nation's eyes! vVill you hear with me while I tell you of another army that sought its home at the close of the late war - an
army that marched home in defeat and not in victory, in pathos
and not in splendor, but in glory that equaled yours, and to hearts

56

Composition-Ilhetor ie.

as lovin g as ever welco111ed he roes home? Let me pict ure to you
the foot-s ore Confederate so l<li er, as, buttoning up in his faJerl
gray jacket the parole which was tu bear trn;ti111on y to l1i s children of- his fidelity aud faith, lie turu eJ his face so uthward from
Appomattox, in April, 1865- Think of him as, rnggeJ, half-starveJ,
heavy-hearteJ, eufeeuled uy Want allll WO llll tlS, having fo11g ltt to
. .---- exhaustion, he surrenders his gun, wri11gs the hands of his comrad es in silence, and liftin g his tear-stained and pallid face for the
last time to tho graves that; <lot, (,]in ol<l V irgi ni a hills, p11lls ]1is
gray cap over hi s urow a11d begins t he slow and painful journey.
'Vhat docs h o find - let .me a gk yo11 , who w m1L to your l10111 es
ettger to Hn<l in t h e welcome yo u hail justly earned, full pay111eJ1 t
for fonr years' sacrifice - what dues he fi1ul whe n, liavin g followed the l> a ttl e-stai11 etl cross n.gaillst overwhclmillg odds, dreading de.a th not half so much as s urrender, he reaches the home he
left so prosperous and beautiful? H e finds hi s house in r uin s, his
farm devastated, hi s slaves free, lii:;; stock kill ed, lii s barn s empty,
his trade destroyed, his money worthless; his social system, fe udal in its magn ificence, swept away; his people without law or
legal status, his comrades slain, an<l the burdens of others heavy
on his shoulders. Crushed by defeat, his very traditions are gone ;
w ithout money, credit, employment, material, or training; and
beside all this, confronted with t he gravest problem that ever met
human intelligence - the est:tbli shin g of a sta.tus for the vast Lo<ly
of his liberated slaves. - GnADY : Speeches.

. Sometimes, though rarely, the introcluction is so long that
the topic-sentence is clcla.yed until the middle of the p::tra.gmph- The following will illustrate·; the topic-sentence
being here italicized: It has been justly observed th at Shakespeare shows much
judgment in the n a ming of l1is pl ays. From this 0Lsorvatio11 ,
however, several critics, as Gildon and Schl egel, have excepted
the play in hand, pronouncing the title a misnomer, on the ground
that Brutus and not Cresar, is the hero of it. It is indeed true
that Brutus is the h ero ; !levertheless I must insist upon it that
the p lay is rightly narned, inasmuch as Cmsar is not only the subj ect
but also the governing power of it throughout. Ile is the centre

What to Say.

57

and spring-head of the entire action, giving law and shape to
every f;J1 i11g that is said and <lone . This is manifes tly true in what
occurs Lefore his death; and it is true in a still deeper sense afterwards, sillce his ge nius then becomes the Nemesis or retributive
Providence presi<lin g over the wh ole course of t he drama. -HUDSON : I ntroduction to school edition of S hakespeare's J ulius Cmsar .
Notice that t he phrase, clause, or sentence of introduction is frequ cuU y in contrast wiLh the illea of the topic-sentence, or sta.tes a

preliminary concession.
ceding selectio ns.

Point out instances of this in the nine pre-

It now ::wd then happens that the topic-sentei1ce uoes
not appear until the very end of the paragraph is reached.
This case arises when the writer wishes to k eep us in suspense; or when, wishing to prove that somethin g is true,
lie first st:.ttcs his proofs and then draws a conclusion from
them - the conclusion being the topic.
Wh en the supply of anything ~xceeds the demand for it, each
person who wishes to sell the particular thing will be afraid that
his stock of it will be the portion of the supply which the demand
will not reach. He will, therefore, put down his prices in order
to induce buyers l;o take his wares instead of those of his neighbor.
Each seller will do this, consequently general prices will fall. If
there is a demand for nine brooms, and a supply of ten, each
broom-seller will fear that one of his brooms will be left on his
hau<ls- T o prevent tl1is, he will mark down his prices; t herefore,
brooms will be cheaper. Hence, greater production and greater
cheapness gv hand in hand. - LALOH AND MASON : A Primer of Politica~ Economy.
In the following paragraph the topic-sentence, i£ stated first, would
be resented by the reader, as it runs counter to our feelings and prejudices. It is therefore placed last, is delayed until our prejudices
are set at rest by !tearing full justice done to w ·ashington. We are
more easily persuaded by reason of the delay.
'Ve are accustomed to call vVashi11gton the " Father of his
country." It would be useless, if one desired to do so, to di sp ute

58

What to Say.

Composition-Rhetoric.

!tis rigid, to the title. Ile auJ ll O oth er will bear it throngh the
ages. He established our country's freedom with the sword, then
guided its course during the first critical years of its independent
existence. No olle can know th e figure vvithont feeling l1 ow real
is its greatness. 1t is imposs ibl e to see how, without Washington,
the nation could have ever b een. His name is and should be
greatest. But after all is "Father of America" the best title for
'Vashington? 'Vhere and ·w hat was \Vashington during those
lon g prcli111i11ary y(~a rs wl1ilt•. i.11n 11aLi1111 waR Laki11 g fort11 . . . ?
A quiet planter, who in yo uth as a surveyor had come to know the
woods; who in his yonng manliood had led uodies of provincia ls
with some efficiency in certain unsuccessfu l military expeditions;
who in maturity had sat, for the most part in silence, a lll ong his
talking colleagues in the House of Burgesses, with scarcely a suggestion to make in all the sh arp debate, while th e new n ation was
shaping. / There is another cl1arncter in our hi story to whom was
once gi~c n the Litle, "Fat.lier o[ J\ 111 nri ca," - n. Jllan to a large
exte nt forgo LLe11, his rnp11t:tLio11 overbid \,y U1at o[ tliose who
followed him, -no other than this man of t he town-mee ting,
Samuel Ad a ms. As far as the GENES IS of America is concerned,
Samuel Adams can more properly be called the "Fath er of America"
than TVashington. - Ho s~rnR : Samuel Adams.

ous that aristocratic Englishmen must look down upon American
democracy, since they look down, impartially, upon all democracies.
The English livin g in England have a superiority of position over
th e ir ow11 colo nies, and are surprised to learn front 1\fr. Froude
that a 11igh degr ee of civi lization is to be found at the Antipodes.
There are two opposite ways of thinking about the colonies that
give equal aliment to the pride of an Englishman. He may 11ave
somethin g like Mrs .•Jameson's first impression of Canadian society,
as" a Ht11all co1111111111iLy o[ JourLh-rnLc lialf-c(l11c:tLed or uuetlucnted
people, where local politics of the meanest kind engross the men,
and petty gossip a nd household cares the wom en," and in that case
the superiority of England must be incontestable; or he may adopt
the views 0£ Mr. Froude, and then reflect ·what a great thing it is
for England to be the first among the highly-civilized Englishspeaking communities. Ile is, b esides, under 110 necessity to ·cross
the ocean fo r subjects of compariso n. Ile feels himself easily
superior to I.he Scotch autl Irish, and u11Lil rece nt agitations he
had al111ost forgotte n the very existe uce of Lite Welsh. All Scotch
people know that the English, though they visit Scotland to admire
the lochs and enjoy Ilighlantl sports, are as ignorant about what
is essentially national in that country as if it were a foreign land.
Ireland is at least equally foreign to them, or was so before ·the
burning question of Home Rule directed attention to Irish affairs.
This ignorance is not attributable to dulness. It has but one cause,
the pride of national pre-eminence, the pride of being the first amongst
the English-speaking nations of the world. - HA11IERTON: French and
English, 80.

I

In many paragraphs the topic is not only stated at the
beginning of the p::uagntph, Lut is re-stated, iu a uifferent
form, at the close. This is as if one telling a story should
begin, "I am going to reln,te a story of a soldier who saved
an army," and should close, "Such was the act of this brave
soldier." To illustrate: The En,qb:sh hace a motfre for pride which is unknown to th eir
French neighbors. Tlir:y rtre th c Zerr ding nation in a family <~f natfons.1
Th ey feel superi or to Lite J\ lllericans of the United States by
antiqui ty and by priorit.y of civi lization, a11d I-hey believe themselves to be their superiors in culture and in manners. Besides
these differences, which may be more or less imaginary, it is obvi1 Two sentences are used to a1111 011nce t he topi c. They might be combined in one by substituting a colon for tlie full-stop.

59

The topic-sentence is sometimes missing. When this is
the case, we are expected to supply it from the paragraph
for ourselves as we reacl. In the following selections topicsentences have been inserted enclosed in brackets. Note
that the substance of these sentences coulJ. easily be supplieJ. from the paragraph itself at a single reading.
~

[None of the excesses of the F:rench Revolution was experienced
in th e American Revolution.] The great wheel of political revolution began to move in America. Here its rotation was guard ed,
regular and safe. Transferred to the other continent, from un-

60

Uomposition-Rhetoric.

fortunate but n atural ca11ses, it r eceived an irregn.lar :wd violent
impulse; it whirled along wiLh a f.earfol celerity; till at length,
like the chariot w heels in the races of: a11tiq1tity, it took fire from
the rapidity of its own motion, and blazed ouwarJ, spreading
conflagration and terror arou11d. - "\VEnSTER : First Bunker Hill
Oration.

[Dirt improves oil paintings.] I once knew an artist whose
pictures at first were very raw, but they were n eglected and allowed
to get dirty for several years, and then, in orcler to reviv e them,
some pen;on gave them a coat of v:rn1islt. Lal.er on they had to
be cleaned, but the dirt, in this process, got so ingrained in the
handlin g - that is to say, iu the texture of the brnsh marks that a beautiful mellowness 'Na.8 developed ; and they were afterward, 110t mn·easonably, allmiretl, and compared to the works of
Velasquez. -JonN BuETT: Fortn·ightl!J Review, April, 18DG.
[The interest o[ young people in Christian work iR great and
widespread.] Nearly a tl1011sand of l.l11 ) <:11oi<:est and rnm:;t int() llectual yom1g men in the whole )all(l go annually to Northfield and
spend two weeks in Bible study under J\lr. :Moody, and thous:tnds
of others attend the various summer schools for Bible instruction.
The Y.M.C.A., the Brotherhood of St. Andrew, and similar
organizations, the Christian Endeavor societies, Young People's
Unions, and Epworth Leagues number in their ranks other thous:111ds of you11g men wl10 are loyal Lo Clir.ist. Large numbers are
every year being ad<le<l to this goodly compa11y. - Cumberland
Presbyterian .
You are about, sir, to send yo nr son to a public school: Eton
or ·westminster; "\¥inchester or IIanow; llugby or the Charter
House, HO matter which. H e may come from eith er an accomplished scholar to the utmost extent that school edncatiou can
make him so; he may be the better both for its diRcipl inc and its
wa11L uf di Hei pli11 n; iL may servo hirn cxedlu11Lly woll aH a l'"'-~11ara­
tory school for the worl<l into which he is about to enter. But
also he may come away an empty coxcomb or a h a rdened brute a spendthrift- a profligate - a blackguard or a sot. [Whether .
school-life away from home will prove to be morally good or bad
for a boy, cannot be foretold.] - SOUTHEY: The Doctor, chap. IX.

What to Say.

61

A good way to begin a paragraph is to announce the theme on
which you are going to write. The sentence making the announcement is called a topic-sentence.
EXERCISE 19.

Find the topic-sentence of each of the following paragraphs: In the sands of Africa and Arabia the camel is a saorecl and
precious gi [t. That strong and patient beast of burden can perfonn, without eating or drinking, a journey of several clays; and
a reservo ir of fresh water is preserved in a large bag, a fifth stomach of the animal, whose body is imprinted with the marks of
servitude; the larger breed is capable of transporting a weight of
a thousand pounds; and the dromedary, of a lighter and more
active frame, outstrips the fleetest courser in the race. Alive or
dead, almost every part of the camel is serviceable to man; her
milk is pluHtiful and nutritious: the young and temler flesh has
the taste of veal; and the long hair, which falls each year and is
renewed, is coarsely manufactured into the garments, the furniture,
and the tents of the Becloweens. - GrnnoN.
1Vhile other illustrious men have been reputed great for their
excellence in some one department of human genius, it was declared by the concurrent voice of antiquity, that C::csar was excellent in all.
Ile had genius, understanding, memory, taste,
reflection, industry, and exactness. "He was great," repeats a
modern writer, "in everything he undertook; as a captain, a
statesman,· a lawgiver, a jurist, an orator, a poet, an historian, a
grammarian, a mathematician, and an architect." The secret of
his manifold excellence was discovered by Pliny in the unparalleled energy of his intellectual powers, which he could devote
witl1011t cl is traction to several objects at once, or rnsh at any
mome11t from 011e occupation to auoLhcr with the a\Jruptness au<l
rapidity of lightning. Cc.esar could be writing and reading, dictating and listening, all at the same time; he was wont to occupy
four amanuenses at once; and had been known, on occasion, to
employ as many as seven together. And, as if to complete the
picture of the most perfect specimen of human ability, we are

62

What to Say.

Oompo sition-Bhetorie.

assured that in all the exercises of the camp his vigor a nd skill
were not less conspicuous. He fought i1t the most perilous moments in the ranks of the soldiers; lie could manage his charger
without the use of reins; and he saved his life at Alexandria by
his address in th e art of swimming. -1\lEJUVALE: llistory of the
Romans under the Empire.
When men strike, the side which can afford to be idle the longes t
will win. The masters are usually rich euough to live on their
accmnnlated prope rty fol' so111<i Li111n. Tl1 n JlH l ll ol:Lni1 l1avn JJ(>
savings, aJl(l rarely, if eve l', have lal'go 011eH. '1'11<!.Y 1J1ay lwlo 11 g Lo
a trade-union which will s upply them with means of subsistence
for some time, but the small funds of such a society, divided
among a number of me11, cannot go far . The masters must have
the men work in order to have their capit[tl yield them a11ythi11g,
but the men must work in order to live. Jt is plain that tlte masters can, _as a rule, stay idle the longest. - LALOR AND MASON:
A Primer of Political Economy.
The last six years of Lamb's life, thongh tl1e most remarkable
in his literary annals, had not Leen frnitfol in incident. The deaf;li
of his elder brother . . . was the one event that nearly touched his
heart and spirits. Its effect had bee11, with the loss of some other
friends about the same time, to produce, he said, "a certain deadness to everythin g." It had brought home to him his loneliness,
a11d moreover served to i11creaHe a lu11g-fc li; weari110HR o[ Lhc 1110notony of office life. Already, in t he begi1rni11g o[ 1822, he was
telling "\Vordsworth, "I grow ominously tired of ofricial coufiuement. Thirty years have I served the Philistines, and my 11eck
is not subdued to the yoke. You don't know how wearis01ne it is
to breathe the air of four pent walls, without relief, day atter day,
all the golden hours of the day between t en a11d four, without ease
or interposition." -AINGEH: Charles Lamb.
Are the m eH of to-day IJctLcr Llian their fathers were? Tlw
question is not a conundrum, nor does it refer to the virtues and
graces which adon1 life in gene ral, lint is, in frteL, 111 crcly an inquiry whether our young m en can nm faster, jump farther, and
row better t.han those ol former ge nerations. Possibly, after all,
it doesn't matter very much wl1 eth er we can or not, yet it vvould

I

l

63

be some satisfaction to know. If the young men of the clay do
not excel in these things, it will not be for want of opportunity,
nor will the failure arise from the absence of inducements to
practise them. The very latest of these promises to be the most
ambitious. Next year is to see the revival in a Ni11etecnthCcntury dress of t he Olympic games of classic antiquity, and it is
intended thus to inaugurate the international athletic carnival to
be celebrated every fourth year, beginniug with 1896. There is
already an international committee, an international program, and
doul1Ll()HS Lliern will Hhort.ly he an i11ternaLio11al subRcript.ion !il'lt
se nt round to prnvidc for Lhc worthy celeLrntion o[ the event.
Athens, indeed, and not the classic Elis, is to furnish the first
place of meeting, Paris the next, with London, Berlin, and possibly New York to supply the stadium, and swell the entrance
and grand-sf;ancl receipts. Could t11e shades of Pindar and other
Grecian worth ies be consulted it is more than probal>le that they
might object to some of the arrangements: but, after all, a revival
is always a revival with a differellce. The Greece of twenty-three
centuries ago is dead - more dead, if possil>le, than Julius Cresar
- and the attempt to resun·ect it entire, even if Rnccessful, would
probably not be worth the trouble. - Harper's We ekly, Match, 1895.
To the student of political history, and to the English student
above all others, the conversion of the Roman Republic into a
military empire conunands a peculiar i1iterest. N otwithstancling
many differences, the E11glish and the Ronians essentially resen1l>le
one another. The early Romans possessed the faculty of selfgovernment beyond any people of whom we have historical knowledge, with the one exception of ourselves. In virtue of their
temporal freedom, they became the most powerful nation in the
known world; and their liberties perished only when l\ome became
the mistress of the conquered races to whom she was unable or
unwilling to extend her privileges. If England was similarly
supreme, if all rival powers were eclipsed by her or laid under
her feet, the Imperial tendencies, which are as strongly ma.'rked
in us as our love of liberty, might lead us over the same course
to the same end. - Fuo u VE : Cccsar; A Sketch.
"I wish the good old times would come again," she said, "when
we were not quite so rich. I do not mean that I want to be poor,

-64

.What to Say.

Ooniposition-Rhetoric.

but there was a rni<l<llc sf;ate," so she waR plcai:;cd to ramble 0 11 ,
"in wli.ich J am smc we were a great deal happi er. A pnrchase
is lmt a purchase, now that you liave mon ey enough and to spare.
Formerly it used to be a tl'iiunph. When we coveted a cl1eap
luxury (and 0 ! how m nch ado I had to get yon to consent in those
days ! ) we ·were used to have a debate two or three days before,
and to weigh the/in· and o.r;!linst, a11d think wh:tt; we rni g lit spa re
it out of, and what savi ng we could l1it upon that should be an
equivalent. A thing was worth buying then, when we felt the
rno11ey tlti.t t we pai<l for i L." - I ,A ~111 : /~'ss11.71 1111 Old C'hiiut.
For further prn,ctice the paragraphs in Lesson 4, aud in Exercises 4, 7,
aud 18, may be used.
EXERCISE 20.

These paragraphs as originally written had topic-sentences.
ply the omission at the place imlicatcd by dots.

Sup-

Division of Labor.
1. It would be· a waste of labor and time for the farmer, after
having h arvested his ·wheat, to carry it to the mill, grind it himself into flour, take the flour to the cit.y, then bairn it into bread,
and then carry the loaf around in search of a buyer for it. The
farmer knows how to farm and has the needed tools. He does
uot know 11ow to run a mi 11, or a rail roa<l , or a bakery, and ho lias
none of the 11ecessary machinery - - - - - - - -. Jf he
can earn $ 5 by working five days, oue as a miller, one as a carrier,
one as a baker, aud one as a peddler, his labor during the same five
days on the farm would probably be ·w orth two or three times that
sum.
2. Moreover, if he confines himself to farmi11g, he has to buy
only oue set of tools and can keep t hem alm ost constantly in use,
so that his capital does not lie idle. Tf 11e pursued five tra<les,
he would J1avc to have five dilTrrc11t H<!i.8 o[ tools, a11d four sets
. would have to lie idle all the while. Th erefore

Thanksgiving Day.
3. - - - - It is not a day of ecclesiastical
saints . It is not a national anniversary. It is 11ot a clay celebrating

65

a religions event. Tt is a day of natnre. Tt is a day of thanksgiving
for tho year's hi Btory . Auel it must pivot on the household. It
is tlte one great festival of our American life that pivots on the
h ousehold. Like a true Jewish festival it spreads {I. bounteous
table; for the Jews knew how near to the stomach lay all the
moral virtues.
4. - - - - - - It is 11ot a riotous feast. It is a
table piled hi gl1, among the group of rollicki11g young and the sober
:joy of tl1 e old, ·with the treasures of the growing year, accepted
wiL!t rcjoiei11g8 n.11<1 i11terehauge of rnauy festivities as a toke n of
gratitude to A lmighty God.

The 'l'rue Gentleman.
5. - - - - - - - - ? Is it to have lofty aims ; to lead
a pure life; to keep your honor virgin; to have the esteem of
your fellow-citizens and the love of your fireside; to bear good
fortune meekly; to suffer evil with constancy; and through evil
oi: good Lo rnaiutain truth always? Show me the happy man
whose life exhibits these qualities, and him we will salute as
gentleman, whatever his rauk may be.

Whang, the Miller.
,

6. \ \Thang, the miller, was naturally avaricious; nobody loved
money b etter than he, - - - - - - - When people
would talk of a rich man in company, ·whang would say, "I know
him very w ell; he and I are intimate; he stood for a child of
mi11e." But if ever a poor ·man was mentioned, he had not the
least knowledge of th e man; he might be very well for aught he
knew ; but he was not fond of many acquaintances, and loved to
choose his company .
7. - - - - - - - - ; he had nothing but the profits
of his mill to s npport him; bnt thongh tl1ese were small, they
were certain; while hi s mill stood and vvent, lte was sure of eating;
and his frugality was such that he every day laid some money by,
which he would at intervals count and contemplate with much
satisfaction. Yet still his acquisitions were not equal to his
desires; he only found himself above want, whereas he desired to
be possessed of affiuence.

'

-,_·

_

..

66

'---~

-

•

•

...

••

•

-

'

•

"....

,.,/

~

$

J

~

Compos it ion-Rhetoric.

As OLlwrs saw U illl.
8. - - - - ? For 11early .11i11cteen centuries
all Christendom has lamented the bigotry, blillll11ess, and crue.lty
of those who caused or co nscnLcd Lo hi s tlc~ath. "\Vo11lcl it not be
exceedingly interesLi ng t o know just how lie seemed to a learned,
thougl1tful, patriotic, devo ut .Tew o.[ hi s day? A writer, whose
name is withheld, has attelllpLeu to reproduce for us the attitude
and views of suc h a man, in a small book with the above title. It
purporLs to bn writl.011 l>y rL ~cril>e al. t\ le:xa11<lri:i., aho11L (;wc11Lyfive years after Lite Crucifixion. H e was in .Jerm;aleru tluri11g the
public lifo of J es us, and was a member of the Sa11h edri m ·which
delivered him to death. Ile endeavors to represent h ow the :Tews,
of difTcre1d; cl:isses, were impressed wl1011 .Jes us drov e the 111011 eychangers from the Ten1ple, Laught in tl1e syn;1.gog ne af; J erusalem,
tested the rich yo ll11 g man , forgave th e woman taken :in a1lnltery,
baflied hi s questioners, mac.le his trinrnphal entry i11 to the cil;y,
aliei1ate1l t he peop le by hi s rel'11 sal Lo lca1l a rnvolt against. f;h e
Homan power, was examined l>y Ll1n s~Lnhcdri111, co11tlen111ed Ly
Pilate, and crucified. The book is profoundly reverent, is written
with great clearness al1ll li terary charm, and cannot fail to interest
many thoughtful readers.

Restriction o.E lmmigr:Ltion.
. 9. If a servant girl applies for employment in a family we
demand, first of all, a recommendation from her former mistress.
If a clerk is searching for work he carries with him, as the sine
qna non of success, certain letters which vouch for his h01rnsty and
ability. If a skilled workman becomes discontented and throws
up hi s job he has a right to ask of hi s employer au indorsement,
and armed with that he feels secure. - - - - - ·why should we allow the whole riffraff of creation to come here,
either to become a burde n on our charitable in stituLions, or to
lower the wages of our own laborers by a cutthroat competition?
vVe have already lmd too much of t hat sort of thing. lf a foreigner
has not.ified the nearest United States consul of his intention to
emigrate, and the consul, after due examination, h as pronounced
him a proper person, lei; lrim co me, by all 1neans. vVe have room

What to Say.

67

enough for s11ch pcrso.ns. Huf; for irnrnigra11ts who have neither
capital uor shill, who JLever earn ed a lidng in their own country
aml will 11ever earn one here, we have no room whatever. Popular
opinion throughout tl1 e country is running in this direction and
ConnTess
will <lo well to Lake heed.
t>

Caudle-light n,rnl Socia,l>ility.
] O. - - \Van ting it, what savage, unsocial nigh LR .11111st om ancestors l1:wo spent, wintering· in caves and
unillumined fastnesses. They must have lain about and grumbled
at 0118 another in the dark. What repartees could have passed,
,vhen you rn ust have felt about for a sm ile, a nd handled a neighbor's check · Lo be sure I.Ii at l1fl umlerstoo rl it? Th is accounts for
the seriousness of the eluer poetry. Jokes came in with candles.
EXERCISE 21.

These para,grnphs a.re as th ey were originally written. They have
no topic-sentence, and, strictly speaking, do not need one. After
readiug them carefully, frame for each a topic-sentence that will
unite well with the paragraph and that might be printed as part of
the paragraph.
Pyrrhns had n, counsellor named Cii10ns, who asked him how he
wo uhl use hi s victory if he should Le so fortunate as to overcome
the Romans, who were reputed great warriors and conquerors of
many peoples. The Romans overcome, replied the king, no city,
Greek nor barbariau, would dare to oppose me, and I should be
master of all Italy. 'Vell, Italy conquered, what next? Sicily
next would hold out its arms to receive me, Pyrrhus replied . And,
what next? These would be but forerunners of greater ....-ictories.
There are Libya anJ Carthage, said the kiug. Then? Then, continued Pynhu s, I should be able to master all Greece. And then 't
continued Ci neas . Then I woulll live at ease, eat and drink all
day, a.11<l enj oy pleasant conversation. And what hinders you .
from takiu g now the ease that you are planning to take after such
hazards and so much blood-shedding'? Here the conversation
clmied, for Pyrrhus could uot answer this question. - G1L11IAN:
The Story of Rome.
0

68

What to Say.

Composit-ion-Bhetoric.

The Cmsars have perish ed, :t11!l Ll1 cir palaces arn i11 r11.in F1. Tlte
empire of Cl1arleniag11 c has ri sc11, lilrn 0110 of Lliosc gorgeous clou<ls
we often admire, lirillia11t wiLh Lhc radia11ce of the settiJ1g sn11 ;
and, like that; cloud, it has Yatiished forever. Charles V. has
marshalled the armi es of Europe a.round his throne, and has aJmosl;
rivalled the Cresars in the majesty of his sway; n.nd, like a dream,
the vision of his universal empire has fled. -J. S. C. AuBOTT:
History of Christianity; 14.

Is there a penny-post, do you think, in the wo rld to come? Do
people th ere write for autographs to those wl10 have gained a litt;le
notoriety? Do women 1.bcrc snnd lcUers asking for mon ey? J>o
boys persecute litel'ary me n w i Lh req nests for a course of reading?
Are there offices in that sphere which a,re coveted, and to obtain
which men are pestered to write letters of recommendation? Letter of 1Villiam Cullen Bryant.
Do you rem ember the bro wn snit whicl1 yon made to Jiang upon
yon, till all yonr fric11'1H crind slmrnn 11po11 you, iL grnw Ho l,l1rmulbare, :tlHl all becansc of Lh a L folio Hca u111011t; and FlcLchcr, wl1ich
you dragged home late at ni ght from Barker's in Covent Garden?
Do you remember how we eyed it for weeks before we could make
up our minds to the purchase, and had not come to a determination till it was near ten o'clock of the Saturday night, when yo u
set off from Islington fearing yo n should be too late - and when
the ol~ bo~lrne lle r, with some g rumlili11 g, ope ned liis shop, and by
the twrnklrng taper (for he was setting bedwards), li g hted out the
relic from his dusty treas ures, and ,vlten you lugged it hom e, wishing it were twice as cumliersome, n.nd when you presented it to
me, and w l.1en we were exploring the pei:fectuess of it (collating,
you called it), and while I was repairing some of the loose leaves
with paste, which your impatience would not suffer to be left till
daybreak - was there no pleasure in being a poor man ? or can
' those neat hlack clothes whir.It yo11 wear now, and arc so cn.rcfol
to keep l1rushcd, since we have bcco 111c rich a11d 11nica.l, give you
half the hones t vanity with which you ffaunted it about in that
over-·worn suit-your old corbeau - for fonr or five weeks longer
than yon should have don e, to pn.cify yonr conscience for the
mighty sum of fifteen or sixtee n shillings, was it? - a great affair
you thought it then - which you had lavished 011 the old folio'!

69

Now you can afford to buy auy book that pleases you, but I do
not sec that you ever bring 1110 homo any nice old purchases
now. - LAMB: Essay on Old Ch'ina.
The first p:iragr:iph in Lesson 3 and the paragraphs in Exercise 2 will
furni sh furth er practice if needed.

EXERCISE 22.

On one of the following themes write a single, complete paragraph
of about 120 words. The topic-sentence arnl some of the points about
which you might speak are suggested by questions in connection with
each theme.

Useful Books.
Topic-sentence : Are all books useful? Is there need of discrimination? Books to avoid, and books to choose. ·what is the
chic[ nse of hiography? books of travel? history? speeches? stories'? poe111g? .Before rca!ling a hook, one should ask Lhe advice of
those who know what is \Jest Lo read.

Bryant's To a Waterfowl.
Topic-sentence : Bryant a poet of Nature ; in this poem he reflects on a water-fowl flyin g high in the heavens. "What time of
day is it? What question does the poet ask of the bird? Is it
lost and uncared for? "Where is the water-fowl probably going?
What joys await it? 'Vhat lesson does the poet learn?

Setting the Table.
Topic-sentence : Is this an easy or unimportant task? 'Vhat
most is required? What is done first? In what order are the
things put on? In what condition should they be? How arra11g-e1l? Finishing touches. Does the appearance of the table
affect Llte enjoyment of the meal?

Longfellow's P egasus in Pound.
Topic-sentence: On ·what legend has Longfellow based this
poem? Give the story as Longfellow gives it. Does the treat-

70

lVhat to Say.

Composition-llheto'l'ic.

meut gi ve n P egas us sugges t the treatment which the worJJ has
accorded to its hi ghest poets? Name a11 example or two. ]fas
ill-treatment repressed geuius? Ilow was it with P egasus? ·what
returns <lid he make?

71

country ? Usnal exercises. vVhat trees were planted by the
school last .Arbor Day? How have they thrived? Interest in
th em. Their future usefulness.

'fl1c Use of Slang.
vVashing the Children.
Topic-sentence: Care of a mother-cat for her kitten s. "\Vhat
does she do first when setting about washing them? Does she
have any particular time or plar,c for it? Tlow docs slm clo it?
l>oes 8hc li11i Hl 1 011() IJdore lH•gi1111i11 g :l.ll()Llinr 't \Vlial, i r Olll~ 1'1111 8
away while the others are bei11g washed? vVhat if a rui schievo ns
kitten t ries to interfere with the work? Does the mother-cat
seem to work intelligently?

Topic·sentence : Very common, very convenient sometimes, but
harmful to the user's language resources. The habitual user of a
slang phrase employs it in many meanings. Illustrate by taking
011 c Rlrtng phrn.Re anrl en um erating all its rlifferent meanings and
applie:1Uo11 s. fo sLeaJ. of usiug Lhcse 11u111erous expressions nrnl
thus adding to his vocabulary, the user of this slang phrase has
but one expression for all of them. His language growth stops.
Slang is fatal to acquiring a large stock of words.

vVatching Street :M usicians.
Topic-sentence: Pleas ure a nd interest in vvatchin g· street musicians. 'When do th ey Lcgin to appear? Usually of wh a t nationali ty? DescriLe a small gronp of t hem. How <lo t.he memLcrs
of the group differ from one another, in age, r esponsibility, interes t? Apparent -return s for their efforts. "\Yhat has probably been
their past history? ' 'V hat stories have you hear<l a Lout them?

The Dandelion.
Topic-sentence : A comm on yet beautiful flower. vVhen does
it appear? Speed of rn atu riu g . A ppearancc when matmed.
P leas ure to children . Use as food . Is it rightfully regartled as a
nuisance in lawns?

An Old llridge.
Topic-se ntence: Always pictmesque; a favorite subj ect with
painte rs.
The p ar ticular liritl ge in lllillll is wh ere located?
About how old? Covered ? Color? llow does it appear to one
looki11g Lliro11gh? A rcl"11 g<! i11 sLu rn1:-; ? Crack:-; in Lir e fl oor?
A11y windows'/. l s it used now '? Colllpare with a modern bridge.

Arbor Day.
Topic-sentence: A new holiday. Its purposes, practical, sentimental, educational. 'Vl1cn a11t1 wl1 crc first csL<tbLishcd in this

EXERCISE 23.

On one of the following themes write a single, complete paragraph of about 120 words. Begin with a topic-sentence in w~ich
you ann ounce your theme. After writing, shorten th e theme mto
a title, more attractive, if possible, than the one h ere given.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

8.
0.

10.

11.

The value of learning to swim.
Lawn-tennis as a sport of skill.
One cause of the Mexican War.
The trials of a newsboy.
The wedding in Longfellow's Miles Standish.
The r elation of forests to rainfall.
A field of icorn compared to an army with banners.
The Happy Valley in Johnson's Rasselas.
Comtesy in the school-room.
The Lest tree to plant for shade.
Impressions from a visit to a lawyer's office.
'rhe most admirable trait of General Grant's char-

12.
acter.
13. The principal reason why strikes are inexpedient.
14. The story of Byron's Prisoner of Chillon.
15. The most interesting of the monthly magazines.

72
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.

Compositivn-llhetori<J.
One use of strn1ying science explained.
Where do all the pins go'?
The literary society as a school of parliamentary law.
The obstinacy of a fountain pen.
Th e extent of Bayard Taylor's travels.

What to Say.

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LESSON 12.

I-low Paragraphs Grow - Repetition.
The theme has bee1~ likened to a seed from which, by a
natural process of growth, the paragraph develops. vVe
shall now consider the various ways in which this development may tak e place. For convenience we shall confine
our study for the present to the type of paragraph in which
the theme is announced in a topic-sentence.
1. A tree is an underground creature, with its tail in the au.
2. All its intelligence is in its roots. 3. All the senses it has are
in its roots. 4. Think what sagacity it shows in its search after
food and drink! 5. Somehow or other, the rootlets, which are
its tentacles, find out that tl1ere is a brook at a moderate distance
from the trunk of the tree, a11<1 they make for it with all their
might. G. They find every crack i11 the rocks where th ere are ~i
few grains of the nourishing substaucc they care for, and insinuate
themselves into its deepest recesses. 7. When spring and summer
come, they let their tail s grow, and delight in whisking them
about in the wind, or letti11g them be whisked about bv it· for
'
these tails are poor passive thiugs, with very little will " of their
own, and bend in whatever direction the ·wind chooses to make
them. 8. The leaves make a deal of noise whispering. 9. I have
sometimes thought I could understand them, as thev talk with
each other, and that they scellled to thi11k they matle the wind
as they wagged forward and back. 10. Hemember what I say.
11. The next time you see a tree waving in the wind, recollect
that it is the tail of a great underground, many-armed, polypus-like

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cre~iture, which is as proud of its caudal appendage, especially in
snmmer-timc, as a peacock of his gorgeous expanse of plumage.1-IoLllrns : Over the Teacups, 212.

In the foregoing paragraph the theme is announced in
the first two sentences: "A tree is an underground creature with its tail in the air and all its intelligence in its
roots." Notice how this idea is developed. In sentence 3,
thn Wl"iter R:tys over n,gn,in, in slightly different words, what
he has said in sentence 2: "All the senses it has (that is,
all its intelligence) are in its roots." In like manner in
sentence 4 h e says over again what he has said in sentences
2 and 3: "Think what sagacity (that is, what intelligence,
what sense) it shows in its search after food and drink"
(that is, in its roots) . . Just so sentences 7-9 are a k.ind .of
repetition of the idea, "An underground creature with its
tail in the air," and sentence 11 repeats in expanded form
the ideas of sentences 1 and 2.
1. "Disorders of intellect," answered Imlac, "happen much more
often than superficial observers will easily believe. 2. Perhaps, if
we speak with rigorous exactness, no human mind is in . its '1:ight
state. 3. There is no man whose imagination does not sometunes
predomi1rnte over his reason, who can regulate his att~ntion wholly
by his will, and whose ideas will come and go at Ins command.
4. No man will be found in whose mind airy notions do not
sometimes tyrannize, and force him to hope or fear beyond tl:e
limits of sober probability. 5. All power of fancy over reason is
a degree of insanity; but while this power is such a~ we can control and repress, it is not visible to others, nor considered as any
depravation of the mental faculties: it is not pronounced. madness,
but when it becomes ungovernable and apparently mfluences
speech or actio1i." - ,JoHNSON: Rasselas, ·chap. XLIV.

In the preceding paragraph the theme-idea of senten~e
1 is repeated in sentence 2 in the boltler and mo~e em~hatlc
words, "no human mind," etc. Sentence 3 retams tlns em-

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Coniposition-Rhetoric.

rVhat to Say.

phatic repetition iu the words, "no man," and repeats the
idea of "disorders of intellect " in the three phases of
mental disonler mentioned iu the three clauses of the sent ence. Sentence 4 again repeats "no man," and repeats tlw
idea of" disortlers of iutell ect" in the wonls "airy notions,"
etc., "boyornl tho liu1its," etc. Iu sc11tc11 cc G the fir st
assertion is again a r epetition of sentence 1 ; and the remainder of the paragraph is occupied with a necessary
expla11atio11.

of the topic-sentence. In each case determine whether the
repetition is or is not of a kind to make the thought grow.
If it is, point out the new element of thought which the
repetition all<ls to the thonght of the topic-sentence. Does
the thought thus repeated grow broader, or more definite, or
more emplrntic ?
Not all of the sentences of these paragraphs are sentences
of repetition; it is seldom that a topic-sentence is developed
by repetitious :iloae. 'l'he uses of the other sentences will
appear in subsequent lessons.

1. The bicycle is, in fact, the agent of health and of a wider
2. It will give stro nger bodies to the rising generation than th eir fathers 11ave lirtll, a11<l it will bring the city aml the
country into closer relations than h:we existed since the days of
the stage-coach. 3. " That th e smnrn er boarder h as been doing
for the abandoned farms and <leserted villages of New England,
the wheelman is <loi11 g for the region::; s111To111Hli11g our grP.at cit;ies.
4. Ile is di stributi11 g through tl1e1tL mollern ideas and rn o<lern ways
of living, and is fructifying them with ge ntle distillations of city
wealth. 5. Above all, he is teaching their people that a. sure way
to prosperity lies befoi·e them in the LeauLifyi11g of 1,he country in
which they live, and in the preservati on of all its attractive natural
features. - Ce ntury 1V.lagazine, GO: 475.

[Topic J 1. Nihilism, so far as one can find out, expresses rather
a method, or ·a meaus, than au en<l. 2. It is difficult to say just
what Nihilism does imply. 3. So much appears reasonably certain-that the primary object of the Nihilists 1s destruction; that
th e abolition of the existing order, not the construction of a new
order, is in their view; that, whatever their ulterior designs, or
whether or no they have any ultimate purpose in which they are
all or generally agreed, the one objec t which now draws and holds
them together, in spite of all the terrors of arbitrary power, is the
aLolition, 11ot only of all existing governments, but of all political
estates, all institutions, all privileges, all forms of authority; and
that to this is postponed whatever plans, purposes, or wishes the
confederation, or its memLers individually, may cherish concerning
the reorganization of society. - FRANCIS A. vV ALl(Eit: Socialism.

civifo~ation.

In the foregoing paragraph, the idea that the bicycle is
the agent of h ealth is repeated in the first half of the second sentence. 'rlrn idea that the bicycle is the agent of a
wider civilization is r epea,tcd in the second half of the second sentence and in each succeeding sentence. Show by
what groups of words.
Th ese illustrations will serve to show tliat one method of
building up a paragraph is to repeat some of the ideas of the topiosentence, at each repetition giving some new turn to the thought.
EXERCISE 24.

In the follffwing paragraphs find the sentences or parts
of sentences which r epeat in whole or in par t the thought

75

...

[TopicJ 1. From a child I Wafit fond of reading, and all the
little money that came into my h ands was ever laid out in books.
2. Pleased with the Pilgrim's Progress, my first collection was of
John Bunyan's works, in separate little volumes. 3. I afterwards
sold them to enable me to buy R. Burton's Historical Collections;
they were small chapmen's books, an<l clieap, forty or fifty in all.
4. My father's little library consisted chiefly of books in polemic
diviuity, most of which I read, aud have since often regretted that,
at a time when I had such a thirst for knowledge, more proper
books ha<l not fallen in my way, since it was now resolved I should
not be a clergyman. 5. Plutarch's Lives there was, in which I read
abundantly, and I still think th at time spent to great advantage.
G. There was also a book of De Foe's, called An Essay on Projects,

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Composition-Rhetoric.

an<l a110U1er of Dr. Mather's, ca ll c'l Essays Lo ,10 Goocl, vvl 1i cli pcrl1 aps gave me a tum of tlii11ki11g i.liat; Jia<l a11 i11flt1ellce on s01 11 e
of the priucipal future events of 111y lifo. - FRANKLIN: A utobiography.

1. All the triumphs of truth and genius over prejudi ce :m<l
power, in every country and in every age, have been tl1e triumphs
of Athens. 2. ·wherever a few great minds have ma<le a stand
agai11st violence a11<l frau<l in t he cause of liberty aml reason, there
l1 :is hceu her sp irit in t,l1 c mid st o[ 1.l1cm: iw-:piri11g, e 11 eo11ragi llg,
consoling;- Ly the lonely lamp of Erasrnus; by the restless bed
of Pascal; in t he tribune of Mirabeau; in the cell of Galileo ; 0 11
the scaffold of Sidney. [Topic] 3. Dut who shall estimate lier
influence on private happiness? 4. \Vho shall say how many thousands have been made wiser, happier, and better, by those pmsuits
in which she has taught mankind to engage; to how many the
studies that took their rise from her h ave been wealth in poverty,
- liberty in bondage, - health in sick ness, - society in solitude?
5. Iler power is indeed manifeste<l at the bar, in the senate, in
the fiel<l of battle, in t he schools of philosophy. 6. But these are
not her glory. 7. \ Vherever li terature co nsoles sorrow, or assuages
pain -wherever it Lrings gladu ess to eyes which fail with wakefulness aud tears, and ach e for t he dark house and the long sleep,
- there is exhibited in its noblest form the immortal influence of
Athens. - l\IACA ULA Y : Athenian Orators.

[Topic] l. The honorable member complained that I had slept
on his speech. 2. I must ha~ slept on it, or not slept at all.
3. The moment the honorable member sat <lown, his frien<l from
l\lissouri r ose, and, with much honeyed commendation of the
speech, suggested that the impressio11s wl1ich it had protl11ced were
too charming an<l <lelightful to be <listnrbe<l by other sentiments,
or other soumls, and propose<l that the Senate should adjourn.
4. \Voul<l it h ave been <]_uite a rniahle i11 me, Sir, to interrupt this
excellent goo<l feeling'? G. J\l ust I ll ot have been absolutely
nrnlicious, if I could have thrust rnysel£ forwar<l to destroy sensat ions thus pleasing? G. \Vas it 11ot much Letter and kiu<ler, both
to sleep upon them myself, aml to allow others also the pleasure
of sleeping upon them? 7. But if it be meaut, by sleeping upon
his speech, that I took time to prepare a reply to it, it is quite a

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mi stake. 8. Owing to other e11gagerne1Jts, I could not employ
eve n the in terval between the a<ljournment of the Senate and its
meeting the next morniug in attention to the subject of this
<lehate. U. Nevertheless, Sir, the mere matter of fact is undoubtedly true. 10. I <li<l sleep on the gentleman's speech, and slept
soundly. 11. And I slept equally well on his speech of yesterd ay,
to which I am now replying. 12. It is quite possible that in this
respect, also, I possess some advantage over the honorable member,
attrilrntahle, clonbtless, to a cooler temperament on my pn,rt; for,
in trnth, l slept upon his speeches remarkably well. - \VEllSTER:
R eply to Hayne.

[Top ic] 1. But the gentleman inquires why he was made the
object of such a reply? 2. \Vhy was he singled out? 3. If an
attack h as been made on the East, he, he assures us, <lid not begin
it; it was made by the gentleman from Missouri. 4. Sir, I answered the ge ntleman's speech because I happened to hear it;
an<l because, also, I chose to give an answer to that speech, which,
if unanswered, I thought most likely to produce injurious impressions. 5. I did not stop to inquire who was the original drawer
of t he bi 11. fi. I found a responsible inclorser before me, and it
was my purpose to l1 old h im li able, and to bring him to his just
responsibility without delay. - \ VEBSTER : Reply to Hayne.
[TopicJ 1. Mountains are to the rest of the body of the earth
what violent muscular action is to the body of man. 2. The
muscles and tendons of its anatomy are, in the mountain, brought
out with fierce and co nvulsive energy, full of expression, passion,
and strength; the plains an d the lower hills are the repose and
the effortless motion of the frame, when its muscles lie dormant
and concealed be11eath the lines of its beauty, yet rulin g those
lin es in their every undulation. 3. This, then, is the first gran d
principle of the truth of the earth. 4. The spirit of the hills is
action; that of the lowlands, repose; and between these there
is to be foun<l every variety of rnot"ion and of rest ; from the inactive plain, sleeping like the :firmament, with cities for stars, to the
fiery peaks, which, with heavin g bosoms and exulting limbs, with
tl1 e clouds <lrifti11g like hair from their bright foreheads, lift up
their Titan hands to Heaven, saying, "I live forever!" - RusKIN :
}.;fodern Painters, Vol. I, pt. ii, sec. iv, chap. i.

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-Oomposition-Bhetoric.

[Topic] 1. Nor must I forget the suddenly changing seasons of
the Northern clime. 2. There is i10 long au cl li11gcri ng spring,
unfolding leaf and blossom one by oue; no long and lingeriug
autumn, pompous with many-colored leaves and the glow of Indian
summers. 3. nut winter and snmmer are wonderful, and pass
into each other. 4. The qnail has hanlly ceased piping in the
corn, when winter from the folds of trailing clouds sows broadcast
over the land snow, icicles, and rattling hail. 5~ The days wane
apace. 6. Erelong the sun hardly rises above the horizon, or does
not rise at all. 7. The moon and the stars sl1ine through the day;
only, at noon, they are pale and wan, and in the souLhern sky a
red, fiery glow as of sunset bnnrn a.long the horizon and then goes
out. 8. And pleasantly uuder the silver moon, aml tu1de1· the
silent, solemn stars, ring the steel shoes of the skaters on the frozen
sea, and voices, and the sound of Lells. -LONGFELLOW ·: 1Vote to
T!te Children of the Lord's Sttpper.

1. The troops were now to be disbanded. 2. Fifty thousand
men, accustomed to the profession of armR, were at once U1rown
on the :world; and experieuce scc1ncd Lo warrant the Le.die£ that
this change would produce much misery and crime, that the discharged veterans would be seen begging in every street, or would
be driven by hunger to pillage. [TopicJ 3. nut no such result
followed. 4. In a few months there remained not a trace indicating that the most formidable army in the world had just been
absorbed into the mass of the community. 5. The Royalists
themselves confessed that in every department of honest iudnstry,
the discarded warriors prospered beyond other men; that none
was charged with any theft or robbery; that none "vas heard to
ask an alms; a11d that,, if a baker, a mason, or a waggoner attracted notice by his diligence and sobriety, he was in all probability one of Oliver's old soldiers. --'-MACAULAY: History of England, I, chap. ii.
Further practice, i[ needed, may· he given on the paragravhs quoted in
Exercises 7, 18, aml 1!J.

EXERCISE 25.

Develop each of the following topic-sentences into a brief paragraph by repetition of the idea. ltemember that in the repetition

1Vliat to Say.

79

it is not enough to put one word in place of another. There must
be not only a change of wonls but a growth of ideas. ·with each
sentence the thought should become larger, or more definite, or
more emphatic. If the repetition does not immediately suggest
itself, the i1se of such phrases as" in other words,'' "to speak more
plainly," "Lo put the maLter more Lriefly (precisely, definitely,
concretely, specifically, forcibly)," will sometimes start the train
of thought.
'i

1. It requires sustained effort to make a good writer.
2. In stating his reasons, he never jumpeu at couclu- ·
SlOIJS.

3. Fashions in dress are forever changing.
4. The play As Yon Lilce It has no hero.
v. City governments in America need reforming.
6. There are books and books.
7. Emerson says, "The boy is a Greek; the youth,
ro11mntic; the adult, reflective."
8. Physical training should. be compulsory in schools.
9. There will always be need of charity in the world.
10. A good partisan is not always a good citizen.
11. The " good old times ',' were not all that some people
think.
12. The world does not "owe every one a living."

LESSON 13.

I-low Paragraphs Grow- Particitlars and Detcdls.
When at the beginning of a paragraph we find a topicsentence like this, "Every traveller going south from St.
Louis ca,11 rceall the average Arlrnnsas village in winter,"
we can readily guess what the writer will say next. vVe
know, at any rate, what we want him to . say. vVe want
more information about the Arkansas village. vVe want to
know something about its houses, its streets, its surround-

80

Oomposition-.lllwtoric.

Wliat to Say.

ings, its inha?itants. vVe wnnl; an1l 1vo cxpoct the parti culars aucl details of t he scene which will enabl e us to see it
as the . writer saw it, or as the traveller is snpposed to
recall it.. One way, then, in which a parngr::tph-theme
~1,1ay grow i~1to a _pat:agrn,ph is by the atMitioH of p:nti cnbrs.
Ihe folluwrng will illustrnte this method of growth:_
[Topic] Every traveller goin g south from St. Louis can recall
th~ average Arkansas vii I age in winter. [Particul a rs] J,il;t;le
sLr111gs o[ l1011sm; Rprcatl r:i.ggc<lly 1111 hotlt sides of Lite rails.
A few wee shop~, that ai.·e likely to have a. mock rectangle of
fac;ade stuck agarnst a tnangle of roof, in the m ann er of cliil~i:en 's.. card .J~ou~es, parad: a dr~ggl ed stock of habe rdash ery and
g1 oceu es:
1 o n g h t or left a null buzzes, its 11 ewness attested by
the raw trn ts of the weather boardi11g. There is 110 horizon. t here
seldom is a horizon in Arkansas, - it is cut off by the 'forest.
Pools of water reflect the straight black lines of tree trunks an<l
the crookecl l_ines of bare bougl1s, while a muclcly road winds
~hrough. the vISta. Ge11erally there are a few lean cattle to stare
m a deJected fashiou a t the trail1, anti some fat black s~ine to
ro?t among the sodden grasses. B ales of cotton ai·e piled on the
~·a1h~ay platform, and serve as seats for h alf a dozen listless men
rn high boots. and soft hats. Occas io11ally a woman, who li as
not ~iad t~1e tune to brnsh lier J1air, calls shrilly to some child
wl10 is tryrn g to have pneumonia by s itting on the grou ncl. No
one seems to l~ ave a nythin g to do, yet eve ryone looks tired, ancl
th e passenger rn the Pullm an wonclers l1 ow people live in " such
a hole." -OCTAVE THANET.

?-'o develop the idea "average J\ rkansas village in winter " the
wnter has selected th e partic.nlars that strike the eye of the traveller,_
the houses, the shops, the mill, the surroundillg country the men and
~m~
,
. I~ th~ following selection the writer gives full details concerning
his uuagmary possessions in Spain. The paragraphs after the first
are made up solely of particulars.
[Top ic] It is not easy for rn e to say how I know so much. as
I certainly do, abo ut my castles in Spain. [Details] The sun

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81

always shines upon them. They stand lofty and fair in a lumin ous, go lclen atmosp here, a li ttle hazy and dreamy, perh aps, like
the Indian s ummer, but in which no gales blow and there are no
tempests. All the sublime mountains, and beautiful valleys, and
:;;oft la ndscape, that 1 11ave n ot yet seen, are to be found in t he
grou nds. Th ey co rnm aud a uoL le view of the Alps; so fin e,
indeed, th at I should be q'uite co ntent with the prospect of them
from the hig hes t tower of my castle, and not care to go to
Switzerland.
The Jll~ i g lth ori11g rnin s, too ~ n.re as picturesque as those of
Italy, an cl m y clesire of stanclillg in tlie Coliseum, an<l of seeing
the shattered arches of the Aqueducts stretching along the Campagna and melting into the Alban Mou nt, is entir~ly quenched.
Th e rich gloom of my orange groves is gilded by fruit as brilliant
of complexion ancl exquisite of flavor as any that ever dark-eyed
Sorrento girls, lookin g over the high plastered walls of south ern
Italy, hand to the youthful travellers, climbing on donkeys up the
narrow lan e b eneath.
The Nile flows through my grounds. The desert lies upon their ·
edge, and Damascus stands in my garden. I am given to understand, also, tha.t the Parthenon has been removed to my Spanish
possess ions. The Golden-Horn is my fish-preserve; my flocks of
golden sheep are pastured on the plains of Marathon, and the
honey of Ilymettus is distilled from the flowers that grow in the
vale of Enna- all in my Spanish domains.
:From the wmdows of those castles look beautiful women whom
I have neve r seen, whose portraits the poets have painted. They
wait for me there, and chiefly the fair-haired child, lost to m y eyes
so long ago, now bloomed into an impossible b eauty. The lights
that neve r shone, glance at eve nin g in the vaulted halls, upon banquets that were n ever spread . The bands I have never collected,
play all night lon g, and ench an t the brilliant company, that was
never asse mbled, into silence. - Cunns: Prue and I , 36, 3.7 .
In the following paragraph from Irving, the idea to be developed
is found in the third sentence: "It was one of those rich morsels of
quaint antiquity which give such a peculiar charm to English landscape." Th en follow the d et~iils of the church, -the ancient monuments, the stained windows, the tombs.

86

Composition-Rhetoric.

What to Say.

87

OVfll' us 111 tl1 c clear green of tlin sky, a lira.cc o.C wil1l-d11clrn go
swiftly pn.st. A wea:;el gli<lcs 011L a11<l over the grny sto nes hy Lite
roa<lsi<le; a11<l farther along the ba11k there are young rabbits
watching, an<l trotting, and watching again, as the phaeton gets
nearer to them. And then as the deep rose-purple of the easte rn
hills fades away, an<l all the <lark-green valley of the Tweed lies
under the cold silver-gray of the twilight, we reach a small and
solita1·y inn, and are almost surprised to hear once more the sound
of a human voice. -BLACK : A d ventures of a PltaiJton .

!>. 't'hn 1110rnrng pa.per Lrings the news of a tenible
accident.
10. ·w ashington's journey to his first inauguration was a
triumph.
11. There is an old deserted mill a few miles up the river.
12. The portrait of Daniel vVebster shows that he was a
man of great firmness and determination.

A second method of expanding a topic-sentence into a para.graph
is to add sentences containing particulars and details. The particulars should be such as are naturally called for by the topicsentence. They may be particulars which staml side by side in
space, or partieulars which follow one after another in order of
time.

LESSON 14.

EXElWISE 26.

The following topic-sentences are to be developed by g1vrng
particulars. Determine in each case whether the particulars called
for are side by side in space, or succeed one anoth er in time. The
employment of such phrases as " to go into particulars," "to mention details,'' will sometimes be found useful in starting the train
of thought.

1. The village presented a lively appearance the morning of the election.
2. I shall never forget my first day a,t school.
3. 'I'he court-room wa,s a dingy place.
4. The last game of Lall wa,s tho Les t of the sea.son.
5. I once saw or thought l Rn,w :L glim;!;.
6. Have you ever watched the effeets of moonlight upon
clouds?
7. A new boy h as come into our school.
8. ·what a beautiful character Longfellow has created for
us in Evangeline!

Ifow Paragraphs Grow - Specijic Instances or Examples.
Suppose a writer to have begun a paragraph with a general statement like the following: "The sounds which the
occ:m rnakcs nrnRt he vc~ ry sig11il'i.ca,11t a.ml i11tcrosti11g to
those who liv e uuar it." He lll~LY now proceed to uevelop
this idea by the method of the preceding lesson : he may
give pa,rticula,rs about the various sounds, he may state
what the sounds are and give their significance in detail.
But there is another way by which he may amplify his
theme. Instea.d of t elling us about all the sounds, h e may,
if h e chooses, tell about a single one; that is, h e ma.y give
an example or specific instance of a sound. Upon this
instance h e may dwell throughout the course of the paragraph. The following will illustrate this moue of development: [Topic] The sounds which the ocean makes must be very significant and interesting to those who live near it. [Specific instance] "Vlten I was leaving the shore at this place the next
summer, and h a<l got a quarter of a mile distant, ascending a hill,
I was startled by a sucl<len, lou<l sound from the sea, as if a large
steamer were letting off steam by the shore, so that I caught my
breath and felt my blood run cold for an insta11t, and I turned
about, expecting to see 011e of the Atlantic steamers thus far out
of her course; but there was nothing unusual to be seen. There

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Composit·ion-Rhetoric.

was a low l1a11k at. Liu) en!;rauce o[ Lite .l lollow, l1etw<~e11 J1w a111l
the ocea11, and s uspecting that I might have risen illto another
stratum of air in ascending the hill, -which had wafted to me
only the ordinary roar of the sea, - T inunedia.tely descended
again, to sec if I lost hearing of i(; ; h11L, wiLho11L regard to rny
ascending or descendiug, it died away in a minute or two, and yet
there was scarcely any wind all U1 0 while. The old mau said that
this was what they called the "rut," a peculiar ro;u· of the sea
before the wind clrnllges, whicl1, l1ow cvcr, he could not acco 1111t
for. Ile Lho11gliL Ll1aL lw co11ltl tell all alio11t Llto wcat.l1er fru111 Lite
sounds which the sea made. - THOimAu: Cape Cod.
[Topic J Dr. W atts's statement that "birds in their little nests
agree," like too many others intend ed to form the infant mind, is
very far from being true. On tl1e contrary, the most peaceful
relation of the different species to each other is that of armed
neutrality. They are very jealous of neighbors. [ Specific instance] A few years ago, I was mnch i11terestc<l in the housebuilding of a pair of sum mer yello"w-birds. They had chosen a
very pretty site near the top of a white lilac, within easy eyeshot of a cham her window. A very pleasant thing it was to see
their little home growing with mutual h elp, to watch their industrious skill interrupted only by little flirts and snatches of endearment, fru gally cut short hy tl1c commo11-Rc11se of tl1e ti11y
housewife. TJ1ey had lirought tlteir work nearly to an eml, and
had already beg un to li11e it witl1 forn-<low11, Lhe gatl1eriug uI
which demanded more distant jour.n eys aud 1011ger absences. But,
alas! the syringa, immemorial manor of the catbirds, was not
more than tw enty feet away, and these "giddy 11eigh born" 11ad,
as it appeared, been all along jealonsly ·w atchful, though silent,
·witnesses of what they <leemed a n intrusio n of squatters. No
sooner were the prett.y mates fairly gone for a uew load of lining,
than
"To their 1111gnardcd 11cRt tl1csc weasel Scot.fl
Came stealing."

Silently they flew back and forth, each gwrng a vengeful dab at
the nest in passing. They did 110t fall-to and deliberately destroy
it, for they might have been caught at their mischief. As it was,
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What to Say.

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in their ow11 sight-proof. bush. Several times their unconscious
victims repaired damages, but at length, after counsel taken togetlier, they gave it up. Perhaps, like other unlettered folk, they
came to the conclusion that the Devil was in it, and yielded to
the invisible persecuLio11s of witchcraft.~ LOWELL: My Garden
A cquainlance.
[Topic J There has been a capital illustration lately how helpless many English gentlemen are when called together on a sudden.
The Govcrn111c11!,, righLly or wrongly, thought fit to entrust tho
quarter-sessions of each county with the duty of combating its
cattle plagne; but the scene in most "shire halls" was unsatisfactory. There was the greatest difficulty in getting, not only a
right decision, but any decision. [Specific instance] I saw one
myself which went thus. The chairman proposed a very complex
resolution in which there was much which every one liked, and
' every one disliked, though, of course, the favonte
much which
parts of some were the objectionable parts to others. This resolution got, so to say, wedged in the meeting; everybody suggested
amendments; one amendment was carried which none were satisfied with, and so the matter stood over. It is a saying in England,
" a big meeting never does anything " ; and yet we are governed
by the House of Commons, - by "a big meeting." - BAGEHOT:
Th e English Constitution, 207.
Sometimes the writer will choose to give a number of instances, as
in the three selections following: [Topic] All history is full of revolutions, produced by causes
similar to those which are now [March 2, 1831] operating in E11gland. A portion of the community which had been of no account,
expands and becomes strong. It demands a place in the system,
suitetl 11ot to its former weakness, but to its present power. If
tl1is iR' gra11ted, all is well. If this is refused, then comes .the
struggle betwee n the young energy of oi1e class and the a11cie11t
privileges of another.
[Instances] Such waR the strnggle betwee n the Plebeians and t11e Patricians of Horne. Such was the
struggle of the Italian allies for admission to the full right~ of
Roman citize11s. Such was the struggle of our North Amencan
colonies agai11st the mother country. Such was the struggle

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Gomposition-Rltetoric.

wliich Lhc Thinl E sLaLe o[ Yr:Lllcc 111ainLai11ccl against; t,lie anstocracy of Lirth. Such was Lite struggle which the ltomau Catl1olics of Jrelaml maintaine<l agai 11st the aristocracy of creed. Such
is the struggle which the free people of color i11 .Jamai ca are now
maintaining again st the ari sLocracy of sk in . Such, flll:dl y, is tl1c
struggle which the middle classes in En gla nd are maintaining
against an aristocracy of 111 ere locality, again st an aristocracy, the
principle of which is to iuvest a lrnncl red drunken potwallopers in
011e place, or the owner of a rnin ccl hovel in anoth er, with powers
wliich are withhel<l from ciLius re11owncd Lo the forLl1est cud s of
th e earLh for th e marv els of th eir wcalLh a11cl of their iuclustry. 1\IACAULAY: Speech on the R eform Bill of 1832.
[Topic] The circle of lrnm a11 nature is not complete without
the arc of feeling and e motion. [I11 stances] The lilies of the
field have a value for us Leyoncl their botani cal ones, - a certain
lightenin g of the l1 eart acco mpa ni es th e declaration t hat" Solomon
iu all hi s glory was not arrayed lik e on e of Lh cse ." 'J'h e sound of
the ·village bell which comes mellowed from the vall ey to the traveller upon the hill has a value beyond its aconstical one. The
setting sun when it mantles with the bloom of roses the alpine
snows has a value beyond its optical one. The starry heavens,
as you know, had for Immanuel Kant a value beyond their astronomical one . Round about the intellect swee ps the horizon of
e motion s from whi ch all our 110blest impulses are derive<l. I
th ink it very desirable to kee p Lltis horiwn open; Jtot to permit
eith er priest or philosopher to drnw llown his shutters between
yo u and it. A11d h ere the dead languages, which are sure to be
beaten by science in the purely iutellec tua,l fight, have an irresisLiLle claim. Th ey suppl ement the work of science by exalting
an<l refi ning the :JJsthetic faculty, au<l must on this acco unt be
cherished by all who desire to see human culture complete. Tb ere
must be a reason for the fasci11ation which these languages have
so lon g exerci sc<l upon Ll1 e 111osL powcr[11l ancl clcvate1l rnincls, - a
fascination wl1ich will probably continu e for men o:f Greek and
Roman mold to the end of Lime. - TYNDALL : Addresses.
[Topic] Many di stin g uiRhed En glishmen lrnve had some favorite physical a musement thaL we associate with their nam es. It is
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What to Say.

91

suit anll make it cspecia.lly his own. His countrymen like him
the better for 11avi11g :t Laste o r Lhis kind. [Instances] l\lr. Gladstone's practised ::;kill in tree-fellin g is a help to his popularit.y.
The readers of , ,Vordsworth, Scott, and Byron all remember that
Lite first; was a pedes trian, th e second a keen sportsman, and the
thircl 4l1c best swi1umer of liis ti111e. The reade rs of ](eats arc
sorry for the ill health that spoiled the latter years of his short
life, Lnt t hey reme111ber · with satisfaction that the ethereal poet
was once muscular enough to administer "a severe druLbing to a
butcher whom ho caught beating a little boy, to the enthusiastic
adn1iration of a crow d of Lystanders." Shelley's name is associated fo_rever with hi s love of boating, and its disastrous endin g.
In our own day, when we learn something about the private life
of our celebrated contemporaries, we have a satisfaction in knowing that they enjoyed some physical recreation, as, for example,
that T yndall is a 11101111taineer, l\lillais a grouse-sho oter, John Bright
a s:tlni ou-:fisher; and it is characteristic of the inveteracy of Engli sh physical habits that Mr. FawceLt sh oll l<l have go ne on riding
and ska ti ug afLer h e was Llincl, and Ll1at Antho11y Trollope was
still passionately fond of fox-huntin g when h e was old and h eavy
and could hardly see . The English have such a respec't for physical energy that they still reme mber with pleasure hovv Palmerston
hunted in his old age, and how, almost to the last, h e would go
down to Epsom on horseback. There was a little difficulty about
getting hi111 i11to the saddle, but, Ol!Ce there, he was safe till the
end of his journey. - IIAllIERTQN: French and English, 2.

A third method of expanding a_ topic-sentence into a paragraph
is to add specific instances or examples.
EXERCISE 27.

The following topic-sentences are to be developed by specific
instances or examples.. The ex pressions " to wen tion a ca.so in
point," "for instance," "a rema rkable example of this,'' will often
make clear just what is wanted.

.

1. One is frequently surprised by the intelligence which
the lower animals show.

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2. Even very great and very goocl men nsually have
some failing.
3. It is often the minor characters in Dickens's novels
that are remembered longest.
4. A bad beginning <1oes not necessn.rily imply a Lael
endin g.
G. A ma,n of great <1cterminatiou will succecll iu spite
of the most discouraging opposition.
G. 1\fon of grna,t; \V(~:tl t;lt ;trc 1101; all R!~lli R l1.
7. 'l'Jte dellHLHdS of bLor organizations are frequently
received in the wrong spirit.
8. P eople are too apt to decide that a person accused of
crime is guilty Lefore bis case is tried.
9. Sometimes the best statesmm t <lo not know what; Jaw
is needed.
10. Some queer expressions are useu by foreigners lcanting our ln.ugun.ge.
11. The n.bolitionist agitn.tors were frequently placed in
perilous positions.

LERRON 1!5.

1-Iow Paragraphs Grow - Uu_niparisons and Analogfos.

Suppose a writer wishes to develop the idea, "Effect of
historical reading upon the student's mind." If he uses
the method of particulars, he will very likely single out
the most striking ways in which the reading of history
operates on the mind; h e will say that hi story makes ns
acquainteu with men and institutions, gives us new ideas,
teaches us morals, bws, anu manners. If, on the other
lmnll, he uses the method of specific instances, he will
select individuals upon whom history exerted a peculiar
influence; he will perhaps refer to Carlyle, or Tennyson,
or Gibbon, or \Vebster, as exampl es of persons whose minds

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were broadened or narrowed by historical reading. But if,
for any reason, these methods do not suit his purpose, he
may develop this theme by still another method. Instead
of sn.ying thn.t the effect of historical reading is so-and-so,
h e may say that it is lilce so-and-so. He may compare the
effect of reading history to the effect of viewing a coll ection
of p[l,iutiugs, or listening to a play, or looking at the stars
with a, telescope, or watching a Fourth-of-July procession, ·
to c:wh 0110 of which it bc;trs some resornbla.nco. Upon
this resemblance of his theme to something else that is
familiar to his rea,der, he may dwell throughout the course
of the para,graph. Thus Macaulay, in his essay on history,
· in orcler to Llevelop the above-mentioned theme, compares
the effect of historica,l reading to the effect of travel in
foreign countries : The effect of historical reading is analogous, in many respects,
to th::i.t produced by foreign travel. The student, like the tourist,
is transported in to a new state of society. Ile sees new fashious.
He hears new modes of expression. His mind is eularged by
contemplating the wide diversities of laws, of morals, and of manners. nut men ma.y travel far, and return with minds as cont racLc<l as i£ Lhcy h::i.u 11evcr sLirretl from their O\Vll market-tow11.
In the same manner, meu may know the da.tes of many battles
and the. genealogies of many r oyal houses, and yet be no wiser.
Most people look at past times as princes look at foreign countries.
More than one illustrious stranger has landed on our island amidst
the sho11ts of a mob, h as dined with the King, has hunted with
the maste r of the stag-hounds, has seen the Guards reviewed, and
a Knight of the Garter installed, has cantered along llegellt Street,
ha.s visited St. Paul's, and noted down its dimensions; and has
then dcpa1·te<l, thinking that he 11as seen E11gfa11lL Ile has, in
fact, seeu a few public buildings, public men, and public ceremonies. l3nt of the vast and complex system of society, of the
fine shades of national character, of the practical operation of government and laws, he knoyvs nothing. He who would understand
these things rightly must 11ot confine his observations to palaces

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a11d solnmn dayR. I In 11111sl. s1•.n ordi11ary 1111)11 aR Ll11~.v appnar i11
tl1eir onliuary lmsiu m;s and in Lltcir ordinary pleas11res. Jlo 11rnst
rni11gle in the crowds of the exc ha nge and the coffee-hou se. II c
11mst ohfiain admitta11ce to I.h e convivial l.:tlile n.n1l t.110 1lo111osLic
hearth. Ile must hear witlt vulgar expressions. .1Le rnust 110t
shrink from exploring even the retreats of misery. Ile who
wishes to understand tlw co utli tiou of rnm1kind in former ages
must proceed on the same pri11ciple. If he attends 011ly to public
trn11sactio11s, to wars, congTcsscR, a111l <l ci>atos, Ii iR RLnd icR wi II lrn
as unprofUable as the travel s of tltoRe illtpcrial, r oya l, and se rene
sovereigns who form their jmlgment of our island fron1 h:wi11 g
gone in state to a few fine sights a nd from having held formal
conferences with a few great officers.
Professor J,angley wishing to develop the idea, "The signs of age
are on the moon," corn pares the surface of the moon to a cinder and
to a shrivelled face or hand: The signs of age are on the moon. lt seems pitted, torn, and
rent by the past action of lon g-dead fires, till its surface is like
a piece of porous cinder under the magnifying glass, - a burntout cinder of a planet, which rolls through the void like a ruin of
what has been; and, more significant still, this surface is wrinkled
everywhere, till the analogy with an old and shrivelled face or
hand or fruit, where the puckered skin is folded abont a shrnnken
centre, forces itself 011 our attentiou, and suggests a common
cause, - a something underlyiug the analogy, and making it more
than a mere resemblance. - LANGLEY: The J.Vew Astronomy.
Mr. Lowell wishing to picture Cardinal Newman in old age compares the cardinal to a ruined abbey aud his features to a miniature: The most interesting part of my visit to Birmingham was a call
I made by appointment on Cardinal Newman. Ile was benignly
courteous, and we excellencied and emine11ced each other by turns.
A 1nore gracious senescence I never saw. There was no " 11.1011ume11tal pomp," but a serene decay, like that of some ruined abbey
in a woodland dell, consoli11g'ly forlorn. I was surprised to find his
head and features smaller tlian I expected - modelled on lines of

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great. vigor, l>uL rn<lllccd rJ.Jl(l RoHenc<l i>y a cnrt,ain weakness, as
if a powerfully masculine face had Leen painted in miniature by
Malbone .
Other cx:tmplcs of development by comparison and analogy may
be detected by the pupil in the following : -

0£ ghosts I have seldom dreamed, so far as I can remember;
in fact I l1ave never dreamed of the kii1cl of ghosts that we are
all lllorc or less a[raid oJ, t.ltough I l1ave dreameJ. rnLli et· oHen of
the spirits of departed friends. But I once dreamed of dyiug, and
the reader, who lias never died yet, may be interested to know
what ~t is like. According to this experience of mine, which I do
not claim is typical, it is like a fire kindling in an air-tight stove
with paper and shavings; th e gathering smoke and gases suddeuly burst into flame, and puff the door out, and all is over. W. D. IlowELLS: Hai7Jer's ~M~agazine, DO: 840.
The vast results ohtaiuecl by science are won by llO mystical
faculties, by no mental processes, other than those which are
practised by every one of us in the humblest and meanest affairs
of life. A detective policeman discovers a burglar from the marks
made by his shoe, by a mental process identical with that by which
Cuvier resto red the exti11ct animals of Montmartre from fragments
of their l>ou es . Nor does that process of induction and deduction
l>y which a lady, finding a stain of a particular kind upon her
dress, concludes that somebody has upset the inkstand thereon,
differ in any way from that by which Adams and Leverrier discovered a new planet. The man of science, in fact, simply uses
with scrupulous exactness the methods which we all habitually and
at every moment use carelessly. - HuxLEY: Lay Sermons, 78.
Men who have to do with men, rather than with things, frequently take a profound and seemingly cruel delight in playing
upon the feelings and petty vanities of their fellow-creatures. The
habit is as strong with them as the constant practice of conjuring
I
becomes with a juggler; even when he is not performing, he will
for hours pass coins, perform little tricks of sleight-of-hand with
cards, or toss balls in the air in marvellously rapid succession,
unable to lay aside his profession even for a clay, because it has

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grown to be the only nat1tral exp ression o[ his facnlLies. With
m en whose business it is to 11ndersta11d other men, it is tl1e sa me.
Tl1 cy cannot be in a mall's cornp:t11y for a qu arter of an hour
without attempting to <liscove r the pec uliar weakn esses of his
character - his vanities, hi s tastes, hi s vices, his curiosity, hi s love
of money or of reputation; 80 t hat the opera,l,ion of fm ch 111en's
minds may be colllpared to the process of n,uscultatiou - for their
ears are always upon their neighbors' hearts - an<l their conversat;ion, to t l1 e pC!rc1it.aLion s ol' a pl1ysici:i 11 t.o ri.scc)rl.ain t.ltn sc\at o[
disease in a pair of cous11111ptive lungs. - :F. M. CRAWFORD:
Sarac£nesca, 125.
The Life of Johnson is ass uredly a great, n, ve ry great work.
Hom er is not; n1 ore deci(kdly Ll1n first of heroic poets, Shake>:pcarc
is not more deci<ledly the 1irsL of <lranrntists, Delllosth enes is not
more deci<ledl y t he first of orators, than Boswell is the first of
biographers. Il e has n o scco11d. U c h as distanced all hi s competitors so decidedly tliat it is not wor th w hil e to place th en1.
Eclipse is first, the rest i10wltcrc. - MACAULAY: JJoswell's Life of
Johnson.
A constitutional statesman is in gencrn,l a man of common
opinions and uncommon abilities. The reason is ol>vious. vVhen
we speak of a free gov ernm ent, we mean a government in which
the sovereign power is <livi<led, in which a si ngle decision is not
absolute, where argument has an office. The essence of the
"gouvernemeut des avocaLs," as the Emperor Nicholas called it, is
that you mus t persuade so many persons. The appeal is not to
the solitary decision of a s.i ugle statesm:tn; not to Richelieu or
N esselrode alone in his closet; but to the jangle<l mass of men
with a thousand pursuits, a thousand interests, a thousand various
habits. l'ublic opinion, as it is said, rnl cs; and pnblic opinion
is the opinion of the averag-e man. Fox used to say of Burke:
"Burke is a wise man; hut. he iR wise Loo soon." The av cl'age
man will not he:tr this . Ile is a cool, common person , with a considerate air, with figures in his min<l, with his own business to
attend to, with a set of ordinary opinions arising from and suited
to ordinary life. He can't bear novelty or origin alities. Ile says :
"Sir, I never heard such a thing b~fore in my life".; and he t hinks
this a recfoctio ad absurdum. You may see his taste by the reading

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of which he approves. Ts there a more splendid monument of talent
and iudustry tl1an the Times? No wonder that the average man that any one - believes in it. As Carlyle observes: "Let the highest intellect able to write epics try to write such a leader for the
morning newspapers, it caunot do it; the highest intellect will
fail." But did you ever see anything there you had never seen
Lefore? Out of the million articles that everybody has read, can
rmy one person trace a sin gle marked idea to a sin gle article?
·w1in)'() a,)'() t l1 c deep Lhcorics, aml tl1e wise axioms, aud t l1 e eve rlasting sentiments wldch the writers of the most influential publicatio n i 11 the worl<l have been the first to communicate to an ignorant species? Such writers are far too shrew<l. The two million,
or whatcver lllUllbcr of copies it may be, they pnhlisl1, are 11ot
purchased because tl1e buyers wish to know new truth. The purch:tser desires an article which he can appreciate at sight; which
he can lay down and say: "An excellent article, very excellent;
exactly 111y own sentiments." Original theories give trouble; besides, a g rave 111a11 on the Coal Exchange does not desire to be an
apostle of novelties among the contemporaneous dealers in fuel; he wants to be provided witl1 remarks he can make on the topics
o[ t lte day which will not be known not to be his; which are not
too profound; which he ca1i fancy the paper only reminded him
of. An<l just in the same way, precisely as the most popular
political paper is not that which is abstractedly the best or most
instructive, bnt that which most exactly takes up the minds of
men vvhere it finds them, catc hes the floating sentiment of society,
puts it in snch a form as society c~n fancy would convince another
society ·wl1ich did not believe, - so the most influential of constitutional statesmen is the one who most felicitously expresses the
creed of the moment, who administers it, who embodies it in laws
ai1<l institntion s, who gives it the highest life it is capal>le of, who
indnccs th e average man to think: "I could not liave done it any
better, if I had had time myself." - UAGEHOT: Tlte English Constitution, 421.
When the example in our Latin Grammar tells us that 1lfors
com.munis est omnibus, it states a truism of considerable interest,
indeed, to the person in whose particular case it is to he illustrated, but neither new nor startling. No one would think of

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Coniposition-.Uhetoric.

What to Say.·

99

citing it, whctl1er to produce co11vict.ion or to l1cighten discourse.
Y e t ma11kind are agreed ill fin<li 11g something more poignaJLt in
the same reflection whell Horace tells us that the palace as well
as the hovel shudders at the imliscrimi11ating foot of Death. Here
is something more than the dry state 11tc11t o( a trnis111. Tito differeuce between the two is that between a lower all(]. a higher; it
is, in short, the difference betwee n prose a11<l poetry. The oyster
has begun, at least, to secrete its pearl, something identical with
its Rhell. in snbstance, hut in sc nti111 c11t a11d association how unlike I l\blltcrbe Lakes Lit e :-:a111c i111agn a11(l 111ak es it a Jitlfo more
picturesqne, though, at the same time, I fear, a little more l'arisian,
too, whe n he says that the se11tinel pacing before the gate of the
Louvre cannot forbid Death an entrance to the Ki11g. Alld how
long had not that comparison between the rose's life and that of
the rnaiden <lying untimely been a co 111mo11i)lace when the same
Malherbe made it irreclaimably his ow11 by mere felicity of phrase.
"\Ve (lo not ask where people got tl1eir hints, hut what they made
out o[ tlu.nn . Tl1e co111111011pla.cn is 1111!1:1.ppily wiU1i11 rnacl1 nl' HR
all, a11<l unhappily, too, Lhey arc rare w Ito c:m give ii; 11oveHy a11<l
even invest it with a kind of grandeur as Gray knew how to do. LOWELL: Essay on Gray.

4. Flocks of blackbirds were holding their noisy sessions in the Lare trees.
5. Calumnious reports are sometimes circulated about
those whose lives are pure.
6. Our powers gradually weaken with age.
7. Sheridan's troopers dashed through the Shenandoah
valley leaving the country bare of subsistence.
8. The officers of government are simply some of us
rLeting in certain cap:wities for tLll of us.
9. Hamilton had the ability to foresee the remote results
of his financial policy.
10. Every good deed will bring its reward.
11. A bad habit is a constant tyrant.
12. Reading affords many pleasures.

A fourth method of expanding a topic-sentence into a paragraph
is to point out a · resemblance or analogy lJetween the subject of
thought and some well-known object or objects.

Note in the following selections how the idea of the topicsentence is developed. The words to which special attention is to Le directed are printed in italics . .

EXERCISE 28.

The following topic-se11te11ces are Lo be developed by comparison
or analogy. The expressions, "it seems as if," "it is like," will
sometimes help one find a suitable comparison or analogy.

1. Along the sides of the road rue two long rows of tall
poplars.
2. The orator held his vast audience spellbound.
3. There are some books towards which we feel a personal friendship.

LESSON 16.

IIow Paragraphs Grow - Telling ·what a Thing is Not.

'i\Te will try to make some srnall piece of English ground beautiful, peaceful, and fruitful. We will have no stea11i-engines upon it,
nnd no railroads; we will have no untended or itnthou.ght-of creatures
on it; nrme wretched, but the sick; none idle, but the dead. 1Ve
will have no liberty upon it; but instant obedience to known law,
and appointed persons; no equality upon it; but recognition of
every b e ttcrness that vve can find, and r eprobation of every worseness. When we want to go anywhere, we will go there quietly
and safely, not at forty miles an hour 1'.n tlte risk of our lives; when
we want to carry anything anywhere, we will carry it either on
the backs of beasts, or on our own, or in carts, or in boats ; we will
have plenty of flowers and vegetables in our gardens, plenty of
corn and grass in our fields, - and few bricks. vVe will have

100

Composition-Rh etor?'.c.

some music and poetry; the children shall learn to da11cc to it,
and sing it; perhaps some of the old people, iu time, may also.
"Ve will have some art, moreover; we will at least try if, like the
Greeks, we can't make some pots. - Ru SKIN : Fors Clavigera,
Letter V.
Ruskin, desiring to tell us what a piece of English gronnd should
have in order to be beautiful, peaceful, and fruitful, begins by telling
us what it should not have. It should not have, he s:tys, steamengincs, railroads, ncglecte<l crentnres, wretch c<i'arul idle men, liberty,
or equality. To complete the picture, he then tells us what it should
have.
The scene around was desolate ; as far as the eye could Teach it
was desolate: the bare r ocks faced each other, and left a Jong and
wide interval of thin white sand. You might wander on aml look
round and round, and peep into the crevices of the rocks and discover nothing that ar.knmoletlgr,d the ii!fluena. of the seasons. Th ere
was no spi·iny, no summer, no anlwnn: awl lite winter's snow, that
would have been lovely, fell 110l on these hot rocks and scorching sands.
Never morning lark had poised himself ovei- this desert; but the huge
serpent often hissed there beneath the talons of the vulture, and
the vulture screamed, his wings imprisoned within the coilR of the
serpent. -COLERIDGE: Th e 1Vanderings of Cain.
To make us see the desohttion of the place, Coleridge tells us what
could not be seen there.
In the year lSGG Rorne was still in a great measure its old self.
It had not then acquired tlmt modern air which is now beginning
to pervade it. The Corso had 11ot Leen widened aud wlritewashed;
the Villa Aldobrallllini lmd uot been cut through to make the Via
Nazionale; the south wing- of tho T'ala;.:zo Colonna i:;till looked
upon a narrow la11e Lhro11gli wl1ich men lr esiLaLed Lo pass after
dark; the Tiber's course had 11ot then been corrected below the
Farnesiua; the Farnesi11a itself was but jnst under repair; the
iron bridge at the Ripetta ·was not dreamed of; and the Prati
di Castello were still, as their 11ame implies, a series of waste
meadows.-F. l\1. CRAWFORD: Saracinesca, l.

What to Say.

101 .

The author tells us what Rome was in 1865- " its old self" - by
telling us what changes had not yet taken place.
Practically, then, at present, "advancement in life" means
beco mi11 g c011spic11ous in life, - obtaining a position which shall
be aclrnowledged by others to be respectable or honorable. "\Ve do
not u1Hlcrstaud by this advancement, in general, the mere making
of money, but the being known to have made it; not the accomplishment of any great aim, but the being seen to have accomplii:;lte<l it. In a word, we mean the gratification of onr thirst for
apphtuse. That thirst, if the last infirmity of noble minds, is also
the first infirmity of weak ones, and on the whole, the strongest
impulsive influence of average humanity. The greatest efforts of
the race have always been traceable to the love of praise, as its
greatest catastrophes to the love of pleasure. - H.us1uN: Sesame
and Lilies, 42.
In the foregoing we get a better idea of what is meant by advancement in life by being also told what is not meant by it.

When I first came to Venice I accepted the fate appointed to
young men on the Continent. I took lodgings, and I began dining
drearily at the restaurants. Worse prandial fortunes may befall
one, but it is hard to conceive of the calamity as enduring elsewhere; while the restaurant life is an established and permanent
thiug in Italy, for every celibe and for many wretched families.
It is 11ot because the restaurants are very dirty- if you wipe your
plate and glass carefully before using them, they need not stomach
you; it is not because the . rooms are cold-if you sit near the
great vase of smouldering coals in the centre of each room you
may suffocate in comparative comfort; it is not because the prices
are great, for they are really very reasonable; it is not for any very
tangible fa11lt that T objec t to life at the restaurants, -and yet I
cam1ot think of iLs hopeless homelessness wiLhou L rebellion ag:tinst
the whole system of existence it implies, as something unnatural
and insufferable. - How ELLS: Venetian Life, 76.
The "hopeless homel essness " of restaurant life is made more significant by the enm~eration of other reasons in negative form.

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102

Oomposit-ion-Bltetvric.

What to Say.

A fifth way of expanding a topic-sentence into a paragraph is to
add particulars telling what the subject is not, or is not like. Such
statements are usually followed by statements telling what
the subject is, or is like.

LESSON 17.

How Paragraphs Grow - Contrasts.
Sometimes a paragraph-theme can be most easily developed by presenting in the paragraph two ideas in contrast.
Let us suppose, for example, that the writer has been upon
a, Jay 's fishing excursioll. As h o rocaJls the incidents of
the day, he reflects that he was the only member of the
party _who failed to enter into the spirit of the occasion.
The others throughout the whole time made patient efforts
to catch some fish, but he soon wearied of the sport and
gave himself up to reading. He now attempts to write an
account of the day's adventures. Noting that what h e did.
was different from what the others did, he begins by telling of his own lack of skill and lack of interest, aml then,
Ly way of contrast, t ells of the patience antl enthusiasm of
his companions. Thus he brings out the idea of his theme
by presenting the two contrasted ideas contained within it.
This is the method pursued by Washington Irving in the
following paragraph from the Sketch Boole: -

EXERCISE 29.

The following topic-sentences are to be developed by telling
what tho subject is iioL, 01· is 11 0 1; like :-

1. Niagara made upon me an impression quite different
from what I h ad expect ed.
2. I visited to-clay an ideal school-house.
3. The Socialis t sees i11 the future a most desirable state
of human society.
_
4. I will describe to you the kind of picnic that I should
like to :Ltteml.
5. ·when city governments shall be perfected we shall
hardly recognize them.
G. The woods that day were remarkable for an unusual
stillness.
7. I slrnll never fo rget my sensations when I was told
that my fri end ]1a,d pro vrnl fal se.
8. \Vhen to u::;e wUZ and when to use shall is a mystery
to 1nany students.
0. 'l'he me<-wiug of th e word "success" is frequently
misunclerstoocl.
10. What is the bes t metlwd for the govemment to adopt
in its treatment of the Inllia,n ?
11. The n ewsboy gaLhers a large fond of usefol information.
12. This city presented an entirely different appea,rance
only a fow yea.rs ago.
13. H is a. good thi11g to keep a careful account of yonr
ex pen ll1tu res.
14. Keep your t crnpcr under control.

103

I
1

For my part, I was always a bungler at all kinds of sport that
required either patience or adroitness, and had not augled above
half an hour before I had completely "satisfied the sentimeut,"
and convinced myself of the truth of Izaak -Walton's opinion, that
anglin g is somethi ng like poetry-a man must be born to it.
I hooked myself instead of the fish; tangled my lin e in every tree;
lost my bait; broke my rod; until I gave up th e attempt in
despair, and passed th e day under the trees, reading old Izaak,
satisfied that it was his fascinating vein of houest simplicity and
rural feeling that had bewitched me, and not the passion for
angli11g. My companions, however, were more persevering in their
de] usion. I have them at this moment before my eyes, stealing
along the border of the brook, where it lay open to the day, or
was merely fringed by shrubs and bushes. I see the bittern rising

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104

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....

-. - -

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w

..

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,,

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-

Compos'ition-Rltetorie.

wiLh hollow scream as th ey hrcak in 11po11 l1is rarely i11v:ule!l haunt;
the ki11gfi i-dwr watchiug Lhelll s uspiciously from l1is tlry tree that
overki11gs tlte deep Llack mill-pond, in the gorge of the hill s ; the
tortoise lettiug himself slip sideways from off the stone or log on
which he is sunning himself; and the panic-struck frog pl umpin g
in headlong as they approach, a11d sprettding an alarm throughout
tlie watery world arouutl.
The following paragraph draws a contrast between the spoils system
and the merit sysLom : -

Professor Lounsbury, in his delightful Life of Cooper, speaks
feelingly of the "infinite capacity of the lnuna11 mind to withstand
the in trodnction of know ledge." I doubt w l1 ether even a college
professor bcco 111cs rnore fl:t uly a11!l pro(o1111<lly impressed wit-.lt the
truLh of this statement than does a civil service co tnmissio ner.
The spoils system of making appointments to and removals from
ollice is so wholly aud muni xedly evil, is so emphatically mtAtnerican and un-d cmocratic, and is so potent a force for degradation in our ~public life, tltat it is difficult to Lelieve that a ny
intelli gent man of ordinary decency who has looked iuto the
subject can be its advocate. 011 tl1e oLlter hand tl1c 111 crit sysLe n1,
whi ch we are strivi11g to pul; in iLH place, has uee11 prove<l by acLual
trial to work so well that it is diflicult to UJH1ersta11d how there
can be any serious opposition thereto, or, indeed, how it can fail to
receive the zealous support of every citizen who has sense enough
to see what is best for the country, and patriotism enough to
wish to see that best adopted. -T. l~OO SEVELT: The .Merit System.,
Cosmopolitan, Ma.y, 1802.
The 1irst memucr of the co11Lrast may ue very lJrief, as in tho following paragraph : He could describe with great vividness, brevity, and force what
had happened in the past, what actually ex isted, or what the future
prontisetl. llut hii:i fancy 11evnr ran away with him or carrie<l liim
captive into the regions of poetry. Imagination of this sort is
readily curbed and controlled, and, if less brilliant, is safer than
that defined by Shakespeare. For this reason, Mr. Webster rarely
indulged in long, descriptive passages, and while he showed the
highest power in treating anything with a touch of hurnauity about

-

What to Say.

105

it, he was sparing of images drawn wholly from nature, and was
110 t peculiarly successful in depicting in words natural scene.ry
or pheJJomeua. The res ult is, that in his highest flights, wlnle
he is often grand and affecting, full of life and power, he nev~r
shows the creative imagination. But if he falls short on the poetic
side there is the counterbalancing advantage that there is never
a f~lse note nor an overwrought description which offends our
taste a nd jars upon our sensibilities. - H. C. LODGE: Daniel
Webster, 188.

Contrasts are often introduced by words of connection.
Of these the most common are but and however. lfowever
means almost the same as but; if there is any clifference
uetwccn them it is that but inclicates a contrast stronger
ancl more abrupt than the contrast indicated by howeve~··
Yet gives the impression that the writer has checked his
thought suddenly, a,s a horsenrnn might throw his steed on
its ha,unchcs uy a jerk of the oriel.le. Still a,lso checks the
course of the thought, but does so more quietly and deliberately tlrnn yet. Other words nml expressions us~d to introduce n, contrnst a,re, neverthelcsli, notwilhlitanthng, vn the
other hand, on the contrary.
With the exception of but, these connectives do not ne~d
to stand always at the beginning of the sentence or cbuse;
a smoother connection is sometimes secured by placing them
after an opening word or phrase, as in the selection from
Irving: "My companions, however, etc."
A sixth method of expanding a paragraph-theme into a paragraph is to present a contrast between two things or ideas.

•

EXERCISE 30.

Point out the contrasted ideas in the following paragraphs:The modern type-writing machine has the advant~ge of makin.g
all words equally legible, but the r eceiver of the prmted letter IS

106

Composition-Rhetoric.

likely to feel on opening it a Rlight perceptible shock of t.he kind
always caused by a want of co11RiclcraLio11 . The letter so printed
is undoubtedly easier to read tl1:w all but the very clearest maimscript, and so far it may be collsidered a polite11ess to nse the instrument; but u11luckily it is i111pcrso11al, so that the performer on
the instrument seems far r emoved from the receiver of the lettei·
aud not in that direct co1n111n11icatio11 with him wh ich would be
apparent in an autogrnpl1 . The effect on the mind is almost; like
that of a printed circnhr, or at lf~ ast of a ]el;Lr,r which has bce11
<lictaLcd Lo a HhorLha11d wriLcr.-JIA~11rnToN: Jlu111an l11terc11urse.
Mr. Beecher went on to show how the North could 11ot help
fighting when it was attacked, and to g ive the reasons that made
it necessary to fi ght, reaso11s which non e but a consistent Friend,
or avowed nou-resista11t, can pretcml to dispute. His ordinary
style in speaking is pointed, staccatoecl, as is tbat of most successful extempora11eous speakers; he is "short-gaited"; the mov ement
of his thougl1ts is U1at of the choppin g sea, rather t han the long,
rolling, rhythmical wave-proceHsio11 of p hrase-uala11ci11g rhetoricians. But when the lance l1as pricked him <leep enough, when
the red flag has fhtHhed in his face often e11011g h, w hen the fireworks hav e hissed a11d sput,tered aronml him long enough, ·when
the cheers have warmed him 80 that all his life is roused, then his
intellectual sparkle b eco mes a stea<ly glow, a11d his nimble sentences change their form a111l b eco me lo11g-rlraw11 , stately perio<ls. -0. vV. HOLMES: Atlantic 11-fvnt!dy, :fanuary, 18G4.
Certainly, gentlemen, it ought to be the. h appiness and glory of
a representative to live in the strictest union, the closest correspomlence, and the most m1reserved communication with his constituents. Their wishes ought to l1av e gren.t weight with him;
their opinio11 high respect; th eir unsiness unremitted attention.
It is hiti dnt.y to sacrifice his repose, his pleas ures, his satisfac!;ions,
to theirs; and al.Jove all, ever, and in all cases, to prefer their
interes t to his OWi!. Dut, his unuias8ed opinion, his matui'e judgment, his enlighteHed conscience, he ought not to sacrifice to you,
to any man, or to any set of me n Livin g. These he does not derive from your pleasure; no, 11or from the law and th e constitution.
They are a trust from Proviclence, for t.he abuse of which he is
deeply a11sweraule. Your reprcse11 tati vc owes you not his in<liistry

Wliat to Say.

107

only, but his j udg111e11 t; w bi ch he uetrays, instead of serving you,
if he sacrifices it to your opinion.
My vvorthy colleague says, his will ought to be subservient to
yours . H tliat be all, the thing is innocent. If goverwne11t were
~ matter of will upon any side, yours, without question, ought to
to ue superior. But govermneut and legislation are matters of
reason and judgment, and not of inclination; and what sort of
reasou is that, in which the determination precedes the discussion;
i11 which 011c set of rnc11 <lelil>crntc, and a110Lhcr <lccitle; an<l where
those who form the conclusiou are perhaps three hundred miles
distant from tho8e who hear the arguments?
To <leliver an opinion, is the right of all men; that of constitu ents is a weighty and respectable opinion, which a representative
ought always to rejoice to hear; and which he ought always most
seriously to consider. But authoritative instructions, mandates issued, which the member is bound blindly and implicitly to obey,
to vote, and to argue for, though contrary to th e clearest conviction
of his judgment and con science, -these are things utterly unknown to the laws of this land, and which arise from a fundamental mistake of the whole order and tenor of our constitution. Bumm: Speech lo the Electors of Bristol.
Madison spoke in the same strain. He saw no danger in a title.
He did 1wt believe that a President, clothed with all the powers of
the Coustitution and loaded dow11 with all the titles of Europ~
and Asia, would be a dangerous p erson to American liberty. He
objected to the principle. If, said he, we give titles, we must
either borrow or invent them . If we invent and deck out an airy
ueing of our creation, it is a great chance but its fantastic properties reuder the empty phantom ridiculous aud ausurd. If we
borrow, our servile imitation will ue odious . We must copy from
the pompous monarchs of the East, or we must follow the inferior
monarchs of Europe . In either case the splendid tinsel and the
gorgeous robe will disgrace the mauly shoulders of our chief. McMASTER : History of th e People of the United States, I, 542.
Unlike as vVhittier and Franklin were in many respects, they
were alike in others. Both had the sympathy with the lowly
which comes of early si111ilar expe rieuce. Both lear11 ecl a handicraft, for Franklin set type and worked a priu ting-press, and

108

001nposition-.Rhet01·ie.

'Vl1il,t,i<1r ma<lo Rlippcrn. To hot.Ii of l.11<•111 lif.0. raf.mc wnR a 111ca11R,
rather than an end iu itRelf. Verse to Wl1iLtier, and proRe to
Franklin, was a weapon to be used in the good fight. Jn ·Whittier's verse, as in Fnmklin's prose, there >vas the same pi thy cl irec tness.whi ch made their words go home to the h earts of the plain
people wl1om they both understood and represented. To Franklin
was given the larger life and the greater range of usefulness ; but
'Vhittier always did ·with all his mi g ht the duty that lay before
him. 'Vhile Franklin gained polish hy travel an<l hy association
with citizens of the world, 'Vhit.tier wn.s the only 011e of the
greater American anthors who n eve r went to Europe, and he kept
to the end not a little of his Tustic simplicity.
'Vhile 'Vhittier was practical, as becomes a New Englander, he
had not the excessive common sense wliich characterizes Franklin,
and he lacked also Franklin's abundant humor. Bnt the poet was
not content, as Franklin was, with showing that honesty is the
best policy, and that in tl1e long rnn vicn foarl:=:; to rni11; he Rco11rgnrl
evil wif.h Lim ·wrath of a lleurew propl1el;. Kxccpt 0110 or another
of his ballads, none of his poems was written for its own sake;
they were nearly all intended to furth er a cause he held dear, or
to teach a lesson he thought needful. - BRANDER MATTHEWS:
St. Nicholas, 22 : 773.
EXERCISE 31.

These paragraphs as originaJly written containeu bvo
ideas in contrast. Supply the omitted portion.
Some persons arc very reiuctanl; to n.tln1it f;hat any rnce of men
is marked by a fixed and pe1:ma11 ent characteristic of inferiority
to t l1 e oLhers, for fear that this will be rnade an excuse by 11njust and wicked men for treating them oppressively and cruelly.
But There is one thing very cmious about this class of animals that
get their living in a great measure under water, and are consequently
obliged to Le often subm.erged, even in the coldest winter weather,
and that is, that their fur becomes very little wet by such iinrnersion. A dog, after plunging into a river, co mes out wet to the
skin, but the fur of a beaver or a mink - - - _ _ _ _

What to Say.

109

\Ve all know how hcantiful m1<l noLle mouesty is; how we
all admire it; how it raises a man in our eyes to see him
afraid of boasting; never showing off; llever pushing himself
forward
vVhenever, on the other
hand
A Venetian who enters or leaves any place of public resort
touches his hat to the company, and one day at the restaurant
some Jn.di es, who hn,d been dining there, said "Com71lim e11ti ! "on
going out with a grnce tliat went near to make the beef-steak
tender. It is this uucostly gentleness of bearing \vhich gives a
winning impression of thew hole Venetian people, whatever selfishness or real discourtesy lie beneath it. At home [in the United
States] it sometimes seems - - - - -

Whittier was a born poet. He was not an artist in verse as
Longfellow was; and he w~ts often as careless in rhyme and
aA rnggc!l rn rl1yLhm as wafl E111erso11.
Yet to some of his
stanzas - - - - - There are four different kinds' of runniu g : sprinting, which
includes all distances up to the quarter mile; middle-distance
running- from the quarter to the mile; and long-distance running, which includes the mile and all distances beyond. Besides
th ese there is cross-country running. This b st is best o~ all for
growing boys. The first three are track races, and it is monotonous
work trotting round and round a cinder path. But - - - I have sometimes been pnzzled in Venice to know why churches
should keep cats, church-mice being proverbially so poor, and so
little capable of sustaining a ca.tin good condition; yet - - -.
There is a common notion that animals are better meteorologists
than 1nc11, and I l1 ave little doubt that in immediate weather-wisdom
they have Lhc au vantage of our sophisticated senses (tl1ough I suspect a sailor or shepherd would be their match), but -.
Any slave of the mine may find the rough gem; but
If Gray cull his words and phrases here, there, and everywhere, it
is he who charges them with the imagination or picturesque touch
which only he could give and which makes them magnetic . .

110

What to Say.

Gornposition-llhet01·ic.

The universal Jea<l-levcl ul plai1111ess autl hom eliness, the bck
of all IJcauty and distinction in form anJ feature, the slowness and
clumsiness of the language, the eternal beer, sausages, and bad
tobacco, the blank commonn ess eve rywhere, prcssi11g at last like
a weight on the spirits of Lh e traveller in NorU1ern Genuauy,
and maki11g him impatient to be gone, - this is the ·weak side;
- - - - - - -, - this is the strn11g side; and through this
side of her genius, Germany has already obtained excellent results.

111

to be statements of an effect of this cause. Thus a writer
who begins a paragraph with the sentence, "\Vhen the Romans conquered Greece and the East, they saw a, great
111a11y Lltiugs which they had nev er seen before," is very
likely in the following sentence to tell us l1ow the Romans
took to these new things, that is, how Hmnan habits and
character were affected by them. So h e passes naturally
from cont::wt with 11ow things as a canse, to eku1ges iu Homan clmracter as an effect. Again, he may have occasion
to say on the same topic that "the Greeks were much
cleve_rer than the Romans," after which we may expect the
consequences to the Romans of contact with this cleverness,
- it surprised them or excited their envy, or gave them
n ew ideas. This method of growth is illustrated in the following: -

EXERCISE 32.

Develop each of the following topic-sentences into a paragraph
by presenting contrasting ideas: -

1. It is seldom that a pupil succeeds equally well in all
his studies.
2. Lincoln's early ac1vn,ntages were extremely limited.
3. Novel reading seems to Le 011 the increase.
4. The world is growing more humane.
5. The good will triumph over wrong.
6. Slavery was an unmixed evil.
7. The war against Mexico was not begun with unselfish
motives.
8. There have been ternpornry evils connected with the
intro<l.uction of labor-saving machinery.
9. Lynching should Le suppressed.
10. Jackson and Lincoln present points of similarity.
11. There are books that may be dismissed with a single
reading.
12. Examinations are a fair test of ability.

'Vhen the Romans conquered Greece and the East, they saw a
great many things which they had never seen before: and they
began to care more about eating and drinking and building fine
houses. The Greeks were much cleverer than the Romans, or
indeed than auy people of the time, for all the best books and
statues and pictures of the old world had been made by the Greek
writers aud artists. So the Romans not only learneJ 111a11y 11ew
things from the Greeks, but gave up a great many of their own
early beliefs. They thought less of their own Roman gods, aud
altogether they were not so simple or so good as they had been
before. - M. CREIGHTON: History of Rome (History Primers), 52.

LESSON 18.

How Paragraphs Grow - Cause and Effect.
\ Vhen the topic-sentence is a statement of something that
may be regarded as a cause, the remaining sentences are apt
!

The way in which the idea of the paragraph grows may
be indicated as follows: 1. Cause: 'l'he Homans saw many new things; qffect:
The Itomans began to care more about eating and drinking
and building fine houses.
2. Ca-use: The Greeks with whom they came in contact
were cleverer tlian the Hmnans in literature and art; ~ffect :
The Romans adopted Greek ideas and gave np their old beliefs.

112

Composition-Rhetoric.

What to S ay.

111 thr. folJowing parag l'apl1 <l r.scril>i11 g Llte <:l1 arge of tho

A seventh method of expanding a paragraph-theme into a paragrn,ph consists in stating something that is regarded as a cause,
n,nd following it by a statement of the effects or consequences of
the cause.

Light Hrigaclo, J\fr. Ki11 glak c t ells irn Jirst of the iire of
the enemy, then of the cffeet of t;hi8 Jim lljJUll the r~mks
of the Brigade : Press in g always deeper a nd deeper into t his pen of fire, the devoted l>rigade, with Lord Card igan 8Lill at its liead, continued to
move down the valley. The fire the l1ri gatle was i11 c11rri11 g lmd
not co nrn to he oE l.liaf. r.r 11sl1i11 g Ro rl; which 111o wR dow n l1 a lf a
t.roop i11 011e i11 sLan L, :t111l for so 111 c Li111e :i. sl.nady pace wax 111 a i11tai11 ecl . As oHen ns a h or::ie was kiIJ etl , or di flabl ed, or dC\]ll'i1'c;1 l
of the rider, his faLI, or Ji is pl u11ge, or his ungoverned preswre
h ad commonly the effect of enforcin g upon the neighl.iori11 g
chargers more or less o[ laforn.l movement, and in t his way there
was occasioned a sli ght di stention of the rauk in whi ch the casualty had occurred; but, in t he next instant, when the troopers had
ridden clear of the di st nrhi11 g cause, they closed 11 p, and rode on
in a lin e as even as Lefore, .tli o11 gh re1l11ced by t li e los8 just sustained. The movem ent occasio ned by each casualty was so constantly recurrin g, and so constantly followed by the same process,
-the process of reclosing the ranks, that, to distant observers,
th e altemate diste11tion and contraction of th e line seemed to
have the precision and s~tm e n ess which belong to mechanic
contrivance. Of these di sta11l; ol.iservers th er e was one -- and that
too a sol<licr-who so fe lt {.o Ll1e l1 ea rt t he true i111port oE wiiat li e
Raw tl1at., in a paroxyslll of a1l 111iraL ion arnl gri ef, he burst into
tears. In well-main tafoecl order, but growing less every i11stant,
our squaclron still moved down the valley. - I nvasion of tlte Crimea ,
II, 517.

.

In the foregoing may be scen a second example of an effect following a cause - the tears of the soldier a,re caused by the movement of
the line which ho is observ i11g.

It will be observetl that this r elation of cause to effect is

usually indicated by means of conjunctions and connecting
phrases. Such expressions as hence, so, so thdt, therefore, for,
thus, accordingly, conseqnently, in consequence, as a rnsult,
are employed for this purpose.

113

EXERCISE 33.

In the following paragraphs, point out ideas which are
r0,latocl to one :t.nother as c:t.nse to effect: The friction in the minute arteries and capillaries presents a
consideraLle resistance to the flow of blood through them into the
small veins. In consequence of this resist a nce, the force of th e
heart's Leat is spent in maintaining the whole of t he arterial ·
system in a st.ate of great distention ; the arterial walls are put
g reatly on the stretch by the pressure of the blood thrust into
them by the repeated strokes of the heart; thi s is the pressure
which we spoke of above as blood-pressure. - FosTJm: Physiology,
chap. IV.

/

J

There was a salt marsh that bounded part of the mill-pond, on
the edge of which, at high-water, we used to stand to fish for
minnows. By much trampling, we had made it a mere quagmire.
My proposal was to build a wharf there fit for us to stand upon,
and I showed my comrades a large heap of stones which were
i 11 telllle1l for a new ho118e near tl°ie marsh, aud which wo11ltl very
well suit our purpose. Accordingly, in the eveniug, when the
workmen were gone, I assembled a number of my playfellows,
and workin g with them diligently, like so man y emmets, sometimes two or three to a sto ne, we brought them all awa.y mid built
our little ·w harf. The next morning the workmen were surprised
at missin g the stones, which were found in our wharf. Inquiry
was made after the removers ; we were discovered, and complained
of; seveml o[ 118 wero conecte<l by our fath ers ; an cl tho11gh I
pleaded t he usefulness of the work, mine convinced me that nothing
was ,useful which was not honest. - FRANKLIN: Autobiography.
At court, and in the castles of the great nobles, where the pomp
a nd state of a court were emulated, Norman-French was the only
lang uage employed ; in courts of law the pleadings and judgments

114

Oomposition-Bhetoric.

Wliat to Say.

were <lelivered iu the sa111 e tougne. l11 sl1orl·., French was the
language of ho11 or, of chivalry, aud even of justice; while the
far more manly and expressive Auglo-Saxon was aba11doned to
the use of rustics and hinds, who knew 110 other. StiJI, however,
the necessary iutercourse between the lords of the soil and those
oppressed inferior beings by whom that soil was cultivated occasioned the gradual forrnation of a dialect compounded Letwixt the
French and the Anglo-Saxon, in which they could render themselvc8 11111t.ually i11Lelligililn l;n each 0Ll1er; and l'rnn1 Lhi s necess ity
arose IJy degrees Ll1c sLrncLnre of our prescn t J~ug!i s lt Ja11gnage, in
which the speech of the victors and the vauriuished have been
so happily blended together, and which has since been so rid1ly
improved by importations from the classical languages, and from
those spoken by Lhe so uth ern n;i,Lions of Europe. - ScoTT: Ivanhoe,
chap. I.

EXERCISE 34.

The insular form of Great Britain gave it a certain advantage
over the contiuent dmi11 g the age when the 110rthern tribes were
plundering Home and devastating the countries of southern Europe.
As theil' invasions of England could only be by sea, they were
necessarily on a comparatively srnall scale. They could not at
once overrun the whole land, as they did in France, and h ence the
strife was long maiutained by hope of successful resistance; and
thus courage and the virtncs that; depend on co11ragc were kept
alive rw<l Lrn111m1iLLed. - l\loNTUu~trm¥: 'l'lt c Leading Pacts of
English IIislory, 7.
A warm and moist wind, the south-west of the Atlantic, for
example, setting from the tropics, comes in contact with the
colder air of th e temperate regions; its temperature is lowered;
it can no lon ger contain as great a quantity of vapor. A portion of its humidity is immediately condeused into clouds, then
falls in rain.
Or the opposite; a wind charged with clouds arrives in a
warmer aud dryer air; comes, for example, from the Mediterranean to the Sahara, as is the case during three-fourths of the
year; the burning ail' of the desert, having a much greater capacity
for vapor, dissipates instantly all these clouds, that break up,
vanish, an d disappoi11t the excited expectation of the traveller,
who hoped for rcfreshi11g rni11 s. - G LJYOT: Earth awl J.l fan, 152.

115

These paragraphs as originally written cont::tinecl a statement of a cause followed by a statement of a result of that
cause. Supply the omitteu portion.
Some tribes, especially those that lived in the neighborhood of
the great lakes, made certain tools and implements of copper,
which metal, it is said, they had some means of hardening, so that
it would cut wood tolcrnuly well. But they ha<l no iron. Accordingly - - - - - - The .coming of the Europeans to this country, brought new
races not only of men, but also of plants and animals, into contact a11d conn ectio n wiLh those previously existing here. The
result was ·
- - - Every American boy should learn to run. The English boy is
encouraged to nm. In fact, at so1ne of the great English public
schools, boys of thirteen aml fourteen years of age, like Tom
Bro wn a nd East at Rugby, can cover six and eight miles crosscountry in the great hare-and-hounds runs. Every boy is turned
out twice a week, out of doors, and made to run, and fill himself
full of pure fresh air and sunshine, and gain more strength and
life than any amom1t of weight-pulling or dumb-bell work in stuffy
gy11111asin111s wonld give l1i1n. Sec 1.lte result - - - - - - - -.
By the Articles of Confederation the General Government had
no power to levy taxes, and yet it had power to incur debts. The
result was - - - - - - - The relation of trades unions to civilization is much misunderstood, and this misunderstanding h as r es ulted in - - - - -.
Organized labor has for some time bee n limiting the number of
apprentices that may be admitted at any one time to a shop or a
factory in order to learn a trade. In some lines of vrnrk one boy
to four journeyme1-i is the rule; in others, where the union influence is strong, not more than one boy for every eight, or ten, or a
dozen, mechanics is permitted. The consequence is - That the laws and regulations of the Spartan constitution were
admirably adapted to the end in view, - the rearing of a nation

_.r '

117

Co mposition-Bhetoric.

lVhat to Say.

of skilful a11cl resolute warriors,- tl1n lo11g· 111ilif.ary snprcrnacy of
Sp<trta arnoug the states of Grecee alrnmla11 Lly attests. Uut when
we consider the aim and object of the Spartan institutions, we
must pronounce them low aud unworthy. The true order of
things was just reversed among the Lacedrcn1011ians. Government exists for the individual: at Spartn, the individual lived for
the state. The body is intended to be the instrument of the mind:
the Spartn.ns reversed this, and attelllle<l to the etl ucation of the
mind only so far as its development enhanced the effectiveness of
the \Jody as a weapon in warfare. [ l:.esuHs] - - - - -· -.
Sparta, iu significant contrast to Athells, bequeathed 11othi11g to
posterity.

1. · The use of narcotics is injurious to the nerves, and
stunts the growing Locly.
2. The school-room was forbidding iir appearance: the ·
windows were dirty, the walls were bare and cheerless, and
the s-witch occupied the most prominent place in the room.
3. The framers of the Constitution thought that slavery
would die out after a time.
4. Poe believed that every literary production should be
short enough to Le read at one sitting.
5. ·washington knew, better than Braddock, the methods
of Indian warfare.
6. People in our crowded cities have at last learned that
good sanitary arrangements are absolutely necessary to public health.
7. The colonists, as English subjects, felt themselves
cntitlctl to all the rights guaranteed Ly the British Constitution.
8. No two men differed more widely than Hamilton and
Jefferson iu their ideas of government aud finauce.
9. \Vhittier felt keenly the national disgrace of slavery.
. 10. Our forefathers thought that only the wisest men in
the nation should choose the President.
11. School author~ties have come to see the importance
of physical culture.
12. The people of the North refused to believe that the
South was serious in its preparations for war and in its
threats of secession.

116

Dming the last fifty years the continents have been covered
with a perfect network of ntilroaLls, constructed at an enormous
cost of ln,bor aml capital. The aggrcgn.te length of the world's
steam rail ways in 1883 was aho 11t 275,000 rni \cs, snfficient, to n se
· l\fol11all's illusLrntio11, Lo gi rdl u Llw ea rth nlevc11 t;i111 eR at tl1c
equator, 01· more than su!licicnt to reach from the en,rth to Lhc
moon. The continental lines of rai lways are made virtun,lly continuous rou111l the worlcl \Jy co1111ecti 11 g li11cs of ocean steamers.
Telegraph wires traverse the coutiueuts in all directions, and
cables run beneath all the oce::tns of the globe. By these inventions - - - - - J efferson's interest in public affairs had become a part of his
nature, and could not suddenly cease. Accordingly in his retirement - - - - - - - The people saw, in ·washil1gton, the hero of the war for independence, the austere champion of their libertfos, the devoted
leader of ill-fed, ill-clad armies fighting against fearful odds.
They knew tlrnt his life had been pure, that under ::tu exterior
scemi11gly cold there beat a warrn aJHl l10RpitaLle heart. What
wonder then that - - - - - - - -

LESSON 19.

I-low Paragraphs Grow - Proofs.
EXERCISE 35.

Develop each of the following topic-sentences into a parngrnph
by presenting the i;esult which seems naturally to flow from each: -

If a writer should begin a paragraph with the topic-sentence, " The Greeks did not understand athletics at all so
well as the English do," many readers would question the

118

Goniposition-Rhetoric.

What to Say.

truth of the statement. 'L'hey would say that the Greeks
both umlerstoocl athletics and practised athletics better than
any other people in the history of the world, ancl they would
want to know 011. w]1a,L gro 11nd so prr.pmd;c rn11s a, notion was
advancecl. It would then be the business of the w riter, if
he wanted his reaclers to agree with him, to bri11g forward
the grounds or proofs of his assertion. By pointing out
<lcfccts in the Grr.r.k sysLr. 111 of trn.i11i11 g- or rna1111<11· of: r.nnclucti)1g athletic contes ts, or, perhaps, by qnoti11 g from the
opinions of tho Greeks tli c rn sclvm~, li e woul11 m1dcrwo r to
make his opening sentence seem probable or true. Such is
the method employed in the following paragraph: -

despotic kings, the Greeks h ad already gathered themselves
toge ther in cities, - societies ruled, not by force, but by the persuasions 0£ equa l law. Anothe r proof of it is found in the Greek
hoolrn. Tlinro wn Ii111l writnrR oJ all sorts, poets and l1iRt;orians
and philosopliers, habitually striving to get at the reasons of things.
On this side, Gre ek literature h as an interest such as belongs to no
other literature. It shows us how some questions which have been
solved since, and others which are being discussed still, appeared
Lo 1,lui peopl e wl1u find, Rcriowi ly Lriod Lo a1113wor thom. -lt. C. J.1rnH:
Primer of Greek Literature, G.

Though extraordinary feats were sometim es recorded, I believe
that the Greeks did not unders ta nd athletics at all so well as the
English do. Two factR m ay lid rncntio11cd i11 proof of this. The
runners are said to have started shouting: The boxers, w ho had
their fists weighted with loaded leather gloves, swung round at one
another's ears, instead of striking straight home. ·w hat we h ear
about their training seems equally stupid; their trained m en are
. described as generally sleepy, they fed on enormous quantities
of meat, and were obliged to swear that they had spent ten months
in trainin g before th e games. Good generals, such as Alexander
and Philopmrne11, disco11ntena11ced athletics as producing bad
soldiers. llut, n everthe less, Lh e co1nl1i11at.i on of art contests with
athletics made t he Greek mee tings fin er and more imposing than
ours. - J. P. l\lAHAFFY: Old Greek Life, 77.
By this method I1rofessor .Tebb develops the thought that the
Greeks were the first people to make reason the guide of social
life : -

The Greeks were not the first people who found out how to till
the earth well, or to fashion metals, or to grow rich by war or
commerce, or to build splendid houses and temples . But they
were the first people who tried to make reason the gnide of their
social life. One proof of th is is fonnd in the very existence of the
Greek cities. ·while otl 1er men were living iu triues or unrler

119

An eighth way of developing a paragraph-theme consists m adding to the topic-sentence sentences containing proofs.
EXERCISE 36.

In each of the following pnrngraphs, what is the exact
idea to be proved?
this idea.

Poiut out the sentences which prove

The death of Cresar was an irreparable loss, not only to the
Roman people, but to the whole civilized world; for the Republic
was utter ly ruined, and no earthly power could restore it. Cresar's
death involved the State i11 fresh struggles and civil wars for many
a year, lt11Lil in Ute end it fell again (and this was th e best that,
un(ler the circnm stances, could have happened to it) nuder the
s upremacy of Augustus, who h ad n either the talent, nor the will,
uor t he power, to carry out all the beneficent plans "vhich l1is
great-uncl e had formed . It has been truly said, that the murder
of Crcsar was the most senseless act the Romans eve r committed.
Had it been possible at all to res tore the Republic, it would unavo idably have fallen into t he hands of a most profligate aristocracy;
who >vould have sought nothing but their own aggrandizement;
would have demoralized the people still more; and would have
established their own greatness upon the ruins of their country.
It is only necessary to recollect the latter years of the Republic,
th e depravity and corruption of the rnling classes, the scenes of
violence and blood-sh ed which co nstantly occurred in the streets
of Home, to render it evideut to every one that peace and security

.
~-

- - --

-

.

.

~

..

'

":'

..

-

-

....

-

-

.

'"

. --

121

Composition-Rhetoric.

What to Say.

could Hot be rc8to rccl, excc p(; 11,y th e ALrong han<l of a sovcrcig11;
::111d the Jtoman world •vo nld l1 :we been forL111mte indeed, if it had
sub mitted to the mild a 11J Le11efice11t sway of Cmsar. - Su HMITZ:
IIistory of Rome.

lt does not appear t hat Sh:,i.kespeare thought his works worthy
of posLerity, t hat he levied any ideal tribute upon future times,
o r J1:td any further prospect than of present popularity and present
profit. 'Vhen ltis plays J1 ad been acted, hi s hope was at an end;
he solicited no addition of honor from the reader. Ile therefore
made no, scruple to r epeat the same jests in many dialogues, or to
entangle different plots by the same knot of perplexity; which
may be at least forgiven him by those who recollect that of Cong reve's fo ur comedies, two are concluded by a marriage in a mask,
by a deception which perhaps never happened, and which, whether
likely or not, he did not invent.
·
So careless was this great poet of future fame t h at, t hough he
retired to ease and plenty while he was yet little "declined into
the vale of years," before he could be disgusted with fatigue, or
disabled by infirmity, he made no collection of his works, nor
desired to rescue those that h ad been already published from the
depravatio118 that obsc ured thern, or secure to the rest a better
destiny, by giving them to the world in their genuine state.
Of the plays which bear t he name of Shakespeare in the late
editions, the greater part were not published till about seven years
after his death; and the few which appeared in his life are apparently thrust into the world without the care of the author, and
therefore probably without his knowledge. - JonNSON: Preface to
Shakespeare.

120

An aL use like our spoil s system does not remn,in stationary.
Either it will Le reformed, or it will increase Ly its own momentum, t ill we shall sec, at first cautiously and under specious pretenses, and finally as a rn a(;ter of course, all the best oflices in t he
arllly and navy aµpropriaL ctl at every cha11ge of ml 111inisLratio n
on the theory" To the victors belong t he spoils." And why JJot?
It would be as reaso nable and just to make changes in military
and naval offices on party gro und s as it is in the civi l ser vice. If
such ch anges are good for the civil service, they ought to Le good
for other branches of t he service. This is the way the advocates
of rotation would ar gue; a nd nJthough s uch a development of the
spoils Rystem wo uld be deprccate<l by all friends of good aclmin istration, we must not Le Loo cu111ide11t it will not occu r. -ANDREWS:
Administrative R eform, 28.
Competition is t he best security for cheapness, but by no m eans
a security for q uality. I n former times, when producers and
consumers were less num ero us, it was a security for both. The
market was not l arge enongh nor the means of publicity sufficient
to enable a dealer to nmke a :forLune hy co nti nually attracting new
c us tomern : hi s RncceRs <lcpen<led on his retaini 11g those that he
had; and when a dealer furni shed good a rticles, or when he did
not, the fact was soon known to those whom it concerned, and he
acquired a character for h onest or <lishonest dealing of more importan ce to him than i,h e gain that wo11l<l l1c ma<lc hy cltr,aLing
casual purchasers. Unt 011 t lt e great Reale of modern transactions,
with the great multiplication of competition and the immense
increase in the quantity o( btrnin css competed for, dealers are so
little dependent on pcrn1 a ncnt cusLo rn crn that character is much
less·essential to them, w hil e there is also far Jess certainty of their
obtaini11g the character they dese rve. The low prices which a
tradesman advertises are known to a thousand, for one who has
<liscovcre<l for hirnse lC or learn ed [n1111 others Lhat t,l1 e lm<l <111ality
of t he goods is more Lhan an equivalent for t heir cheapness. MrLL: Chapters on Socialism.

In rural occ upation there is nothing mean and debasing. It
leads a man forth among scenes of natural grandeur and beauty;
it leaves him to the workings of his own mind, operated upon by
Lite purest and 1n ost elevati ng of external i11flnc11ces. Such a man
may -be simple and rough, but he cannot be vulgar. The man of
refinement, therefore, finds nothing revolting in an interco urse
with t he lower orders of rural life, as he does when he casually
min gles with the lower orde rs o( cities. Ile lays aside liis di stance
a nd reserve, aud is gfatl to waive the distinctions of rank, and to
enter into the h ones t, heartfelt enjoymeuts of common life. Indeed,
the very amusements of the country bring men more a~1d n~ore
togetl1 cr, a nd the sound of l1 ouml and horn Llend all feelrn gR mto
h armony. I b elieve th is is one great reason why the nobility and
gentry are more popular among the inferior orders in England

122

Composition-Rlietoric.

Wliat to Say.

th an they are in any other country; and why the latter have
endured so many excessive pressures and extremities, without
repining more generally at th e unequ al distribution of fortune
and privilege. - Inv1NG: S k etch Book: Rural Life in England.

LESSON 20.

It is too soon as ye t to attempt to estim ate tl1e effect of the
Reform Act of 18G7. The i_wopl e e111'rai1cliise\l under it <lo not
yet know their owu power: a si11 gle electio n, so far from teachi11g
us how they will use that power, has 11ot hecn eve n enough to
expbi11 to Llt nm tl1al; Ll1cy ltav n >111d1 power. Tlte ltdorn1 Ado[
1832 Jitl not for many years Jisclose its real conseque nces; a
writer in 183G, whether h e approve<l or disapproved of tl1e111,
whether he thought too little of, or whcLl1 er he exaggerated them,
would have l>een sure to l>e mi staken i11 them. - BAGEHOT: English Constitution, 3.

EXERCISE ;17.

Supply proofs for each of the following topic-sentences, or of
their opposites: -

1. Shorter political campaigns are tlesirable.
2. Shylock's treat1nent was nnjnst.
3. 'l.'ltc. Unitcu States sltunhl 11 ::we a larger stallllillg
army.
4. Local elections shoul(l be free from partisanship.
5. The primary obj ect of the Civil War was not to free
the slaves.
6. One may read too much even in good books.
7. Statesmanship in Congress is not declining.
8. A gcueral European war would Le a gootl thing for
American fn,nncrs.
D. 'l.'he acquisition of CuLa. by the United States is not
desirable.
10. Labor-saving machin ery benefits labor.
11. It is a bad policy to strike.
12. The acl vantages of travel are over-estimated.

123

flow Paragraphs Grow - Combination of 11wo or More
11.fethods.
'l'wo or more of the foregoing methods of development
are frequently illustrated in a single paragraph.
1. In few things is the great advance made in this country
during the past 011e hundred years more strikingly apparent than
in the ch ange which has taken place in the social and iutellectual
co ndition of the school-master. 2. The educatio u of the young
has no w l>ecome a lucrative profession by itself aud i1umuers
a111011g its followers mrmy of the choicest minds of the age.
3. The school-master is specially prepared for his work, aucl is in ·
receipt of a snm snflicient to maintain him in comfort, to enable
l1im to proclll'c lJooks, a11<l, if lie be so inclineLl, to travel. 4. Booksell ers and pul>lishers make a liberal discount in his behalf. 5. The
governrneut allows him to import the text-l>ooks and apparatus
used in his "vork duty free. G. Ile is everywhere regarded as an
eminently useful member of society. 7. But the lot of the schoolmaster who taught in the district school-house three generations
since fell in a very different time and among a very differeut
people. 8. School was then held in tlte little red school-house for
two months in the winter by a man, and for two months in the
summer by a woman. 9. The boys went in the winter, the girls
in the .summer. 10. The master was generally a divinity st udent
who 11ad graduated at 011e of the academies, who had scarcely
passed out of his teens, and who sought by the scanty profits derived from a winter's teacl1ing to defray the expenses of his study
at Harva rd or at Yale. 11. His pay was small, yet he was never
called upon to lay ont any portion oI it for hi s keep. 12. Tf the
district were populous and wealthy a little sum was annually set
apart for his board, and he was placed with a farmer who would,
for that amount, board and lodge him the longest time. 13. But
this was far too expensive a method for many of the districts, and
th'e master was, th erefore, expected to live with the parents of his
pupils, regulating the length of his stay by the number of the boys

124

Composition-lUtetoric.

Wliat to Say.

125

•

in the family atten<li11g his school. 11. Thus jt happcn e<l that; i11
the cou rse of hi s tcachi11g lie bcca111e a11 i11111atc o( all th e l1 ouses
of the district, and was uot seldom fo rced to walk five miles, in tlie
worst of weather over the worst of roads, to hi s sch ool. 15. Yet,
mendicant though li e was, it would he a grnat llli st:ike to snppose
that he was 11ot always a welcome guest. JG. Ile s lept in the !Jest
room, sat in t.lie wannest nook by 1.l1fl fire, a11d l1:i<l the best food
set before h im at the table. 17. Jn t.he long winter evc11i11gs he
helped the boys with their lessons, held yarn for th e daughters, or
escorted them to sp i11nin g rnal.chns o r rp1ill.i11gR. ]8. 111 rel.ul'11 for
his miserable pittance and his board the yo ung student taug ht
what would uow be considered as t he rudi111ents of an edncation.
19. His daily labors ·w ere confined to teach in g his scholars to read
with a moderate degree of fluency, to write legibly, to spell with
some regard for the rules of orthog raphy, a 11d to know as mnch
of the rules of arithm e tic as would e nable tJrnm to calculate the
interest on a debt, to k eep t he fam ily accou nts, :wd to make
change in a Rhop. - JV[cMASTElt: llistory '!f lite l'eo11fo of the
Unife1l ::>tales .

Taken as a whole the foregoing paragraph illustrates the
method of contrast, the com1ition of the ancient schoolmaster (sentences 7-19) being contrasted with the condition
of the modern (sentences 2-6) . But iu the development of
the contrasted ideas several other rn cthods ::ire exemplified.
Thus it is hardly necessary to point out that the contrasted
ideas are tltemsel ves developed by the method of pa.rticulars. Again, the ide::is in sentences 13 and 14 are related
to each other respectively as c;iuse and effect, ancl th e idea
of sentence 1u, that the school-master wn.s a welcome guest,
is developed in sentences 16 am117 by Btcans of illustrative
particulars. A minor contrast appears in sentence-gronps
10-14 aad 10- 17.
Note in this pn.ragraph the words used to show the connection of ideas : in sentence 7, but; in sentence 11, yet; in
sentence 13, but, therefore; in sentence 14, tlrns; in sentence
15, yet.

EXEHCISE 38.

Distinguish the inethods of development used m the
following paragraphs : -

The Contagion of Manners.
[From Concerning A ll of Us, \Jy permission.
aud Brothers.]

Copyright, 1892, \Jy Harper

At a large public meeting, the other day, several of the speakers
urged the value of public-school discipline, pointing out th e advantage of bringing children of different social circles together in
school as in life; and the permanent good arising when the child
of the professional man, for in stance, is beaten in his studies, as
sometimes h appens, by the child of the day-laborer. All such
allusions invariab ly brought applause from a very well educated
and ge nerall y well-to-do audieiice. But it was observable that
these a rguments all began and eudcd w ith boys. Not a word was
said by any speaker about the advantages or disadvantages, if any,
of g iving to girls the same discipline; and this omission seemed
rather to vitiate the argument. As the education and even the
employments of t he two sexes are plainly coming nearer together
- contrary to what used to be predicted as the result of advancing
civilization- it would seem that the problem of education must
be in this respect much the same for both. Yet there are undoubtedly r1tany parents who, while able to see the advantages of
a more public education for boys, draw the line there, and demand
for their growing daughters wh at is called "a select school."
JV[y own impress ion is that this distinction is a mistake, and t hat
whatever a rgumen ts apply to public-school education for boys
must reach girls also. Jn the first place, girls need, even more
than boys, to learn at school the qualities and merits of those in a
diffe re nt social c.ircle, bec:rnse if they tl o uot loal'll it theu, they
may never learn it. l\:Ien learn it all through their lives, because
almost eve ry depn.rtrne11t of business Lriugs iuto co11 tact and comparison those trained in very different spheres. vVomen not engaged in busin ess have much less opportunity for this contact;
their homes include but two grades - employers and employed;

126

Composition-llhet01·ie.

and outside of their hom es it is only some rare or.casion of cl111rclt
work or charil.ahle work wl1i clt brings wo111c11 inl.o lltat easy i11l1 ~ r­
course, so faruilbr to me n, with those 0 11!; of Lheir own set . H
Ethel does not learn at scl1ool tl1at Lile <langhtcr of Lhe coal-heaver
or the washer-woman may be as good a scholar aml even have as
good manners as herself, she ma.y never J1ave another opportn11ity;
whereas her brother may make t he same <li scove ry in college or
in business. So far, then, the 11ced of Ll1is free early i11tcrcourse
wouhl seem even greater in case of the girl.
The answer to this wonl1l on tliat tl1 e ri sk of co11La1ni naLion in
morals or manners will also IJe greate r iu case of the girl. Is this
so certain? It is useless to den y that in certain large cities populated largely by lately arrived fore igners there may lie some gronml
for this fear; bnt j(; n111 sl; not he car ri ed l'n.r. It 11111 st alwn.ys be
reme111bered t;l1at, fort,1111al;cly for 011r c iviliz:Lt.io11, 1.11 e race a1Hl
religion most )a,rgely reprcse 11 led a111ong Lltesc very foreigners are
admitted to maintain a high sta111:1ard of feminine pu ri ty; and
that, therefore, as to the most i1nporta11t cssc nt,ialR, t,hc dan ge r is
less Lltau 011e migltL suppose. II: it he~ s:i.i1l that in case o[ a gi rl
there should be absolutely 11 0 Janger at all, it cn,11 only be answered
that no such securi(;y has ever been tliscovered, si11ce the co nventual
system of e<lucrition certainly docs 11ot effc ~ct it;. Ev en as Lo wanners the most exclusive prfrate school rnn.y still leave mnch to be
desired. The more exclusive it is, the more certain it is that some
very rough material will be se nt Llt ere to be made iuto shape. I have
heard an aHxious parent deplore that tlie occasional outbreaks of
her little girl in the direction of rndeuess and slang were generally
traced to the carefully selected cltiklren o[ the city school, and 11ot
to the offspring of country blacksmiths n.nd farm laborers with
whom she played at their snm111er l1 ome.
I remember to have discussed this matter with a gentleman
whose official duties obliged him to take an interest in l;he public
schools. Ile shook hi s head over them a good deal, thinking that
hn.11 rna1111ers were 111orn co11Lagion:-1 l.l1:i.11 go()(l, :1.11<1 Ll1:it t.ltn gc!11eral mixture was dangerous. Yet it turrtetl out;, as l suspec!;ed, t hat
his own daughters could have taught th e other school-girls more
real mischief than they would 11ave learned from them, although
these young ladies had been reared in French sec) 11sion. It is the
general experience, probably, t hat the freedom of American man-

What to Say.

127

ners (,rains those who grow up under it, and that there is nothing
more dangerou s Lhan to Le trnnspl:tn ted into it from a foreign
conve11t. As to the general proposition that bad is more contagions tl1a11 good, it is probable that much depends 011 the temperament of the observer.
It is to be noticed, however, that the greater imitativeness of
girls is, on Ll1e whole, an aid to civilization. A11y one can see in a
public sch ool that the presence of a few girls better dressed and
bette r ma1111ered than the rest is a great stimulus to the others
and a so urce of immedi:1te imiLatiou; whereas boys care comparatively little for such things. The longing desire for "good form"
exl1i1Ji ts itself in girls of eight or ten, whereas a boy of the same
age would with the greatest co 111 posure wear a torn hat and patched
tro11scrn in to th e presence of a fe udal aristocracy.
On the whole, where home influences are t11oroughly good and
a child's nature is still transparent, so that the pare11 t can keep .
watch over it, there seems to be little danger to the manners and
moral s of boys, or oven of girls, from any 01'dinary pnblic school.
Early sins are less cou tn.gious than we are apt to suppose, and they
certainly do not go so deep.
Any one wl10 will review his childish n,ssociates, and co11sider
how many of his most perilous com pan ions have turned out irreproachably, will surely take a more hopeful view. The only boy
in m y native town with whom I was expressly forbidden to associate for fear of moral contamination has siuce died an eminent
clergy man; and the only member of my college class who ever
reachE;d the state prison would have been recognized by unanimous
vote, at our graduation, as the most trustworthy and thoroughly respectable member of the class. - T. W. Il1GGINSON.
Before closing this chapter let me say something about the
reading of business letters as well as the writing of them. It is,
perhaps, a harder duty to read such letters with tl1 e necessary
degree of aLL011Lion Ll1an Lo con1poso Lho1n, for Lhe auLhor has his
head charged with the subject, aud writing the letter is a relief to
him, but to the receiver the matter is new, and however lucid may
be the exposition it always requires some degree of real attention
on his part. How are you, being at a distance, to get au indolent
man to bestow that necessary attention? He feels secure from a

-

-----!.

I

128

.

12D

Gornposition-lllwtorie.

Wltat to Say.

personal visit, and indu lges hi s ind ole nce by neglecting yonr concel'Jls, even when they are also his ow11. Lo11g ago 1 hea.nl an
English Archdeacon tell the following story al>ont his Bishop.
The prelate was 011e of that num erous class o[ men wlio loathe the
sight of a business let t.er, an<l he ha<l i11dul ged his ind olence in
that respect to such a degree that, liLtle by little, he liad arrived
at the fatal stage where one leaves letters rn1ope11 ed for clays or
weeks. At one particular time the J\ rchcleacon was aware of a
g reat arrear of unopened letters, and impressed his lordship vvith
tho necessity of taki11g· s o111< ~ 1101.n ol: Lll('ir co 11 f.n11L::i. Yi c ltli11 g Lo a
stronger will, the Bishop began to read, and one of the first cornmunications was from a wealthy man wl10 offered a large sum for
church purposes (I think for building), but if the offer was not
accepted within a certain lapse of time he declared hi s intention
of making it to that which a Bishop loveth not- a dissenting
community. The prelate had ope ne<l the letter too late, and he
lost the money. I believe that t l1 e Archdeacon's vexation at tl1e
loss was more than co unterbalan ced by graWication tl 1at l1is hi erarchical superior had received such a lesso n for his neglect. Yet
he did but imitate N apoleo11, of whom Emerson says, "He direc ted
Bourrienne to leave all letters unopened for three weeks, and then
observed ·with satisfaction how large a part of the correspondence
ha.d disposed of itself a.nd 110 longer required an answer." This is
a very unsafe system to adopt, a.s the case of the Bishop proves.
Things may "dispose of themselves " in tlte wrong way, like wine
in a leaky cask, which, instea<l of putting itself carefully into a
sound cask, goes trickling into the earth. - lIAMJ<;RTON: Ilwnan
lntercotirse.

The English cl ergyman may ride on horseback and be active in
other ways; still there is a prejudice even in England against
too much healthy activity in clergymen. Being on a visit to a
vicar in the north of England, I found that he possessed a complete apparatus for archery. "That is a good thing for you," I
said; but he looked melancholy, aud answered, "It would be if
my parishi01iers permitted the use of it, but they talked so much
that I was forced to give up archery. They considered it unbecorn i 11g i11 a clergyman, who onght to be attending to his parish.
I lad L 1'11cnt !,lie sa111e tilllc over a decanter of port wine in lllY
dining-room they would have raised no :objection." The same
clergyman was fond of leaping, but indulged that passion in
secret as if it had been a sin. Still, these prejudices are stronger
in France . I never saw a French priest shoot, or hunt, or row in
it boat. It cairnot be the cruelty of shooting and hunting which
prevents hirn , as he is allowed to fish with hooks; it is simply
tl1 e actiYi ty of the maulier sports that excites disapprobation. All
Frcnchlll cn who care for their uignity avoid velocipedes of all
kiu<ls, wliich are used only by young men, who are generally in
the middle class, such as clerks and shopkeepers' assistants. In
England, where the prejudice against activit;y is not -so strong,
velocipedes are often used by rather elderly gentlemen, who are
not ashamed of being active. - HAMERTON: French and English, 7.

False ideals of dignity are very inimical to effective bodily exercise. A foolish notion that it is more dignified to be seen in a
carriage than on horseback has deprived all Fre11ch ecclesiastics
of the use of the saddle. Their modes o-f locomotion are settled
by a fixed rule; tliey rnay walk (L\·<~ l l()l'a lly with Llrn lil'cviary in
their hands, which they read whilst walking), and t he poor cure
may now keep a small pm1y caniage. A bishop rn11st a lways ride
in a close carriage drawn by a pair of horses . A cure may drive
himself; a bishop m ay not drive. In England these rules are not
so strict, as the clergy are not so widely different from the laity.

It .was <Jnite three weeks before I began to keep any record of
impressions, and I cannot therefore fix the date at which I pushed
my search for them beyond the limits of the Piazza Santa Maria
Novella, where we were lod ged. It is better to own up at once to
any sin which one is likely to Le found out in, for then one gains
at least the credit of candor and conrage; and I will confess here
that T lrntl come to Florence with the intention of writing about
it. But I rather wonder now why I should have thought of writi1ig of the wh ole city, wh en one piazza in it ·was interesting enongh
to niak c a. hook abont. n was i11 iLsclE 11ot one of the most interesting piazzas o( Florence in the ordinary way. I do not know
that anyt hin g very hi storical ever happened t here; but that is by
no means saying that there did not. There used, under the early
Medici and the late grand dukes, to be chariot-races in it, the goals
of which are the t;wo obelisks by John of Bologna, set upon the

130

Coniposition-.llhctoric.

backs of the bronze turtles, which the R,ympatlwt ic observ er will
fancy gasping un<ler th()ir we ight at eiLhor e111l of tl1e irreg ular
space; an<l its wide floor is sti ll unp aved, so that it is a sop of mud
in rainy weather, and a whirl of dust i11 dry. At the eud opposite
the church is the terminus of the steam tramway ruuuing to
Prato, and Lhe s111all eng ine that, drew Lhc trains o( two or tl 1rec
horse-cars linked together was perpetually fretting and irnuflling
about the base of the obelisk tl1erc, as if that were a stump, and
the engi11 e were a Loy's dog with iutolerable conviction of a woodchuck under it. From time to ti111c tl1 e comliictor lil ow a ::;mall
horn of a feeble, rce1ly note, like that of the l1orns wl1ich children
find in their stocking::; on Chri::;tn1a:;; 111orn in g; :w<l Lhnn I.he poot"
liLtle engin e hitched itself to the train, and with an ail' of hopeless
affliction snuflicd away toward l'rato, aml fe[t the woodchuck
under the obelisk to escape. The imprcsRion of n woodchuck was
confirmed by the digging aro1111tl the obelisk, which a gang of
workmen kept up all winter; t hey laid dowJJ water-pipes, and then
dug them up again . H11f; when the on~i1u~ wa::; g-oncl we co11l1l give
011r n1i11cls Lo other Rigld.s in Llui piazza.
One or these was the passage of troop:;;, infantry or cavalry, wl10
were always going to or frorn the great railway station behind the
church, and who en tered it with a gay blare of bugles, extinguished
midway of the square, lcWng the lll eas 11red tramp of feet or the
irreg ular clack of hoofs ma,ke iLseH heard. This was always thrilling, and we could uot get e11ough of the brave spectacle . We
rejoiced in the parade of Italian 11Jilitary force with even more
than native ardor, for we were not taxed to pay for it, and personally the men were beautiful; n of; large or strong, but regular a11d
refined of face, rank and file alike, in t hat democracy of good looks
which one sees in no other Janel. Th ey marched wil,li a lou11gi11 g,
swinging step, u11der a lJCavy lmrdcu of cqniptnent, aud with the
sort of quiet patience to wliich the whole nation has been schooled
in its advance out of slavish subjection to the van of civilization.
JlowELLS : Tuscan Cities, 4, !i.

EXERCISE 30.

Develop the followi11g outlines into para.graphs uy supplying the
missing sentences : -

·what to Say.

131

The discovery of the American continent was made by a
native of Italy, but [topic-sentence showing Spain's interest
in the discovery J . . . Thus it came about [result, developed by particulars J . . .
'l'he M.omoe Doctrin e is a warning to European powers to
k eep their hanlls off territory in North and South America.
In other words . . . [repetition J . . . This is as if . . .
[comparison with some familiar occurrence of ordinary life J
. . . 'L'lt c assertion of the Momoe Doctrine has sometimes
been int.c rpreted to mean that the United States will interfere whenever misunderstanllings arise between European
powers and the South American Republics, ~ut . . . . [con~
-trastJ . . . For example . . . [an instance m wluch the
United States refused to interfere J . . .
There are times in the life of everyone when new and
strange things occm wit;h frnch rapidity that ~ne is ha.rdly
able to cn,tch one's breath between the happemngs. It is as
though . . . [ analogy to show suddenness of change] . . .
To-day one may be ... [contrast J . . . Twenty-four hours
may .. . [repetition emphasizing rapidity of events] . . .
It was so with . . . [ example from history] . . . when he
. . . [particubrs J . . . From such sudden changes one
may come forth much stronger in character, and . . .
[res ult].
.
During the annual meeting of the "'Westinghouse Electnc
Mannfacturing Compnny at Pittsburgh recently, a test was
nrn<le of a 11cw rnilway electric motor. This motor easily
drew several loaded freight cars at a rapid rate and with a
low supply of electricity, and the opinion was general that
in this in veution there has been fonull an economical substitute for steam-power on long-distance railways. If this
should prove to be the case . . . [results] . . . These
changes are sure to come in time, because . . . [ proofs
showiug their desirability] . . . The only thing th~t can
delay the substitution of electric for steam power is the

132

133

Composition-Rhetoric.

What to Say.

question of expense . . . [particulars J . .
But . . . [contrast showing that this objection will be overcome J ...
The present situation is somewhat similar to that which
existell when . . . [comparison showi11g that expense did
not prevent the adoption of an earlier invention] . . . It
will be so with this la.test in ventiou. 'l'he extraordinary
demand for the new motor will enable the manufacturers to
furnifih it at rates very m11cl1 lower th:i.n now appcn,r possible; a1td we may, Lherefote, ex_tJcd . . . [linal resulLJ.
How differently tenants treat rented property entrusted
to their earn! One elass seem ntterly carciess of appea.rances . . . [pa.rticulars] . . . On the other haucl, some
tenants take pritle in keeping the propert;y in repair .. .
[other particula.rs J . . . Lamllords are forturrnte in securing tenants of this class, but they do not expect such to stay
long, for such irnlustrions and careful persons usually manage after a time to . . . [ particula,r result of inclustry].
Every boy has somewhere stored away in his mind the
memory of somfl thrilling personnl adventnre or delightful
personal experience. As often i.t s he thin ks of it . . .
[result] . . . It is as if . .. [ comparisull tu lJri11g out the
vividness of the recol1ccti011] . . . Suel1 was tlto experience
which came to me . . . [p1trtic1tbrs, ti111 c, place, ci rcumsta.nces J . . . The upshot of the whole rna.tter was . . .
[result].
It is probable that the southern states w·onld not have
begun the Civil \¥ar had the southern people realized the
great wealth aud resonrces of the popnlons North. Had
they known of the . . . [particulars specifying i·esources]
. . . they -wouhl not so hnstily . . . [result] . . . 'L'he
leaders of the secession movement <lonbtless did not underestimate the strength of the North, though they cfol misunderstand its temper. J~ut the plain people of the South
who filled the southern armies a.nd bore the heaviest burdens of the conflict . . . [ cuHtrast] . . . 'l'Jtey were 111 islc<l

by appeals to their state pride, while the real facts as to the
power and spirit of the North were concealed from them.
That they maintained a brave and stubborn contest so long
was due . . . [cause and effectJ . . . ; their uniform success at the beginning of the war was mainly owing . . .
[cause aud effect J
Once the North was fully aroused
. . . [result J . . . 'rhey were clearly over-matched.
EXE1w1sg 40.

Develop the following topic-sentences, using at least two of the
meLlw<ls of <levclopmeut <lcscribed in the foregoing lessons: -

1. The dangers of athletic contests are over-estimated.

2. Longfellow and Whittier were different types of men.
3. Rivers seem to have lost much of their importance
with the geographers.
4. There is much to be learned from a visit to a machine
shop.
5. Burr's whole career was mnrked by insincerity.
G. At the llead of night, every sound seems to be full of
a fearful signilica,nce.
7. The winter a.t Valley :Forge was foll of suffering for
Wn,shington's army.
S. Fisl1ing excursions, I have noticed, are seldom repea.ted by the same people during the same season.
0. American sta.tes have not yet learned how to deal
effectively with the tramp.
10. · Rapid street-railway transit is making healthier
homes possible for laboring men .
11. There are very few of the old proverbs that prove
true in all cases.
12. There is a vital <listinction between "liberty" and
"doing what you please."
13. Lo~s .of hearing deprives one of more pleasures_than
loss of sight:

'-------

How to Say It.

CHAPTER IV.
HOW TO SAY IT.

LESSON 21.

Short Sentences and Their Uses.
IN the preceding chn,pter we have seen that n, writer may
buil<l rip a, paragraph .from a topic-so11to11cr. liy a<lili11 g oth er·
sentences conta,ining one or more oJ the followi ng: repetitions of some of the ideas of the topic-sentence, particulars
and details, specific instm1ces or exa.mples, comparisons and
ana.logies, staten1e11ts telling 1vhnt a thing is not or is not
like, contrasts, causes or effects, a.ml proofs. Having built
up the paragraph from the topic-sentence by one or more of
these methods, t he question sti ll remai11s for the writer
whether he h as properly divide<l his thought into sentences.
One important part of this <]Uestion is concerned with the
le11 gth of the different sentences. Shall the sentences be all
of about the same length, or of <lifferent lengths? and why?
Are there special uses for long sentences in a para.graph
and special uses for shol't sentences? vVe will answer the
last <1ncstion fil' st.
Observe in the following pn,ragraphs how sharply tho
attention is arrested by tho sltort sentences (here printecl in
italics). It is because short sentences attract attention that
the topic-sentence of a paragraph is often found expressed
iu a short sentei1ce. (Sec r~essun 11.)
134

135

Age Lrings other obvious changes besides the loss of active
power. Tito se11siLilities aro less keen, the intelligence is less
lively, as we might expect uuder the i11Hue11ce of that narcotic
which Nature administers. But there is another effect of her·
"ulack drop" which is not so commonly recognized. Old age is
like an opium-dream. Nothing seems real except what is imreal. I
am sure that the pictures painted by the imagination, - the faded
frescoes on the walls of memory, - come out in clearer and brighter
colors than Lelonged to them ma11y years earlier. Nature has her
special favors for her children of every age, and this is one which
she reserves for our second childhood. - 0. vV. HoLl\rns: Over the
Teaciips, 39.
The distinguishing part of our constitution is its liberty. To preserve that liberty inviolate, seems the particular duty and proper
trust 0£ a member of the house of commons. But the liberty, the
only liberty I mean, is a liLerty connected with order; that not
only exisLs along with order and virtue, hut which carrnot exis t at
all without them. It inlteres in good and steady government, as
in its substance and vital principle. -BuRJrn: Speech on American Taxation.

Observe in the following paragraphs that the short sentences (here in italics) mark a transition from one part of
the subject to another: To write history respectably- that is, to abbreviate despatches,
and make extracts from speeches, to intersperse in due proportion
epithets of praise and abhorrence, to draw up antithetical characters of great men, setting forth how n1any contradictory virtues
and vices they united, and abounding in withs and withouts - all
this is very easy. But to be a really great historian is perhaps
the rarest of intellectual clisLinctions. .Many scientific works are,
in Lhcir k.i1Hl, absoluLely p erfect. There aro poems which wo
should be incline<l to designate as faultless, or as disfigured only
by blemishes which pass unnoticed in the general blaze of excellence. There are speeches, some speeches of Demosthenes particularly, in vvhich it would be impossible to alter a word without
altering it for the worse. But we are acquainted with no history

--

136

•..

Compos ition-.Rlwtoric.

which approaches to onr n otion of what a history on ght. to bowith 110 history whi ch clues 11 ot witlo ly clcpart, oilih cr 011 the right
hand or on the loft, from th o exact line.
Tfte cause may easily be assig11 erl. Tltis province of literature
rn a debatable land. It lies on t he co nflll e8 of t wo di stin ct territ ories. It is und er the jurisdiction o.E two hostile powe rs ; and
like other di stricts similarl y Rit 11ate d, it is ill-defin ctl, ill-c11ltivato<l,
and ill-regulated. Instead of Leing equally shared Letween it;s
two rulers, the Reason and the Imagination, it falls alternately
und er thn so lo a111l absolul.c clrn11i11i o11 oC each. If; is so111cL i111 cs
fiction . 1t is so met imes t l1 eory .
Ilistm·;i1, it. hos fl cen said, i.~ 7>hilosn1>h!f l f' m:hi11g hy m:m117>1es. lJ11happily, what the philosophy gai 11s in so umlness n.llll depth the
examples generally lose in vivid ness. A perfect hi storian rn ust
possess an imagin ation snfli cientl y powerful to m:tke his narrative
affecting and picturesque. Yet li e mnst control it so ahsolnLcly
as to content liimscl.E with the rn aterials which li e find s, a11d Lo
refrain from supplying defi ciencies by additions of his own. H e
must Le a profound and in ge ni o us reasoner. Yet lie mu st possess
sufficient seH-commaud to abstain from casting his facts in the
m~uld of hi s hypothesis. Tl1 ose who can justly estimate these
almost insuperabl e <lifiiculLies will not think it strange that every
writer should have failed, either i11 the narrative or in the speculative depart ment of history. - J\JA C AUJ, A Y : Essay on History.
I am not goin g to write the hi story of La P ucelle : to <lo this,
or even circnmstau tially to report the history of her p ersecution
and bitter death, of her stru ggle with false witn esses and with
ens naring jnclges, it would be ll Ccessary to have Lefore 118 nll the
documents, and t herefore t he collection · only now forthcoming in
Paris. Bttt my JlW')J ose is narrower. There have been great thinkers,
disdaining the careless ;jucl grn en ts of con temporaries, w 110 have
thrown themselves Loldly 011 th e ;judgm ent of a far posterity, that
Rhould ]rn.vc ]1ad time to nwie w, f.o porulcr, to cnrnpa.re. Tl1ere
have been great actors on the s t.age of tragic humauity that might,
with the same depth of c011fidence, have appealed from the levity
of compatriot friends - too heartless for the sublime interest of
their story, and too impatient for tlre labor of sifting its perplexities - to the magnanimi ty and justice of enemi es. To this class

--

Ifow to Say It.
l1elonr1s th e Jlfoid n.f Arc.

137

'

Tho ancient Romans were too faithful
to the ideal of gran<leur in themselves not to relent, after a genern.tion or two, before t he grandeur of Ifannibal. Mithridates, a
more · douLtfu l perso n, yet m erely for the magic perseverance of
hi s intlom ibLle m alice, won from the same Romans the only real
honor that ever he received on earth. And we English have ever
shown the same hom age to stubborn enmity. To work unflinchingly
for the ruin of En gland; to say through life, by word and by deed,
D ele111la est Anglia Victrix I - that one purpose of malice, faithfully
pu rs ued, l1 as qnarLere(l 801110 peop le upon our 11a!.io11a.l fuml s of
homage as by a perpet ual annuif;y . . . On the same principle,
Lrt 1'1 tco ll o cl 'Or] oa.11 s, t he v.ictorious enemy of En gland, l1as Leen
desti11ed to receive her deepes t commemoration from the magnanimous justice of E ngli,shmen . - DE QUINCEY: J oan of Arc.

In the following paragraph note that the short sentences
(here in italics) announce ideas that are developed or explained in the 1011ger sentences which follow: ·w e will ]eave to a separate chapter oul.' sketch of the literary
society of Eclinburgh as then flourishing . Th e attitude of Burns in
r esp ect to it is very curious and interest·i ng. H ere was a youllg peasant,
witlwut education, without kn owledge of the world, full of Scotch
reserve and that farouch e pride of the rustic which r eaches the
height of a passion. The pride which is s upposed to accompany
blue blood a ud great descent has j nstifications outside of the individual possessed by it; and in most cases it imposes a certain restraint upon that individual, and demands of him some q ualities,
or at Je;1.st some graces, in accordance with it. Bill the prirle of a
p easant is wildly p ersonal, a.nd independent of every consideration.

The more he is con scious of his deficiencies even, the m ore wildly
bent li e will be u1ion attentions and obse rvances due in society only
to high social qualifications: From the moment when Burns steps
into tlie li glil; in Etli11lrnrglr, tld8 rnixtnrc o[ slry 11css, i11onli11ate sclfopinion, and an almost polemical determination to prove himself
the equal , if 110t t.he s uperior of eve'rybody round him, appears both ·
in hi s b ehavior and in the private r ecords of his opinions. It was
no doubt a very difficult position. Uncnltured, unaccustomed to t he
ways of society, knowing noboLly, feeling himself a kind of vague

•
138

.
.

How to Say It.

Composition-lllietorie.

r eJWefiCllf;aLive, 110L only o[ µ;P11i11s 111d. of 111:1.11, :i.111011µ;

:l,

curious

crowd o[ s1111eriors, all 111orc or Jess di sposed Lo illfri11ge Lhese
rights, to patronize him, and lessen hi s own sense of dignity, he
appears on the defensive, always watchful lest sollle affront should
l>c i11tcn1k1l; lwg-11il1 ~ d i11d u1' d , i11Lo lll'Ll.1\r rn110118 in Ll1n wal'll1Lli of

social intercourse, hut ever rea1ly to take fire again, and to resent
not only imagin ary sligMs to 11irnself, l>nt even the civilities offered
to others vvhom lte thinlrn leRR worthy. - O Lil ' HANT: J~iterary Ilistory of the Ninctecnlh Ccnlitry, I, 112, 113.

Note, in the followi ug paragraphs, that the short sentences
(printed in italics) are sunwiaries of the thought expressed
at greater length in preceding sentences. 'l'he short sentences here put the whole truth in a brief and striking
form, abrupt, emphatic, and easily remembered. It is because a short sentence, when used iu conn ection with longer
sentences, is crnplirtl;ic by co nl;r:i.st;, l;!ial; writ;crs oft.en put tl1c
most irnport.:u1t thought of <L par:1.grnplt j11Lo :i, t::liurt; sentence, and when they repeat for emphasis, repeat in a short
sentence. A brief quotation, an epigram, or a proverb often
serves admirably the purpose of a smmnary.
Sir, whilst we h eld this l1 appy course, we drew more from the
Colo11ies than all the im potc n t violence of despotism ever could
extort from them. 'Ve ditl this ahunda.u tly in the last; war. It has
n ever been once deuied; and what reason have we to imagine that
the Colonies would 11ot have proceeded in supplying governrnei1t
as liberally, if you had not stepped in and hindered them from
contributing, Ly interrnptin g the cl1annel in which th eir liberality
flowed wit.It so sLro11g a co1u·s1~; by aLLc111pLi11 g- to tahc, i11sf;ca1l of
being satisfied to r eceive'? Sir William Te1nple says that Holland
has loaded itself with ten times the impositions, which it revolted
from Spai.11, rnLhcr tlian s11l1111it Lo. Ile says trne.
Tyrn1111y is
a poor provider. l l knows neither how to accimwlatc, nor how to
extract. - Bu run: : .1l 111crican 'l'axation.
Samuel Adams was the true king in Boston at that time. H e
was a man in middle life, of cultivated mind and stainless reputation - a powerful speaker and writer-a man in whose sagacity

,.
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-"

....

._

139

a.nil mo<lcraLion all men LrnsLcil. H e resc rnblrnl Lhc okl Pmitans
in his stern love of liberty - his reverence for the Sabbath, his
sincere, if somewhat formal, observance of all religious ordinances.
H e was amo ng the first to see that there was no r esting-place in
this sLr11ggle sl1orL of i11depe11Je11ce. " JYe arc free," h e said,
"and wanl no king." The men of Boston felt the power of his
resolute spirit, and manfully followed where Samuel Adams led. lY1ACKENZrn: America.
On the day of his death, Lhis simple 'Vestern attorney, who
according to one party was a vulgar joker, and >vhorro the doctrinaii'cs among his own s upporters accused of wanting every element
of st~tesmanship, was the most absolute ruler .in Christendom, and
this solely by the h old his good-humored sagacity had laid on the
hearts and understandings of his countrymen. Nor was this all,
for it appear,ed that h e had drawn the great majority, not ouly
of his fellow-citizens, but of mankind also, to his side. So strong
and so persuasive is hon es t ma11li11css wiLhout a Ringle quality of
romance or unreal sentiment to help it! A civiliau during times
of the most captivating military achievement, awkward, with 110
skill in the lower technicalities of manners, he left behind him a
fame beyond that of any conqueror, the memory of a grace higher
than that of outward person, and of a gentlemanliness deeper than
mere breeding. Never before that startled April morning did such
multitudes of men shed tears for the death of one they had never
seen, as if with him a friendly presence had been taken away from
their li ves, leaving them colder and darker. Never was funeral
panegyric so eloquent a.s the silent look of sympathy which strangers exchan ged when they met on that clay. Their common manhood
had lost a kinsman. - Low1~LJ,: Abraham Lincoln.

In the following paragraphs the short sentences secure
directness and vigor of . statement. The reader feels tha,t
his attention is wanted at every step, an<l. that every step is
important. Each detail gains distinction by being stated
in tt separate sentence.
Meantime the guilty soul cannot keep its own secret. It is false
to itself; or rather it feels au irresistible impulse of conscience to

141

Composition-Rheto1'ic.

How to Say It.

be true to itself. It laLors under its gniHy possession, and knows
not what to do with it. The human heart was not; made for the
residence of such an inhabjtant. It finds itself preyed on by a
torment which jt Llares not acknowledge to God or man. A
vulture is devouring it, and it can ask no sympathy or assistance,
either from heaven or earth. The secret which the murderer possesses soon comes to possess l1im; and, like t he evil spirits of
which we read, it overcomes l1i111, and leads 11irn whithersoever it
will. He feels it Leating n.t l1is hen,rt, risi11g to l1is thro:Lt, a11<l
derna111li11g discloH11rn. I le Ll1i11b Ll1n w liol( ~ wor ld 141 ~eH ii, in l1iH
face, reads it iu his eyes, and almost hears its workings iu the very
silence of his thought;s. It l1as Lecome his master. It betrays his
discretion, it breaks down his comage, it conquers his prudence.
\ Vhen s11spicions from without lll~ g-i1 1 to c11 il i:1nass l1i1n, and the
net of circumstances to enta11gle hirn, tlie fatal secret struggles
with still greater violence to Lurst forth . It rn ust be confessed, it
will be confessed.; there is 110 refuge from confession but suicide,
and suici<lc is coufcssion. - vV l.:JI STJrn : Jlfordcr of IV/tile.

nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom, and that
governrnent of the people, by the people, and for the people, shall
not perish from the earth. - LINCOLN: Gellysburg Address.

140

Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth upon
this continent a new nation, co11ceived in liberty, and dedicated to
the proposition that all men are created eqnal. Now we are
engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any
nation so conceived awl so dedicaLetl, can long endure. \ Ve are
met on a great battle-lie ltl of. t l1at war. ·we li:we come to dedicaLe
a portion of that fi eld as a final resti11g-phce for those who here
gave their lives that Lltat 1iatio11 111ight li ve. It is altogether fitting
and proper that we sho uld do th is; Lnt in a larger sense we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this ground.
The brave m eJJ, living am1 dead, who strnggled here, have consecrated it far above our power to aLhl or detract. The world will
little note, nor long rerne1n ber, what we say here, Lnt it can never
forget what they did here. Jt is for us - th e living- rather to be
dedicated here to t11e ll.11 nnishe<l work which they who fought here
have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here
dedicated to the great task r emainiug before us, that from these
honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which
they gave the last foll measure of devotion; that we here highly
resolve that these dead shall 11ot have <lied in vain; that this

In the following pn.rn.graphs, observe that the succession
of short sentences produces the effect of hurry, gives a·
quickness of movement uee<led by the thought itself: Arnyas leaped into t11e mizzen rigging, an<l looked through 1.ho
s111oke. Dead lllCll lie could detwry t hrough tl1e uli11di11g veil,
rolled ia heaps, laid flat; dead men and dying: but 110 man upon
his feet. The last volley had swept the deck clear; one by 011 e
had dropped below to escape that fiery shower: and alone at the
hcl1n, grinding his teeth with rage, liis mustachios curling up to.
his very eyes, stood the Spanish captain.
Now was the moment for a counter-stroke. Amyas shouted for
the boarders, a11d in two minutes more he was over the side, ai1d
clutchiJig at the Spa11ianl's mizzen rigging.
\ Vhat was this 't The distance between him and the enemy's
side was widening. Was she sheering off? Yes - and rising top, .
growing bodily higher every rnomeut, as if by magic. Amyas
looked llp in astonishment and saw what it was. The Spaniard
was hee1ing fast over to leeward away from him. Her masts were
all slopi ng forward, swifter a11d swifter - 'the end was come, then I
"Back! in God's 11a1ne, back, men I She is sinking by the
head! " And with much ado some were dragged back, some
leaped Lack - all but old Michael Heard.
vVith hair and beard floating in the wind, the bronzed naked
figure, like some weird old Indian fakir, still climbed on steadfastly up thl'l mizzen-chains of the Spaniard, hatchet in hand.
"Come back, Michael! Leap while you may I" shouted a dozen
voices. Michael turned "And what should I come back for, then, to go home where no
one k noweth me? I'll die like an Englishman this day, or I'll
know the reason why! " and turning, he sprang in over the bulwarlcs, as the huge ship rolled up more and more, like a dying
whale, exposing all her long black hulk almost down to her keel;
and one of her lower-deck gnns, as if in defiance, exploded upright
into the air, hurling the Lall to the very heavens.

-Composition-lllwloric.

1-Iow t:o Say It.

Ill an instant it was answered from tl1e Hose hy a col11mn of
smoke, and the eig h Lcc11-ponml ball crashed throug h the bottom
of the defenceless Spaniard.
"'Who fired? Shame to fire Oil a sinking sltip ! "
"Gunner Yeo, sir," shouted a voice up from the mai11-<lcck.
"He's like a madman dowu here."
"Tell him if he fires agai11, l'll put him in iro ns, if ho were my
own brother. Cut away the grapples aloft, rne11. Don't you see
how she drags us over? Cut away, or we shall siuk with her."
'They cut away, an<l thr. H.osr., rclnased from Ll1r. sl,ra.i 11, sl1 ook
her feathers OJI the wave-crest like a freell sea-gull, w hilc all men
held their breaths.
Suddenly the glorious creature righted herself, :wd rose agai u,
as if in noble shame, for 011c last struggle with her doom. Her
bows were deep in the water, but her <Liter-deck still dry. Righted:
but only for a moment, long enou gh to let her crevv come pouring
wildly up on deck, with cries and prayers, and rush aft to the
poop, where, und er the flag of Spai n, stood th e tall captain, his
left hand on the sta11dar<l-sLnJE, hi s sword poi11 tell in his right.
• "Back, men!'·' they heard him cry," ~ind die like valiant mariners."
Some of them ran to the Lul war ks, and shouted "Mercy! ·w e
surrender I" and the English Lroke into a cheer, and called to them
to run her alongside. - KrnG RLEY: TVestwanl !Io !

Tlte repeal of the Stamp Act delayed only for a little the fastco111i11g cns1s. A new ministry was fanned, with the Earl of
Chatham at its head. But soon the great Earl lay sick and helpless, and the burden of government rested on incapable shoulders.
Charles Townshend, a clever, captivating, but most indiscreet
man, b e c~.rne the virtual Prime Minister. The feeling in the public mind 11ad uow become more unfavoraLle to America. Townshend proposed to levy a variety of taxes from the Americans.
The most famous of his taxes was one of threepence per pound on
t<~ a.
All Ii is proposals hr.calllc law.
Tit is time Lhe more thoughtful Americans began to despair of
:i 11stice. The boldest scarcely ventured yet to suggest revolt against
England, so powerful and so loved. But the grallCl final refuge
of independence was silently brooded over by many. The mob
fell back on their customary solution . Great riots occurred. To
quell these disorders English troops encamped on Boston Common.
The town swarmed with red-coated men, every one of whom was a
liumiliation. Their drums beat on Sunday, and troubled the orderly men of Boston, even in church. At intervals fresh transports
dropped in, bearing additional soldiers, till a great force occupied
tlie town. The galled citizens could ill brook to be thus bridled.
The ministers prayed to Heaven for deliverance from the presence
of the soldiers. The General Court of Massachusetts called vehemently on the Governor to remove them. The Governor had no
powers in that matter. lie called upon the court to make suitable
provi1;ion for the King's troops, - a request wl1ich it gave the court
inJiuite pleasure to refuse. - MACKENZIE: America.

142

In the paragraphs just preceding, the short sentences
with their quick ::tlHl l1111Tin1l. cffod co 1Tcspo 11tl. very well to
the character of the thouglit or tlio action portrnyctl.. Wh en
the thought docs not itself re11uire this effect of hmry, it is
a mistake to use a succession of short sentences. In the
following there is a hroken, scrappy, antl. jerky effect which
the thought does not call for : At an unknown hour li e was aroused by a creaking of boards.
Lifting himself upon l1is elbow, lie saw a sergeant prowling a 111011 g
the sleeping forms. The sergeant carried a caudl e in an old brass
candlestick. li e woul<l hav e resemLletl Ho111e old farmer on an
unusual midnight tour if it were not for the significance of l1is
gleaming buttons aud striped sleeves. - STEPHEN CnANE : The Little Regiment.

.1

'

143

Sometimes a series of short sentences will result in a lack
of clearness in the paragraph as a whole. Sentences are
not necessarily clear in meaning because they are short.
Longer sentences of explanation are needed for a difficult
thought. In the following paragraphs the thought remains
obscure in spite of the succession of short sentences. In
tho second pa.ragraph the short statements separated by
semicolons are really to be classed as short sentences.
Many facts concur to show that we must look deeper for our salvatio1i. than to steam, photographs, balloons, or astronomy . These

145

Composition-Rlietorie.

I-low to Say It.

tooh; have some <p1csti011al>lc propcrf.ies. They am rcage11 ts. Machi 11cry iR aggrcssiv<\. Tlic wnavnr lH ~ co111<~H :i, wnh, t.lie 111aclii11ist
a machin e. ]£ yon do 11 01; use Llie t.ool s, Liley w;e yo11. .All t.ools
are in one sen se e<lge-tools, a11u <langerous. A nrnn buil<ls a fine
house· and now h e has a master and a task for life: he is to furnish, ~atch, show it, a11d keep it in repair, th e rest of his days.
A man has a reputation, a nd is 110 1011ger free, but mnst respe ~t
that. A man makes a pictme or a book , and, if it sncceeds, 'tis
often the worse for him. I saw a brave rna11 the other cla.y, hitherto as free as the lrnw k or th e fox oJ the wildern ess, co11strucLi11g
his cabinet of draw ers for sliel ls, eggs, rni11 eral~, and mou 11 te<l
birds. It was easy to see that li e was n11111si11g him scH with 111~tk­
ing pretty links for his own limbs. - E~rnn s oN: Works and Days.

of short sentences may be used to indicate rapidity of movement, if
the thought requires this. Short sentences impart directness and
vigor to thought.

"\Ve are just so friv olous and sceptical. JV[en hol<l themselves
cheap and vile ; and ye t a man is a fagot of thunderbolts. AU
the elem ents pour throu gl1 his sys tem; he is the flood of th e flood,
and :fire of the fire ; h e feels th e antipodes a nd the pole, as drops
of his bloo<l: th ey arc tlw extension of his perso11ality. llis duties are measured by that instrum ent he is; an<l a right and perfect man would be felt to the centre of the Copernican ~ystem.
'Tis curious that we only believe as deep as we live. · "\Ve do not
think heroes can exert any more awful power than that surfaceplay whi ch amuses us. A deep rnan believes in miracl es, waits for
them, believes in magic, beli eves that th e orator will decompose
his adYersary ; believes that th e evil eye can wither; that the
heart's blessin g can h eal; that love can exalt taleut; can overcome
all ocltls. From a gre at hen.rt secret mnguet;isms flow incessantly
to draw great events. !Jut we 1_1ri ze ve ry linmble utiliti es, a prudent husband, a good so11, a voter, a ciLizen, and deprecate any
romance of character; and perl1aps reckon only his money value,
_his intellect, his a1Iectio11, as a sort of bill of exchange, easily
convertible into fin e chambers, pictures, music, and wine. EMERSON: Essay on JJca:uly.

R eprese ntative Barrett h as introduced into the House a joint
resolution proposing an amendm ent to the Constitution to the
effec t th at Congress may have power to limit uniformly the hours
of labor in rnamifactories of textile fabrics and other industries.
This is aim ed at the supposed advantage which the South, with
its long hour system, has over New England manufacturers; but
it would not, however, prevent the eventual transfere11ce of the .
cotton industry to the former section. It is a fair question whether
under the "implied powers" doctrine developed by II:i.milton,
Cougress has 11ot already th e power to legislate on thi s question
without an y amendment. The main poiut is to get the legislation.
The short h our m ovement is steadily progressing, and as the South
develops it will make itself manifes t t here . But th ere is not much
hope tl1at Congress can be brought to act upou the subj ect un til it
fakes the form of a national agitation.

144

The short sentence, used in connection with longer sentences,
arrests the attention sharply, and hence is useful for marking a
transition, for announcing an idea to be explained further, and for
summarizing the thought in abrupt, em1ihatic form. A succession

EXERCISE 41.

Account for the use of the short sentences of the paragraphs quoted in Lessons 12 to 20.
EXERCISE 42.

Cou vert the long topic-sentence of the following paragra.phs iuto a short sentence : -

.1

In order to remove a not uncommon but erroneous impression
that the Alaska boundary line is now, and has been for some time,
in a sLale of adjudication, it may be well to say that thus far nothing has been done except to execute such surveys as have been
thought desirable and necessary for the construction of maps, by
which the whole subject could be properly presented to a joint
boundary-line commission, whenever such should be appointed,
and on whi ch the location of th e line could be definitely laid down
if a mutual agreement should be reached. Such a survey was first

,

•

,,.

- - -- -

'

-

-

,,,...

- - ....-~

-

•

•

-

-

--

!

.

'"

_,.

'

~

<::"

,

.

-

-

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- -

•

.._

"

.

\

147

Composition-Rhetoric.

How to Say It.

brougliL Lo tl1e aLLcHtion of Congress in a rncssage o[ l'res ideu~,
Grant iu 1872. It was not until 1889, however, that the work was
begun by the Unitell States Coast and Geodetic Survey, which sent
two parties to the valley of U1 e Y11ko11, ill the Yast interior of the
territory, wiLh i11 strueLi o11 s to csLa.hli sl1 ca111p:-;, 011c on tl1at riv er,
and the other Oil its branch, the P orcupin e, both to b e as Hear to
the one hun<lred and forty-first meridian as possil>J e. These
parties ·were to carry on a series u( asLro110111ical observati ons for
the purpose of d e ter rninin~ t.l1 e locat,ion of the lll fl ri1lia11 , Lo execute
such triang11JaLio11 and Lopug raphical s11rV<\)'S as were Jtecess:Lry Jor
its identification, and to establish pennaneut monuments as uearly
as might be upon the meridian line.

Th e United States Senate may be looked upon as the best
training-school in statesmanship we have had, - not, of course, so
conspicuously in administrative function, but in the consideration
of great national problems; and if we look there for a man of
cdntinnous experience, of promi11e11ce in the conduct of L11si11 ess, a
represeutative of the J\lississ ippi valley, and in the prime of mature
life, we shall find him in the Senator from Iowa, "William Boyd
Allison. Tt is worth while to consider the stand he has taken on
great puld ic q nestions, and the contribution which his te111pera111P11 L, :d.1iliLy, an<l charn.cter 111:dw towanl his fitness l'or the highest
ollice in the gift of the naLio11. Mr. Allison has just been honored
by th e State of Iowa with a .f ifth election to the Senate of the
United St::i,tes; and this circumstance, rare in the history of our
country, has an a<lded significance in the fact that every election
Ly his party associates has been unanimous. On the last occasion
110 other 11ame was even mentioned for the office, and the election
was followed Ly a scene memorable for its enthusiasm, in which
Llin rcpres<~ 11 LaLi vcs of bol".h parties i 11 Lhe legislature joined. Thirty
years' co nLi11 uous congressional service on the part of a ci Lizen of
a SLate, confessedly high in intelligence, is in itself an evidence of
couspicuous worth.

146

The mass of society look wiLh envy npon the epicnre, who, <lay
by day, for four hours of l nx:urious eating, suffers twenty hours oE
sharp aching; wl10 pays a full price for a hot snpper, and is so
pleased with the b::i, rga i11, LhfLt he throws in a sleepless a.nu ternpcstnous night as a graL11iLy. .E11 glisli factory chil1lren l1ave recei ve<l the commiseration of Lhe world, Lecause Lh ey were sco urge<l
to work eighteen hours ont of the twenty-four; but there is many
a th eoretic r epuLlican who is a harsh er Pharaoh to his stomach
than this; - who allows it i10 more resti11g-time than he does his
watch; who giv es it n o Sun<lay, no holiday, no vacation in any
sense. Our pious ancestors enacted a law that suicides should Le
buried where four roads meet,, and Lhat a cart-loall o[ stones sl1oul<l
be Lhrow11 upon tli e Lolly. Yet vvhen gentlemen or ]alli es co mmit
suicille, 110t by co rd or steel, but Ly turLle-sonp or lobster-salad,
they may be bu rietl in consec rnl;e<l ground, and under th e auspices
of the church, and the puLlic are not :Lshamed to r ead an epi taph
upon the ir tomLstoues fal se enough to make the rn arlile blush.
·w ere the barLaro us ol<l law now in force that punished the body
of the snicide for the offence which his soul had commiLted, we
shoul<l fiu<l many a cemetery ::i,t tl1e cross-roa<ls.
EXERCISE 43.

Convert the material of each of the following longsentence paragraphs into a pn.ragraph of shorter sentences
of Lliffercat length s : -

It may not seem that the few minutes which are given each day
to phys ical culture in our schools will affect materially, for better
or wors<~, i.hc character :m<l bearing of th e children who are snbjecLe<l to it; Lnt when it is remembered that this sort of thiug goes
on thy a[ter <lay for eight or nine years, its influence will Le more
readil y appreciated, and its hy gienic importance more fully realize<l. H the present mental strain is to continue in our schools,
then we lllnst strive to overcome the nervousn ess which it induces
through the efficient culture of the body. vVe must not have as
our illeal of the work of physical training the <levelopment of
great muscular strength and dexterity, so much as the promotion
of 11 ea!Lh, and rcmlnri ng the Lolly an unconscious an<l ready
i11strume11t of the mind in the expression of its most gracious
qualities. Nor can we hope, under the conditions which exist in
our schools, to make the bodies of all our children symmetrical
and harmonious by physical training; for we have to deal there
with children in the great average, and it is only by dealing with

148

149

Cornposition-llhetoric.

_How to Say It.

inclivi(Jual tendencies that we cn,n secure perfect symmdry n,n<l
liarn1on y. Hut a[Ler all, Lliis is 11ut snclt a se ri ous (1uestion; for if
we can foster ancl promote the h ealth of children, anJ inJuce in
them the right attituJe of sp iri t, t he t endency of nature toward
symmetry ancl harmony will produce gratifying results.

twenty-Reven onicern, one hnn<lred arms, n,ll their baggage, anJ
two lnrnJred horses, and continued our march to Harborough,
where we halted to refresh ourselves.

Jn the morning, very ear ly, we heard the enemy's trumpets
sound to horse; this rou sed us to look abroad; and sending out a
scout, h e brought us 'vord a parl;y of the e ne my was at h a nrl. vVe
were vexed Lo lie so 1li sappoi11f.c~ d , li11f. fi111li1J~ f.lrnir parf.y s 111ri.ll
enough to b e dealt ·witl1, Si r ~fannatlnk e orde red m e to ch arge
them with three hm1rlred horse an<l two hmHlrntl tlragoo 11 s, while
he at the same tim e e ntered t he town. Acconlingl y T lay st ill till
they came to the yery skirt of the wood wl1 erc I was postc1l, when
I saluted them with a volley from my dragoons out of th e wood,
and immediately showed myself with my horse on their front,
ready to charge th e m; th ey appeared not to l)e snrpri se<l, n,nd
reccivc~1l 01u· c l1arge wiLli g n !:tl. rcsol11Lio11; :i.1111 bei11 g al>o ve four
hulldro1l rne11, they pw;heJ 1110 vigoro us ly in their turn, putting my
men into some disorder. In this extremity, I sent to order rny
dragoons to charge them in tl10 flank , which Ll1ey <lid with great
bravery, and the other still maintained the fi ght with d esperate
r esolution. There was no want of courage in our men on both
sides, but our dragoons had the advantage, and at last routed
them, and drove them back to the village. H ere S ir Marmaduke
Langdale had his hands foll too; for my firin g had alarmed the
towns adjacent, thrit wh en he crime into t he town, he found them
all in arms; and contrary to his expectations, two r egime11ts of
foot with about three hundrccl h orse more. As Sir Mannadnke
had n o fooL, only l1orse a nd dragoo11s, this was a surpri se to him;
hut he caused hi s clragoo11s to enter the town, a11d charge the fool;,
while his horse secu red the ave nues of the town.
The dragoons bravely attacked the foot, and Sir JVfarma(htke
falling in wil;h hiH l1nrm\ Ll10 figl1L w:1.H ohsl.in:tf.n a111l \'f \l'.Y lil oudy,
when Lh c h orse that Iliad route1l cam e fl yin g inl;o the street of the
village, and my m en at their heels. Im1n cdiately I left the pursuit, and fell in with all my force to the assistance oE my f1:iends,
and after an obstinate resistance, we routed the ·w hole party ; we
killed about seven hundred men, took three hundred and fifty,

Introduce at the point indicated in each of the following
parag raphs a brief sentence as striking and emphatic as you
cn,n make it : -

EXERCISE 44.

1. 1Hr. Adams carried with him into Congress all his previous
habi ts of industry ancl close application to business. 2. [A short
sentence announcing the id ea developed in sentences 3 and 4.]
3. F ew m en spe nt more h ours in the twenty-four in assiduous
labor. 4. ·H e would take no active part in any matter, would
engage in the discussion of no topic, and would not commit himself on any q11estion, until h e had so unded it to its nether depths,
and explored :dl iLs ra1nirtcatio11s, all iLs bearings aucl inlluences,
and h ad thoroughly become master of the subj ect. 5. [A short
sentence of transition. J 6. It was in this manner that he was
e naLled to overwhelm with surprise his cotemporaries in Congress,
by th e profundity of his knowledge. 7. No subject could be
started, no question discussed, on which he was not perfectly at
home. . 8. vVithont h esitation or mistake, he could pour forth
a stream of facts, dates, names, places, accompanied with narrations, anecdotes, reflections, and arguments, until the matter was
thorou ghly sifted and laid bare in all its parts a nd properties, to
the understanding of the most casual observer. D. [A short
:=;entence announ cin g the idea of sentences 10, 11, and 12. J
10. Alas for the rnn,n who questioned the correctness of his
:=;taterneuts, his facts, or dates. 11. Sure discomfiture awaited
him. 12. Ilis mind was a perfect calendar, a storehouse, a mine
of knowleflge, in r elati011 to all paRt cvC11tR co1111octocl with tho
Jii~Lury of liis cuunLry aud his age.
1. In conn ection with his other exemplary virtues, Mr. Adams
was prompt, faithful, unwearied, in the discharge of all his public
duties. 2. Th e oldest m e mber of the House, h e was at the same
time the most punctual - the first at his post; the last to retire
from the labors of the day. 3. [A short sentence of transition.]

150

Goniposition-Rhetoric.

llow to Say It.

4. "\Vhile many others might be uegli gent m their attenda11ce,
sauntering in idleness, engaged in frivolous amusements, or even
in dissipatiou, he was always at his post. 5. No call of the Honse
was necessary, no sergeant-at-arms J1 eed be despaJ.cl1cd to bring
him within the Il all of 1:.<:prnsn11taLives. 0. ll u was Lhe lasl. Lo
move an adjournment, or to adopt auy device to consume time or
neglect the public business for personal convenience or gratification. 7. [A short sentence summarizing all the preceding sentenceR. J R ITi R exampl0. can hP- rnnRI; prnfiLahly i111il;n.t0.<l hy those
who wo1ilJ ariso Lo c111i11n11cu in Lile co1utcils oJ Lite 11aLio11.

lal.ior I have been since able to do, I have done it all on credit
instead of capital, - a most ruinous way, either in regard to health
or mouey. 11. For the last twenty-five years, so far as it regards
healtl1, T l1 n,ve been put from day f.o clay on my good behavior;
a111l d11ri11g Lile whole o[ this period, as an Hiuernian would. say,
if I had lived as other folks do for a month, I should have died in
a fortnight.

1. A great orator mnst have fervor. 2. In the physical world,
force can be resoked into heat B. It is the same in tlrn spirit11a,l
world. 1. The ·whole tnd.hs which the orator contemplates stir
all the faculties of his soul into intense action, a nd this intem;e
action takes the form of heat- of fervor . 5. His tone rnriy he
high or low, his enu nci ation may be rapid. or slow, his language
may Le plain or fi gurative, but in a11 y case t he fervor is appare nt.
G. His face glows, his eyes sp<trkle, his wor<ls l.iuru, and l1is very
sentences are ponred forth in an easy and co11tinnous flow as if
they were molten. 7. [A short sum111arizi11 g seutence, prefornbly
figurative.]
I. An earnest student is prone to ruin his health. 2. Hope
cheats him with the belief that if he can stnrly now without
CC88atio11, ft c C:tll <lo 80 :~]ways . :\. l\nca ll HP. ]10 <lOCH llof, f;ee the
e11<l of ltiR sLrc11gth, he fooli shl y co11cl11tl m; U1 crc is 110 c11<1. 1. A
spendtl1rift of lierdLh iH one of f,lie 111 ost r<~ prelic11silde of. spe111lthrifts. G. I am certain I conld have performed twice tlie labor,
both better and with greater ease to 111 yself, had I known so much
of the laws of healt.11 and life at twenty-one, as I do now. G. Jn
college I was taught all about the motions of _the planets, as carefully as thongh they would have been in clanger of getting off the
track if I l1 ad not known how to trace their orbits; but about rn y
own orga.11izatio11, and the conditions i11<lispensable to f.hc lwalLhfnl f1111etin11s of: my own horly, Twas ldf; i11 pro[o 1111<l ig11oi·a11ce.
7. ,[A short scnteuce o.E trn,11Ritio11.J 8. J 011glit; to h ave Legun at
home, aud taken the stars ·w hen it should con:ie their turn. 9. The
consequence was, I broke down at the beginning of my second
college year, and have never l1 a<l a well day since. 10. \Vlmtever

151

LESSON 22.

Long Sentences ancl Their Uses.
We have seen (Lesson 13) that a paragraph may be made
up of a topic-sentence followed by the particulars and details
which the topic-sentence calls for. vVhen each detail is
brief and the detai ls taken together resemble an inventory
or a catalogue, they are best grouped. in long sentences, as
iu the fo llowing paragraph : There is scarcely a scene or object familiar to the Galilee of
thn.t clay, which Jesus did not use as a moral illustration of s~fne
glorious prorn ise or mornl law. [Details] He spoke of green
finl<ls a111l spri 11gi11g fl owe rs, and the budding of U1 c vernal trees;
of Lite rnLl or lower iu g sky; of s1111rise aud s u11 scf; ; of wind and
rain; ot: uigltt a11d storm; of clolllls and ligl1t11ing; of stream
and river; of stars and lamps; of honey and salt; of quivering
bulru sl1 es a nd burning weeds; of rent garments and bursting
·w in e-skins; of eggs and serpents; of pearls and pieces of money; .
of nets and fish. W i11e and wheat, corn and oil, stewards and
gardeners, labore rs and employers, kings and shepherds, travellers
and fath ers of fami lies, courtiers in soft clothin g and brides in .
nuptial rol>es - all these are fom1d in His discourses. - FARRAR:
J:1je of Christ, I : 271.

The material after the first sentence in the preceding
paragraph is organized into two long sentences rather than
one, in order to vary the method a little. and to prevent

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Compos,ition-Bhetoric.

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the 1liscoursc frnlll becoming wc:1.risomc. 'J'liis if; a good
reason for Hot making :L sc11tc11cc too long. A Letter reason
for the grouping of details into several long sci1tcn~cs
appears in the following para.graph. Here. the group.1,11g
of particulars into long sentences shows pl'.w~ly the d1Hercnt stages of the cahmity in the order of tune. ln the
second sentence are groupell all the details that belong to
the first stage; in the thinl, nJl the <letails that m:ike 11p
the second stage; in tlte fourth aml iifth we arc tolJ. the
effect upon tho JllllHlR of the 111~opl c . The fourth fLJHl fir.th
would probaLly ha.ve ucen united into one sente11cc but for
the fact tlw.t this wouhl kwe made the sentence needlessly
long.

to confou11tl tlw symptoms of a decliuiug empire, and a siukiug
worl1l. - G JHBON: History of the Decline . and Fall of the Roman
Empire, 11 [, 1, 2.

152

1. In the second ·year of the reign of Valentinian and Valens,
on the morning of the twenty-first cln.y of ,July, t l1 e gre ~teRt part
o[ LJi o ltmn:m worltl wa8 sli:Ll<o 11 liy :L viofo11f; a111l 1k:;;f;r11ct.1vc <~arthto the waters; Ll1e
qua1rn. 2. 'l'lte· int]lress
. , .. ion w·ts
· . co1111111111ieaLcJ
.
shores of the .Mediterranean were le[t dry, by the sudden retreat
of the sea; great quantities of fish were ca.ught by the hand; large
vessels were stranded 011 the mud; and a curious spectator amused
his eye, or rather hi s fancy, by contemplating the ;arious appearance of valleys a11d mo1111tai1rn, vvhich ha,l 11ever, smce the fonnation 0 ( t.hc glol 1e, bee n c.x posed Lo Lhe snn. 3. Bnt the t,itlc Hoon
returned wit.h the weight of an inuu ense and irresistible deluge,
which ,;as seve rely felt 011 the coasts of Sicily, of Dalmatia, of
Greece, and of Egypt: large boats were transported, and lodged on
the roofs of houses, or at the distance of two mil es from the shore ;
the people, with their habitaf»ions, were swept away by the waters;
and t.he city of Alexandria annually commemor~te~ the. fata.l
day, on which fifty thousand pers011s had lost ~heir lives rn. the
inuudation. 4. This calan1iLy, t.lw report of wl11elt wa.8 rnagrnO cd
from oue province to another, astonished and terrified the subjects
of Rome· and their affright.ell i111agi11atio11 enlarged the real extent
of a 11101~entary evil. G. They recollected the preceding earthquakes which had subverted the cities of Palestiue and Bithynia:
they c~ 11 :;;idered these alarming strokes as the pre!ude onl y .of still
more <lreadfol ca.l'a.witics, and their fearful varnty was disposed

In the following paragraphs, notice that the longer sentences are used to explain or illustrate what is said in the
shorter sentences; the long sentences show the relation of
the principal idea (expressed in a short sentence) to several
s nbon1 iuate ideas (grouped in a long senteilce).
011r arts are happy hits. \Ve are like tl1e ·m11sician 011 the lake,
wl1osc melody is sweeter than he knows, or like a traveller, surprised by a, . mountain ecl10, whose trivial word returns to· him iu
roHurntic tluu1<lers. - EMimSON: Essay on Art.
A man in pursuit of greatness feels no little wants. How can
you mind diet, bed, dress, or salutes or compliments, or the figure
yon llla.ke in companiY, or ·wealth, or even the bringing things
to paHH, wh\'n you think how paltry are the rn:wltin ery and the
workers? '"' ordsworth was praised to me, in vVestmoreland, for
having afforded to his country neighbors an example of a modest
household where comfort and culture were secured without display. And a tender boy who wears his rusty cap and outgrown
coat, that he may secure the coveted place in college, and the
right in tho library, is e1l11cal.cll to sornc pmpose. There is a great
deal of self-d enial antl rnauli11oos in poor and mitklle-cln.ss houses,
in town aml country, that has not got into literature, and never
will, but that keeps th e earth swee.t; that saves on superflui ties,
a ml spends 0 11 essentials; that goes rusty, and eclucates the boy;
that sell:;; the horse, but builds the school; works early and late,
takes two looms in the factory, three looms, six looms, but pays
off the mortgage on the paternal farm, and then goes back cheerfully to work again. - EMERSON: Essay on Culture.
The very mode in which a crowd is formed is highly favorable
to its h ypnotization, and hence to its becoming a mob. At first
a crowd is formed by some strange object or occurrence suddenly
arresting the attention of men. Other men coming up are attracted
by curiosity: they wish to learn the reason of the gatherin g;
they ftx their attention on the object that faseiuates the crowd,

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Co111positio1i-1lltetv1·ic.

are fasciuaLe<l in their Lurn, and Lhus the crowd keeps on growing.
'Vith the increase of numbers grows the streugth of fascination;
the hypnoLiz ation .in creases in intens ity, uuLil, when a certain
critical point is reached, the crowd becomes co mpletely hypnotized, and is ready to obey blimlly the co1 11rna1Hls of its hero; it,
is now a mob. Thus a mob is a hypnotized crowd. -Atlantic,
75: 190.

Jn cornpa,rin g 01· contrnst.i11 g two t.lti11 gs or i<lca.s, long sentences a.re frequently needed. Jn the followi11g parngrn]Jh
the first part of the contrast is seen in the second sentence, the second pa.rt in the thinl and fourth sentences : 'Vhenever the arts a ud Jn.borR oE Ji(e are fulfilled i11 this spirit
of striving against misrule, aud doi11g wl1atever we have to do,
honorably and perfectly, they invariably brillg happin ess, as much
as see ms prn=;sil>le to t.hc 11atnrc o( rna11. fn all other paLhA, by
which that happiness is purfiued, Lhcrc is disappoi11tmc11t, or destruction : for ambition and for passion there is no rest - no
fruition; the fairest pleasures of youth perish i11 a darkness greate r
than their past li ght; and t l1 e loftiest and purest love too often
does but inflame the cloud of life with endless fire of pain. But,
ascend in g from lowest to hi gl1 est, thro11gl1 every scale of human
i11<l ustry, Lhat i 1Hl 11 sl. ry worLli i ly l'ol lowP<l gi vcA peaer. . Ask the
labo re r i11 tlie field, at Lhc forge~, or i11 Lhc 11ii11 c ; ask Lhe paLie11t,
delicate-fingered arLisa11, or the stro11 g-ar111ed, fiery-hearted worker
in bronze, and i11 m arbl e, a11d with the colors of light; and none
of these, wl10 are true \vorkmen, will ever tell yoLL that they have
found the law of heave n an unki111l one-that in the sweat of
their face they shonl<l eat bread, till they return to the grouud;
11or t.hat Ll1cy ever fo11Jl(l it; a11 1111rcwa r<lctl oheclieuce, if, indeed,
it was ren<l cr ed faith(11lly to the co111ma11tl-" 'Vliatsoeve r thy
l1aml futdeLh Lo tlo, <lo it wiLlt Lhy might." - lt11s1uN: T!t e Jl;fystery of Life, sec. 128.
lHen sometimes go down into tombs, with painful lon gings to
behold once more the faces of their departed friends; and as they
gaze upo11 them, lyin g t,herc so peacefully with the semblance
that they wore 011 earLh, Lhc sweeL l>reaLl1 of heaven Louchcs thorn,

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155

a~1<l L~1e features crumble and fall together, aud are but dust. So
ditl hrn so n~ then. descend for the last time into the great tomb of
tl~e Pt1st, with parnfol lo11gi11 gs to behold once -more tl1 e dear faces
o[ those li e l1atl loved; aud the swee t breath of heave n touched
them, and they would uot stay, but crumbled away and perished
as he gazed. They, too, were dust. And thus, far-sounding, he
heard _t'ie great gate of the past shut behind him, as the divine
poet thd the gate of Paradise, when the angel pointed him the
way 11p t.he Hol y .Mou11Lai11; and tu him likew ise was it forbidden
to look back. - LONGFELLOW: Hyperion, chap. VIII.

In some paragraphs the sentences grow longer as the
thought becomes more important a.nd forcible. This results in climax. Notice this in the following pa.ragraphs: _
.The people always conquer. They always must conquer. Ar11_11es .111:iy be clefe atel~, kings 111ay be overthrown, a11d new dynasties imposed, ~y foreign arms, on an ignorant and slavish race,
that care .not rn what language the covenant of their subjection
runs, nor 111 whose name the deed of their barter and sale is made
out .. But the people never i11vt1cle; and, when they rise again's t
the. rnvader, are never subdued. If they are driven from the
p~ams, they. fly to the mountains. Steep rocks and everlasting
lull s are I.heir cas~lcA; t.hc ta11gletl, paLl1lcss thickcL Llicir palisado,
and nature, God, is their ally. Now he overwhelms the hosts of
th e ~r enemies l>eneat.h his drifting mountains of saud; now he
bunes ~hem beneath a falling atmosphere of polar snows; he lets
loose Ins tempe~ts on their fleets; he puts a folly in to their counsels, a madness mto the hearts of their leaders · and never g·ave
.
,
an d 1iever w1·11 give,
a final triumph over a virtuous
and galla nt'
pe~ple, resolved to be free. - EvmrnTT: First Battles of tlte R evolution.
vVe a~·e, on. the whole, iuclined to regret that Dryden did not
accomplish his purpose of writing an epic poem. It certainly
would .not have l>een a work of the highes t rank. It would not
have nvalled the Iliad, the Odyssey, or the Paradise Lost; but it
would ?ave been superior to the productio11s of Apollonius, Lucan,
or Sta.bus, and not inferior to the J erusalem DelivP.rP<L n wn11l1l

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prol.mbly l1:we bee n a vigorn1rn 11arrnLivP, a.11i111al.e<l wit.It su111cthing of the spirit; of: tl1e ol!l romances, e11riche<l with much
splendid description , a11d interspersed with fine declamations
and dis11uisitions. The !]:wger of Uryr1c11 wonl<l have been fro1:n
aiming too hi gh; from dw elling t·, oo m11 ch, for example, on hrn
angels of kingdoms, and attempting a competition with tliat
great writer who in his own i.i111 e ]1a!l so incomparnbly snccee ded
in represe 11ti11g to us th e sighLR and 8o t1mls of anoLher world.
To 1\'lilto11, ancl to :Milto11 alo11r~, li1do11gP1l Lhe secrets of: the great,
dePp, tl1e beach of snlphnr, th e ocean of fire, the p:tlaccs of tl1e
fallen <lorni11atio11s, glim111e11i11g through Lhc cvcrlaflt,i11g Rha1lc, the
silent wilderness of verdure and fragrnnce where armed angels
kept watch over the sleep of the first lovers, the porti co of d~a­
mond, the sea of jasper, the i:;n,pphire p:wement e 111p11rpled with
celestial roses, the infinite ra11ks of th e Chcrnbirn, lilazin g ·w ith
atlamant and gol!l. Th e council, the to11rna111ei1t, the procession,t.liu crowdrnl cat.l1e1lrnl, Lhe c:1,111p, t.lin g11a.nl-rno111, t.l1n d1n.i'H), wcrn
the proper sce11cs for Dryuen. - l\l ACAi! LAY: K~sa!J on I h!Jrlen.

every co11ccssio11 wliich the safety or the uiguily of Rome might
require from tlte most formidable barbarians. Iustead of exposing
his person and his legions to the arrows of t11e Parthia.us, he
obt.ained, by an honorable treaty, the restitution of the standardc
arnl priso!lers which ha<l bee n taken in the defeat of Cmssus. GIBBON: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chap. I.

15G

vVhen long sentences appear frequently in a prtragraph,
they produce an impression of di gnity, grace, aml rhythmical movement. This is seen in the following: The principal conquests of the Romans were achieved umler the
Republic; and the emperors, for the most p:trt, were satisfied with
preserving those dorninions which had heen acquired by the poli,cy
of the senate, the active emulation of the consuls, and the marti al
e nthusiasm of tlie people. The seven first ce11t11ries were fillc<l wit.h
a rapi1l >;11cc.e ssion of triumphs; lmt it wn.s reserve<l for Angnst11s
to relinquish the ambitious <lcsign of su\J1lni11g the whole carl".h,
and to introduce a spirit of moderation i11to the public councils.
Inclined to peace by his temper arnl situatio11, it ·was easy for him
t, 0 discoV<!I' t.hat. H.01110, in lier 111·1!HP1Ji, <!x:dl.1•.d Hil.11:t.l.io11, had 111111~lt
less to hope than to fear from the chance of arms; :wu that, in the
prosecution of remote wars, the 1111dertaking became every day
more difficult, the event more doubtful , and the possession more
precarious and Jess beneficial. 'J'he experi ence of Augustus added
weight to these salutary reflections, and effectually convinced him
th:it, by the prudent vigor of his couusels, ii; would be easy to secure

157

A succession of sentences, all of about the same length,
may easily result in tediousness. Such sentences, when
rea<l aloud, require the voice to fall at about the same intervals a1ul strike the ear with monotonous regularity. Variety
in length of sentences is desirable. Excepting in the first
and last sentences, the following paragraph shows a monotonous regularity 1vhen read aloud: One has known men, great and small, more commonly small,
who \oYcnt t;hro11g-li life st.ca1lily depreciating- allll vilipcndi1wt> all
l111111a11 l1ci11gs who cuulJ lie reganled as in tltc'runni11g with Llte111selves. Hut among such, Bethel was facile princeps. He despised
his predecessor as chaucellor, and spoke with contempt of his
judgments. One day, under the impression that a judgment
quoted was Lord Campbell's, he hastened to contemn it. But the
laugh W(l,S turned when it was at once stated that the contemned
judgment was his own. He was indeed beyond comparison, in his
O\Vll sphere, greater and brighter than most of those around him.
But he showed far too plainly that he knew it. Modesty would
have bee n a glory, being combined with that magnificent ability.
And his tongue was incredibly sharp: and absolutely unbridled.
It looks as though he never kept back any keen s:iying which occurred to him. Aml the serene, ueliberate, and seemiugly affectetl
manner in which he spoke, gave tenfold bitterriess. It did not
look like the outburst of a hasty temper at all. They did not
HPP111 11f1ile1· dir:ta, t.hoso vi!.riolie sn.yi11gR. No 111orl.11.I can af'fot·(l
thus to indulge his iuiosyncrnsy . He maue enemies on every side:
enemies who hated him witl1 an incredible malignity. Each of
them had a poisoned dart rankling in his soul. And the day came
when this great lawyer, though holding his place in magnificent
competence, was surrounded and assailed by a crowd of foes who
were able to force him to descend from the highest pl:ice in the law.

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Oompositio1i-Blwto1·ic.

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Long sentences are useful for grouping subordinate details, for
explanations and contrasts, for climax, and for dignity and rhythmical movement.

nand of Brunswick \Vere distinguished on that day by their
valor and exertio11s. But the chief glory was with Schwerin.
vVheu the Prussian infantry wavered, the stout old marshal
snatched the colors fr01r1 an ensign, and, waving them in th~ air,
led back his regiment to the charge. Thus at _seventy-two years
of age h e fell in the thickest of the battle, still grasping the
standard which bears the black eagle on the field argent. The
victory remained with the king. But it had been dearly purchased. Whole cohuuus of his bravest warriors had fallen. Ile
admitted that he had lost eighteen. thousand men. Of the enemy,
twenty-four thousand had been killed, wounded, or taken.
Part of the defeated army was shut up in Prague. Part fled
to join the troops which, under the command of Daun, were now
close at hal!Cl. Frederick determined to play over the same game
which had succeeded at Lowositz. He left a large force to besiege
Prague, and at the head of thirty thousand men he marched against
Daun. The cautious marshal, though he had great superiority in
numbers, would risk nothing. He occupied at Kolin a position
almost impregnable, and awaited the attack of the king.

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EXERCISE 4u.

Account for the use of the long sentences of the para'graphs quoted in Lessons 12 to 20.
EXERCISE 46.

Convert the following short-sentence paragraphs into
para.graphs of longer sentences of different lengths.
The winter put a stop to military operntious. All had hitherlo
gone well. But the real tug of w~tr was sti ll to co111e. It was easy
to foresee that the year 17 57 woulJ l>e a memon:iJJle era in the history of Europe.
The scheme for the campaign was simple, bold, a11d judicious.
The Duke of CuinlJeJ'lanJ with a11 English aml Han overian army
was in "\Vestern Germany, a11J might be al>le to prevent the French
troops from attacking Prussia. The Russians, coufined by their
snows, woul<l prolmlily not stir till the spri11g was far adva11ceL1.
Saxony was prostraLed. Swc<len coul<l do not hin g very iu1portant.
Duri11g a few 111011tlts Frederick woukl have to deal with Austria
alone. Even th us the odds were agaiust him. But ability and
courage have often triumphed against odds still more formidable.
Early iu 1757 the Prussian army iu Saxony began to move.
Through four defiles in the rnonntains they came pouring into
Bohemia. Prague was his first nrnrk; but the ulterior object
was probably Vienna. At Pragne lay l\Jarslrnl Brown with one
great arrny. Dann, the most cautious and fortunate of the Austriau capLains, waH advanci11g wiLh auoLlter. Fre<lerick deLcrmined to overwhelm Brown before Daun should arrive. On the
sixth of l\fay was fought, under those walls which a hundred and
thirty years before had witnessed the victory of the Catholic
league and the flight of the unhappy Palatine, a battle more
bloolly than any which Enrope saw during the long interval
between Malplaquet and Eylau. The kiug aud Prince Ferdi-

159

EXERCISE 47.

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On one of the following outlines write a paragraph, using short
sentences almost exclusively. On the same outline write another
paragrnpli, using loug sentences almost exclusively. Compare the
two. ·which reads the better? Which is the more easily followed
by a listener? What is lacking .in the first, what in the second?
·write a third paragraph on the same outline; combining the best
parts of the other two, and using sentences of different lengths.
Bring all three of the paragraphs to class.
·

I. Theme : Learning to ride a bicycle.
Topic-sentence : Difficulty of the task.
a. J\foun ting.
b. First fall.
c. .Collision with a pedestrian.
d. Into the ditch.
e. A friend to the rescue.
f The secret won.

160

How to Say It.

Composition-llheto1·ic.

IL Theme : Hooks tl1at. J km~ c!njnyc(l rcadi ng.
1'01Jic-senlence: 'J'ltc k i111h; ol' books that l e njoy.
o,. .Poetry (scvel'al sentc11ces stating nmnes of authol'S and poems, arnl reasons why the poems
are pleasant rca.ding).
b. Prose (as un<l.er a ).

G. J shou1<1 like a newspaper withont advertisements.
7. Fashions in chess arc less extreme than formerly.
8. ·w e are willing to a<l.mit that the English sparrows
have some very admirable traits.
9. A Chinese school-room is a noisy place.
10. It is har<l. to explain the actions of some ]Jeople.

III. Theme: The clta.racter of a friend.
Topic-srm,tmu;e : I fiH 111ost pl'01ni11m1t trn,it.
a. His likes, with iJl 11strntio11s.
b. His <l.islikes, with illustrations.

LESSON 2B.

Uses of the Loose Sentence.

IV. Theme: Ad vantage of knowing how to si11g.
Topic-s entence: General nature of these advantages.
a. Singing is a pleasure to one's self.
b. Ability to sing gives certain social ad.vantages.
c. JJisa.dva11bLgcs of i11al>ility to si ng illustrntecl
from observation or experience.

·whether long or short, every sentence is also, in the
arrangement of its parts, loose or periodic or balanced. A
sentence is said to be loose if, without destroying its meani11g, ' it can be emlccl at a point earlier thn.n the close.
N utice the structure of the sentences in the following paragraph. In every one of them there is at least one point,
before the close, at which the sentence might end, without
violence to the sense.

EXERCISE 48.

On one of the following topic-sentences write a paragraph of
about two hundred and fifty words. Aft.er writing, examine the
paragraph with t hese two questions in mind: (1) Does the division of the paragraph i11to sc11te11ces correspond to the 11atural
division of the thought? (2) Js tl1ere variety of sentence-lengths?
ltevise the paragraph so that these two questio11s may be answered
affirmatively.

1. It was an old tumbl e-down ho11se.
2. Lincoln's journey to Washington was fraught ·w ith
secret perils.
3. "Htu<l.y what you like" has a.11 attractive sonud, but
is it good a.<l. vice ?
4. It is not true cha.rity to give money to every beggar
one meets.
5. Not what a man earns, but what he sa.ves, makes him
rich.

161

·'

1. One afternoon we visited a cave, some two miles down the
stremn which had recently been discovered. 2. \Ve sq11eezed and
wriggled tl1rough a big crack or cleft in the side of the mountain
for about 011e hundred feet., when we emerged i11to a large, domeshaped passage, the abode, during certain seasons of the year, of in11 umernble bats, and at all times of primeval darkness.
3. There
·were various other crannies aud pit-holes opening into it, some of
which we explored. 4. The voice of running water was everywhere h eard, betraying the proximity of the lit.tie stream by
whose ceaseless corroding the cave and its entrance had been
worn. G. Tliis strcarnlet flow ed out of the month of the cave,
and came from a lake on the top of the mountain; this accounted
for its warmth to the hand, which surprised us all. - BumwuGIIS ·:
lVa.lce Robin; Adirondack.

The paragraph of loose sentences resembles good conversation. It is easy and natmal and entirely without porn-

163

Oo11iposition-.Rheto1·ic.

How to Say It.

pousness; there is no waiting for tl1e full meaniug. Iu
each loose sentence the rnain statement (subject and verL)
is given at once and is followed Ly au adcled clause or
phrrtse. Loose sentc11ncs are such as one fi1uls in g reat
numbers in letters, stories, news-articles, and familiar discourse of all kiwl s.

ties by practice in the art of friendly correspondence, ·we allow
them to cli.1ni11ish by disuse.
4. The lowering of cost for the transport of letters, instead of
makiug friendly correspondents numerous, has made them few ·
G. Tlic- cheap postage-st:uu p has increased business correspondence
prodigiously, but it has had a very different effect ou that of friendship. Ii. Great 11tunbers of men whose. business co1~r~sp.011d~11ce
is heavy scarcely write letters of friendslnp at all. 7. lhe1r m11~ds
prodnce t.l1 e h11siness letter by a second 1iat11re, and are otherwise
sLeri le. -- I'. ( l. 11A~l1•: 1noN: 1 h .t·11wn lnlcrcvnrse.

162

Broadway is iuiles upon miles long·, a nrnh of Ji fo snch as I
11cv1!r l1avn 1-;c~1!11; 1101. Ho l'n 11 as l.l1n l')Lra11d, li11L so rapid. Tl1n
110uses are alway s Lei11g torn dowu a11d Luilt up ag~t in, the railroad cars drive slap into tb e midst of Lh e city. Tl1ere are barricades and scaffoldings banging everywhere. I have 11ot bee n iuto
a house, except the fat country one, but somethin g new is behig·
done to it, and the hammeri11gs are clattering in tlie passage, or a
wall or steps are down, or t he fami ly :ifl go i11 g to move. Nobody
is quiet here, 110 1110.re all! L Tlic rnsli a11J. restlessness pl eases
me, and I like, for a litLlc, Ll1c cl:tsl1 o[ th e strea111. J a,111 not received as a god, wliich l like too. TlH;rc is oue pa.per wl1ich goes
on every morning saying I am a snob, and I don't say 110. Six
people were readi11g it at breakfast this mor11ing, and the man
opposite me popped it unde l' t he table cloth. But the other
papers roar with approbation. - Letters of Thackeray, 159.
It is not often t11at a paragrn.pl1 is made up exc lusively of loose sentences. 111 the great 111ajorily of l);tmgrn.plis it is \lesirahle t.o e1111>loy
sentences of various types aml of various lengtl1s. The following selection contains four loose sentences (2, 3, 5, 7) out of a total of seven
sentences : -

I. If the art of writing had been unknovvn till now, and if the
invention of it were suddenly to bnl'St upon the world .as did that
of the telephone, one of the things rn.ost gen erally said in praise of
it would be tliis. 2. 1t would be saiil - " Wl1at a gain to friendship now that frieuds can comurnnicate in spite of separation by
the very widest distances I "
3. Yet we have possessed this means of communication, the
fullest and best of all, from remote antiquity, aud we scarcely
make any use of it - certainly not any use responding to its capabilities; and as time goes on, instead of cl eve loping those capabili-

The following paragraph contains three loose sentences (2, 3, 5)
out of a total of six sentences: 1. Our forefathers had an idea with regard to the opinions of
their children that in th ese clays we rnnst be content to give up.
2. They tl1ought that all opi11ions were by nature hereditary;
and it was cousiclerecl an act of disloyalty to ancestors if a descenda nt vc11t 11red to differ from the m., 3. The profession of any but
the family opiu ions was so rare as to be almost inconceivable; and
if in some great crisis the head of a family took a new departure
in religion or politics, the new faith substituted itself for the ?ld
one as the hereditary faith of the family. 4. I remember hearrng
an old gentleman (who represented old English feeling in great
perfection) say that it was totally unintelligible to him that a
ccr!.ai11 11w111h< ~ r of parliament conl1l sit on the lil>crnl siclc of the
House of Commons. G. "1 cannot u11derstaml it," he said; "I
knew his father intimately, and he was always a good Tory."
6. The idea that the son might have opinions of his own was
unthinkable. - P. G. HAMER TON: -Ifuman Intercourse.

vv eil-constructed loose sentences r-:how considerable variety
in the way in which their parts are put together. 'l'hus in
the paragraph of loose sentences, quoted first in this lesson,
the phrases and clauses following the main statement of
each sentence come in a variety of orders and employ a
variety of introductory words in the different sentenc~s.
Notice in sentence 2 how skilfully a large number of details
are managed by means of the different phrases, and how

164

Composition-Rhetoric.

tho 0111 pln,Ylll rn it; of tho wor(ll-\ " U1n ;i,lirn 11 ~," i 11 appoRi ti on w i tit
the wor<l "pa,ssrLge," enables t ltu \Vl'iLer Lo hold the sentence
open for two other detn,ils. Not ice that sentence 4 is prolonged by means of the participle" beliraying." Notice how
much new material the use of the words" by whose" enables
the writer to bri11g into sente11c0 4.
In the following pamgmplt notice especially (senten ce 2)
how the expression "to make money" stn,nds related to the
rnaiu statc111eut preceding. NoLil;c also tJ1.e great variety
of preposi1.ions employed in t l1is par:tgraph and the participial construction, "resnltiug," iu sentence G.
1. The New York Herald, fou nded iu 1835 by .fames Gordon
Beunett, fat.her of the p rese nt proprietor, may be called the piolleer
of the press cornl11 cted upon a strictly bw;iness basis, without s 11 bRervic11cy to pa.rt.y or devotion t.o pri11 cipl0. 2. l\'lr. Bc11nett ktcl
onl y one i<l1!a, - to 111:drn 111011 ey hy p11hlisl1i11g Ll1e IH !WR. a. I le
adhered to t hat iclea wit.It the uL111ost tenacity, and lie L>uilt, a11
immense fortu11e fur himself 11pon that idea as a foundation.
4. No man was ever less soli cito 11s for refonn:ttiou than h e, yet he
proved to he a ra<lical reformer, fo r his co nspicuous success produced a profound change i11 the notions of newspaper men, all over
the co un try . · 5. The luxmy of being- free from bondage to 1;l1e
politicia11s and t he pros1iect; or inereaserl prufiLs l1t11T.iml O il tlie
movement for an i11d epe11dent press whicl1 culmi nated in 1872 in a
sharp rebellion by the newspapers ri.gainst party dictatiou, resulting in the nomination of Horace Greeley for the presidency.

Unlesf3 it is k ept w ell in kwll :L loose senten ce may become slovenly, 6. m ere strin g of cha ses and phrases, with
no firmness or cl irectiou. Ther e arc three special dangers
to be guarded aga,inst i 11 n s i 11 g 1ooRc sentences in succession: first, there is the danger tha,t all \vill begin in the
same way (with the word "he," for instance); second, t]iat
the words "and," "and," "rmd," will be usetl too much;
third, that the sentences will all close in the same w ay (all
with a phrase, or all with a r elative clause).

H~ow

to 8ay It.

165

Use the loose sentence frequently, for its easy conversational
effect. Guard against over-looseness, and make a succession of
loose sentences show variety of structure.
EXERCISE 49.

Find, by counting, the proportion of loose to the total
mun ber of sentences in three pages of your school-history,
or in a half-column news-::uticle.
EXERCISE 50.

Turn sentence number 3 of the following paragraph into
one or more l oose sentences, and note the effect. Do the
same with sentence 5. Do the r evised sentences fit as
closel y what precedes and follows them? Is anything lost
by the revision?
lte-wri tc the second quotation i 11 se vernl l oosc sentences.
1. It is acl1nirnl>le to know that those thingR which, in skill, in
art, aml in learning, the world has been unwilling to let die, h ave
not only bee n the conceptions of genius, but the products of toil.
2. The masterpieces of a ntiquity, as well in literature as in art,
are known to have received their extreme finish from an almost
incre<lilile eonti nuance of labor )tpo11 them. 3. I do not remem\Jer
a book iu all the d epart.men ts of learning, nor a scrap in literature,
n or a work in all the schools of art, from which its author has
derived a permanent renown, that· is not known to have been long
and patiently elaborated. 4. Genius needs industry, as much as
industry needs ge nius. 5. If on ly Milton's imaginat,ion could h ave
conceived l1is visions, his consu11miate industry only could have
car ved th e immortal lin es which enshrin e them. 6. If only Newto n's 111i111l co nhl reach out to the secrets of nature, even his could
011 ly llo it by tl1e homeliest toil. 7. The works of Bacon are not
midsumm er-night dream s, hut, like coral islands, they have risen
from the dep ths of truth, and formed their broad surfaces above
the ocean by the mi nu test accretions of persevering labor. 8.
The co nceptions of 1\liclrnel Angelo would have perished like a
11igl1t's phantasy, had not his industry given them permanence.

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.
4

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•

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,

•

Composition-Bhetoric.

How to S ay It.

One eve nin g as tli c peo ple \\ cm co ining 011(; fr ont the g reat
church of th e Trinity of the Pil grims hard by my fo untain , and
t here was a s111ell of in cense on th e air, and a sound of ch a ntin g
everywhe re, l>eca 11se it was i n the days of l:eu t, and rnir ~ hfol . Ki11 g
Carnival h ad go ne to his grave, a ml I'asqumo back to Ill s soh tutlc,
-one eve nin g as I sat stitchin g, co mmunin g wit h m y ow n
thoughts, and not likin g tli e111 , b ecause o~ late tl.1ey hafl g~t confused a nd cloudy, and r h ad a sense of 1mpendrn g woe without
any co rrespondin g se nse oE how to meet :i,11(1 to pr~ ve n t it, Cioji't.
came to me as h e r h al.1i t had used tu [,e, thongh ol. late she had
changed it;, and , touching m e ge ntly, said t,o me," Let us go for 011e of 011r o!J walks. \Vil! yo u no t take m e'?
The snn is sett.ing."

Hot by us Le made less, wh at exploits of theirs can well be nobler,
what can more clearly poi11t out tlieir native land a nd ours as
h avi ng fulfilled a glorious past, as Lei11g destined fo r a glorious
future, titan that t hey shou ld have acquired fo r themselves and
fo r t h ose who come after them a clear, a strong, a n harmonious,
a nobl e la ng uage? 3. · For all t his bears witness to corresponding
merits i11 those that speak it, to clearness of mental vision, to
strength, to harmony, to nobleness in them that have gradually
for med rt11d sh aped it to be the utteran ce of their inmost life and
being .
4. To know of this la ng uage the stages which it has gone
through, t lte quar ters from which its riches have been derived, the
ga ins whi eh it is now making, the perils which h ave threatened or
are threatening it, the losses which it h as s ustai11 ed, the latent.
capacities wh ic h may yet be in it waiting to be evoked, t he points
in which it is s uperior to, i u which it comes short of, other tongues, ·
all tit is may we] I be t he object of worthy am Li tion to eve ry one of
ns. 5. So 111 ay we hope to Le ourselves g uardians of its pnrity
and not corrnp te rs of it; to i11troduce, it may be, others into an
in telli gent ku ow ledge of tl1 at with which we shall h a ve ourselves m ore tliau a merely superficial acquaintance; to bequeath
it to those who come after us not worse than we received it
ourselves.

166

EXERCISE Gl.

Do any of t he sP.11tc11ccs of the fo llow in g pnrngrn.ph s
str ike you as p ornpu11 s a1ul ovcr-iinporl;a11 t, C!l1tRi<lcl'i1t g
the subject'? Make them loose au<l. note t he effect.
1. I conside r this rni gl1ty strnct11re [the Great Pyramid] as a
monument of the iusufllciency of human enjoyment s. 2. A kiu g
whose power is unlimited, a nd wh ose treasu res surmount all real
a 11 tl im aginary wa11 ts, is co 111pell c1 l to so b ce, Ly the erec Lion of a
pyrntniu , U1c satiety o( tlo111 ini o11 . ;i,1111 l;ast.eless11 css oE pl cas un~s,
and to a 111use t he tecli ousness of tlec li11i11 g life, by seei ng t lt ousa11 d s
labor in g without e nd , anti one sto ne, fo r 11 0 pnrpose, laid upon
a11other. 3. \\' h oeve r thou art t lt at, 11 ot co nte nt wit h a 1110deral,e
co.11di t ion, irn ;i,gin est h ;i,ppi11 css itt royal magnificence, an il dreames t
that co 111111 a ml of riches can fce rl the a ppetite of 1t ovelt;y wiLlt
p erpct11al gratifl eatio11 s, s11rvey Lhc J.'yra11ti lls, a tHl co n[es::; tlty
fo lly!
l. Aml t11 e love of our ow n language, wh :it is it in fact lmt Lite
love of our co.u n try expressin g itse lf in one particular direction?
2. If t he great acts of t h a t; 11 ation to whi ch we belong are prec ious
to us, if we tee! onrse l ves 111atle greate r by t heir g reatness, S LUHtnon ed to a nobler li[e by t he 11 ob lc1rnss of E1 1gli sl11i1 en wh o have
:tlrc:uly li ve(l a ttd Ji ctl , a11fl hcq 11 naL l11 ·'1 1.o 118 rL 11a111 n wltiel1 11111 :-;t

167

EXERCISE 52.

Discover t he se ntence in the first selection following,
arnl t!:e two senteJJ ces in the second selection, that are
unduly loose. Re-write the three sentences.
The lett11ce is to me a most interestin g study. Lettuce is like
co n versation: it mus t Le fresh and crisp, so sparkling that you
can scarcely notice the bitter in it. Lett uce, like 111ost talkers, is,
h owever, apt to run rapidly to seed. Dlessed is t hat sort which
comes to a h ead, a nd so remai11s, like a few people I k11ow; growing
more solid, and satisfac tory, and tende r at the same time, 1111d
whiter at the ce ntre, and cri sp in their maturity. Lettuce, like
conversati.011 , requires a good deal of oil , to avoid friction a nd
keep t h e co n1pan y s mooth: a pin ch of A tLie saH, ~L tfash of pepper,

168

Composilio·n-llltelorie.

a q11:t11l.it.y of 11111sl.anl a111l v in1~g :i.r, by all 111r:i,11s, b11t so 111i xc<1
that yo u will 11 otice no s h~trp co ntrasts, and a trifle of s ugar. Yon
can put a11 ythin g, antl t he more thin gs Lit e bette r, into salad, as
into a co nversation , bnt eve rythi11 g <lepends upon t he skill of
mixing. I fee l that I am in t l1 e best society wlten I am with
lettuce. It is the select circle o E vegetables.
About this time I m et with an odd volume of Th e Specl ntor.
I Jrn<l 11 ever before seen a11y of tl1 ern. l bon ght it, read it over
and over, and was mu ch dclighL1~ d with it. 1 Llto11 g ht t he writi ng
excellent, and wish ed if possible to imitn.te it. ·wi t h that view I
took sotne of t he papers, a111l n1 aking short hints o( the sentiments
in eac h se ntence, laid them by a fe w days, and then, without looking at th e book, tried to complete th e pape rs agn,i11 , by exp ressin g
each hinted se ntim ent at lengtl1, and as foll y as it h ad been
expressed b efore, in a ny sni tau le worrls th at shou ld occ nr to me.
Then I co n1p:trcd rn y S pecllllor with Lit e ori g inal , cfo;covercd so me
of my faults, a11<l co rrcctell Lh cm. Hut f fou111l I wa11 te1l a sLock
of words, or a read iness in recollectin g and usin g Lh ern , which I
thought I should h ave acquired before that time, if I l1 ad gone on
making verses; si nce t he co ntinual search for wonls of Lh e same
im port, but of diffe rent length to suit the m easure, or of differ~nt
sound for the rh ym e, would have laid me under a co nstant necessity
of searchin g for variety, and also lt ave tended to fix that variety
in m y 111i11d, anJ m ake m e master of it. Therefore I took some
of th e tal cs in The Spec tator, aud t 11rned th em into verse; and,
after a ti tn e, when I had pretty well forgotten the prose, turned
them lxwk again . ·
I also sometimes jnmblecl rn y collection of hints into co nfusion,
and after so me weeks e11deaYore1l Lo reduce them in to t he bes t
order before I began to form the foll sentences and complete the
subject. This was to teach me method in the arrangement of
tl1 e tho11g"lt ts . Hy co1npari11 g- my work with I.li e orig-i u:i,l, T <liscovereJ 111 a 11 y faulLs, a111l co rreded t.lt em ; l>11t l su mcLirn es lia.J
the plen.s ure to fa ncy that, in certain particulars of small co11seq11e11ce, r h:ul bee n fort·,11nnJ,e e11011gh t.o i111prove the method or
the language, and tl1i s e11 co urngeJ rn e to think -t hat I might in
time come to be a tolerable English writer, of which l was
extremely ambitious.

1-Iow to Say I_t.

169

EXERCISE 53.

In the first selection following, fifteen sentences out of a
total of twenty-six show the same plan, consisting of two
principal statements joi necl Ly the worcl " and." By what
changes in punctuation or construction could some of these
"a11cls" Le Llispensed with ?
Revise and r e-write the second selection so n.s to avoid
the freqnent use of the worcl "but," and break up the samen ess of structnre.
The apartment assigned to Cardinal Chigi was subdivided into
t hree s11rnller ones, the largest of which was appropriated to the
bedcha 1n uer of the Cardinal, the two others to his attendants.
These apar tm ents communicated with each other, and only one
opened upon the ce ntre co rridor ru1rni11g down the Hall. The
Cardinal ret.iretl early to hi s own chamber, and most of the other
Cardin a ls did t he sam e. A profound silence reigned in t he Conc]a,re; i f any of the attend ants still stirred t hey were velvet-shod,
a nd the fl oors and walls, lin ed with velvet, prevented the leas t
so und fr om being heard.
ln glesant remained alon e in th e outermost of the three ap artmen ts, an d determined to keep his faculties on the alert. For
some reaso n, howeve r, eith er the fati g ue of the long confinement
or the deathlike stilluess of the 11ig ht, a profound drowsiness
ove rpo,re recl him, and he co ntinually sank into a doze. He tried
to rn:ul, b11t the page fl oateLl before his eyes, and it was only by
r.0 11t;i 11uall y risin g a11d pacin g the small ch a mber that he kept
hi mself from sinkin g into a deep sleep.
A profo und peace a nd repose see med to reig n in a place where
so m any schemin g and excited hrain s, versed in every art of policy,
w<~ rn rrmll y al; work.
fo glesant had sat down again, and h ad fallen once more into a
_Rligltl; elm.<\ wl1 e11 suddeuly, fro111 11 0 ap]Jare nt cause, ltis drowsiness
le[t l1irn , a nd he becam e inteusely and almost painfully awake.
The silence around l1im was the sam e as before, but a violent
agitation and excitement dis tmbecl his mind, and an overpowering
apprehe11siou of some approachin g existence, inimical to him self,

170

H~ow

Composition-Rhetoric.

a ro use<l his fac ult ies to an ac nte percep tion, arnl braced his n erves
to a supre111e effort . In a n oLh er n10 111e11 t, t hi s appreh en sio11 , at
first 1ner ely mental, L>ecame pe rceptibl e to t he se nse, an<l he co uld
h ear a sound. It was, as i t were, the echo of a low faint creepin g
m oveme nt, th e very gh os t of a so und. \ Vhence it cam e, Jn glmmnt
cou ld n ot <letermin e, but it was from wiLhou t t he a partme nt in
which h e sat. No longer a ulc to re ma in pass ive, h e rose, dre w
back the velvet curtain tha t scree ned t he en trance fro m the corric.lor, op e ner} t h e d oor s ile nt ly, a 11d we11 t o nt.
Th e corridnr w :Ls li g l1 k cl IH ' I'<'. :i.11cl Ll11 :1'<! a lo1q. ~· it.::i gn~ a t k11 gt.li
b y oil la mps susp e IHle\l be fore e\'ery Lhinl tloo r o[ t he Canlin :ds '
roo rn R; lm t Lli e dar k a 1ul rn ass ivo l1 :rn g- i11 gs, t lH! l0Cti11 css of th e
hall overh ead , a nfl th e di1u.11 ess of t he larnps themselves, caused
th e li ght t n h e rni RLy a 11d 1111 ce r t.ai11 , as i11 a co11 [11sc<l a11<l tro 11bled
dream. 0 11 e of tl1 eRe h111ps was s11 s1ll' 1uled i11111HHli a t.e ly a bove
t he doo r at \\'hi ch l11 g lcsa11t h:vl appcare•l , n,11<1 he stood in its fo ll
li gh t , bein g him self 111uch m o re cli stinctly seen t h an he was h imself
aLle t o sec a 11 ytl1i11 g . Il e was r ichl y drcsRed in <l a,rk velvet, after
t he .Fre11ch fas hio11 , a nd i n Llie 1111 ce rtai 11 li gh t hi s rese m1Jl a11 co to
hi s murde red l> roth er was, in t ltis d ress, very great. H e held a
sligh t a11d jewell ed rlaggc r in hi s ha ml.
As b e p a nse d under t he s uspe1Hled Ja111p t he so und h e h ad h eard
b efore developed i tse lf in to low sten,lLhy footsteps approac hin g
down the corrid or, ap paren tly on t he opposite side, a nd th e n ext
m om en t a fi g ure, m ore lik e a ph a11Ln1n t hrow n on th e opposite
wall t ha n a suhsta11 Lin,l b ein g, glid c<l i11f J sig ht. lt was shro ucle<l
in fl ow i 11g <l rnpery, a nd k ept so close to t he heavy h a ngings tha t
it seem ed a ltu ost t he wavi ng 0£ t heir :folds stirred by so me u nknown Lreeze. Tl1 oug h it pas~n<l do wn Lit e o ppos ite s iclc, it ke pt
its atten tion turn ed i n fo g les:ui t's direction, a nd ahn ost at the
same mom ent at which li e appeared t h ro ugh the opening d oor it
saw him and in stant ly stopped. It lost its stealth y motion a nd
assumed a n attit ud e of i11 te 11 se and speecl1less terror, su ch as lnglcsn,ut h :1.tl neve r sce 11 depi dc(l in :L hu111 an l1ci11 g, a11<l by this
attitude r evealed itself m ore complete ly to his gaze . The h ood
which sl111lleLl its face fell pa r Lly b ack an d displayed fea tures p ale
as death, a nd lust rou s eyes dilated wiLh h orror; a nd Jn glesant
co uld see th a t it held some n a meless weapon i n its h a nd. As it
stooLl, arresLed in its p urpose, breathless a n<l unce r tain, it seem ed

to S ay It.

171

to In glesa rtf, a phanto m murde rer, or rather the p hrtntom of murder
itse lf, as t houg h 110thi 11g sh or t of t.l1e m urderous p rinciple sufficed
a ny lou ger to dog his st eps.
This strange fig ure confronted In glesant for som e seconds, durin g
which neit her stirred, ea.ch with his eyes riveted upon the oth er ,
each wit h his weapou iu his h a nd. Then t h e ph antom murmure d
in an iuar Lic ulate a nd br oken voice, th a t faltered upon the a ir as
t li oug h tre mul ou s with horror, "It is him self I H e has t aken the
d agge r fro m his bleedin g wound!"
Th c'11, :rR it !1a<l co111 c, it, gli1led h:wkwn.r(hl a.1 0 11 ~ l.11 0 heavy
drape ry, . hcco111111 g lll o rc a 11d more los t in iLs fo hls, till, a l; Jirst
apparn 11Lly b1t t Lhc sl1a<l ow o f a sl1 a1lc, it fade<l 111ore a 11d more
into t he li a ngill g darkness, a ntl vanished ou t of s ight.
Th e ag reertlil e i11 n,11 is al ways co ur teo us a nd co nsiderate. IJe
k ecp R 0 11 t o f disputes a ud co11Le11tions, a nd seek s to give utte rai1ce
o nl y to p.lcn,sau t t hin gs, bu t if drive n to con trndict, does so in an
am ia ble ma nne r. H e m ay or m ay n ot b e as good a nd faithful at
h eart as Ur e g ruff 1lispnt,a nt, wh o is ap t to be boastful of his fra nkn ess, o u t tl1 e q ua lity th at makes him agreeable is hi s cult,ivated
m a nne r. So me people go so far as to deprecate p oli te ness as a
con cession to h ypocrisy, but it is r eally a m anifestation of consi<lerntion for ot hers. It is, of course, cul tiva ted b y hypocrites,
and t lw se wh o are excessively polite m ay be suspected of in sinceri ty ; b nt t lrnt is 110t ~ good r easo n wh y sin cere people sl1ould
i1 of; u se it to i11 n,k e t.1 1e1nselves agreeable.

EXERCISE 54.

rte-construct the foll owing paragraph so as to avoid beo-inb
mug so many of the sentences with "he" : .

l. Ile was an old b achelor, of a sm all independent income
w l1icl1 , by cn,rcfol rnn.11age1nont., wa.R'Stt!Ti cioHt fo r all hi s wants'.
2. H e revolved thro ugh th e fa mily system like a vagrant comet
in its orlii t ; sometimes visi tin g one b r a nch, and sometim es another
quite r em ote ; as is often t he case wit h gentle men of ext ensive
co nnections an d small fo rtunes in En gland. 3. He h ad a chirpin g,
buoyant d isposition, al ways e 11j oyiu g t h e presen t mome n t; a nd

,

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173

Compos£tion-Bhet oric.

How to Say It.

his frequ e11t clm11 ge of scc tHl a11d cotttp:i1;y preve nted !tis [teqttiri11g
those rusty, unaccommodating h abits with whi.clt olll bael1 e lors
are so uncharitably charged. 4. E :i was a complete family chronielc, he in~ ve rse(l i11 t.lie g'f'tH•alogy, lti1' t.ory, :rnd i11l ,1~ n11;1. rri:1.gT• s 11f
Ut e wltol e l1 ouse of Hrned•rid g(), ll'iiiclt 111:tde lti111 a g reat f:tvmit.e
with tlt e old folks; li e was t he bean of :tll the elder Jrt(lies at11l
superamrnated spinsters, among w horn lt e was lmbitually consideretl
rath er a you ng fellow; and he w:is m as ter of the r evels among
the chil(lrcn; so Lltrtt Lltnre was 1101; a 111orn pnp11lar ]Hd11g i11 Lltn
spllere in whieh he moved Llta11 Mr. :-limon Hr:tceb rid ge. G. Of
late years h e had resided almost e ntirely with the s11uire, to wl1om
h e had beco me a factotum, and whom lt e particulnxly delighted by
jnmping with his humor in respec t of: old times, and Ly liavi11g
a scrap of song to suit every occasion. G. " re had presently a
specimen of his last-me ntio11 etl ta.l ent., fo r no sooner was suppe r
r emoved, and spiced win es and oth er \Jeverages p ec uliar to th e
·season in troclucetl, than ]\foster Simon was called on for a good
old Christmas song. 7. Jlc licLhou ght himself for a mom ent, a nd
the n, with a sparkle of the eye, and a voice that was by no means
liacl, except that it ran occasio nally into a falsetto, like the notes
of a split r eed, h e quavered forth a quaint old ditty.

selves 1lisagreea\Jle to those th ey love, having a bad habit of positive
contrnd.iction. All of us have a great deal of self-love, and we
canuot regard as agreeable one who continually differs with and
co n Lrn1lids us, espec ially i [ h e docs so in an ofl'e11f!i ve way.

172

EXERCISE !:ifi .•

vVhat sameness of strndt11·c 110 yon 11otice :tt the close of
the so11te11ces of each of the followiug paragraphs? ltevise
in the inte~·est of vari ety.
It migl1t r easonal1ly lie .s11ppnsc'l Ll1at; g'()()<l pnnpln wonld ho
agrceabk :1.11,l l•ad l"-'ol_iie di s: 1.gTP(•. a lil1 ~ , li11t. Lhis i~ by 110 111 ua 11 s :t·
fr~ed rul e. The re are man y 11 01.ahle exccpLio11s, bacl p eople be in g
often delightful companio ns. They study to please, thereby covering up their faults of: eharacLer. Tlt nre is 110 r ea son, howe ver,
why good people should not follow tl1 eir example in this r espect,
ackling attractive manners t.o I.hei r othe r virtttes. "When th ey act
uatur:illy, they are agreeaLl e, hnt so me goo<l men with warm sympathies and great ki1Hl111\RS o[ lieart pnt 011 a gruff, repe lle nt manne r, seeming to think that it is necessary for their own protection.
There are others who at h eart are good friends, yet make tl1em-

A Chicago 11e wspape r pn\Jlishes an account o.f a novel exper iment wltich is about to be tried in that city. In brief, it is the
applicat ion to street-railway traffic of the Hungarian zone system
by which passengers may travel for one cent a mile. A streetrailway co111p:wy l1as obtained a eharter wlti elt gives it tlte right
to build lines over certa in streets o.f Chicago. The passenger may
pay cash or provide l1irnself with the coupon tickets which are
issued by the company. The first mile from the downtown terminus costs one cent, a11d one cent extra is charged for each additional mile or fractiot1 thereof which the passenger may travel.
In case a passeuger boards a car at a distance fro1n. the terminus,
a nd alig hts before it reaches its destination, he is charged one
ce nt a mile for the space over which he rides. The advocates of
this plan argue that a rate is thus established which is equitable
and fair to all concerned. It is maintained that such payment
will briHg in proper reven ue to the companies aud that the downtown passenger is not conti nually paying for the long rides which
the su\Jmban r esident takes. The plan is one which has been
thoroughly worked out in European cities, and it is ready for
adoption in America.
Tlte boy who chafes under rules and discipline, louging to be
free, should be reminded of the obligations of the social state, a11d
admonished to prolong as much as possible the freedom and enjoyments of youth; for that which is regarded as a measure o.f indepn11dc11 ec n111 st be p:ti1l for in a way which he does 11ot now suspect.
Th e youth who is wilful and determines to break from authority
soon learns that h e 11as broken with a supporter as well as a ruler;
for if he wonhl have his ow11 way he rnust snpport himself, and in
doing so he puts himself under the rule of new task-masters. The
wisest thing ·we can do is cheerfully to make the best of our
situation, for, strug·gle as we may, we canno. t achieve complete
i11dcpe1Hlcnce. By curbing our appetites and des ires so that we
sl1all want 011ly those thin gs that may be attainable through r easonable effort., aud by. respecting authority as a necessary exercise of

.
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\

'

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Compositi01i-1l lt etoric.

]tow to Say It.

p ower, we should cheerf ull y m ak e o ur s hare o[ Lh c mutual sacrifices wliich social conditions r equire to Le rn a<le .

LESSON 24.

174

.

Uses of Periodic Sentences.

It wou ld be tho ught a h ar<l gove r111 neut t h at should tax its
people one-te11 t h par t of their t ime l.o be e rnployed in its service;
but idleness taxes 11u11 1y of us much m ore : s loth, Ly bringing
0 11 <liscascs, al>so luLely s l1 o rLe 11 s life.
"Slot.Ii , lik e rust., co11 s1 1111 eH
faster t ha.11 labor wears; wl1ile t ho usod key is al wa.ys uright,"
as Poor l{ichard says . "Dut dost t hou love life? t h e n do not .
squander Lime, for Lit at is th e st uff Ii f'c: is 111ad n ol'," as l'oor Hicha.r1l
says. Ho w mu ch m ore t h a n is 11 ecessary do ·we spend in sleep!
forffct-.Li11g Llta.t "the sleepin g· fox cat.chcs 11 0 po11lt.ry," :t111l U1:i.t;
"t17ere wlll be sleepin g e11 oug i1 in the g rav e," :ts Poor H.iclianl says.

EXERCISE IJG.

·write about 300 words on o ne o [ tl1 e following topics . Criticise yom work carefttll y b y :i slz i11 g Lhn Col lo win g q11 est.io11 s : (1)
Is there v:trietv of sentence-beg i1111i11 gs? (~) ls I.h ere va rie Ly of
structure? (3) Is there variety of sentence-endin gs? l3ring uoth
your original a nd a me nd ed wo rk Lo clasfl, prqiarecl t o g ive reasons
for the chan ges you have m alle .

1. The story of Paul Revere's riue.
2. A tlescription of a coun try sturn.
3. The ninth inniug.
4. A ride on a rnf t.
5. Th e best route to the _/I. rct.ic r r.gio11R.
G. How our reauing cirelc is cun<lncteJ.
7. 'rhe story of Evangeline.
8. Ana11gc111c11ts fo r :i. ca111pi11 g parl-.y.
9. How sh all rail way cars be h ea.tetl '?
10. Advantages o[ le:m 1i11 g a trade.
11. Ho w the fashi ons origi11aLe.
12. 'rhe most important tliscovery of the last quartercentnry.
13. Scientific kite-flying.
14. ArLifici:1,l fli es.

175

r

i

A sentence is periodic in which .the thought is suspended
or kept i1wolllplete until t !t e end is r eached. 'l'hc followillg
paragraph is rna<le up of periodic sentences: in none of them
can a, period be insm·ted without destroying the mcn.nin g of
the pn.rt tlw,t preceues aml the part that follows the interr11 ption: 1. Neve r, perh aps, \Vas the ch a nge w hi ch t h e progress of civilizat.ion has 1irod11 cncl i11 th e a.rt; of war m ore strikingly ill11 stra.ted
tl1 a 11 011 Ll1 at day. 2. Aj ax IJeatillg down t he Troja11 leader wi t h
a rock w h ich two ordin a ry meu could scarcely lift, Horatius defemli11 g the bridge against an army, Richard the Lion-hearted
sp11rri11 g rtlong i,hc whole Sarace n lin e witl1 out findin g a n enemy
to w i t hstan<l hi s assault, Robert Bruce crushin g with one b low t he
h elmet a11d head of Sir iienry Bohnn in sight of t h e whole array
of Engl:w<l a.n<l Scotla11Ll, - s uch are the h eroes of a d ark age.
3. ln such an age, Lodily vigor is the most indispensaule qualificat.ion of a warrior. 4. At Landen, t wo poor sickly beings who,
in a rude state of society, would h ave been regarded as too puny
to bear a ny p a rt in co mbats, were the sonls of two gr eat armies.
5. Tn so me !1eatl1en coun tries th ey would have been exposed while
infa nts. G. In Christendom t hey would, six hundred years earlier,
havA h cen se n t t o so me cptint cl oiste r. 7. Bnt their lot !1 ad fallen
on a Li lllc when m e n l1a<l <liscovere d t hat th e strength of t h e muscles is far inferior in value to t he strength of t he mind. 8. It is
probable t.l1at, a m ong i.h e hundred a nd tw enty t housand soldiers
who were mars halled r oun<l Neerwinden under all the standards
o[ \Ves tcr11 E11rnpe, the two fee bles t in b ody were the hunchbacked dwarf who urged forward t he fiery onset of France, a nd
the asthmatic skeletou who covered the slow r etreat of En gland.
- M A CAULAY: History of England, ch ap. XX.

The paragraph of periodic sentences is, in effect, more
like oratory; or ueclarnatiou, than like ordinary conversa.-

Composilion-llhcto ric.

How to Say It.

tio11. 'l' ho manner of staLc111 c11t;, m;pr\('.i:1,ll y if tho sente nces
are somewhat long, is cligni:fied and impressive. 'l'he reader
fee ls, as he reads, that the subj ect is weighty and in1portant;
that the pmts of each sentence h:we Leen pmposely anange!l
as he finds t h em. Ile is.co mpelled to pay close attent ion,
for he fimls that tlte principa.l verli of ea.ch sentence is wit hheld until the rnodifyii1g phrases and olrwses are brought
i11. He mu st wait for t li o foll 111ca11i11g itntil the end of the
sc11tc11cc; thus his intcrosL is sLi11111l :ttrn1. Wl1en Ll1e important word, or element, t hat has beell reserved to the latter
part, is reached, the force and the satisfy ing complete ness
of the whole sentence are appreciated.

ha vn yon fo111Hl i 11 n1 e a11ythi11g ::;elfi sh, a11ytJ1i11g personal, anyLl1i.11 g 111crce 11ary ? Jn the simple language of au ancient seer, I
sn.y, " lleholcl , h ere l am ; witn es::; agai nst me. Whom have I
1le frand e1]? \Vl1 011t hav e I oppressed? At whose hands h ave
J rccPi1·e1l :tny hrihc'?" - ,1os 1An QUINCY: Address on laying down
the 1llay orall!J 1! f' IJoslun.

176

If the poetical prediction, utte red a Cew years before his birth,
be true ; if indeed it be design ed by Providence t hat the gnrndes t
exhi bition of hum an character and hu111 a n affairs shall be made
011 this theatre of the western wo rld; if it be true that
"The first four a cts a lready p::ist,
A fifth sha.11 close t he drama with the day;
Time's nobl est offspri ii g is t he last;"

how could t his im posing, s-welli ng, final sce ne be appropriately
opened, how could its intense in terest be adequately sustained,
but by t he i11troduction of jw;t Ruch a characte r as our ·washington ?- \V1msTim: C haracter rf 1Vrisl1i11.r;ton.
An<l now, gentlem en, sta1 1<li11 g aR T do in t hi s relation for t he
last time i n yum presence a nd Lhat of 111 y fellow-citize ns, about to
s urremler forever a station foll of tliffi c11lty, of labor, and temptation, in wl1i ch I h ave been cn.lletl to very anlnous duties, affectin g
the rigld;s, property, arnl at t.im0s I.lie lil•crty of ot.lt crs; co nce rnin g
which the perfect lin e of r ectitude, though desired, was n ot always
to be clearl y discerned; in wit ich g reat intcrcst.s have bee n placed
within my co11 trol, 1111tler circu111 sta11 ces in which it would have
been easy to advance pr ivat.e e11tls a tHl sinister projects ;-uutler
these circumstances, I inq uire, as r hnve a ri ght to inquire, -for
in the recent contest insinuations h:we been cast against my integrity, - in t his long rna11a~e 111 e nt o.C your affairs, wh atever errors
liavc been co mmi Ucd, - a 11 1l d u11hLlm;s L l1 1~rc have been 11i:t11y, -

177

P eri.oLl ic sente nces arc sometimes found one after another
tl1ro11g·l1 ~ whole paragraph of a highly wrought discourse.
.J\lnre ol'Lnn, l1owcvnr, Ll1ny alLc rnatc :tt .more or loss rEigular
intervals with sentences of other kintls. The following
selec tio n co11 ta.ins nine sentences of which three (3, 5, 8)
are poriotlic : 1. Great actions and strikin g occurrences, havin g excited a temporary a.dmiration, often pass away and are fo rgotten, because th ey
leave no b stiu g results affecting the prosperity and happin ess of
co 1111111111it, ic::;. 2. Snch is freqnently the fo r tu ne of the most brilliant 111ilitary achievements. 8. O.f tbe ten thousand battles which
l1 av e been fough t; of all the fields fertilized with carnage; of the
ba1rners which have been bathed in blood; of the warriors ·who
h av e· hoped that they h ad risen from the field of conquest to a
glory as brigh t and as durable as the stars, how few that continue
lon g to interest ma nkind I 4. The victory of ye::;terday is reversed
IJy tl1 c defeat of to-llay; t he star of milita ry glory, rising like a
meteor, lik e a rn eteor l1 as fall en; disgrace and disttster hang on
t lie heels of co 11 r1ues t and renown; victor and vanquished presently
pass away to oblivio n, and t he world goes on in its co urse, with
t .h e loss only of so ma ny lives and so m uch treas ure .
G. But i ( t hi s be frequently or generall y the fortune of military
achi eve 111e11 ts, it is n ot al ways so. G. There are enterprises, military as well as civil, which so metimes check the current of events,
give a n ew turn to hnrnan affairs, and transmit their consequences
through ages . 7. "\Ve see t heir importance in their results, and
call t he m g reat, because great things follow. 8. There have been
batLles wli icli have fixed tl1e fate of n ations. 9. These come down
to us in "hi story with a solid and permanent interest, not created
by a di splay of gli tterin g armor, t he rnslt of adverse battalions,
t he sinking a nd ri sin g of penno ns, t l1 0 fligl1t, the pursui t, a nd t he

178

179

Oomposition-.lUwloric.

11ow to 8ay It.

victory; but by th eir effect in a<lva11cing or r etardi11 g human
Jrnowl cdgc, in ovcrL11rowi11g or osl.abli ::; lii11 g 1lef'po f.i s111 , i11 cxte 111li11g or destroyi11g lnuna11 happin ess. - W1rnsTER.

prepared for, its adoption suddenly changed the contest from a
war for the reuress of grievaHccs to au eHort at the creation of a
self-governiug commonwealth. 3. It disernbarrassed the people of
the U uited States fro111 the legal fiction of owning a king against
whom they were in arm s, brushed away forever the dreamy illusion
of their reconcilement to the dominion of Britain, and for the first
time set before them a well-defined, single, and inspiring purpose.
4. As the yo uth fol nation took its seat among the powers of the
earLh, its Jcsire was 110 longer for the restoration of the past, but
t11rn ed wiLh prophetic pro111ise towards the boundless fut,urc.
5. Hope w 11 ispereJ the assurance of unheard-of success in the pursuit of public lrnppin css through faith in natural equality and the
rights of rnau. - BANCROFT.
·

Periouic sentences show a more regnlar and formal structure than loose sentences. The periodic sentence is a.rranged
to secure suspense; accordingly the strncture of a periodic
sentence will slww devices for wit;ld10ldi11 g tl1c fall rn ea.uing
and for arousi11g expectation. Thus in the pa,ragraplL of
porio<lic scntencos q11otc<l at tlto hngi1111i11g ol' 1.l1i s lr~:-; so 11,
suspense is secured in se11tc11 cc 1 \Jy the use of cuinpn.rativc words (never-more-tluw); in 2, by tl1e use of a
summarizing word (such) after particulars have been ::wcumul:1tec1 by means of the participles (beating - defending,
etc. ); in 3, by putting a phrase first and bringing in the logical subject (qualification) after the copula (is); in 4, 5, and G
by putting a phrase first. Jn 7, t,110. <lcm1onstrative article
(a) n.11t.icipatci-; the clause ('1vlw11.), Ll1u Lra11sit;ivc vorl> (tliswvered) needs an object (here the that-clause), and the
object clause is prolonged by the use of a cornparntive
(i1~ferior); in 8, the word it anticipates all thn,t follows the
wOl'd probable; n,nd the part of sentence 8 after the word
probable is suspend.eel by the device useu in sentence 3.
Other uevices for securing suspense will be seen in the
following sentences: in sentence 2, suspense is secured by
putting the concessive clause (though) first; in 4, by the
n.s-cbnse, antl, late r, by the worcls no lvnrrr-b11t; in (i,
by the position of the wlwn-clmtscs; in 7, by the use of
wor<ls that require something to follow (cwow, in preference
to); in 8, by the four for-phrases coming first; in 11, by
the introductory ~{-claus e ; in the two parts of 13, by pJaciug tho partieiplc:-i Jin;L; ia rn, uy the use :rnd pusitiuu of
the correlatives (whether - or).
1. The American Declaration of Independence was the beginning of 11ew ages. 2. Though it Jiau been invitcu, expectecl, anu

G. When your lordsh ips look at the papers transmitted to us
from America, when you cousider their decency, firmness, and
wisdom, you cannot but respect their cause and wish to make it
your own. 7. I must declare and avow tl1at, in the master states
o[ I.lie world, I kn ow not Lhc JWopl o, nor th o se11ato who, 1111tler
s uelt a co111plic:tLio11 of dillicult circumstances, can staud in preference to the delegates of America in General Congress at Philadelphia. 8. For gen uin e sagacity, for singular moderation, for solid
wisdom, manly spirit, sublime sentiments, and simplicity of language, for eve rything respectable and honorable, they stand unrivalled. - CHATHAM.

...
l' '

9. A g reat deal must be allowed to Pope for the age in which he
lived, a1id not a li tt le, I think, for the influence of Swift. 10. In
his ow n province li e still stands un approachably alone. 11. If to
l>e tlie greatest satirist of individu al men, rather tltau of human
11at11re, if to be the highes t expressio n which the life of the court
antl the Lall-room bas ever found in verse, if to have added more
phrases to our language than any other but Shakespeare, if to
have charmed four generations make a man a great poet- then
.ho ir; 011 0. l '.1. I ro war; th e chioC :fn111lllor oJ an 1nLificial st,Ylo of
wriLing, wliieh in his hanus wtts living and powerful, because he
used it to express artificial modes of thinking and an artificial
state of society. 13. Measured by any high standard of imagination, he vvill be found wanting; tried by any test of wit he is
umivalleJ. - L OWELL : illy Study Windows, 433.

180

Oornpositi01i-Rltetoric.

How to Say It.

14. At that period I had the fortnnc to find myself i11 pcrfoct
concurre nce with a l:trge rna.jority in t lris Honse. 15. Bowi11g
under tl1at high authority, and penetrated ·with tlie sharpness and
st.rength of that early impression, I have c011tinued ever since,
without the least deviation, in 1ny origi 1rnl Renti111euts.
]().
'Vhether this be owing to a11 ol1sti11ate perseverm1ce in error, or
to a religious adherence to ·wlrnt appears to me truth and reason,
it is in your equity to judge. - Bmurn: Conciliation with the
Colonies.

of the debt which he owes to his intellectual ancestors in Palestine,
Greece, Ho111e, and Germany. 2. The whole past history of the
world would be darkness to him, and not knowing what those who
came before him had done for him, he ·would probably care little
to do anything for those who are to come after him.. 3. Life
·w ould Le to him a cha.in of. sand, while it ought to be a kind of
electric chain that makes our hearts tremble and vibrate with the
most anci ent thoughts of the past as well as with the most distant
hopes of the future.

The pupil should not.ice carc l'11ll y I.he 111ctltods of s11spc11se
employetl in the periotlic sentences quoted above ·w ith a view
to using these methods in l1is own writing. One of the chief
adva11\-.agcs in co111posi11g 11nri()(lic sentences arisci:; from t h e
fact that one lca.n1s h ow to place ]>ltrases :111<1 elanscs pro11erly, and how to rnanage ;t uonsi<kmhle mmtbcr of them m
the same sentence when tli is is necessary.

1. Look 11ow at tl1c accornplislted rnan of letters. Ile sits in his
quiet study with clear head, sympathetic heart, and lively fancy.
2. The walls around him are lined with books on every subject,
and in almost every tongue. 3. He is indeed a man of magical
powers, and these books are his nutgical volumes full of wonder·working spells. 4. 'Vhen he opens one of these, and reads with
eye and soul in tent., in a few minutes the objects around him fade
from his senses, and his soul is rapt away in to distant regions, or
into Ly-gone times. 5. It may be a book descriptive of other
lands; and then he feels himself, perhaps, amid the biting frost
and snowy ice-hills of the polar winter, or in the fierce heat and
luxuriant vegetation of the equator, panting up the steeps of the
Alps with t he holiday tourist, or exploring the mazes of the Nile
with Livingstone or Baker. 6. Or, perchance, it may be a history
of E11g-lnml; antl tlicn tlie 1.i<lo of 1.i1110 r1111s ·back, a11tl ho fintls
lti111sei[ an1011g onr stout-hearteu ancestors; lie enters l1 eartily into
all their toils and struggles; he passes amid the fires of Smithfield
at the Reformation; lie shares in all the wrangling, and dangers,
and suspense of the Revolution ; he watches with cager gaze the
steady progress of the nation, until he sees British freedom become
the envy of Europe, and British enterprise secme a foothold in
every <J.Uarter of the globe. 7. Or perhaps the book may be one
of our great Euglish classics - Shakespeare, Bacon, or Carlyle and immecliately li e is in t he closest contact with a spi rit far larger
than l1is own: 11is mind grasps its grand ideas, his heart imbibes
its glowi ng se11timents, until lie finds himself dilated, refined,
inspired, - a greater and a nobler being. 8. Thus does this
scholar's soul grow and extend itself until it lives in every region
of the earth and in every by-gone age, and h olds the most intimate

Use the periodic sentence for its dignity, completeness, and
structural compactness. Guard against the over-importance (bombast) which a series of periodic sentences may produce when the
subject on which you are writing is simple and familiar.

Find, by counting, tlte Jm>purtion of perio<lic to the total
number of sentences in three J><:tges of your school history.
EXEIWlSE ri8.

Turn sentence number 1 in the following to periodic form,
and note the effect. Iu the second selection turn sentences
r;, G, arnl 7 to periodic form. Is the paragraph improved
thereby?
1. Our pri ncipal in tellectnal ancestors are, no doubt, the Jews,
the Greeks, the Romans, and the Saxons, aud we, here in Enrope,
should not call ~ man educated or enl ightened who was ignorant

181

.
~-~--- --

--~-

-

.

.

.

-

'

Composition-Rhetoric.

How to Say It.

i11tcrco11rsc with t he spiritr; o[ the 111igl1ty 1lcad; ;incl thns, t.ho11 glt
origi 11 ally ::i. frail 1Hortal creat ure, he rises tuwanl tlte go<lJ ike
attributes of omnipresence au<l omniscience.

pl cs, whi cb, iu the opinion of such men as I have meutioned, have
s u bsLan Lial ex istence, are in truth everything, and all in all.
l\la.g11 a.nirnity in politics is not seldom the truest wisdom; and a
g reat e111pire a.nd little minds go ill together. If we are conscious
of our situation, a.nd glow ·w ith zeal to fill our places as IJecomes
our station alld ourselves, we ought to. auspicate all our public
proceedings 0 11 America, with the old warniHg of the church,
Surswn conla ! \ Ve ought to e levate our minds to the greatness
of that trust Lo which the order o( Providence has called us . By
n.LlverLing to t he dignity of thi s hi g h calling, our ancesto rs have
turned a savage wilderness in to a glori ous empire: and have made
the lllost cxLe usive, and the 0 11 ly honorable conquests, no t by
des trnyiug, IJut Ly promoting the wealth, the number, t he happin ess of U1 e luunan race. Let us get an American revenue as we
h ave got all American empire. English privileges have made it
all t hat it is ; English privileges alone will make it all it can be. Bumrn: Conc-iliation with the Colonies.

182

EXERCISE GU.

Point out the means of suspeuse ernployetl
lowing : -

111

the fo l-

I know man y have \Jeo n taught to Lhiuk, that mod eration,
iu a case like this, is a so rt of treaso n; a.w..1 that all argu me11ts
fo r iL are sufllcieutly answered Ly railing at rebels a nd rebellion,
a nd by charg in g all Lh e prese n t, or future mi series, which ·we may
suffer, OB the resistance of our brethre n. But I would wi sl1 t li e111,
iH this grav e matter, a ud if peace is not wholly removeJ fro m
their hear ts, to co nsider se riously, first, that to crimiu ate a11d
recri minate never yet was tl1e road lo rcco11ciliatio11, iu any ~li£­
fore11ce a1no11gst 111e n. ] 11 t he ucxt pl ace, it wo uld ]Jc ri g ht to
reflect, that the American English (whom they may au use, if t li ey
think it honorable to revile the absen t) cau, as things now stand,
neither be provoked at our railiug, 11 or \Jetterecl Ly our instruction.
All co111111u11icatio11 is cut off IJetween us, l>ut this we kuow with
certainty, that, though we cann ot r eclaim them, we may r eform
ourselves. lf rn eas 11 res of peace a.re necessary, they must Leg i u
somewhere; and a conciliatory Leniper must precede and prepare
every plan of reconciliation. Nor do l couceive that we suffer
anything by thus regulati11g our own min ds. \Ve are not disarmed
by IJein g di se ncumlJered of our prtssio11s. Declaiming on rebellion
never a<lcled a bayonet, or a charge of powder, to yo ur military fo rce;
IJut I am afraid that it l1 as 1Jee11 the means of La.king up many
muskets against yo u. - B un1rn: L ei/er to the S her ijj's of B ristol.
All this, T kn ow well eno11 gh, wi ll so und wild a nd cl1i111erical
to Lite profane ltcnl o[ Lhose vulgar and m ecl1a11ical pulit.i c.i:w s,
w 110 have .110 pl a.en a111on g llR ; :i. r;ort of p1 ~ nplc who Lli i11 k that
noth ing exisLs IJnt what is gross n.n1l 1111tLeri:tl; and wlw Llicrcfore,
far from IJeiug qualified to Le directors of the great rn overn ent of
empire, are not fit to tur n a wheel in the machine. B11t to men
truly initiaLed and rightl y taught, these ruling mid rn aster priuci-

183

11 0

The proposition is peace. Not peace through the medium of
war; Hot p eace to be huu ted throug h the labyrinth of intricate
and endless 11egotia.tions; i 10t peace to arise out of universal discord, fomented from principle, in all parts of the empire; not
peace to depend on t he juridical determination of perplexing
questions, or the precise marking the shadowy boundaries of a
co mplex govermnent. It is simple peace; sought in its ual;ural
course, and i11 its ordiuary haun ts. 1t is peace sought in the spirit
of peace; and laid in principles p urely pacific. I propose by
removing t he gro und of the difference, and by restoring the for mer
unsuspecting confid ence of the colonies in the mother country, to
give pennauent sat.isfaction to yo ur people; and (far from a
scheme of ruling by discord) to reconcile t hem to each other in
the same act, and by the bond of t he very same interest which
reconciles t hem to British government. - B murn: Conciliation with
the Colonies .
EXERCISE GO.

l\foke a l~st of aJl the methods you have leamed by which
suspense is sec ured, and illustrate each method by an original sentence.

184

Composition-Rhetoric.

flow to Say It.

EXERCISE fi1 .

the rebels laid clown their anus, as they were commanded; and
the military stores, which lia<l lJeen frugally treasured up for this
crisis, been, without resistance, des troyed, - then the Revolution
would have been a t an end, or rather nevel' h ad been begun; the
heads of Hancock and Adams and their brave colleagues would
have been exposed in ghastly triumph on Temple Bar; a military
despotism would have been firml J\. fixed in the colonies; the
patriots of Massachusetts would have ~be e n doubly despised - the
scorn of their enemies, the scorn of their deluded co11ntryme11;
and the lH)art of this great people, Lh eu beating au<l almost bursting for freedom, would have been struck cold and dead, perhaps
foreve r.

lntrrnluco a.s great v:triety of suspense as yo u can into the
follmving paragraph s: 1. Douglass was essentiall y a great man. 2. Escapi11g from
slavery when li e was twe11ty-one years old, in three years lie had
beg uu, in a l\Jassachu se tts seaporL Low11, to be a leader of hi s race,
aud an orator fo r the abolit;io11 o[ Hlavery. 3. Goi11g to Englallll,
he stirred th e mora l se nse of tl1 n English people wl 1ich so 0Hc11
co111p<ds 1.lic ~ all eg ia11 c1\ ol: ii.fl poliLici:1,11 11 and staLnfl 111e11 in bchal[
of moral c:wses. '.!:. Becorn i ng a11 elliLor as well as an orator, he
was a considerable fo rce in awakenin g the <lull conscience of the
Nor th ern States. 5. Ile h as left 11is m ark upon the history of the
abolition o( sbrcry in A n1erica.
l. That astonishin g in cident in human affairs, the Revolution
of A meri ca, as see n on the day of its portentous, or rather, let me
say, of its a usp icious conrn1 enceme11 t, is the theme of our present
consideration. 2 . 0 11 t li e one liand , we behold a co nn ection of
events, - t he time and circu mstances of th e original discovery ;
the settlements of t he Pilgrims, and their peculiar prin ciples and
charader; their singular poliLi cal relati ons with t he rn otl1 er-cn t1ntry; t heir lon g a nd doubtfo l str uggles with the savage tribes ;
their colli sions with the royal governors ; their cooperation i n
the British ·warn,:____ with a ll f.he i11flue11 ces of th eir geographi cal
and phy::;ical co11<liLio11, uni t in g Lo co nsLiLute what I may call the
n ational eLlucatio 11 of America.
3. \Vhe11 we take this survey we feel, as far as Massachusetts
is co11 cern efl, that we 011ght to divide the honors of the Revolution
with t he great men of t he colo ny in every generation;- with t he
\Vin slows and the P epperells, the Cookes, the Dummers a11d the
l\fathcrs, th e ·win throps a n<l the Bradfo rds, a11d all who labored
and acted in the caLinet, tl1e llesk, or the fi eld, for the one great
C:1ll8e .

±. On the other l1and, when we dwell upon the day itself,
everything else seems lost in l;hc con1pari so11 . !5. H a<l onr fathers
failed on that day of trial whi ch we now celebrate ; had their
votes an d their resolves (as was tauntin gly predicted on both sides
of tl1 e Atlai1ti c) cndcrl in the h rca l.11 in wl1id1 tit<\)' hcgan; hatl
1

185

EXERCISE G2 .

Re-write the following for the most part in periodic sentences and compar e your version with the original.
There are ten thousand ways of telling a lie. A man's entire
life may be a falsehood, while with his lips he may not once
directly falsify. There are those who state what is positively
untrue, but afterward say "may be" softly. These departures
from Lhc t rnth are called white lies, but there is really no such
thin g as a white lie. The whitest lie that was ever told was as
black as perdition . There are men high in church and state,
actually u seful, self-denyin g, and hon est in many things, who,
upon cer ta in subjects and in certain spheres, are not at all to be
depen ded upon fo r veracity. Indeed, there are multitudes of men
who have their notion of truthfulness so thoroughly perverted that
they <lo n ot kuow when t hey are lying. ·w ith many it is a cultivated sin.; with so me it seems a natural infirmity. I have kno_w n
people who seemed to have been born liars. The falsehoods of
their li ves exte nded from cradle to grave . Prevarication, misrepresentation, and dishon esty of speech, appeared in their first utterauces, and were as natural to them as any of their infantile
diseases, and ·were a sort of moral croup or spiritual scarlatina.
Bnt many have been placed in circumstances where this tendency
has day by day and hour by hour been called to larger development. Th ey h ave gone from attainment to attainment, and from
class t.o chss, until I.hey have bcco nw regnlarly grn1l11:~tc<l fotrs.

186

Composition-lUwtoric.

The air of the city is fill ed with falsehoods . Th ey hang pen<le11t from the cl1 andnlierfi of: 01u· fi11<!SL residences. '1']1(\Y crnw1l
the shelves o( some o[ our merchauL princes. They fill Lbc sidewalk from curb-stone to brown-sto11e facing. They cluster rouud
the mechanic's hammer, aud blossom from the eml of the merchant's yardstick, aud sit in the doors of churches. Some call
them" fiction." So Ille style them "fouricatious." You might say
that they were subterfuge, disg uise, illusion, romance, evasion,
pretence, faule, deception, rnisrepresentatio11; but, as 1 am ignorant of rmything to be gained by f.li c J1i<li11g oE a f:od-deiying
outrage und er a lcxicog rn.p li cr's hlan kct, l :o;liall cl1ietly call them
in plainl'.st vcrnac11lar - lies.
Let us all strive to b e what we appear to Le, and banish from
our lives everything that looks like deception, remembering that
God will yet reveal to the universe what we really are.
EXETIC lSE G3.

\Vl1at samcHCSH of Htl'lldttrc <lo yo1 1 11of;icc i11 tlie sc.11-

t ences of the following paragrnphs '? R e-write, aml re-combine, introducing variety of beginnings and variety of suspense.
There is no doubt that the Christian powers of Europe, or Russia and Engla.nd alone, could, by main force, put a stop to the
persec uLion of the An11e11i:111 Christir111s Ly the Turks. One of the
reasons for their exceeding caution in the case is their kuowledge
and experience of the fighting aLilit.y of tlte Turks. Drive t he
Tnrk to the. wal l, and he will fight ag::1.inst any odds. Inflame his
religious zeal, and he will rush upon the combined armies of
Christendom. Threaten h is sanctuaries, arnl I.he most arrant coward wi ll become a hero. · Lead him to l.Jelieve that he is called
upon to engage in a holy war for lslam, and death in battle
becomes l;hc h iglicst joy for hi Ill. 11<! has s11pn~11w faitlr in J\ ll alt
and the Prophet. Ile believes iu kismet. To l1im the vision of
paradise is a perpetual inspiration. The Turk has fought all the
r aces in the world. Ile h as Leen held in check only by overwhelming forces . His hi story from the times of old has been
chiefly tli;it of warfare.

Row to Say It.

187

T remember a11 old scholastic aphorism, which says, that "the
man wl10 li ves wl1ul ly detached from otl1ers must be either an
a11gel or a devil." When I see in any of these detached gentlemen
of 01n· times the ang~lic purity, power, and beneficence, I shall
admit them to be angers. In the meantime we are born only to
be men. \Ve sl1all do enough if we form ourselves to be good
oues. It is therefore our business carefully t.o cultivate in our
minds, to rear to the most perfect vigo{ and maturity, every sort
of generons and honest feeling that Lelongs to our nature. To
bring tl1 c tlispositi o11s that are lovely in private life into the service of f,J1 n co m111 011wcalf.l1; so l;o be patriots aA not to forget we
arc ge11Ue 111en. To enltiv::d,o frienLlships, aud to iucm· enmities.
To have both strong, Lut both selected: in the one, to be placable;
in the other immovable. To model onr principles to our duties
and our situation. To be fully persuaded that all virtue which is
impracti cable is spurious; and rather to run the risk of falling
into fa11Us in a co11rsc which leads us to act with effect and energy,
1.lia.11 to loit.er 011f; 011r days wiLltont bla11H', and wif.h out use. Public
life is a siL11aLio11 o[ power a11tl energy; he Lrespasses against his
duty who sleeps upon his watch, as well as he that goes over to
the enemy.
EXERCISE G4.

·write about 300 words on one of the
followino·b topics ' makinCT
'
b
many of the sentences periodic in form, and trying the various
·
devices for st1spe11se: -

1. Americans shouhl not hate the English.
2. Thoughts on Juuepenclence Day.
3. Accuracy in writing and speaking is a moral attain-

ment.
4. It makes a difference for what purposes we spend
money.
u. Aclvantn.ges of a public liLrary.
6. Admirable traits in Abraham Lincoln's character.
7. A heroic deed..
8. The character of Miles Standish.
9. 'l'he dignity of Dr. Samuel J olmson.

188

Oomposition-1lhetoric.

How to Say It.

10. Needed street impl'Ovements.
11. Early life of George 1£liot.
12. \Vas Bassa,nio a proper husband for Portia?

189

1. I cannot name this gentleman without remarking that his
labors aud writiugs h ave done much to open the eyes and hearts
of mankiud. 2. Ile has visited all Europe, not to survey the
snrnptnousness of palaces, or t he stateliness of temples; not to
make accnrate measurements of the remains of ancient grandeur,
nor to form a scale of the curiosity of modern art ; not to collect
medal8, or collate manuscripts: but to dive into the depths of
dungeons; to plunge into the infection of hospitals; to survey
the mansions of sorrow and pain; to take the gauge and dimension fl o:f: misery, dcprcflsion, aJl(l contempt; to remember the forgoLLe11, to aLtern1 tu Ll1c ueglected, to visit the forsakcu, and Lo
compa:re and collate the distresses of all men in all countries.
3. His plan is origl.nal; and it is as full of genius as it is of humanity. 4. It was a voyage of discovery; a circumnavigation of
charity. 5. Already the benefit of his labor is felt more or Jess
in every country; I hope he will anticipate his fiual reward, by
seeing all its effects fully realized in his own. G. He will receive,
not Ly detail but iu gross, the reward of those who visit the prisoner; aml he has so fotestalled aud monopolized this branch of
charity, that there will be, I t rust, little room to merit by such
acts of benevolence hereafter. - Dumrn: Speech at Bristol.

LESSON 26.

Uses of the Balanced Sentence.

A balanced sentence is one in wl1ich corresponding parts
am made simibr ill form i11 ol'dcr Lu l1ri11g unt parallclislll
in mem1ing. The following pn.ragrnph, after the first sentence, shows similarity of form in five sentences, the scheme
of structure being if- 7'.t shows in each sentence: The parts and signs 0£ goodness are nrnny. If a man be
gracious and courteous to strangers, it shows that he is a citizen
0£ the world, and that hi s h eart is 110 island cut off fro111 other
lanus, Lut a continent that joi11s to tlielll. H he Le co111pa:=;siouate
towards the aftlictions of others, it shows that his heart is like
the noble tree that is woumled itself when it gives the balm. If
h e easily pardons and remits offences, it shows th a t hi s mind is
planted above injuries, so that he cannot Le shot. Jf he Le th aukful for small benefits, it shows that he weighs men's minds, and
not their trash. Unt, above all, if he have St. Paul's perfection,
that h e would wiAh to be auaLlicllla frolll Cl1rist for the salvation
of his brethren, it shows much of a divine nature, and a kiud of
conformity with Christ himself. - BACON: Of G'ood11ess.

'l'he habit of clothing similar thoughts in cbuses, or
phrases,· or sentences, of about equal length and of similar
structure, may easily become a mannerism. A series of
lmbnces grows speedily wea,risorne aud becomes offeusively
regular. 'l'he reader suspects, sometimes, that the facts are
not so accurately balanced as the words would indicate.

In the following paragraph the second senteuce diviues at
but; the sche.me of structure in the first part being not to
- or, not to - nor to, not to - or, a,nd of the Jn.st part bnt
to, to, etc., corresvonding expressions being simibr in form
of state mm1t an<l of :d>n11t; Ll1<~ r-;a111c 1111111 her of wor<lH. Tn
sentence 4, the repetitions (voyaye of discovery, cfrcurnnavigation of charity) correspond precisely in form. In sentence
G, the contrasting wo1:ds (not by cletccil but fri gross) are simibrly placed.

Use the balanced sentence only when parallelism of the thought
requires.
EXERCISE 65.

T'oint out n.11 the contr:tHtiug words, phrases, n.ncl eln.nses
that are balanced in the following paragraphs: I believe we oan nowhere find a better type of a perfectly free
creature than in the common house fly. Nor free ·only, but brave;
and irreverent to a degree which I think no human republican
j

'

-

--- - - - -

•

---

191

Oompo sition-lllieton'.c.

flow to Say It.

could by any pl1 ilosophy exalt hi111 sPH 1.o. Tl1ere is 110 co urteRy in
him; lie docs not ca.re wh ctl 1cr it is king or clown wliorn 11 0 teases ;
and in every step of his swift Jll echanical march, n,nd in every
pause of his resolute observatio11, there is on e and the same expression of perfe ct egot ism, pe rfect, inclepenfl cnce and self-confidence,
and conviction of the world's lrnving been 11rnde for flies . Strike
at him with your hand; and t o him , the mechanical fact and
external aspect of t.he matter is, " ·l1a!; t o you it woulll be, if an
acre of red clay, ten feet thick, tore itself up from th e g round in
0110 111:1.ssive field, l1ov(~l'< ~ il ov,·r y o11 i11 t.l1 P n.ir for n. scco11\l , n.11d
came crashing down wiLh a n ailll. TJ1aL is I.he cx !.ernal aspect of
it; the inn er aspect, to hi fl fl y's mind , is o[ q11ite 11atnral a11d 1rnimportant occurrence - one of the 111 0111c11ta.ry co11clitio11s of his active
life. H e steps out of the way oE your hand, aml ali ghts on t he
back of it. Yon cannot tenify him , 11or gov ern him, nor persuad e
him, nor convince him. Ile has his own positive opinion on all
matters; not an unwise on e, 11 s11ally, for his own enJs; and will
ask no advice of vo urs. lie h as 110 work to do- no t y ranuicn.l
, instin ct to obey. "Th e earthw orm has hi s diggin g ; the bee, her
gathering and builcli11 g ; the spitler, h er cunuin g Jte t-\:·ork; the
ant, her treas ury and accounts. All th ese are comparative slave<;,
or people of vul gar bnsiness. But yo ur fl y, free in th e air, free in
the chamber - a black incarnation of caprice -wanderin g, investigating, flittin g, flirtin g, feastin g at hiH will, with rich variety of
ch oice in feast, f.ro111. the hcape<l sweets in th e grocer's window to
those of the Lutcl1c r's ha.ck-yard , a11d Jro111 Urn gn.ll u'l place 011
your cab-horse's back to th e Lrown spot in the roaJ , from which
as the hoof disturbs him, he ri ses with angry republican buzz
-what freedom is like J1is ?- H.us 1\I N: <lnecn (~f the A ir.

relat.ion, proportion, color, light; and there must be a skilful
11ni ti11 gof all the parts into one perfect wlwle. -J. C. VAN DYKE:
How to Judg e of a Picture, 95.

190

Th e clergyman of fashion was pa.le and fragile; he of the people
was florid and muscular. H e had 110 attendant to remove l1is l1at
and cloak. H e h ad no comfortaLle study in the church building
where he smoothed his hair and arranged his cuffs. He declaimed
before 110 full-length mirror, and never wore a pair of patent
leath ers in his life. '\Vhen he ascended th e pln.tforrn, threading
liifl way Lhro11 g h Llw 111e n a11d wu1 11 c11 011 iLs steps, a.till paLLiug Lhe
curly hair of boys perched 011 the ledge, he slung his soft felt hat
under a little table, put oue leg over the other while he removed
his rubbers, threvv back his cloak, settled himself in l1is chair, and
gave a. sigh of relief as he drew a restful breath after his quick
walk from home. In other words, he was a man bent on man's
dnty . H the air seemed close h e said so, called an usher and had
th e windows lowered. If he desired a special tun e sun g to the
l1 yu111 lie gav e out, he turned to the director and told him so. If
he forgot a. date or a name, he asked one of the people near him
wl1 at it was. If strau gers sitting close to the platform were
unprovided with hymn-book s, he leaned forward and handed them
several fro 111 his desk. As he said, "I am at home; they are our
guests. vVh at is proper in my house is eminently proper in the
house of the Lord! " - .Jos. llow ARD : Life of B eecher, 158.

EXERCISE 66.

In what parts of the followiug paragraph does the balance seem forced and unnecessary ? Re-state the thought
in looser form and in simpler sentences.

Pictorial composition may be defrn ed as t.h e proportionn.te
arranging and unifyin g of th e differe11 t featnres and objects of
a picture. It is not th e hnddl i11 g togeth er of miscellaneous studio
properti es - a <111111111,y, a vase, a. mg- 11 crc, a1Hl n. sofa, a fireplace,
a tab le there; it is not; Lh e lngg i11 g in by t l1 e ears of uuirnportant
people to fill i1p the b;Lckg ro1111tl o[ the c;1.11vas, as in tlie spcc tacnln.r play; it is not taking a real group frolll nature n.nd trnusplanting it upon canvas. Th ere rnn st be an exercise of judgment on
the part of the artist a.s to fitn ess a nd position, as to harmony of

In perusing the works of this rnce of authors, the mind is exercised ciU 1er hy recoll ection o.r inqniry; either something already
learned is to be r etri eved, or something new is to be examined. If
their greatness seldom elevates, th eir acuteness often surprises; if
the irnaginat.iou is not often gratified, at least the powers of reflection aud comparison are employe d; and in the mass of materials
which ingenious absurdity has thrown together, genuine wit and

J.

193

Composition-Rheta ric.

How to Say It.

useful knowl edge rna.y l>e so111 cti111 cs fo1111rl buri ed perhttp8 jn
grossness of expression, Lut use [nl to t l1 ose wlio know their value;
and such as wl1 cn U1cy arc expa111lu1l t.o pcrnpicnity, a11<1 polis hed
to elega11ce, may give lustre to works which hal'e more proprie ty
though less copiousness of sc 11 ti111e11 t.

w ho Jike(l travel, but had no taste fo r tlirty southern inns, had
four vn.11s that formed a square at night, with a little courtyard
in the rnitklle, t hat wits covered with canvas, and served as a
s pacion8 diuing-room. Th e arrangement was excellent, but he
·w as considered hopelessly eccentric; yet how slight was the differe11ce between his vans and a train of saloon carriages for the
railway? He 8imply hatl saloon carriages that were adapted for
common roads.

192

EXERCISE U7.

l1e-writo tl1c matcri:-tl of L110 f'oll ow in g selection int;roLlncing ua,la11cod words, phrases, clauses, a.nd sente11ces as
often as yon c:-t11. Uo 111 parc yo lll' vcrn ion with t he origi11nJ.
A 11 other fo r Ill of genteel ig11orn11ce co nsists in be ing so completely bli11de<l by co11rn11tio11 a li srn as not. Lo he alile lo pcrce.i \'C
t he essc11Lial itlenLiLy of two rno(les or life 01· ha.bits of action when
one of them h appe ns to Le in wlt~it is call ed "good form," whilst
the other iR not accepted by polite society. 1\Iy own tastes and
p111'8uiLs have ofl;c11 led rn c tn <lo Ll1i11gs, f'm t-.hn salrn of sL11<ly 01·
pleasure, wl1iclt in rcali Ly differ lrnL ve ry t;lighLly from what gen. teel people ofte n llo; yet, at the same t ime, this slight difference
is sufficient to preYent tl1em from seei11 g any rcsernbla,nce whateveL·
between my practice a ud theirs. ·w1ien a young man I found a
wooden hut extre rnely convenient for painting from nature, and
when at a distance fro111 0U 1cr lorlg-i 11 g- r slept i11 it. Tl1i s was
u11fashionahlc, and gc11Lccl people ex pressed 111uch wonder at it,
being especitdly surprised that T co u]<l be so imprudent as to risk
health by sleeping in a little wo0Llc11 h ouse . Conve11tionalism
made th c 111 per[ectly ignorant of the fn,ct t hat th ey occasionally
slept in li ttle wooden houses themselves. A railway caniage is
simply a wooden hut 011 wheelR, ge ne rally very ill-ve utibtell, and
prese11 ting the alternative o:C foul air or a strong <l r:mglit·., ·with
vibration lhat makes sleep dillicult Lo some and Lo othe rs absolutely impossibl.o. 1 bave passed many 11i ghts i11 those puLli c
huts on wheels, \Jut have u ever slept in them so pleasantly as in
my own private one. Genteel people also 11se wooden dwellings
that fl.oat on water. A yacht's cauin is nothing bnt a hut of a
peculiar shape, with its own peculiar in conveniences. On land a
hut will remain steady; at sea it inclin es in every dii-ection, and
is tossed about like Gulliver'8 largo liox . Au Italian nobleman

EXERCISE G8.

WriLe n, p:~rng rnph 11iai11ly of liala11cetl se11tences
fol lowi ng top ics : -

Oil

011e of the

1. Immigrants tlrnt we want ancl immigrants that we clo
uot wa11t.
2. Poverty distinguish ed from pauperism.
:t Novels tl1at h elp and novels that hinder.
4. Ca;sar com}!aretl with Brutus .
v. ·which is the greater villain, Shylock or Iago?
6. Compare two public speakers whom you have heard.
7. Contrast Evangeline and Priscilla, or John Alden
and Mil es Sta.ndish.
8. Colltrnst Uraml l're (i11 Evm1geline) tmtl l'lymouth
(in Miles Standish) .
9. \ Vashington and Lincoln; or, Hamilton and J efferson; or, Jjo1tgfellow ancl Whittier; or, George Eliot an<l.
Mrs. Mary 1N artl.
10. The distinction between socialism and nihilism ; or,
law :-tnd public opinion; or, charity ancl alms-giving.
1:1.. Compn,re and contrast two synonyms, two trees, tw~ '
books, two ch:-tracters, two drnmatic situations, two historical
scenes, or two courses of conduct.

- - "'illiiiiliii''

194

--- .... - - ·- _______...,

-

--....

1Iow to Say It.

l/vmpos·i tivn-10tetorie.
LESSON 2G.

Oonibinat fons of S enlence-1'.IJJles.
In the prece1ling lesRons w e l1:we noti ced th n.t the best
paragrn.phs show more t l1 an one kiud of sentence. I,ong
and short, periodic and loose seutences, with a n occasioual
babnced structu n~, n.ppen.r in cliffcrcut forms in t he same
paragraph, and thus a pleas ing variety is seemed. Furth er variety is added an<l fon "c is gaincll by the n.ppro]Jr iate use of the exclamation a11ll interrogation, and of mixed
or composite sentenees. These we shall now consider.
The following paragraph shows four exclamatory sentences and five q nestious. In the declarative form the first
sentence would read, "A university presents a strange picture to the imag ination " ; the ninth would close, "and yon
WOlll!l ])Jot ()Ii(; w il;Ji t.Jin111 Vl'l',Y 11111< '.]l nr J11 ~ r g Jmy ''; Lill~
t eJ1 th woulJ close in the sam e way. The Jifteent.h would
close: "The time or people should not be called wholly
barbarous; for the lnuna.n miud could achieve this much,
even then and there." As to the questions, sentence 4, if
reduced to the cleclarati ve form, would read, "Otherwise,
the undyi11g lamp of thought would 11ot be fe cl "; sentence
11, "The history o:E Spa.in wo11hl look sadly mutilat ecl if,"
etc. Sentences 12, l ::l, aml 14, like sente11ce 11, could Le
reduced to the declarative form by supplying a word iu
answer to the question ask ecl in each. Making the changes
indicated above, eompare the res ult with the original, aucl
note the loss in enthusiasm, force, and variety when all
the sentences arc deelarati ve in form.
·
1. What a stra11 gc picture a n11i vcn,;ity presents to tltc iwagiuatio11 ! 2. The lives of sch olars in t heir cloistered stillness, - literary men of retireu ha.Lits, a nu professors who study sixteen hours a
day, and n ever see the world but on a Sunday. 3. Nature has, no
doubt for so me wise purpose, placed in their h earts this love of

---

-

..

196

literary labor and seclusion. 4. Otherwise, who would feed the
mHlyin g J:unp oJ thought'? 5. But for such m en as these, a blast
0£ wind through th e chi11ks aud crannies of this old ·world, or the
flappin g of a conqueror's bauuer, would blow it out forever. u. The
light of th e soul is easily extinguished. 7. And whenever I reflect
upou these thin gs, I Lecorne aware of the great importance, in a
nation's history, of the individual fame of scholars and literary
men. 8. J fea r that it is far greater th au the vvorld is willing to acku o wJ e dg~ ; or, perhaps I sho1tld say, than t he world has thought of
aclrnowledging. 9. Blot out from Englaucl's history the n ames of
Glia11cer, SJrnlrnspcare, Spenser, a nd l\tilton only and how much
of h er glory would you blot out with them ! 10. T ak e from Italy
such n ames as D ante, Petrarch, Boccaccio, Michael Angelo, and
R aphael, and how much would be wanting to the completeness of
h er glory ! 11. How would the history of Spain look if the leaves
were torn out ou which are written the names of Cervantes, Lope
de Vega, a nd Calderon? 12. '\Vha t would b e the fame of Portugal, withont her Camoem; ; of France, without h er Racin e, and
B.a lic lais, aml Vo ll.a.ire, o r (~nn11.a11y, witho ut li er J\ la. rt i11 Lutl1 e r,
h er Goe Ll1e, and h e r Schiller? 13. Nay, what were tli e natioll s of
old -w ithout their philosophers, poets, and historians? 14. T ell
me, do n ot t hese men, in all ages and · in all places, emblazon with
bright colors the armorial bearings of their country? 15. Yes, and
far m ore tl1 a n this ; for in all ages and all places t hey give humanity assuran ce of its greatn ess, and say, "Call not the time or people
wh olly ba rlmrous; for this mu ch, eve n then and there, could the
human rnind achieve!" - LONGFE LLOW.

lYiany good sentences, perhaps the majority of good written sentences, are mixed or composite in structure, neither
entirely periodic nor entirely loose, but partly oue ancl partly
the other. A sentence will sometimes begin as a periodic
sentence, continue periodic for h alf or three-fourths of its
e11tirc extent, Rometirncs cvc.11 up to the very last clause,
and will the11 become loose. Or a sentence will begin as
a loose sentence, and wi ll close as a periodic. A sentence
wholly loose may contain a clause which is periodic. In
both loose and periodic sentences, a series of clauses of ·

Composition-lllielm· ic .

1-Iow to Say It.

about tho smne length ::mcl of' si 111i l:i.t· structnrc are frequently :founcl, or minor club1,il s, contrasting in thought,
are balancecl against one anothcl'.
In the following pn.ra.graph tl10 tltinl sentc11cc begins as
a periodic sentence, the 1~{-el::tuse corn ing first, ai1Ll Continues
periodic <lown to the appernlccl phrase, "clrowni.u g all other
sounds " ; then, a.fter the semicolon, a.nother perioclic sent ence begins, conti11uin g tlown to tho n.ppencled cbusc "mul
you are scanned," etc. Jn gc1wrnl structure this s011tence
is also lialanceu pal't for part.

3. \Vhe11 has it happened that history has had so much to record,
in the same term of years, as since the 17th of Juu e, 1775? 4. Our
own ]{evolution, which, under other circumstances, might itself
11ave Leen expec ted to occasion a war of half a century, has been
achieved; twe11 ty-four sovereign and iudepende nt states erected;
and a geuera.l government established over them, so safe, so wise,
so free, so practical, t liat we mi ght well wonder its establishment
should have been accomplished so soon, were it not far the g reater
wo11<lcr that it Rl1oultl lmve bee n established at all. 5. Two or
t.hree 111illions of people have been augmented to twelve, the great
fores Ls of tl1 n \ V csL prustrnte<l Leneath the arm of successful
i11d11stry, :rntl the dwell ers on tlie Lanks of the Ohio an<l the
Mississippi Lcco me tlte fol low-citizens aud 1ieighbors of those who
cultiYate the hills of New England. G. \Ve h ave a commerce
tha.t leaves JJO sea unexplored; 11 avies >vhich take uo law' from
superior force; revenues adeq nate to all the exigencies of government, almost without taxation; and peace with all nations,
fo 1111<lcr1 011 cqna.1 rigli ts and m11 t 11n.l rcR pect .
7. J<:11rupc, witJ1i11 Lite sa111e periutl, has bee n agitated l>y a
mi gl1 ty revolution, wltieh, while it has been felt in the individt~al
conditio11 a.ncl happiness of almost every man, has shaken to the
cell !,re lier pol iLical fabric, aud dashed against one another thro11es
which ha.tl stood tranquil for ages. 8. On this, our continent,
our owu exaiiiple has been followed, and colonies have sprung up
to be nations. 9. U naccustomed sounds of liberty and free govern ment have r ea.chcrl us from beyond the track of the sun; all(l
at t hi s moment · th e dominion of European po,ver in thi s continent, from tl1 e place where we stand to the south pole, is anni11 ilatctl forc\' cr.
10. Jn th e mea n Lime, bot.h in Europe aud America, such ha.s
been the ge nernr progress of knowledge, such the improve ments
in legislatio11 , in commerce, in the arts, in lette rs, and above all
in liberal ideas and t he general spirit of the age, that the 'ivhole
worltl scr. 1118 clia.ngc<l. - \V1rnsTirn: First B11111.:er Ilill Oration .

196

I hardly know wh et;her I am mnre pleased or a11noyed with (;he
cat-bird. Perhaps she is a li ttle too co mmon, and her part in the
general chorus a little too co nspienou s. If you are listening for
the note of another bird, she is sm e to be prompted to the most
loud and protracted sin ging, tlrowning all other sounds; if you sit
qni ct.ly ,]own t.o oliscrvc a fn.vorit,,~ or st.1uly a nnw-cn 111nr, hnr c11riosity lrnows n o lto1111<ls, a11<l yo n are sea11n c<l allll ridi culed from
e~ery point of observation. Yet I would not miss her; I would
only s11l>ordi11ate her a little, make her less conspicuous. -BunRouuu s: lVoke Rol1i11.

In the following selection, sentence 4 begins as a perioclic
sentence, and continues periodic to the first semicolon; then
two Jines are in 1Jabncell form; then the periodic stntctme
is resumed L.r means of the construction so - so- so - that,
the sentence closi.11 g with a b:il n.ncctl chuse which grows out
of tl1e won1s so soon. Sc11te11ens r; a11cl ()arc mn.tle np of pn.rts
constructed on one plan in each sentence. Sentence 7 is,
in general structure, loose, bnt contains a part that is suspended by the woru whae. Sentence 9 is loose to the sernicolo11, aml t11c11 boco1110R p<Wi()(lic Lo t110 close. Se11t01ieo 10
is periodic throughout.
1. \Ve li ve in a most extrnonlinary age . 2. Events so various
and so important, that they might crowd and distinguish centuries,
are, in our t imes, compressed within the com pass of a single life .

197

It is because periodic sentences show a more closely
knit constrn ction a.ml require, while they are being written,
careful attention to the structure ancl to the best placement

--- -

II
199

Oomposition-Bhetoric.

How to Say It.

of !Jhrases and clauses, that t11 e pupil should make most
of his sentences approach the periodic ty pe. When the
phrases, clauses, alHl modifiers generally nre nurnerous, it
is a good plan to place some of them first aml some of
them last, thus making the senteuces partl y periodic and
partly loose. The first sentence in the following selection
indicates such a distribution of phrases: -

is something unpleasant in having one's admiration forestalled,
and b eing as it were romantic afore thought, yet the charm is so
powerful, the scene so surpassingly beautiful and sublime, - the
hour, the s ilence, and the colossal ruin have such a mastery over
th e so ul, - that you are di sarmed wh en most upon your guarcl,
au<l betrayed into an enthusiasm which p erhaps you had silently
resolved you would not feel.
On my way to the Coliseum I crossed the Capitoline Hill, and
descended into the Roman Forum by the broad staircase that
leads Lo Llw Lrin111phn.l arch o[ Sept.iinins Severus. Closo upon
my right h and stood the th ree remaining columns of the Temple
of the Thunderer, and the beautiful Ionic portico of the Temple of
Concord, - their b ase in shadow, and the bright moonbeam striking aslant upon the broken entablature above. Before me rose
the Phocian Column, an isolated shaft, like a thin vapor hanging
in the air, scarce visible; and far to the left, the ruins of the
Temple of A ntonio and Faustina, and the three colossal arches
of the Tem ple of P eace, - dim, shadowy, indistinct- seemed to
melt avv ay and min gle with the sky. I crossed the Forum at the
foot of th e Palatine, and ascending the Via Sacra, passed beneath
the Arch of Titus. From this point I saw below me the gicrantic
outline of tlie Colise urn, like a cloud resting upon the earth~ As
I cl esceuded the hillside, it grew more broad and high, - more
defini te in its form , and yet more grand in its dimensious, - till,
from tl1 e val e in which it stands encompassed by three of the
seven hill s of Rorn e, - the Pala.ti 11e, the Coelian, a.ucl the Esguiline, - the rnaj es tic ruin in all its solitary grandeur "swelled vast
to heaven. "
A single sentinel was pacing to and fro ben eath the arched
gateway which leads to the interior, and his measured footsteps
were the only sound th a t broke the breathless silence of the night.
What a contrast with the scene which tha t same midnight hour
presented, vvh en, in Domitia n's time, the eager populace b egan to
gather a(; il1 e gal:es, i111patient for the morning sports I Nor was
the co ntras t within less s trikin g . Silence , and the quiet moonbeam s, and !.lie hroatl , deep shallows of the ruin ed wall I '\There
were th e se~1ators of nome, her matrons, and her virgins? where
the ferocio us populace that r ent the air with shouts, when, in the
hundred holidays that marked the dedication of this imperial

198

l'oe111~ a11<l nolilo exf;rads, wl1dlwr of v<~ rs~ or pros~, 011cn
reducecl into ]Jossess ion, a ml rende red Lrul y our ow11, 111ay Le Lo us
a daily pleasure;- b etter far th a n a whol e library unused. Th ey
come to us in our dull mome uts, to refresh us as with sprin g
flo we rs ; in our selfish musings, to win us by pure deli ght from
the tyranny of foolish cn,stl e-buildin g, self-co11 g ratubtio11s, and
mean anxieti es. They rnrty be with us in the workshop, in the
crowded stree ts, by the fireside ; som etimes, perhaps, on pleasant
hill-sides, or by sounding shores ; - noble friend s and companions
- our own ! never illtrusive, ever at 11 a nd , -comin g at our call!
Shakespertre, :M ilto11, 'Vordsworth , T e1111 yson, - the words of such
men do uot stale upon us , they do 11ot grow old or cold.

Use the exclamation or the question occasionally when the emotion will justify its use. In g eneral 1 make most of your sentences
rather periodic than loose in their main structure, varying their

beginnings and endings.
E XERCISE G!J.

In the followin g paragrapl1 s notice the variety of sentencestn1ctme. In the sentences which are partly or wholly periodic, point out the words by means of which suspense is
secured.
H is 11nw pas !~ rnid11i g lit.. Tli c rnno11 is f111l a nd bri ght, n.nd
the shad o ws lie so dn,rk and 111 n.ss irn i11 Lh c sl.reet Lhat Lii ey scc 111
a part of th e walls that crtst th em. I have jnst returned from the
Coliseum, whose r uin s are so nrnr vellously beautiful by moonli ght.
No stranger at R o me omits this midnight visit; for though th ere

Composition-Blietoric.

How to Say It.

slaughter-house, fi ve thousand wild beasts from the Libyan deserts
and tl1e forests o[ A11atolia 111adn Lltn arena Lhick with blood?
\Vl1ere were the Christian rnarLyrs, thaf; dietl with prayers upon
their lips, amid the jeers and in1precatio11s of their fellow-men?
where the barbarian gladiato rs, brought forth to the festival of
blood, and "butchered to make a Roman holiday"? The awfol
silence ans,vered, "They a,re mine!" The dust beneath me
answered, "They are mine I"
I crossed to the opposite extremity of the amphitheatre. A
h111p was 1111r11i11g .in tlw liLLl1 \ cl1:i.pnl, w l1id1 l1as hc1~ 11 formc<l
from what was ouce a den fo r the wild beasts of the Rou1a11
fcstivak
lTpon thn steps sa,t tlin ohl heads111:1.11 , f;he only tena,nf;
of the Co1ise11m, who g nilles the stra11ger by ni ght thro ug h the
Joncr
galleries of this vast pile of ruins. I followed him up . a
0
narrow wooden staircase, a11d entered one of the long and majestic
corridors, which in ancient times ran entirely round the amphitheatre. Huge columns o[ solid mason-work, that seem the labor
of Titans, support the fl attened arches above; and t hon gh the
iron cla111ps are gmw, which once fastened Lhe hew n stones together, yet tl1e column s stand majestic and trnbroken, amid the
ruin around them, and seem to defy "the iron tooth of time."
Through the arclies at the right, J could faintly discern the ruins
of the baths of Titus on the Esquiline; and from the left, through
every chink and cranny of t he ·wall, poured in the brilliant light
of t he full moon , casting giga11f;ic Rlmclows aron111l me, and diffusing a soft, silvery twiliglif; through the 1011 g arcades . At
length I came to an open spn.ce, where the arches above had
crumbled away, leaving the pave1uent an unroofed terrace high in
air. From this point I conld see the whole interior of the amphitheatre spread out beneath me, with such a soH and indefinite
outline that it see med less au earthly reality than a reflection iu
the bosom of a lake. The figures of several persons below were
ju st perceptible, rning·ling grotes<]n ely with their foreshortened
shatlows. The sountl of Lheir voices reached me in a wl1i8per, a nd
the cross that stands in the ce ntre of the arena looked like a
dagger thrust into the saml. l tlid 11ot conj ure up the past, for
the past had already become itlentified with ,the present. It was
before me in one of its most majestic and visil>le forms . The
arbitrary distinctions of t ime, years, ageR, centuries, were annihi-

lated. I was a citizen of Rome! This was the amphitheatre of
Flavius Vespasian I Mighty is the spirit of the past, amid the
ruins of the Eternal City! - LONGFELLOW : Outre-mer.

200

201

EXERCISE 70.

The following paragraph is composed entirely of affirmative statements. Change one or more of them to a question
or an cxclama.tioi1, a.nd note the effect.
An astronomical observatory may seem to have no relation to
the welfare of a corn m1111ity. Eclipses and planetary transits may
seem to have nothing to do with human life. When the invisible
paths of all stars are traced by mathematical faith, parallaxes and
multitudinous calculations may seem to have little to do with
men's ordinary business. But experience will, in a generation,
show that those who first feel the fruits and the elevation of such
pursuits will be few; but they will become broader, deeper, and
better. Through them, lmt diluted and not recognized, the next
class below will be i11fiuenced- not by astronomy, but by tl1e
moral power of men who have been elevated by astronomy.
Every part of society is affected when men are built up. They
impart their own growth to whatever they touch. Enlarge men
and you enlarge everything.
EXERCISE 71.

In the following paragraph change two of the exclamations to the declarative form. Select the two that can be
so changed, without injury to what precedes alHl follows
them.
'Vhen we are well, we perhaps think little about the Doctor, or
we hav e our small joke at him and his drugs; but let anything go
wrong with our body, that wonderful tabernacle in which our soul
dwells, let any of its wheels go wrong, then off we fly to him. If
the motlier thinks her husband or her chilq dying, how she runs to
him , and urges him with her tears! how she watches his face, and
follows his searching eye, as he examines the dear sufferer; how

202

II

Go~iposition- Rhetoric.

she wonders what he thinks-what wonl<l sh e give to know what
he knows! how she wearies for his visit! how a cheerful word
from him makes h er hear t leap with joy, and gives h er spirit and
strength to watch over the bed of distress I Iler whole soul goes
out to hi.min unspeakable gratitnde wl1en he brin gs back to her
from th e power of the grave her lu1slx1.1ul or darling child. 'The
Doctor knows many of our secrets, of our sorrnws, which no one
else knows - some of our sins, perhaps, which the great God alone
else knows; how many cases an1l secrets, how many lives, he
canios in his }u ~ arL a111l in his l1:1.1l!l s I So you sP-c lio is a vnry
important person, the Doctor, and we shoul.d clo our best to make
the most of him, and to do onr duty to him and to ourselves. JOHN BROWN: I-Iorce Suhsecivce, I , 391.

EXERCISE 72.

Change one or more of the following questions to other
forms of statement in such a way as not to injure the
paragraph as a whole: A Noble Lord, who spoke some time ago, is full of the fire of
ingenuous youth; and when he has modelled the ideas of a livel.y
imagination by further experi ence, 110 will be an ornament to his
country in ciLhnr House. 1Ie has said, t.h:iL tlic Allleri cans are our
children, and how can they revolt agai1rnt Llieir pareuts? He says,
that if they are not free in their present state, England is not free;
because JHanchester and other considerable places are not represented. So theu, because some towns in Eng laud are not represented, America is to have no represeutative at all. They are our
children: but when children ask for bread, we are not to give a
stone.
ls it because the irntnral res istance of t1ti11gs, a111l th e
various mutations of time, hinders our government; or any scheme
of government, from being any more tl1an a sort of approxirnation
to the right, is it therefore that the Colonies are to recede from it
infinitely? When this child of ours wishes to assimilate to its
parent, and to refiect with a true filial resemblance the beauteous
countenance of Briti sh liberty, are we to turn to them the shameful parts of our Constitution? are we to give them our weakness

II
How to Say It.

203

for th eir strength? our opprobrium for their glory? and the slough
of slavery, which we are not able to work off, to serve th em for
their freedom?
EXERCISE 73.

In the following selection combine in a single declarative
sentence the three exclamations at the close of the first
1mragraph, ;1.rnl r e-write the first three sentences of the
second pilrngrapli , breaki11g lljJ the Lalauee aud duiug away
with the exclamations: The advocates of Charles, like the advocates of other malefact9rs against whom overwhelming evidence is produced, generally decline all controversy about the facts, and content themselves
with calling testimony to character. He had so many private
virtues! Aud had James the Second JJO private virtues? vVas
Oliver Cromwell, his bitterest enemies themselves being judges,
destitute of private virtues? And what, after all, are the virtues
ascribed to Charles'? A religious zeal, not more sincei·e than that
of his son, aud fully as weak and narrow-minded, and a few of the
ordinary household decencies which half the tombstones in England claim for those who lie beneath them. A good father I A
good llllsliand I Ample apologies indeed for fifteen years of
persec ution, t;yra1111y, and folscltoud l
We charge him with having broken his coronation oath; and
we are told that he kept his marriage vow I vVe accuse him of
l1avin g given up his people to the merciless inflictio11s of the most
hot-headed and hard-hearted of prelates; and the defence is, that
he took his little son on his kn ee and kissed him! ·we censure
him for havin g violated the articles of the Petition of Right, after
having, for goo<l and valuable consideration, promised to observe
them; a11d we are informed that. he was accustomed to hear
prayers at six o'clock in the morning! It is to such considerations
as these, together with his Vandyke dress, his handsome face, and
his peaked b eard, that he owes, we verily believe, most of his
popularity with the present geueration.
For ourselves, we own that we do not understand the common
phrase, a good rnan, but a bad king. vVe can as easily conceive

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Composition-Rhetoric.

How to Say It.

goo1l 111a11 a111l all 111111al.11ral f'al.lier, or a gornl man n.11.11 a
treacherous frieml. "\-Ve can not, i11 estimatin g tlie cl1aract.er of an
in<lividual, leave out of consideration his conduct iu the most important of all human relatio11 s ; and if in that relation ,ve fi11d him
to have been selfish, cruel, a11d deceitful, we shall take tl1 e liberty
to call him a bad man, in spite of all his temperance at table, and
all his regularity at chapel.-1\.lACAULAY.

and poetry co1 11111i11glc . 0Hc of a group in which WoH and Max
l\'1iiller are foremost of the Germans, Blackie, like them an etymologist, pursuing investigatious to which the chief emphasis was
given by the Grimm brothers, has been, far more than any of his
co-workers in the science of language, an appreciator of the spirit
of literature.

204
:i

EXEIW I SI~

74.

vVhat sameness of strnctu re 1lo you notice in the beginnings of the sentences of the followiug paragraphs ?
Revise, re-combine, and re-write to introduce variety of
sentence-beginnings.
Englan<l showed no relenting in her treatment of the Am ericans.
The J(ing gave 110 reply t.o Lli c adtl rcss of Congress. Tl1 e Houses
of Lords and of Commons refuse<l even to allow that address to be
r ead in their h earin g . The King announced his firm purpose to
r educe th e refractory colonists to obedi ence. P arliament gave
loyal assurances of support to the blimled monarch. All trade
with the colonies was forbidden. All Arnerican ships and cargoes
mi ght be seized by those wl10 were strong enough to do so. The
alternative presented to the American choice was without disguise
-the Americans had to fight for their liberty, or forego it. The
people of England had, in those days, no control over the government of their country. All this was managed for th em by a few
great families. Their allotted part was to toil hard, pay t l1 eir
taxes, awl Le ;;;Jent . H th ey l1a<l bee n permit.t.ecl to speak, th eir
voice would have vindicated th e rn en who asserted their ri g ht of
self-government-a right which Englishmen themselves were not
to enjoy for many a long- y1!ar.
John Stuart Blackie has bee n for the greater part of the ce ntury
an engaging figure in scholarship and literature. Born in th e year
180!), and educated at Aberdeen and Edinburgh, lie spent many
years in Germany and Italy, a devotee of what vvas then a new
science, comparative philology. A profuse wri ter t hroughout his
entire life, his place is in the overlapping field in which pedagogics

205

lt is quite natural that the proposition to pay members of Parliament should b e regarded by Americans as a sensible one. It is
our cnstom to pa.y 011r Senators and Co11 g rcss111 e11, a11tl ·we instin ctively ass ume that a11 y system in vogue here ought to be in vogue
everywhere . But it is interesting to observe that the British
Govern111ent have dropped their bm embodying this proposition. The fact is that the old method has worked so well in
Englan<l that until it can be shown to have resulted in serious
injustice, there will be uo general disposition to change it. The
th eory js that legislators should give their services to the nation,
antl that if tli ey arc paid, untlesiraule camlidates, who care only
for tlie money, will be elec te<l. It is possible that such a th eory
may be false, but it is likely that its supporters would have little
-difficulty in collec ting statistics enough in this country to indicate
tlrn.t pay ing legislators does not always conduce to getting the
ablest men into office.
EXERCISE 75.

Write about 300 words on one of the topics in Exercises
56, 64, and 68, not already used. After writing, notice how
many types of sentences you have employed. Revise your
work for variety of sentence-structure.

LESSON 27.

Choice of Expression.
The English language has a much larger stock of words
than any other language ever used by man. Often a given
idea will be represented quite accurately in English by either
of two words, sometimes by auy one of three. Thus we

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Cvmposition-Rheloric.

How to Say It.

speak of a certain class of onr population as the poor, the
needy, the indigent, meaning the same thing no matter which
one of the three words we use ; we speak of a laboring man's
pay, wages, earnings ). of t h e m eaning, sense, signification o:E
a passage o:E sci·ipture; of ;i.jitt'hig, propP-r, ctppropriate exercise ; something hinders, clelavs, 7·etanls us; we Lecome tirnd,
weary, fatigued. One 11ceds a stock of equivalent words of
this ki1ul l'ol' Ll1n s:drn of v:1.rid_y .
Other sets of words in l ~ J1glish rnprcsent the sa.me i<lea,
but with diffcr c11t deg rees of: intcrn;if;y . 'l'lrns <'1llJ1( 11, vn i11 ,
futile hopes ; sameness, 1w Unnnit,1;, mo11oto11y _; an lw.wisr!,
·i nconsiderate, sill1;, foolish, 11/Js11nl, n'<licnfr>1rs sta.tnmen (;; to
Ulce, admire, love). wealth, 7·id1 es, opulence). to discountenance,
deprecate, deplore, lament, bewail :ut act; ve:ted, provoked,
indignant, angry). it is 11ot i:111possi:lile, it is possible, it is not
unlikely, it is likely, it is not improbable, it is probable, it
is certain. One n eeds to learn to distinguish <legrees of
meaning in words so as not to over-state or un<ler-state one's
self. \ ¥hen a familiar word docs uot quite satisfy us, does
not atlequately or exactly express our meaning, we may be
sure that there is another rnmc 1itting·; :uHl here a book of
synonyms, or the <lietio11ary will J1 clp us.
Other sets of wonls re present the same idea ill differe11 t
applications. Thus while the words forgive, panlon, condone, excuse, acqnit, absoli:e, r emit., ouffloolc, pttss over, represent the sarne iuea, each 11as its particular applic:ttion, as
will be seen by consulting tlie dictionary. So with house,
residence, habitation, '//ut11sion ). wages, scila1·y, .fee, stipend;
fright, scare, panic). cl1·ea<l, dism<t?J, consternation). guess,
thz'.nlc, suppose). meeli11y, ~1.sse111.bly, wuJ,ienr;e, congregation).
choose, prefer, select; lw.11ged, lurn17 ; allwle, re.fer). healthy,
healll1ful, wholesome). les.<J, f ewer ). two, ct co1111Ze, a pair; company, gathering, crew, gang, band, party; avow, aclcnowledge,
confess). only, alone.
One 111n.y cnbrgc one's stocl' of wonls by looking 11p

the new words one reads, by trying to think of equivalent
expressions for them, anu by recalling and using them as
they may be needed in one's own writing and speaking.
vVe should try to make use of all of our language resources ;
but it shonlcl be with a knowledge of the meanings, applications, aucl implications of the words 1ve use.
Some words have formed close associations with other
wonb. 'l'li11s, tal.:e str>11s, conf.m.cf. habits, }111 ·1-.~11e ct cou ·1-.~r,
tnrn to account, becir nialice, pass over in silence, win prizes.
'l'J1i s is especially true of wonls used in co11ncction with
prepositions: agree with a. person, agree to a proposition,
differ .from, cu111ply with, Ct)]]fale in a fricn<l, coufitle a secret
to a frieml, crd l on, dissent .from, free .from, adapted to a
thin g, ad:tpte<l for a purpose, die of a disease, die b!J one's
own hand, regartl for a person, in regard to this, reconcile
to. Some words call imperatively for others: as - so, eitha
-or, neither-nor, harclly - when, the same that I saw, the
same as before, such - as, I do not know that I will, cl~fferent
from, other than .
Sometimes the choice lies between an idiomatic and a
bookish, or bct;wccn a si11l}Jle and a prete11tious expression;
h ere the idiomaLic or simple expression is preferable. Get
nsecl to, by all oclds, get rid of, hard up, get out of the way of,
get np, go to bed, make money, - these expressions are not
to be avoi<locl.
Again the choice may lie between a slang expression
whiclt rises to the lip's only too reatlily, and a standard
expression whiqh requires some effort to recall. Here the
choice should fall upon the standard expression; the effort
is well spout iu calling it to mind. l~ esitles being, in many
cases, vulgar in meaning or in implication, slang begets
general carelessness in the use of language. It encourages
laziness in the user by saving him the trouble of finding
exact wonls for his meanin g. It prevents him from increasi11g his stock of gootl words.

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207

Composit,i on-lLhetor'ic.

How to Say It.

Espec ial ca,re is needed in tl1e ehoi<:<~ of the words v.Jill and
shall, wonlll and shonld, whu, which, and tlwt.

WHO, WHICH, THAT.

208

'rhe relative pronoun that is restrictive, and introduces a
clause that closely defines, limits, or qualifies the antecedent.
A that-cbuse affects the antecedent as an adjective would
affect the antecedent. Who and which are co-ordinatincr
b
r ebti ves, and introduce, not a modifying thought, but an
additioual thought of equal or greater importance. lVlw
is eqnintlcut to a conjunction plus a persoua,l pronoun, and
may be trn,nslated Ly the words and he, and they, though he,
though they, .for he, since they, etc., which words may often
be used, with a gain to clearness, instead of who. Which
is equi va,lent to a conjunction plus the word it, this, these,
those, aml may Le translated by the words and this, and it,
and these, a f act that, a circmnstance that, etc., which words
may often Le. used, with a gain to clearness, instead of
which. lVlw and which are sometimes used restrictively,
without loss of clearness, instead of the strictly correct that
when the use of that would make a harsh combination, when
the word that has already been used in another function in
the same sentence, and when the use of that would throw a
preposition to the end of the sentence.
The a,i<l of punctuation 1nay be called in to distinguish
restrictive from co-ordinative who or which. Since a comma
is usually inserted before a co-ordinate relative, the omission
of punctuation before who or which will give to the clause a
restrictive force.

WILL AND SHALL.

In the simple futme, shall is nsed in the first person,
a,nd will in the second aml third persons; thus, "I, or ·we,
shall enjoy reading the book," and "You, he, or they will
enjoy reading the lJOok. " Jn sc11t.e11ecs expressing determination, wW is 11sed in the fir st pcrsou, all(l shall in
the second and third persons; thus, "I, or we, will obey"
and "You, he, or they shall obey."
In questions, the same distinction between shall and will
as expressing simple futurity or det ermination is seen in
the following: "Shall I, or we?" (simple future, or equivalent to" do yon wish rne or us to'?"); " "Will I?" (ironical);
"Shall you SU Lscribe ?" (mere information desired); "vVill
you subscribe?" (I want yon to); "Shall he or they?" (Do
you wish him or them to ?) ; "vVill he or they ? " (mere
information desired).
In secondary clauses the reporter uses will,_if the speaker
used or would have used will ; shall if the speaker used
or woulu have use<l shall. 'L'hus: Speaker, - "I shall
enjoy reading the Look:'; l~eporter, - "He sa,ys he shall
enjoy reading the Look"; Spea,ker, - "I will not allow it";
Reporter, - "He says he will not allow it"; Speaker, "You (or they) RhnJl seek i 11 vain foi· it "; lteport-.nr, - "He
s:iys you (or they) shall seek," etc.
Sho11ld corresponus to slw.ll, a,uu would to will, following
corresponuiug rules. Tlnrn, in reporting the sentences just
given, the correct form ·wonltl Le, "1 [e s:iid he should enjoy
reauing the book,'' "He sa,id he would not allow it " "He
'
said you (or they) should seek in vain for it." In conditional clauses exceptional care is needed, though the same
distinctions are maintn,i ncLl.

209

I

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Ohoose words that fit your meaning with exactness. Distinguish
degrees of intensity in words. Use idiomatic expressions. Avoid
slang.
EXERCISE 76.

In the following choose the word m parenthesis that
best fits the context. Be ready to give reasons. Consult
the dictionary or Look of synonyms.

210

How to Say It.

Oomposition-Blietoric.

Caleb would h ave [ remurked vpo11, said something of, mode a
statement about, spoken of, deprecated ] the disrepair of the cl1:1,111 her
.
'
b ut was silenced by th e [irritation, irritable look, irritated look,
impatien ce, discontent.] wh.i ch was [s ee 11 , e.1 pressed, shown, apparent.]
in his master's cou ntenance; he li g h ted t he way t rc1nlJ!ing and
in silence, pl1i.cc<l I.ho la111p o n 1.111 ~ Lal,lo of thn [1 lr.sr•rted, almndon e1l,
vacant, empty] room, and vnts ahollt to [lr!J, attempt] fio rn e arran gement of the bed, wh en his maste r bid him [.r,io, begone, withdraw]
i11 :t Lo ne U1af; a1l.111il.L1~d ol' 110 [i! P.111.i1i h1'si/11tio11]. '1'110 olcl 111a,11
[10enl, retired, with.drew], nuL Lu res t uut Lu praye r; :t111 l [ji·oin
time lo ti/)/ e, e1•er and a11011, 11010 u11d th en] crept Lo Lit e door of the
apartment [in onle1· to find out, lo ji11.d out ] whether ltavenswood
h ad [gone to repose, become quiet, retired]. II is rn earrnred heavy step
[111 11111, on, nr:ross ] Lite fl our W:tf; onl y in Ler rnp te1l by d c1•p groa 11 R;
and the [rep eater!, reitemted, .fi·crzuenl] starnps of th e l1 eel of h is
h eavy hoot, [i/!(licaled, i11timnlerl, proved, showed ] too clearl y, t.h at
the wretch ecl [occupant, imnate, tenant] was abandoning him self
at s uch mo Ill e n ts to paroxys ms of u11co11trollcd agouy. Th e
old man [thought, guessed, believed, was sure] t hat the 1110r11i ng for
which he longed would n ever [come, dawn, have dawned]; bnt
time, whose course rolls on with eq ual current, however it rn:iy
seem m ore rapid or more slow to mortal [mind, apprehension],
brought the [dawn, rl(/?J J at laRt, a nd spread a rndcl y lig ht on t l1 e
broa.J [mu ryin, verrr, sltorr', Crl!Jt! ] of Ll1c g- li HLe11i11g oenan.
As I live in a place wl1 e rc eve n the ordiu a ry tattle of tlie town
arrives not t ill it is stale, a nd which p ro<.luces no events of its ow n,
yo u [will, slwll ] not desi re a ny exc use frolll me fo r writing so seldom, especially as of a ll people livin g I know you are t he least a
friend to letters spu n o nt of o ne's own brains, with all the toil a nd
constrai nt that accolllpanies RCll ti 11ie11 Lal prodnctious. I h ave been
h ere at Stoke a fow days (whe re l [will, shall] cu11Linue good part
o~ tl1e su111111er); au1l havin g p11f, a11 n111l Lo a thing wh ose bcgi11mn g yo u have seen long ago, L i1ll111 ediately seud it to you. You
[will, shall] , I h ope, look upon it iu t he light of a t hin g with a n
e ud to it: a merit that most of my writings have wanted and a re
like to want, but whi ch this epistle, I a m de te rmined [will, shall]
not waut, when it tells you that I am ever yours,

T.

GRAY.

211

Sir Thomas Payton came to me and told me my lord [would,
should] :fight with m e on horseback: with single sword; a nd, said
he, "I [will, shall] be his second ; where is yours?" I r eplied
that neither his lordship nor myself brought over any great horses
with us; t hat I lm ew h e might much better borrow one than
rnyRclf; h owbeit, as soon as h e showed me the p lace, li e [n:onld,
should] fin cl me there on horseback or 011 foot; whereupon both
of us riding together upon two geldin gs to the side of a wood, Payto n saitl he chose f;Jrnt place, a nd t he t im e, break of dn.y t h e 11 cxt
111urning. 1 Lukl l1i1n L [11'oulcl, should] fail 11 eith er p]:we 11or Lillie,
though .l kn ew not where to ge t a better nag than the horse I rode
011; "and as for a second, I [will, shall] t rust to yonr n obleness,
who, I know [will, shall] see fai r play betwixt us, though you
co me o n hi s Ride." . . .
'
_Tl1 e lieuLe11ant, though he did not know me, suspected I had
some private quarrel, and that I desired this horse to fight on, and
thereupon told me, "Sir, whosoever you a re, you seem to be a
perno u of worth , a nd you [w£ll, shall] h ave the best lw rse in the
stah le ; and if you h ave a quarrel and wa11t a second, I offer
myself to serve you upon another horse, and if you [will, shall]
let me go a long with you upon these terms, I [will, shall] ask no
pawn of you for t he horse." I told him I [would, should] use no
second, aud I desired h im to accept one hundred pieces, which I
had Lh c11 alio nt Ill e, iu pawn fo r the h orse, and he [would, should]
l1 car frolll 111e shor Lly agaiu; a 11ll that f.ho11gh I did 11 ot take liis
11 0L le offer of comiug along with m e, J [would, should] evermore
r est much obliged to him : where upon giving him my purse with
the rn ouey iu it, I got upon his h orse, and left my n ag besides with
him.
The Castell o di San Giorgio, or, as it [should, might, could, would]
m ore prope rl y h:we heen [rlesi.qna letl, called, 11omerl], t he" Casa," o r
Villa cli San fEo rgio, was [!milt, erected, co11str11cled] upon the summit of a small co11ical hill, amid the sloping bases of t he Ape11ni11es, at a [ part, portion, point] of their long r ange where the
[tops, summits] were low :ind g reen . In that delightful [place,
spot, count1y, neighborhood, region, district] the cultivation and r ichness of t h e plain is united to the wilduess and [prettiness, sublimity, beauty, attracl-iveness] of tl1e hill s . Tire heat is t empered in the

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Composition-Rlietoric.

How to Say It.

shady valleys aml under t.l1c [dense, thicl.:, solid, 1:mpenetrnhle] womls.
A delicious [!tumidity, we/11.es.~, da111;111 ess, 111uist1tre] a 11<l so[t ha~c
hangs about these devvy, grassy places, which the sun has power
to [warm, heat] and gladden, but uot to parch. Flowers of every
hue cover the grouncl beneath the oaks and el nis. Nightingales
sing in the thickets of wild rose and clematis, and the groves of
laurel and of the long-leaved olives are [full of; swarming with,
crowded with] small creatnres in the full enjoym ent of l ifc aml
warmth. Little brooks ::rnd rippling streams, lrnlf [lrirlden, conce11.led, obscure1l] l1y Ll1e k1.ngl01l 1.l1ic:kni.~, a.nil 1,11 rnr~d front l.l1cir
courses by Lite mossy rocks, llow dow11 from the hill ravines, as
joyful and clear as in that old time when each was t h e care of
s_o me [d efending, protecting, shielding] nymph or rural god. In the
waters of the placid lake are r eflected the shadows of the hills, and
the tremulous shimmer of waving woods.

I do not mean that these examples are to destroy the interest with
wliich we read the history of ancient limes; they pOfisibly increase
that iu terefit, by the singular contrasts they exhibit. "\Ve ought

EXERCISE 77.

Read the following paragraphs nntil you have complete
possession of the thought. Then re-write, substituting
other expressions of equival ent mea11ing for those ita.licl.ze<l..
The change in phraseology may compel a change in grammatical structure.
The national charncler, in Horne of its most important elements,
must be formed, elevated, and strengthened from the materials
ichich history presents. Are we to be eternally ringing th e chan,r;es
1q10n Marathon n.nd Tl1ermopylrc, n.nd goin,r; back (;o find in obscure
texts of Greek and Latin the great exemplars of patriotic virtue ?
I rejoice that we can .find thetn 11earer home, in our own country,
on our O\\'ll soil; t h at strains of t.lie· 11oble8t foelincr
that ever
b
swelled in t he breast of man n.re breathing to ns, out of every
page of onr cou nLry's l1ist.ory, in tlir! 1taLivc) r>101111e11.ce o[ onr
mother-tongue; that Urn colon ial a nd th e provinc i;i.l councils of
America c:rhiliit to us m ode ls of tl1e spirit aml c haracter which
gave Greece and Rome their name and their praise among the
nations. Here 'vVe ought lo !JO for our instruction; tl1e lesson is
plain and easily applied .

to seek our great practical lessons of patriotism at home ; out of
the exploits and sacrifices, of which our own country is the theatre;
out of the characters of our o'vvn fathers. Them we know, the
natural, unqffected, - the citizen heroes. "\Ve know what happy
firesid es tliey left for the cheerless camp. "\Ve know with what
pacific habits tl1ey dared the p erils of the field . There is llO mystery,
11 0 romance, no 111u.d11ess, nuder tl1e Jta111c of chivalry, al>ont th em.
lt is all r esolute, ruauly resistance, - for the sake of conscience
and principle, - not merely of an overwhelming power, but of all
the force of long-rooted habits, and the native love of order and
peace . - EVERETT: First Battles of the Revolution.
'The Constitution of the United States is so concise and so geneml in its terms, that even had America been as slowly moving a
com1try as China, many questions must have arisen on the interpretation of the fundamental law which would have mod{fied its
asp ect. But America has been the most swiftly expanding of all
countries. Hence the questions that have p1·esented th em:;elves
h ave often ,related to matters which the framers of the Constitution
could not have contemplated. vViser than Justinian before them,
or .Napoleou afte r them, they for esaw that their work would need
lo lie elucidated by judicial commentary. But they were far from
c1mjecluri11g Uw c norn1 ons strain to which some o.f t11eir expressions would be su~jected in the effort to apply them to new facts. BRYCE: American Commonwealth, I, chap . XXIII.
.N0Ll1ing ?J.Jas ever" born anew" 1:n Celia Thaxter which she did
not strii:e lo share with others. She could keep nothiHg but secrets
Lo h erself. Joys, experiences of every kind, sorrows and misfortunes, except when they could darken the lives of others, were all
brong-l1t, 07)en-handed and open-hearted, to t hose she loved. I-fer
generosity knew no li11rils. -Atla11tic, 76: 203.

In t.l1 e Netherlands a rrrn11 <!f smrill capacit,y, with bits of wood
and leather, will, in a few moments, construct a toy that, with the
pressure of the finger and thumb, will cry "cuckoo I cuckoo I"
With less of ingenuity and inferior materials the people of Ohio

214

Composition-Rhetoric.

have made a toy that will , with out mnch pressure, cry "Previous
question, J\lr. Speaker I Previous question, Mr. Speaker!" -,JoIIN
RANDOLPH.

EXERCISE 78.

Fill the blanks with who, whom, which, or that, and select
the fitting won.ls from the brackets: A lnibe was born to Danae, a smiliug hoy - - she named
Perseus. For fonr years she kept Iii 111 hidd en, an<l 110!; eve n t he
wmnen - - brou g ht foo<l to t l1 c hiding-place knew about lti111.
Huf; on e (by Ll1 n k i11 g, D:i.11aii R r:i.l.linr, c lta11( ~( ~ d l.o }l:tRR :l.llll lwanl
the chikl"s prattle. " Then he learn ed the truth, he .was very much
alarm ed; for it h ad bee n foretold that "the son of his own
daughter" should kill him. The only way to save himself - he could think of, was to put the child to death.
So l~e bade the se rvants - - were with liim to make a large
water-tight cli~st. lnto thi s 110 p11t l>:wae a nd P erso ns and crnc lly
set them a<lrift 011 a s turn1y sea, l1 opi11g tlint U1 cy wo11l<l be
drowned, or carried far away.
Dut they were 11ot drown ed.
After three days tl 1ey drifted toward some islands and finally
lauded on one - - was inhabited IJy a kind people - - took care
of them.
P erse us grew to m anh ood, and became a leader of the peop le
- - h ad saved hint and hi s m oth er. 1 le was exceedingly strong,
and performed many astoumling atlilel;ic feats - - gailled him
great renown. H earing a t on e tim e that the king of a far-away
country had announ ced a great athl eti c contest, .Perse us took sl iip
and wellt thith er f.o fry his skill again st the other co11Lcsta11ts - were prese ut from_all parts of the world.
_No one in that country knew - - this noble yo ung stranger
nught be, but a.11 wondered at th e skill - - he di splayed in I.he
gam es and contests . H e easily won all of the prizes. Tn th e last
co11Lest, - - was l>etwen n l'( :J'S<: 11 H a11d :wotlrnr q11oil, throw er,
l'erse ns threw a heavy q 11oit a great deal [fc1rther, further] t.han
auy had been thrown b efore. lt fell in the crowd of on-lookers
and struck a stranger - - was standing there with the oUiers.
The stranger sank Lo th e gro 1111d, dead . Perfie m; [1v 11 s shncl.:ed ,
f ell bad, was horrified , was pain ed, wus yriaerl] at having killed
0

_lfow to Say It.

215

the st rauger, - - P erseus thought an innocent spectator like
the others. \ ·V hat was his sorrow wh en he discovered that the
stranger ·was none other [th an, lllf,l] his grandfather, Danae's
father, - - had come to the contests unattended and in disguise.
So the prophecy - - had been spoken many years before was
fulfilled. Danac's father, t he king, had been killed by "the son
of his own daughter."
EXERCISE 79.

SnbstiLute adjectives for the italicized phrases, m the
:fol1owi11 g : Of all the amt1semcnts which can possibly be imagined for a
man of the laboring class, after l1is daily toil, or in its intervals,
there is nothing like reading a book of an entertaining character,
supposing him to have a taste for it, and supposiug him to have
the book to read. It call s fo r no exertion of the body, of which h e
has had c 11011g h or too mu ch. It relieves his home of its <lul11ess
aud sa meness, wl1ich, in nine cases out of ten, is what drives him
to th e ale-house, to his owu ruin n.ncl his family's. It transports
him into a scene of a li velier, gayer, more di versified and interesting
n atu re, a nd whil e he enj oys himself there, he may forget the evils
of the present fully as much as if he were in an ever so disgraceful
state of inl,oxicatiou, with th e great advantage of findi11g himself
tl1e next day with his mon ey iu his pocket, or at least laid out in
real n ecessaries and comforts for himself and his family, - and
without a l1 eadache. Nay, it accompanies him to his work of the
n e:rt rlay, and if the IJook h e has bee n readin g be anything alJOve
the vay idlest and lightest, gives him something to think of besides
the m ere mechanical drudgery of his every-day occupation, something he can enjoy while .from home, and look forward with
pleas ure to return to.
EXERCISE 80.

Use each of the sets of words (given in the second paragraph of Lesson 27) in a brief paragraph, having especial
regard to exact stat ement. · In case of doubt consult the
dictio11ary or a book of synonyms.

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217

Composition-llhetor ic.

1-Iow to Say It.

EXERCISE 81.

EXERCISE 84.

Use the sets of wor<ls (given in the third paragrnph of
Lesson ~7) so a,s to show that you i11lflerst:w cl the parti cnlar
a.pplicn.Lion of each wurd. .Ln ease of douut eousult Lhc
dictionary or a book of synonyms.

1. \~Trite a brief account of a tiresome journey or walk,
usi 11g i 11 different sentences the words sarneness, uniformity,
?nonutuny, each in a sense that would preclude the use of the
other two.
2. A brief paragraph on manners in the school-room, in
which yon mention some pai;ticular thing to be discoiinle11ancecl, anoLhcr tu Lo tleprecliled, another to Le deplored.
3. -write out the following: Arrived at school; found I
had forgotten book; was [angry, provoked, vexed] with myself for there was not time to go back for it and I needed
it; went to class without it; asked a classmate to [loan,
lend] me her book; she [r~fused, declined]; this made me
[ o,ngry, indignant] as she [could,' ?night] have [ acconimollatcd, ja:vorccl] me in this; was called on to translate as I
had [expected, anticipated] that I [ wonld, should] be, and
failed for [lack, want, need] of a book. I [will, shall] be
obliged to make up the lesson.

EXERCISE 82.

Ex:uninc a n ~c:c 11t 111111ilH ~ r o[ :L 111agazi11 0 for cxarnplmi of'
"disagree with," "different from," and other expressions in
the fifth pap1graph of Lesson 27.
EXERCISE 83.

Vrite brief paragraphs on the following themes, showing
the accnrate use of (l) niciy, miyht ; (2) can, could ; (3)
niise, roJsell, has raisc(l, rise, rose, luis risen; (4) sit, sat, has
sat, set; (G) lie, lciy, has lain, lciy, foid, has laid : \

1

1. A lost opportunity.
My choice of a profession.
'l'he next presidential nominee.

2. My fricml's accompfo;hmc11ts.
li'eats of strength.
'l'he opportuuitics of au educated nrnn or woman.

3. ''That makes the prices of commodities go up and
down?
'l'aking an early traiu.
Bic>.yding for girls.

4. An obstinate old hell.
A hot day's f:ishillg.
Setting the table for dinner.
5. How bread is made.
After the tornado.
How a mason builds a brick wall.

EXERCISE 85.

'rwo drafts of portions of Lincoln's first Inaugmal Address a.re printed below in parallel columns. 1 After comparing them, give reasons for the changes so far as you are
able.
It follows from these views
that no State, upon its own mere
motion, can lawfully get out of
the U11iun; Lhat resolves and
or<linauces to that effect are
legally nothing; and that acts

It follows from these views
that noState, upon its own mere
motion, can lawfully get out of
the Union; that resolves and
ordinances to that effect are
legally void; and that acts of

1 From Ab1·aharn Lincoln: A History, by John G. Nicolay and John
Hay (The Ceutury Co., N.Y.: 18!JO), Vol. III, pp. 237-314, by permission
oI the authors.

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o[ vio lc11cc, wit.hi11 any St.ate or
States, against the autlioriLy o[
the United States, are i11surrectionary or treasouable, according to circumstances.
I therefore consider that t h e
Union is unbroke n; antl, to Lite
extent of my ability, I shall take
care that tlir~ lawR of th(~ lT11in11
be fo.iLl1.[11Jl y cxec nl,ed i 11 all Lite
States. Doing tlti::; I llee m to
be only a. simple duty Oil my
part; and l shall perform it, so
far as practicable, unless my
rightful masters, f;he American
people, shall withliolrl the req11isite mea ns, or i11 so me ta11gililPway direc t the contrary. l trnst
this will not be regarded a.s a
menace, but only as the declare<}
purpose of the Union that it
will have its own and defe nd
itself . . . .

viok11cr., wiLhi11 any SLat.c or
StaLcR, agai 11sL t.11 e auLhoriLy of
th e United Stn.tes, are irnmrrectionary or revol ntionary, acconling to circumstances.
T therefore consider that, in
view of the Constitution a1Hl the
laws, the Union is unbroken;
n.1111 to the cxto 11t of my n.l>ilit,y
1 shalt take care, aR tl1e Uo11stitutio11 expressly enjoins upon
me, that the laws of the Union
b e faithfully executed in all the
States. Doing this I deem to
be only a simple dnty on my
part; and I shn.ll perform it, so
far as prn.cticable, unl ess my
righL[nl rnn.sLern, Lite Am erican
people, shall wit!thol<l tlie req ni~
site means, or in some authorita-·
tive manner direct the contrary.
I trust this will not be regarded
as a menace, but only as the
declared purpose of the Union
that; it will constitutionally
1lefo11d and maintain itself .. ..

I clo::;e. vVe arc not, we must
not be, aliens or enemies, but fellow-counLry!llell a11cl brctl1re11.
Although passion has strained
our boll< ls of affection too hardly,
they lllURt JJOt, f iun flltrC f.11<\y
will not be broke n. The rn ystic chords which, proceeding
from so many battle-fields and
so many patriot graves, pa.Rs
through all the h earts and all
liearLh s in this broad continent

I: am lo th to close . 'Ve are
not enemi es, but friends. 'Ve
11u1 st not be enemies. Though
passion may have strained, it
must not break our bonds of
affccl.io11. Tho myRt.ic chords
o[ mem ory, stretehing from
eve ry battle-field and patriot
grave to every living heart and
lt en.rthston e, all over this broad
land, will ye t swell the chorus
of the U niou, when again

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How to Say It.
of ours, will yet again harlllo-

nize in Lheir ancient music when
breath ed npon by the guardian
ange l o[ the nati011.1

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219

touched, n.s surely they will be,
by the better angels of our
nature.

LESSON 28 .

Imaginative Expressions.
Thero are two principal ways in which the miml may <l.o
its thinking. One way is by means of "images." vVe think
in im ages, when we call up in mind pictures of things that
we h ave seen, or revive impressions of sounds, touches;
tastes, or smells. vVhen we read the words "full moon,"
if we see in mind a big yello1v disk rising over the treetops, or when we read the word "thunder-clap," if we hear
iit rninu a startling crash, follow ed by hollow r everbern.tions, - in either case we think Ly means of images.
Another way of thinking is by means of what are called
"general ideas." When we think in this way, we seem to
think about the nieaning of things Tather than about the
things themselves. It is true we always have some sort
of image in the mincl, but we al'e less interested in the
imago itself than in what the image signifies or stands for.
'l'hus when we Tead the sentence, "Several of the planets
have moons," if an im age of a moon rises in the mind,
what we are interested in is not the size or shape or color of
the image ; these particulars do not now concern us ; we are
I This suggestion for a closiug paragraph was written by Mr . Seward.
The origi11al tlra[t by Li11coln ran as follows: "My <li s1mtisfiod fellowcountrymen: You cau forb ear the assault upon it [the Government], I
cannot shrink from the defence of it. ·w ith you, and not with me, is the
sole1n'n question of Shall it be peace or a sword." To this Mr. Seward
objected on the ground that "something besides or In addition to argument
is needful-to meet and r emove prej nd ice and passion in the South and
despondency and fear in the East. Some words of affection - some of
calm and cheerful confidence."

220

Composition-llhctor fr.

How to Say It.

interesteu rather in tho mea.ning of th e image, or, to use a
common expression, in "the idea of moon in general."
Certain words and expressions have the power to nrnke
us think in images ; certain other wonls and expressions
have the power to make us think in general ideas. The
difference between th ese two kirn1s of expressions is illustrated in the followi11g. The paragraph iu the left-hand
collllnn a.irnR to rnrLlrn i1s tl1i11k in imn.gci-;. 'l'ho vornion
of this para.graph in Ll1e right-hand euhu1111 <Lirns Lo rna.ke
us think in general ideas.
J.

II.

1. The very gnarliest and
h ardes t of hearts has so me
musical strings in it. 2. But
th ey are tun ed <liffere11tly in
every one of us, so that the
self-sa111e str:tin, which waken~
a thrill of sy mp:tth etic m elo<ly
in one, may leave another qnil;e
silent n,nd untonche<l. 3. F or
whatever ] love, my (lclighl;
a111 01111Ls to an cx.L ravag-:uH:c.
4. There are verses whi ch J
cannot r eaLl wiLhout tears of
exult:ttion which to others n,re
merely imlifferen.t. 5. Those
sim ple touches scattered h ere
aiHl there, by all great writerf:,
whicl1 rn:ik c me foc l U1at ·1, a\lll
every most despised a11d ontcast cliild of Goel that Lren,tl1 es,
have a co111111on ltn111 a11 it,y wit.11
those g lorious spirits, overpo wer
me. 6. Poetry has a key which
unl ocks some m ore inward cabinet of my 11aturc than is acces-

1. Even Lhe most irresponsive
person is in so111e degree susceptibl e to the influence of poct;ry. 2. But our susceptibiliti es
are of differeJtt kinds, so that a
poem which affects 011 e person n,
good deal may affec t another not
at all. 3. For ·w hatever I love,
my delight amounts to an extravagance. 1. Th ere arc verses
wl1iclt I c:u 111 ol; rn:ul wit.110111.
a stro11 g foc li11 g of cx11l taLio11
wl1i ch to oLhers arc mere ly indifferent. 5. Those simple passages occurri 11g in various places
in the poems of great writers,
which 111alrn me feel that I and
every uLlier perso n, however
l111mlile, have a common humanity with those s uperior minds,
111n.lrn rn r. lia.ve very st;ro11g fl moLiu11 s. ti. l'oetry causes feelings
which are not caused by anything else. 7. I cann ot explain
it or account for it, or say

slble to any other power. 7. I
cannot explain it or account for
it, or say what faculty it appeals
to. 8. The chord which vibrates strongly IJeco mes blurred
and invisiLle i11 proportion to
the inteusity of its impulse .
D. Often t he mere rhyme, th e
ca<le 11 c1~ a111l 140111Hl of tl1n wonls,
awake11 tit is sLrange fee ling in
me. 10. Not only do all the
happy associations of my early
life, that before lay scattered,
take bea ntifol shapes, like iron
dnst at tl1 e approach of the magnet, but so mething dim and
vagu.e beyond these, moves itseU in me with the uncertain
sou nd o( a. far-off sen,. - LowELL : Conversations on some of
the Old Poets.

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221

what facult.y it affects . 8. The
stronger the feeling, the harder
it is to say what it is or whence
it comes. 9. Often th e mere
rhyme, the cadence an<l sound
of the words, cause this strange
feeling in me. 10. Not only do
all the happy associations of my
early life, that wore before separated in my mind, 11ow come
together in beautiful and symmetrical order, but I am conscious of sornething undefined
and difficult of appreh ension in
addition to these.

Note how differently the two versions affect you as you
read tlinm. ] n rc:Hling J., tho wortl ' 1 giia.rl icst " calls up a.n
.
. 1. s t'
image of a knotty piece
of oa1\:; "mus1ca
rmgs " a.u
image of an instrum ent of music, a harp or n. violin ; at the
wortl "tears," in sentence 4, we picture a man with streaming eyes ; "the chord whiph vibrates strongly beconies
blurred" r evives the familiar sight of the vibrating string
all<l its accompa.n ying sonnd; "like iron tlust at the approach of the magnet" makes us picture iron filings a.rrangi1w
None of these images
b thcmsel ves in concentric curves.
.
is call o<l np in reading IL
]i:xprcssions Which make ll S tltiuk in ima.ges rna,y ue
called, for convenience, iniagiJVllive expressions. They go
by a variety of names, the most important of which are the
following: -

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Cv111pvsition-Rlwto1·ic.

1. 'l'J10 wonl parUwl1.o· or s11eci;Jic is sorncti nws a1ipl ic\cl Lo
these expressions to (lircct; ;1,t.t;c-m tion to the doli11it011t~ss o[
the aronsu(l irn:t.gcs. /'11rlicnl1ir terms :nn eo1 1Lr:1,sLt\cl wiLh
general terms. In tlie ill nstratiou given above the expression "tears of exultation" amuses a particuhr, (lefiuite
image. "A strong feeling of exultatioH " is more genoral.
2. Sometimes the term cmw·rete is applied to these expressions. It means that tltc i m:i.ges they a.rouse are im:i.ges
of tl1i11gs tliat :i.ppe:d Lo t l1 c sc1 1f-ws, t li :d; is, o( Lltings tlmt;
cn.n be seou, h on.rel, toucltc'd, srn e 1t, or tasLetl. Ouncretc expressions a,re contr:i.stutl with aust'l'lict e:rp ressions. "Tears
of exnltn.tion" is more co11eretc th:i.n "a strnng feeling
of exultation," becanse t ears a,ppcal to the sense of sight
while feelings do not.
3. 'l'o a large number of imaginative expressions may be
applied the term jignru.ti1Je. A figumti ve express ion is oue
which makes us think of sorn etlting under the im:i.ge of
something else. In a figure an object is r eprescntcLl either
as being something else or as being (or acting) Wee ·something else. A h eart is representecl as being a musical instrument; scattered recollections of childhood are represented as acting like iron filings. Fi'g1miti:ve exzn·essions
are contrastecl with lit eral expressions or phiin statements.
Although many different kinds of figur es are mentioned
by rhetoricians, we shall speak of but two, - similes and
metaphorical expressions. The difference between them is
that in the simile the image of "something else " is k ept
apart from the thing or i<l.ea it illustrates, the separation
being marked usually by such words as like, as, fust so;
whorn:1,s ill md:1,phori(._a1 c~ x prcssions t.lin tlii11g a11cl t he
image blend togotlter, and. wo speak of the lihiug as if it
actun.lly were the image. "Poetry has a key which unlocks some more inwn.rd cabinet of my nature" is metaphor,
because we speak of the n1ind as if it were actually a set
of cabinets one witl1in :i.11ol;l1cr, ancl of poetry as if it were

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223

act1 mlly a person ·who could unlock one of these cabinets.
Hut snclt :-t sentence as "the happy associations of my early

lil'o, t11:1.t Lefore lay scaLterc(l, take Lcautifnl shapes, like
iron dust at the approach of the magnet," is a simile, the
ide~1, of the union of happy associations being separated
from the image which illustrates it.
Thinking in images is easier, more vivid, and, for most
persons, more interesting than thinking in general ideas.
Uonsc(1 uuntly, if iu our writing we can use pa.i·ticnlar terms
in stead of genernJ, coucrete expressions insteau of abstract,
fi.g11rati ve langnage inst eau of plain or liternl, our compositions are likely to be more forcible, vivacious, and attractive. General icleas, 011 the other hand, are necessary to
exactness. So that if we think exactly, anu desire to say
just wh:i.t we think, we must be able to use expressions that
are genera.I, abstract, and literal.
-w ith regard to figurative language, the following observations may be rn ade : 1. Figures - striking figures at any rate - are not essential to a good prose style. Many eminent writers dispense
with them almost entirely.
2. 'l'he only r ecipe for producing good figur es is for the
pupil to become deeply interested in his subject. If his
mind is given to producing figurative images, the images
will come unsolicited. If such images do not come of themselves, it is better to get along without them.
3. In revising his written work, the pupil should take
care that figurative expressions meet th~ following r equirements: a. Fig·mcs shonl<l he frosh arnl nnh:tckncyetl. If nn image
occurs -that has Leen used a great many times Lefore, consider whether the reader is likely to get any pleasure from
it when he comes upon it again.
b. Figures should grow naturally out of the subject and
be a,ppropria.te to the purpose for which one is writing.

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The image of "something else" shonkl differ from and yet
curiously and significautly resernble the thing or idea that
it pictures. 'l'he following p:issage from JYfacaulay contains
an example of a metaphor that is good and a metaphor that
is bad in this respect : -

a new and resplendent luminary, he entered Parliament the
following year." If the pupil is given to these faults, he
shonld, in his revision, scan each metaphor closely, asking
himself such questions as these: "Is there any confusion
of images here ? " ",Nill this metaphor make my readers
laugh when I do not want them to laugh?"
e. Beware of drawing figures out to tedious length, as in
the :following: "·with the rope of his genius he let the
buekd of iJ1ia.gi1u1tion tlown into the well of human nabtre
and drew it up brimming over with wit and humor."

The works of Milton ca1rnot be comprehended or enjoyed unless
the miud of the reader co-operate with that of the writer. He
docs 1101; p[d11I; a fi11isl1nd pid11rn or play foi· a 1111) 1'<~ paRsivo listc11Pr.
He sketches, a111l leaves oLhers tu Jill up the outline. Lle strikes
the key-note and expects hi s hearer to make out the melody.

The image of a painter sketching a pictme and leaving us
to fill up the outline is imturnl and appropriate. ·we see at
once its resemblance to the mode of writing employed by
Milton. But the image of a m1rnician striking a key-note
and expecting .11 is l1u:nen; to nmlrn out tl1e melody is hig11ly
absurd. No musician woulJ do such a thing, and _even
if he shoultl, his act would have no resemblance to Milton's
poetry.
c. Images of things tlrnt are familiar are easier to appreheml than images of things that are unfamiliar. "His
voice liad an odd note in it like tho cry of a wlu1ur" does
not mecw vet:y mueh to persons brought up in America,
because few of them have heard a whaup cry. 'l'he following, however, appeals to every one: "Innumerable tawny
and yellow leaves skimmed along the pa.vement, and stole
through people's doorways into their passages, with a h esitating scratch on the floor, like the skirts of timid visitors."
ll. In the heat of composition two or more images are
sometimes jumbled together in a metaphor in siteh ~L way
as to be ridiculous. "The strong arm of the Ia-w is marching through the land breathing fire and sword" is an
example of such a jumble. A similar effect is produced
when the reader passes too smldenly from metaphor to
literal statement, as in "A ppraring above tl1e horizon like

225

Use particular and concrete expressions to give vigor and interest.
Never strive after figures or use them merely for purposes of omame1~t. In revision, be on the watch for figures that are hackneyed,
unnatural, ridiculous, or long drawn out.

EXERCISE 86.

Point out particular, concrete, and figurative express10ns
in the following selection, and account for the use of
them:Society is a strong solution of books. U draws the virtue out
of what is best ·w orth reading, as hot -vvafor draws the stre11gth of
tea-leaves. If I were a prince, I would hire or buy a priYate
literary teapot, in ~vhich I would steep all the leavel'l of new books
that promised well. The infusion would do for me without the
vege table fibre. You understand me; I would have a person
whose sole business should be to read day and night, and talk to
me whenever I wanted hint to. I know the man I would have: a
q nick-witted, outspoken, incisive fellow; knows history, or at any
rate has a Rhclf full of books about it, which he can use handily,
and the same of all useful arts and sciences; knows all the common plots of plays and novels, and the stock company of characters
that are continually coming on in new costumes; can give you a
criticism of an octavo in an epithet and a wink, and you can
depend on it; cares for noLody except for the virtue there is in

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Oomposition-1Uietoric.

How tv Say It.

what he flays; deligl1t8 in taking o ff big-wigs and profes8 ional
gow11R, a11d in Ute di Re 111l>al111i11g a11d nnl1a11dagi ng o[ all JiLernry
lilllll1111i es. Yet lie is as tender aml revAre ntial Lo a ll that l>ears
th e mark of ge11ins - t-11 at is, of a new iidlHx of tl'll t·.Ji or bean tyas a 11u11 over her mi ssal. 1n short., lie is one of those men who
know everything except h ow to make a living. Him would I keep
0 11 t he sq uare 11ext rny ow n royal co rnpar tlllent 011 life's chessboard. To hitll J \Y Otdd push u.p a11other pawn in Lhe s hape of a
comely and w ise yo nn g wo 111 a n, wl101n lie would, of: cn 11r8t\ takeLo wife. F o r a ll co 11 Lin gc 11 eic8 I 1rn 1ild liberall y provide. tu a
word, I wo nl<l , in the pl e beian , but; express ive Jlhr:-l8e, "pnt him
through" all the materia l part o.f life ; flee hi111 sl1 c lLeretl, warmed,
fed, button-me11cl eJ , a ud all that, just to be able to lay 011 ltis talk
vvhen I liked - with the privilege of shutting it off at will.lloLi\IES: Autocrat of the Breakfast-Table.

create in Charing Cross. The farmers crowded round it, women
\lrcw near it, children crep t under it and into it. The machin e
was painted iu l>right hues of g reen, yellow, and r ed, and it rese mLl ed as a whole a compound of hornet, grasshopper, and
slll'i111p, rn ag uifie<l enormou sly. Or it might have been like11 ed
to an upright musical instrument with the front gone. That
was l1 ow· it stru ck Lucetta. "'Vhy, it is a sort of an agricultural piano," she said. - HARDY: The 1Wayor of Casterbridge.

.r;:x 1mu1r-m x1 .
lte-write the following select ions, changing all th e particular and concrete t erms to general and abstract terms, and
all the figur ative expressions to plain statements. Notice
the difference in effect.
l\lere acquired know ledge l>elongs to us ouly like a wooden leg
or a wax nose . Knowledge obtained by rn eans of thinking resembles our natural lin1bs, aud is th e only kind t hat really
belougs to us. U euce the differe nce between the thinker and the
pe<lant. The intellec tual possession of tlie imlepe wleut thinker is
like a beautiful pictnre w!ticl1 stands before us, a living thing with
fittin g light au<l shallow, s 11sLain e<l Lo11cs, perfect l1an11 ony o( color.
That of the merely learn ed ma n may be compared -to a palette
covered with bright colors, perh aps even arranged with some
syste111, l111t wa11ti11g iu lian11011 y, col1nreucc, a11<l 111ea11 iug.
It \rns the new-fashioned agricultural implement known as the
h~rse-d rill, till then unkn ow n, in iLs rn oderu shape, iu t his part

of th e country, where tlic ve11 ernblc seed-lip was still used for sowing as in the days of the Ileptarchy. Its arrival created about
as much sensation in tl1e corn-m arket as a fl ying machine would

227

EXERCISE 88.

Re-write the following, ch anging the h ackneyed figures to
plain statements. If any goocl new images occur to you
while writing, substitute them for the old.
In the fields of literary culture and classic research he was
indee<l snperL, fo r hi s speeches, while containing gol<len nuggets
o( ripes t. wis<lorn, sparkl e<l with gems of richest hnmor an<l
glistened with the auroral li g hts of the finest poetic faucy.
Thousm1ds hav e been ch armed and enchanted with the richly
blooming flowers of his poetic gardens, an d lulled and soothed
Ly t he rh ythmic flow of his gracefully winding current of melliflu eut rhetoric. All of his speeches were forceful in their presentation of truth an cl facts, noble in their ethical teachings of
duty to country, luscious with the mellowest fruitage of lofty
patriotism, op ulent wit.h the gems of successfully garnered wisdom,
kingly in the imperial sweep of their royal eloquence, and regal in
the magnificent d rapery of t he most ornate diction. Th ey will
prove rn onumeuts to his fame more lasting than marble, for on
tho auamanti11c a ml in vulueraLlo surface of th eir imperishable
worth, un equalled merit, superb splendor, and magnificent beauty,
the corroding and devastating moth of decay will never fix a fang.
- Con!lrr.ssional Record, Fcl>. 2 1-, 1805, p. 2GG5.
1

Scarcely a year ago, among the rugged hills of Northern Italy,
the last faint spark of a disappointed life went out. A voice
once h eard across the Atlantic, thrilling with rapture two continents, was hushed in death. A soul whose vivid glow had warmed
and ch eere<l the hearts of those wh o travelled duty's uneven path-

228

I-low to Say It. -

Co rnposition-.Rhetoric.

way, had returned to the God wl10 gave it. An old man, weighed
down by so rro w a nd years, whose only hope h ad been the freedom
of his beloved country, had seen that hope turned into the darkness of despair. The last lingering champion of a lost canse, with
his faith in hum a nity ~hat terc tl, a lone, in the solitude of Nature's
ruins, had gone down to dcat;h a clt cerless, h opeless exile. This
man was Louis Kossuth.

l~XKLtelHL<:

8!l.

EXERCISE 90.

In a short paragraph describe as accurately as you can
wh at you see in mind upon reading one of the following
sentences : Refresh ed and replenished by the silver stream of inspiration,
the pulpit h as steadily marched through the succeeding periods of
Lhfl world's l1i story, tearing (lown th e bnlwarks of bigotry, error,
and s11pen:LiLio11.

In a series of short pa.ragra.phs describe the pictures
which rise in your mind a.s yo u read the following: And then at once and 111ost gladly, and, let us h ope, for man y a
century, you laid t he sword aside. "The sword, after all," as
Victor II ugo says, "is but a liicleo ns fl as h in the darkness," while
''Right is an eternal ray." . . . The war of the Secess ion es tablished yo ur national position. Just as, during the fighting, many
a boy, learning to look death in the face, sprang into m a nhood at
the touch of i10ble responsib ility, so the war strengthened and
sobered you, a nd gave to your tliongltt;s, your politics, your b earing as a people, a grnn<lcr a n<l manlier tone. TJ1e nati on waved
h er hand , a 11<l li er arn1y of 111urn Ll1an a 111illio11 sank l>ack i11stanLly
into peaceful civil lifo, as Llie so hliers of Ho<leric Uhu sau k back
into the h eather. -FAitRAR : Thoughts on America.

229

Know God and Nature only are the same;
] n ma,u the :j uclgm ent shoots at flying game,
A bird of passage, gone as soon as found,
Now in the moon, perhaps, now under ground.
- POPE: Jlfoml Essays.
Carlo receiv ed severe injuries at the hands of a bull-dog. 1
The co.m petition of the railways is cutting the ground from
under the steam ers' feet. 2
Our Am erican fath ers, spurned from tl1e bosom of their mothercoun try and rock ed by the co nvulsions of a revolution, tried the
• greaL cxpcrirne11t o[ erecting an i11dcpcmlent government.

EXERCISE 91.

Stay at home in your mind. Don't recite other people's
oprn10ns. See how it lies then in yo u ; and if t.here is no counsel
offer non e. "\Vhat we want is, not your acf;ivity or iuterference
'vith yonr mind, but your conte11t to be a vehi cle of the simple
trnth. The way to have large occasion al vi ews, as in a political or
social crisis, is to have large hahi tual views. vVhe n m en consult
you, it is 110t that they wi sh you Lo stand tiptoe, and pump yo ur
brains, but to apply yo ur hal>itual view, your wisdom, to the present question, forbearing all pe<la11tries, and the very name of
argument; for in good conversation pa rties don't speak to the
words, but to the meaning of each other. - EMERSON : Sociaz'

Aims.

·write an essay of abo ut 250 words upon one of the following
subj ects. Justify your use of imaginative expressions.

1. The full moon as it appears through a telescope.
2. ·w hat our ancestors would think of a railroad if they
should co me to life.
3. Dangers of Al pine climbing.
4. A cloud-burst.
I

2

Quo ted by A. S. Hill , .Foundations of Rhetoric, p . 194.
Lougmaus' School Composition, p. 270.

230
t>.
G.
7.
8.

Composition-Rhetoric.
How bad money dri vcG out good.
The distances of the fixed stars.
A brilliant sunset.
'l'he battle of ·waterloo.

CHAPTER V .
.EXEIWISE 92.

Find three paragraphs among those quoted m this book, in
which no figures are ernployod.

IN WHAT ORDER TO SAY IT.

LESSON 29.

Antithesis and Climax.
IN our study of balanced sentences the fact was discovered that contrasting ideas in the same . sentence show
simibrity in form a.nd length of statement, conesponding
words, phrases, or clauses answering to one another in
such a way as to make the contrasting ideas conspicuous.
Thif\ order is called antithesis. It should be used only when
there is a real contrast between the ideas to be presented.
Antithesis also appears in a wider application when a
whole sentence is in contrast with another. Here, too,
similarity of form and structure is usually preserved.
There is often antithesis of thought, however, without
marked antithesis of form. Two paragraphs may show
contrasting thoughts without showing any conspicuous similarity in construction. The plan of a whole discourse may
be antithetical in thought and form, or in thought alone.
Let us examine the following speech by Edmund Burke.
It was delivered to his constituents after the election of
1774, and cl is cusses a very important question, - in cases
when a representative's judgment differs from the known
or supposed opinion of his constituents, should he vote as
his constituents would have him vote, or should he vote as
his own hcst jrn1gment of what is right tells him to vote?
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vVe see at once tlw.t l1ere is an antithesis in thought, and
it comes out in the first two p;-1ragraphs, which state the
'lUestion and uegin the argnmcnt. Th e Iirst paragraph t ells
how far a representative should go, - he shoulU. weigh the
opinions of his constitirnuts, should respect their wishes,
and shoulU. prefer their interests to his own personal interest. The second imragraph tells what the representative
shoulU not yield, -he shoukl not yield his convictions, lte
sl1uul<l vote as l1is j11<l g1nc11t an(l co11scie11cc rlietatc, even
when h e knows tlw,t his vote is contrary to imblic opinion
arnoug his co11stitum1ts.
The autitlicsis of thonght is continuetl in the thinl,
fourth, a.ml iiHh par~igra,pltR . Antithesis is the lxisis of the
structure also in tltese para.graphs, bnt only the basis ; for
the details are not strictly held to similarity of form,
length, and position. Paragraph three divides at sentence
11 ; paragraph four, at sentence 13. In paragraph five,
sentences 14, 15, 18, and 20 show marked likeness of form
in the contrasting Jl:uts.

to yourn. 9. If that be all, the thing is innocent. 10. If government were a matter of will upon auy side, yours, without question,
ought to be superior. 11. Bnt government and legislation are
matters of reason and judgment, and not of inclination; and
what sort of reason is that in which the determination precedes
the discussion, in which one set of men. deliberate and another
decirlc, mid where those who form the conclusion are perhaps three
hundred mil es distant from those who hear the arguments?
12. To deliver an opinion is the right of all men; that of conRLit11e11t:-; is a weighty and res pectable opi11io11, which :t representative ought always to rejoice to hear, and which he ought always
rnost ReriouRly to consider. 13. But authoritative instructions,
mandates iss ued, which the member is bound blindly and implicitly
to obey, Lo vote, and to argue for, tl1ongh contrary to the clearest
conviction of his judgment and conscience,-these are things
utterly unknown to the laws of this land, and which arise from
a fundamental mistake of the whole order and tenor of our
Constitutio1i..
14. Parliament is not a con.,qress of ambassadors from different
and hostile interests, which interests each must maintain, as an
agent a11d advocate, against other ageuts and auvocates; bnt Parliament is a deliberative assembly of one nation, with one interest,
that of the whole, -where not local purposes, not local prejudices,
ought to guide, but the general good, resulting from the general
r eason of the whole. 15. You choose a member, indeed; but when
you have chosen him, he is not a member of Bristol, but he is a
member of Parliament. 16. If the local constituent should have
an interest or shoulcl form an hasty opinion evidently opposite to
the real w10cl o[ the rest of the community, the member from that
place ought to be as far as any other from any endeavor to give
it effect. 17. I beg pardon for saying so much on this subject; I
have bee n unwillingly drawn into it; but I shall ever use a respectful frankness of communication with you. 18. Your faithful frietHl, your devof.etl servant, [ shall be to the end of rny life :
a flatterer you do not wish for. 19. On this point of instructions,
however, I think it scarcely possible we ever can have any sort of
difference. 20. Perhaps I may give you too much, rather than
too little trouble.
21. From the first hour I was encouraged to court your favor,

232

1. Certainly, Ge11tleme11, it ought to be the happiness and glory
of a representative to live in U1c strictest union, the closest correspondence, and the most unreserved communication with his constituents. 2. Their wishes ought to have great weight with him;
their opinions hi gh respect; their Lusiness unremitted att;e11tion;
3. It is his llnty to sacrifice his repose, his pleasure, his satisfactio11R to t.ltl'ir:-;, - a1Hl, a.hove all , CVl) r, and in all cases, to prefer
th eir interest to l1is ovm.
4. But his unbiassed opinion, his mature judgment, his erilightencd conscience, he onght not to sacrifice to yon, to any man, or to
any set of rn en living. G. These lie does 110t derive from your
plcasu re, - 110, 11ur frotll 1,hci law a.1111 Llie Con~·d,i Lu I.ion . <i. TIHJ.Y
are a trust from Providellce, for the abuse of which he is deeply
answerable. 7. Your represen tative owes yon, uot his industry
only, but his judgment; and he betrays instead of serving you, if
he sacrifices it to your opinion.
8. My worthy colleague RayR, hi s will ought to be subservient

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In 1Yhat Order to Say It.

to this happy day of obtaining it, I have never promised you anything but humble and pcrnevering endeavors to do my duty.
22. The weight of that duty, I confess, makes me tremble; and
whoever well conside rs wl1:1t it is, of all things in the world, will
fly from what has the least likeness to a positive and precipitate
engagement. 23. To be.a good member of Parliament is, let me
tell you, no easy task, - especially at this ti.me, 'vhen there is so
strong a disposition to r1111 into tlte peril ous extre rn.cs of servil e
compliance or wil.d popularity. 2'1. To 1111ite circ1unspection with
vigor is al1sol11Le ly 11 cccs8:1.ry, huL it is cxLrn 1111!ly dilli cnl t. ~G. ·w e
are 11ow members for a rich commercial city; this city, however,
is but a part of a rich commercial nation, the interests of which
are various, multiform, and intricate. 2G. 'Ve are members for
that great natio11, which, however, is itself but part of a great
empfre, extended by our virtue a11d our fortune to the farthest
limits of the East arnl of the West. 27. All these wide-spread
interests must be considered, - must be co rnpared, - must be reconciled, if possible. 28. 'Ve are rnetnbers for a.free country; au<l
surely we all know that the machine of a free constitution is no
simple thing, but as intricate and as deli cate as it is valuable.
29. ·' Ne are mernbers of a great and ancient monarchy; and we
must preserve r eligiously the true, legal rights of the sovereign,
·which form the keystone that biuds together the noble and wellcon structed arch of our empire and our constitution. 30. A constitution made up o[ ba lanced powers rnnst ever be a critical
thing. 31. As such I m ean to Lonch tl1at part of it which comes
within my reach. :)2. I k11ow rn y inability, and I wish for support from every qu arter. 33. In particular I shall aim at the
friendship, and shall cultivate the best correspondence, of the
worthy colleague you hav e give11 111e.

first, and the third the second in intensity and importance.
The ]Jhrases "to you," "to any man," "to any set of men,"
in sentence 4, and the three clauses after the semicolon in
sentence 11, illustrate the climax of phrases and the climax
of clauses respectively.
Climax of whole sentences is well illustrated by sentences
25 to 2!), in which the growth in importance and intensity
is marlrnJ. by the words "a rich commercial city," "a rich
commen~ ial natio11," "a grea,t empire," "a free cou11try," "a
great and ancient monarchy." 'l'he repetition of the words
"we are members, " at the beginning of these sentences, foretells in each case that something more important is coming.
'l'he order of climax also appears in a ·wider application
when the paragraphs of an essay, or argument, or story
grow in importance and interest until they culminate in
the strongest n.uJ. mpst essential thought of all.• In the
speech quoted in this lesson, there is a distinct increase in
power and intensity from the first paragraph to the middle
of the fifth paragraph, the first culmination being reached
in the words at the beginning of sentence 6, "they are a
trust from Providence," the second culmination in sentence
11, the third in sentence 13, the fourth in sentence 16.
From sentence 1G to sentence 25 we n.re given personal
exvlanations which were very important at the time and
in the circumstances under which they were made. · Their
fun ction in the climax is not felt by the reader of to-day.
However, it ca.n be seen that they prepn.re for the finn.l
climax ucginning with sentence 25.
The following brief story illustrates the principle of
climax in a na.rrat.ive. 'l'h e deepest impression is made at
the last, an<l nothing is added n.t the close to take away
from the irnpression produced by the calm words of the
dying general. The interest of the reader grows from the
first impression produced by what we read at the close of
the first sentence (his fortitude in pain) to the second im-

234

Another order (som etimes combined with antithesis) is
the climax, by which a seri es of words, phrases, or clauses
is so arranged that each in turn surpasses the preceJ.ing
one in intensity of expression or importance of meaning.
In the speech just quoted sentence 4 puts the words "unbiassed opinions," "mature j uJ.gment," "enlightened conscience," in a climax, the secoml exptession surpassing the

235

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Composition-Rhetoric.

In lYhat Order to Say It.

pression (his self-forgetfulness :md continued jnteres t in
the conflict), aud culminaLes in the .ineident of tltc sword,
showing his soldierly pride even at the moment of death.

impulse of every citizen in America is to respect every other citizen, and to feel that citizenship constitutes a certain ground of
respect. The idea of each man's equal rights is so fully realized
that the rich or powerful man feels it no indignity to take his turn
among the crowd, and does not expect any deference from the
poorest. An i11Jivi1lual employer of labor (for one cannot say
the same of corporations) has, I think, a keener sense of his duty
to those "\vhom he employs than employers have iu continental
I•: 11ropn. Tin linH 1'.orf.ai11ly a greater sense of: rnspo11sibilit.y for tl10
use of his wealth. The nuwber of gifts for bc11evo lent :wJ oLher
p1thlic purposes, the 111u11licr of educational, artistic, literary, and
scientiflc foundations, is larger than even in Britain, the wealthiest
and most liberal of European countries. vVealth is generally felt
to be a trust, and exclusiveness condemned not merely as indicative of selfislrness, but a sort of offence against the public. No
one, for instance, thinks of shutting up his pleasure-grounds; he
seldom even builds a wall round them, but puts np low railings or
a palisade, so tl1at the sight of hi s trees and shrnbs is enjoyed by
passers-by. That any one should be permitted either by opinion
or by law to seal up many square miles of beautiful mountain
conntry against tourists or artists is to the ordinary A1nerican
al111ost incredible. Snch things are to him the marks of a land
still groaning nuder feudal tyranny.
It may seem strange to those who know how difficult European
states have generally found it to conduct negotiations with the
government of the United States, and who are accustomed to read
in European newspapers the defiant utterances which American
politicians address from Congress to the effete monarchies of the
Old \Vorld, to be told that this spirit of fraternity has its influence on international relatious also. Nevertheless if we look not
~t the irresponsible orators, who play to the lower feelings of a
section of the people, but at the general sentiment of the whole
pco.vle, we Hhall recognize LhaL democracy m:tkcs both for poaco
and for justice as between nations. Despite the admiration for
military exploits which the Americans have sometimes shown, no
country is at bottom more pervaded by a hatred of war, and a.
sense that national honor stands rooted in natio11al fair dealing.
The nation is often misrepresented by its statesmen, but although
it allows them to say irritating things and advance umeasonable

236

General Sir ,John l\'foore, while earnestly watching the result of
the fight about U10 village o[ Elvira, was struck 011 the IeH 1,re:ts t
by a cannon-shot; the shock threw him from his horse with violence; yet he rose again in a sitting posture, his countenance
11.11cha11gn1l, a11'1 his sl,1 ~adl": 1.s l , 1~y11 sl.ill fixn1l 11111111 f.1111 rng-i111e11t.s
engaged in his front, no sigl1 Lietray i11g a sensation of pain. Jn
a few 1110111e11ts, wli()11 he sa1y t.lw troops were gai11i11g gro1111d, liiR
countenance brightened, a11d he suffered himself to be taken to
the rear. Then was see n the uature of his hurt. As the soldiers
placed him in a blauket, his sword got entangle(l, and the hilt
entered the wou11d; Captain IT ardi11ge, a, staff officer, attempted
to take it off, but the dying man stopped him, saying: "It is as
well as it.is. T l1ad raLl1 P. r if; sl1ould go ont; of tl1e fi eld wit.Ii me;"
auJ i11 that manner, so beeo miug to a sol<lier, Moore was liorne
from the fight. -NAPIER.

When opposing thoughts are to be presented in a sentence, para.:.
graph, or essay, arrange them in the order of antithesis. In general,
arrange the thoughts of a paragraph or essay in the order of climax.
EXERCISE !J3.

Make a list of the thoughts expressed in the following.
Do they come in the order of increasing importance'?
Democracy has 11ot only taught the Amcricn.11s l1ow to use
liberty without abusi11g it, a11J how to secure e<11tn,lity: it J1as also
taugl1t them fraternity. That word has ~one 011 t of fashion i11
the Ohl \Vorld, and 110 wo1Hler, considcri11g what was done in its
name in 179:3, cousideri11g also that it still figures in the programme of assassins. Nevertheless, there is in ~he United States
a sort of kindliness, a sense of human fel1owship, a recognition of
the duty of nrntual help owed by rna11 to man, stronger than anywhere in the Old \Vorld, and certaiuly stronger tlian in the upper
or middle classes of England, France, or Germany. The natural

.

'

Composition-Bhetoric.

In What Order to Say It.

claims, it has not for more than forty years permitted them to
ab use its c.normo us stre 11 gLh , as most Europe:w witions possessed
of similar strength have iu ti Ille past abused theirs. - B11Yc 1·~.

were ready to s it down with him, and he seemed greatly to enjoy
the novelt.y of an American repast. In London he had been very
curious i11 his inquiries abont American oysters, as marvellous
s~ories, wl1ich he d!d not believe, had Leeu told him o:f their great
size. \.Ye apologized- although we had taken care that the
l:trgest specim ens to be procured should startle his unwo 1ited
v isiou when he came to the table - for what we called the extreme
smnllness of the oysters, promising we would do better next time.
Six blo:i.1.etl Falsl;aflian Li.valvoR Jay licforc him in tl1oir 14)1olls. [
110Li cetl LliaL lie gazed aL Llte1n anxiously wiLh fork upraised· then
h e wl 1ispered to me, with a look of anguish, "How shall Id~ it?"
I described to him th e simple process by which the free-born
citizens of America were accustomed to accomplish such a task.
Ile seemed satisfied that the thing was feasi!Jle, selected the
small.es t o_ne in the half-dozen (rejecting a large one, "because,''
he said, "it resembled the High Priest's servant's ear that Peter
cut off"), and theH Lowed his head as if he were saying grace .
All eyes were upon him to watch the effect of a new sensation iri
tl~e person of a great British author. Opening his mouth very
wide, he struggled for a mon:1ent, and then all was over. I shall
never forget the comic look of despair he cast upon the other five
over-occ~pied shells. I broke the perfect stillness by asking him
how he folt. " Profoundly grateful," he gasped, "and as if I had
swallowed a little baby ." - FrnLDs.

238

EXEltCJSI•: !11 .

Do yon discover ft11ythi11 g corresponding to the order of
climax in tl1c following sclcetiuns '? Mnsk the stf.Lgcs.
lt was after the Hevolntion. 1\lanufactures, trade, all. business
vrns flat on its back. A silver dollar was worth seve1it.y-five; corn
was seventy-five dollars a lnrnhel, board five hundred dollars a
week. Landed property was worth less, a11d the taxes were something awful. So the ge ne ral dissatisfaction tun1 ed on tl1e courts
and was going to prevent collect i.011s. Grandfather Co!Jb was a
judge of the probate co urt; ; a nd when he heard that a m ob was
howling in front of the courL-housc, he put 011 hi s old Continental regime11tals, the old L111I and blue, and marched out alone.
"Away with your whining!" says lie. "If I can't hold this court
in peace, I will hold it in Lloocl; if I can't sit a.s a judge, I ·w ill die
as a general!" Though he was 011e man to hundreds, he drew a
line in the gree n, and told the mob that he would shoot with his
own hand Lhe Hn;t; 111 a n il1at <!rnss1:1 l. Ue was Loo many for the
crow1.l, sLa1u.li11g thern i11 hi s ()Id 1111il'on11 in >vltidt Llt ey knew 110
had fought for tltelll; a1H.1 Lltey 011 ly muLLere<l, and after a wltile
dispersed . They came again t.he 11ext term of court; bnt he had
his militia and his cannon all ready for them, then; and this time
when they got their answer they took it, went off, and never came
back. -OCTAVE TnANET: A Son of the Revolution.
Thackeray ann01mc0<l to rnc hy ld.ter in the early antnmn of
1852 Llt:it he lrnd determi 11 e1l Lo visit A111erica, and would ::;ail for
Boston l1y the Can1uln 01 1 1.111! ::ot.h of. Oct.ohcr. J\ 11 1,110 11ncnssary
arr:ingements for his lecturi11g tour had been made without troulJli11g him with any of tl1e dcLail s. He arriverl on a frosty November ev011i11g, and we nt directly to L11 e Tremont House, where
rooms had been engaged for hi11t. 1 remc1nber hi s delight in
gettipg off the sea, aml Lite rmthusiasm with which he hailed the
annou11ceme11t Lhat Llinuer would IJe rea1ly shortly. A few friemls

289

EXERCISE 95.

.

Re-arrange the propositions of the following outlines so that
they shall come iI1 the order of their importance, the most important last.

vVJ1y flood 1\fanners should be Cultivated.
1. They
2. Tl1 ey
others.
3. They
4. They

react upon the character of the person.
are b[LSed upou the idea of consideration for
avoid needless friction in social gatherings.
::ire beautiful to see, in themselves.

240

Oom,yosition-Blteto1'ic.

5. 'l'hey make fri ends fo r us.
6. 'l'hey put sn.l 1d;:Lry r cs :~ rai11t;s

ll]><Ht HR at~

In TVhat Order to Say It.
LESSON 30.

times.

The Logical Ordm·.

Getting Along with P eople.
1. One sh oHlcl n ot be r eady to take offence.
2. Conversation may be ma11aged so as to avoid disputation 011 lo11 g-staw1ing difforcnccs.
3. There is not often n eed of a di rect att~wk upon t he
Leli efa n.wl. opinion:::; of oth cr·R.
4. To refer to the wca.kn css o[ :L friend is un generous.
r;. 'l'he gol1lc11 nil c is thn onl y s:1Jn g11icln.
G. 'l'o betray a secret at the exveuse or Lliseumfort of a
friend is rcpreheHsiblc.
EXERCISE !JG.

"'Write an essay 011 one of Lhc forcgoi11g ontlines after revision .
EXElWlSE 97.

J\fake two antithcLical stat;c1nc11 ts 11111lc r each of the h cadi11 gs of
the followi11g outline, contrasting llrya11t's Tlwnalopsis and Longfellow 's Psalm of Life.
1. Subject-ma tter. 2 . Kind of emo tion appealed to. 3. Depth
of emotion sh ow11. 1. Faith rcvcalcll.
EXERCISE !lS .

Expand the poiuts o( Lhe preceding outline into four paragraphs.
EXERCISE !J!J.

R ead Raco n's essay on "Heant.,y " and lii s eRRay on "Deformity,"
(or l\lilton's L' Allegro a n<l ll Pe11serosn) a.nd co m uine the contrasting thoughts and Re11l,i111c1tl;R o[ Llie Lwo in a Ri11 g-lc a nt ithetical
essay.
EXERCISE 100.

R ead Lowell's poem, Th e H eritage, and combine the contrasting
thoughts and sentiments of t he poem in a Lrief antithetical essay.

241

In Lessons 18 and 19 we found that the order of presenting thoughts in a paragraph is sometimes the statement of
a cause arnl the statement of the effect of that cause ; or is
the statement of a proposition and the statement of proofs
of t lrnt proposition. 'l'he same methods rna,y be effectively
app lie<l i 11 pl:urning a lunger essay con sisting of several
pa r:1,g rn.pl 1R.

'i'hus iu th e following outline the arrangement is by
canse au<l. effect.

F oreign Immig ration should be R estricted.
T. Fact as cause : (1) M.any immigrnnts are paupers. (A parag raph of proofs involving statistics or
statements of authorities on this point.)
·11. Fact as effect: (2) They fill our almshou~es and become a
public charge. (A paragraph of proofs
involving statistics or statements of aut horities .)
III. Fact as cause: (3) Some of t hem are criminals. (A paragraph of proofs.)
I\r. Faet as effect : (4) They reinforce the criminal classes. (A
paragraph of proofs.)
V. Fact as cause : (5) Many of them know nothin g of the duties
of free citizenship. (A paragrapli of
proofs.)
VI. F ac t as effect : (G) Such immigrants recruit the worst element
in om politics. (A p<iragraph of proofs.)

'i'ho orcler inuicated . above may be follow ed, or all of the
facts as causes (I., III., V.) may be stated and proved first in
successive paragraphs, and then all of the facts as effects
(II., IV., VI.) may be stated and proved in successive paragraphs.

-

m

242

Composition-llhe to»ic.

In What Order to Say It.

A third order that might be follow ed with the same material puts the effects first alHl the causes aftenvanl; thus: -

In the first of these outlines we begin with the -subject,
"The study of English," and show its effects one after another. In the second we begin with the predicate, "The
schools," and present its effects as they should be; these
effects we find may be produced by the study of English.
In both outlines what we say is made to bear upon the
whole proposition, "The study of English should be encouraged in the schools," that is, we have the whole proposition
in rninfl, 110 rnn,t;t;c~ r whirh rnoLltotl we employ. -'What is sa.icl
iu one outline is impliell in the other. 1'akeu together, they
make the plan complete; thus: -

I. l"act as effect : (1) Onr almshouses arc crowdcLl with people

who have become a public charge.
IL Fact as cause: (2) Pauper inunigrant,s make up a large percentage of the almshouse population.
III. Fact as effect: (3) The criminal classes continue to grow in
spite of effo rts at repression.
TV. Fact as ca11se: (1-) l111rnig-ra11f;s in l:i.rg-r~ 1111111hern rt:cn1if; f,Jit:
cri111i11al c lassrn-i.
V. Fact as effect: (5) The worst elements in politics are with difficulty kept from securing con trol of affairs.
VI. Fact as cause: (6) lmrnigration feeds the ranks of ignorant
voters.
Conclusion: Foreign immigration should be restricted.

A fourth order would put the effects (I., III., V.) first in
successive paragraphs, an cl would follow these by the causes
(II., IV., VI.) in successive para.graphs.
Compare the following outlines of the same proposition:
The study of English shoultl Le encouraged in the schools.
I.

II.

The stu<ly of Euglish
1. Promotes power of expression.
2. Gives a student some
knowledge of the best thoughts
of his race.
3. Cultivates the taste for the
better things of life.
4. Adds fresh interest in the
worl<l about us.
5. Supplants au iuterest in
less worthy Lhi11gs.
Hence the study of English
should be encouraged in the
schools.

The schools should
1. Have a practical end in
their teaching.
2. Give their pupils an interest in the best thinking.
3. Improve the taste for the
better things of life.
4. Interest pupils in the world
about them.
G. Offset a11 i11cli11ation for
less worthy things.
TJ1esc purposes of scl1ool work
(as effects) may be fulfilled by
the study of English as an efficient cause. Hence, etc.

243

The Study of English should be Encouraged in the
Schools.
1. Because the study has a practical end ; namely, power of
expression.
2. Because the schools should give pupils some knowledge of
the best thinking.
3. ·Because this study cultivates the taste for better things,
which is the great object of education.
4. Because this study adds interest in the world, which is
another great object of education .
5 . Because education should direct inclination from less worthy
to 1nore worthy things, and this can be done by the study of
English.

Before writing, arrange your thoughts on some definite plan.

EXERCISE 101.

]\fake an outline on one of the following subjects, by one of the
ni.ethods illustrated in this lesson.

1. The value of cheerfulness.

2. The advantages of public libraries.
3. vVhy conversation should be practised.

\

244
4.
G.
6.
7.
8.

Composition-Rhetoric.
vVhy the work of the Salvati.on Anny fr; deserving.
H,ea:;orni for rnn.k.i11 g an c:nly choien o( one's life-work.
'The real causes of the war for the Union.
'The need of good roa<ls.
vVhy bicycles should not be ridden on the sidewalk.

EXERCISE 102.

AnnJyze the followin g Rrilection for tl1e pm·po::m of discovering the order ado]Jte(l by the writer in presenting hi s
thoughts.
Pennsylvania is the second state in the Union. But those who
are familiar with her vast resources of iron, petroleum, coal, and
lumber, her temperate climate, her fertile soil, and the skill of her
p eople in the rn eclrnui c arts and m::w ufactnring, often wo11der w 11y
she is 11ot easi ly Lhe first.
The diHiculLy scc1 11 s to 01 ~ a lack o[ n11iLy and J1on1oge11eo11s11 ess
among her people. In colonial tillles li er povulation was split up
into disti11ct di vi8ions of n aLionali ties and r eligions. The ll:nglish
Quakers controlled Philadelphia and its neighborhood, and also
dominated the Legislature. 'The \\Telfl h settled on a tract west of
the city, under an agreement with \Yilli a m Penn that they shonld
have it for a littl e colony oJ th eir ow n. For a time tl1 ey succeeded
in gove rning it i n Lh eir ow11 way a nd at the first very few of them
could speak E11glisl1. The ScoLch-fri 8h I'reshyterians went out on
the frontier, became a law unto themselves, and were bitterly opposed to the Quakers, who, tliey saitl, r efu sed them a11 share in the
political government, of t he province aud failed to protect 1thern
from the Indians. The Cl1urch o [ England people were not ve ry
numero us in colo11ial ti111es; hnt wh en the so11s of " ' illiam P enn
joined their faitl1 they were given l;he exec ntive offices of the govern111e1it;, wl1icl1 were all in i.11<! co 11t.rol o( l,l1n propridors. Tlt11s
the poliLical ad111i11i sLraLio11 of Lit e province wa"> split into two pads,
the executive controllecl liy t.li e Ch 11rch of E11glm1d people and t he
Legislature controlled by U1e Quak ers .
The north ern half of Ll1 c j>rovince wa,s claimed by Co nn ecticut,
and her people uy force of ar ms succeeded in settling and holdin g

In What Orde'r to Say It.

245

part of it. They lived by themselves, and their descendants still
retain rn11 ch of their loc<tl sentiment and pride. But the most important a.nd distinct division "'.as that of the Germans, who numbered at least a third of the population. They retained their
lan g uage and customs, and lived by themselves. There are still
many of t hem who, though th eir ancestors h ave been in the state
for a hundred and fifty years, cannot yet speak English, and a still
larger number who, though they understand English, usually speak
the dialect kn owu as P eun sylvania Dutch.
Each o( these divisio118 had a distinct religion of its own, which
in colonial times increased tl1 e desire for isolation, and the effect
of these old controversies and feelings has by no means worn away.
EXERCISE 103.

Re-state and re-combine the followi~g, so as to bring out
the relationship of causes and effects. Give heed also to the
principle of climn.x.

High Schools should be Generously Supported.
1. The morals of a community are improved when there is a
body of well-educated people in it.
2. The high schools afford a training in industry .
3. fotellige11t voting demands hi gher qualifications in the voter

than ever before.
4. Tlie hi gh schools afford a training in morality.
5. Every community is cursed uy numbers of pP-ople who have
never been taught to do anything useful.
{i. The high schools open the way to a still higher education
for man y of their pupils.
7. The high schools teach civics and politics. .
8. A town without a high school to connect with the grades
below and with college or u11ivernity above, is not doing its duty
by the boys a11tl girls .
EXERCISE 104.

l~xpand your thoughts on the r e-arranged outline of the
preceding exercise, into an essay.

...

-246

Oomposition-lUietorie.
EXERCISE 105.

Supply the missing cause or effect which is needed with
each of the following statements in order to complet e the
outline.

Physiology aml Hygiene should be More Generally
Taught.
1. Thn proportio11 of 1111 l1 call.l1.v :i.1111 wnak pPopln aho11I; 11R iR
u1111eccssa1·ily great.
2. J\fa11y people <lo not know how to take care of their health.
3. The effi ciency of boarcls of h ealth in controlling epidemic and
contagious di seases is seriously impaired by the ignorance of people.
'1. Ill-health a.nd lack of vigor in a person hinders the <lischarge
• of duties.
EXERCISE lOu .

With the material that .YOH ]1ave added to the prnceding
outline: re-anange the whole and write an essay on the
subject.
LESSON 31.

Th e 1'irne Onler antl the S11ace Onler.
In Lesson 13 the fact was noted. that in a paragraph made
up of narrative details, the details come one after another in
the order of time, whereas in a clescriptive paragraph they
stand side Ly side in the orcler in which they occur in space.
The details, whether in time or space, are anangecl according to their nea rness to one auother. Thus in a story we
ha,ve three natural cli visions in the onler 0£ time, (1) preparatory material (which should be maue as brief as possible) leading up to the main incident, (2) the centre or
culmination of interest, and (3) the outcome, conclusion, or
explanation, stated as bri eHy as possible. In the following

In What Order to Say It.

247

the preparatory material occupies the first two paragraphs;
the centre or culmination of interest occupies the third,
fomth, and. the first half of the fifth paragraph; and the
explanation, the last half of the fifth paragraph. In other
words, the preparatory material shows why Lincoln should
h ave taken up the case, - as a ueLt of gratitude; the main
incident shows how Lincoln paicl the debt of gratitude; and
the conclusion puts in plain words the real motive for telling
tl1c story, - to illustrate one phase of Lincoln's character.
'l'lio J11 lluwi 11 g u11t;li110 sl1uws tho unler of evo11Ls: l. Preparatory mater ial in the time order.
a. Liucoln's frienushi p for the Armstrongs.
b. Mrs. Armsfaong's kindness to Lincoln.
c. lVIrs. Armstrong's dependence on her sons.
d. Young Armstrong charged with mmder.
2. The centre or culmination, time order.
a. Lincoln undertakes to defend Armstrong.
b. Procures postponement and change of place.
c. The trial :
(1) Analysis of the evidence. Discomfiture of
the principal witness.
(2) Lincoln's plea before the jury.
tl. 'J'lic venlict; of tho jury.
3. Tho conclusion.
a. Effect upon the widow and her son.
b. ReHection of the writer of the story.
1. :Mr. Lincoln's early athletic struggle with Jack Armstrong,
the representative man of the "Clary's Grove Boys," will be
remembered. From the moment of this struggle, which ,Jack
agreed' to call "a drawn battle," in consequence of his own foul
play, they beca me strong friends. Jack ·would fight for Mr.
Lincoln at any time, and woul<l never hear him spoken against.
Ind eed, there were times when young Lincoln made Jack's cabin
his hom e, and here Mrs. Armstrong, a most womanly person,
learned to respect the rising man.

Com,position-Rhetoric.

In What Order to Say It.

2. There was 110 sc r vict\ Lo whieh s h <~ <fol 1101, make her guest
abundantly welcome, a11d he 11ever ceased to feel the teudercst
gratitude for her kindness. At length her huslmud dierl, and s~rn
became dependent npon her so11s. The oldest of these, wlnle
in attenLlance upon a camp-meuting, foullll ltilllself involved in
a me!Ce which resulted ill the deat h of :,1, young man, and young
Annstroug was charged Ly one of his associates with striking tho
fatal blow. Ile was anested, examined, a.nd imprisoned to await;
his trial. The puLlic mirnl was in a l>laze of excitement, and
interosLed parLies foil Ll1c 1la1110.
3. Mr. Lincoln knew 11othing of the merits of this case; that is
certain. Ile only knew that his old friend 1\lrs. Armstrong was in
sore trouble; and he sat; clown at once and volunteered by letter to
defend her son. His first act was to procni:e t.he postponement and
a clrnn ge of the place of the trial. There '.Vas too much feverin the
'Vlien
1ninds of the immediate public to permit of fair treatment.
the trial came on, the case looked very hopeless to all but Mr. Lincoln, who li ad ass med lii111self that tlie youug man was nut guilty·
4. The evidence on behalf of the State beiug all in, and looking
like a solid and consistent mass of testimony against the prisoner,
l\Ir. Lincoln undertook the task of analyzing and destroying it,
which he did in a manner that surprised every one. The principal
witness testified that by the aid of the brightly shining moon he
saw the prisoner inHict the death-b low with a slung-shot . Mr.
Lincoln prove<l by Lhe al111:wac Lhat t here ·waR 110 moon shi11in g at
tlie time. The rnass u[ tcsLilllo11y ag~ii11sL tlic prisoner melted
away, uutil "Not guilLy" was the verdict of every man preseut in
the crowded court-room.
5. There is, of course, no record of the plea made on this
occasion, but it is remembered as one in which 1\fr. Lincoln made
an appeal to the sympathies of the jury which quite surpassed his
usual efforts of the kind, and melted all to tears. The jury were
out lrnt haH an l1 011r, whe n they rct,urned with the verd ict of
"Not guilty." Tl1e widow fai11Lell in the arms of her sou, who
divided his atteu ti on between his services to her and his tlta11ks to
his deliverer. Aud thus t he kinil woman who cared for the poor
young mn.11, and showed herself a mother to him in his need,
received as her revvard, from the hand of her grateful beneficiary,
the life of a son, saved from a cruel conspimcy. - J. G. IloLLAND.

ln dcscriptiou, the strict order of nearness is not so helpful to the r eader. The writer cannot tell all : if he tries to
do so, he will confuse his readers with a mass of details.
In llescribing a building for one who has never seen it,
what is the most essential thing for him to know? This
question is best answered by asking what one notices first
upon seeing the building. Evidently, the size, general
shape, color, material, and any striking architectural characLerisLic. H the reader is given these facts at tho outset,
the remainder of the descriptive details fall in place naturally in the order of their neamess to each other. In
describing a picture, the first thing to attract the attention
is the central figure, then the foreground, and finally the
background. In describing the appearance of a person, the
peculiarities of dress, walk, behavior, are noticed first. In
all of these the prominent features come ,first, and the
details follow in the order of their nearness to one another.

248

249

The Taj is built on the banks of the Jumna rather more than a
mile to the eastward of the Fort of Agra. It is approached by' a
handsome road, cut through the mounds left by the ruins of
ancient palaces. Like the tomb of Akbar, it stands in a large
garden, enclosed by a lofty wall of reel sandstone, with arched
galleries arouud tlie interior. The entrance is a superb gateway
of sandstone, inlaid with ornaments and inscriptions from the
Koran, in white marble. Outside of this grand portal, however,
is a spacious quadrangle of solid masonry with an elegant structure
intended as a caravanserai, on the opposite side. ''Vhatever may
be the visitor's impatience, he cannot help pausing to notice the
fin e proportions of these structures, and the rich and massive style
of their architecture. The gate to the garden of the Taj is not so
large as that of Akbar's tomb, but quite as beautifol in design.
Passing under the open demi-vault, whose ai·ch hangs high above
you, an avenue of dark Italian cypresses appears before you.
Down its centre sparkles a long row of fountains, each casting up
a single slender jet. On both sides, the palm, the banyan, and the
feathery bamboo 1ningle their foliage; the song of birds meets

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--

251

Composition-Rhetoric.

In -What Order to Say It.

your ear, and the odor of roses and lemon-flowers sweetens the air.
Down such a vista, a nd over such a foreground, rises the Taj .
It is an octagonal builcliug, or rather a square with the corners
truncated, and each side precisely sirn ilar. Jt stands upon a lofty
platform or pedestal, with a minaret at each corner, and this,
arrai11, is lifted on a va::;t l.crrn,cc of Ho lid 111a,::;0 11ry. An Oriental
ci~rnc, swe llin g out boldly l'ro111 Ll1c\ li:i.Hc i11t.o 11carl y Lwo-Lltircl::; o(
a sphere, and taperi11g at the top into a cresce11t-tipped spire,
crowns the edi fi ce, rising from its ceutre, with fonr si rnilar, though
On naclt Rid e Llterc is a
11 w clt s 111al\cr, cl omcR at; Llic corncn;.
gra11 d e ntran ce formed Ly a si ng le pointed arch, risiug nearly to
the co rnice, and two smalle r arcl1es ( 011e pbteed above tl1e othe r)
on either hand. The height o[ the lmildi11g from its Lase to the
top of tlie dom e is 2G2 Jeet, and of t.he mi11~r~t aLout 200 ~eet.
But no words can co nv ey an iclea of the exqrnsrte l1 an11011 y of the
different parts, and the grarnl and glorious effect of tlie whole
structure with its attencl:tn t minarets. - BAYAHD TAYLOR: India,
China, and Japan, chap. X.

In the dreary waste of Arabia, a boundless level of sand is
intersected Ly sharp and naked mountains; and the face of the
clesert, without shade or shelter, is scorched by the direct and
in tense rays of a tropical sun. Instead of refreshiug breezes, the
winds, · particularly from the southwest, diffuse a noxious and
eve n deadly vapor; the hillocks of sand which they alternately
raise aml scatLer are co111pared to the billows of Lite ocean, and
whole caravans, whole armies, have been lost and buried in the
whirlwind. The common .benefits of water are an object of
desire atl(l couLcst; and such is the scarcity of wootl, that some
art is req ni site to preserve and propagate the element of fire.
Aralria is destitute of navigable rivers, which fertilize the soil
and convey its produce to the adjacent regions; the tonents that
fall from the hills are imbibed by the thirsty earth; the rare and
hardy plants, the ta1nari11d or the acacia, that st rike their rnots
into the clefts of the rocks, are nourished by the clews of the
uight : a scanty supply of rain is collected in cisterns and aqueducts: the wells and sprin gs are the secret treasure of tl1e desert;
aucl the pilgrim of Mecca, after mauy a dry aud sultry march, is
disgusted by the taste of the waters, which have rolled over a b ed
of sulphur or salt.
Such is the general ancl genuine picture of the climate of
Arabia. The experience of evil enhances the value of any local
or partial enjoy1ne11ts. A shady grove, a green pastnre, rt stream
0£ fresh water, are sufficient to attract a colony of sedentary
Arabs to the fortunate spots which cau afford food aud refreshmeut to themselves and their cattle, and which encourage their
industry in the cultivation of the palm-tree and the vine. The
high lauds that border ou the Indian Ocean are distinguished by
their superior plenty of wood a ucl water: the air is more temperate, the fruits are more delicious, the animals and the human
race more numerous: the fertility of the soil invites and rewards
the toil of the huRbandman; and peculiar gifts of frankincense
antl coffee have attracted in different ages the merchauts of the
world.
Arabia, in the opinion of the n aturalist, is the genuine and
original couutry of the horse; the climate most propitious, nf)t
indeed to the size, but to the spirit and swiftness, of that generous
animal. The mei-it of tho Darb, the Spanish, and the English

250

The man "~' as eld erly, yet Reemed bent more Ly sorrow and infirmity than by the weight of years. He wore a mourning cloak,
over a dress of the salll C m ela nch oly color, cut in that picturesque
form which Vandyck l1 as rende red immortal. But although the
clress war-; h and so rn c it waR put on and worn with a carelcss11e::;s
which showed the rni11cl or Lite wearer ill at eaRc. JJis aged, yet
still h a ndsom e, co 1111 Lc11a11ce hall the same air of co11soq uo11ce
which distinguished his dress and his gait. A striking part of his
appearance was a lon g white beard, which desce nded far over the
breast of his sla.sh ed tlou bld, and looked singnlar from its contrast
in color with his habit.- SCOTT: lVoodstock, chap. II.

In narratives follow the time order. In descriptions give first
the general characteristics or the most prominent features of the
object described, then the lesser details in the order of nearness.
EXERCISE 107.

Make a list of the Llet::tils of the following description.
Account for the order i11 wltich tl1c (ldails are given.

!

Cornposition-llhetoric.

In 1Vhat Order to Say It.

hreetl, is deriv ed frolll a n1i x l.11rn of J\rahi:rn hlootl; tlie Bc<lowce11R
preserve, vvitli supen,;LiLiu11s care, tlic l1011ors a.11tl tit~ rn e111ory of
the purest race : the males are so l<l rLt a lng h pnce, but tl~e
females are seldom alie11ated: and tJ1 e uirth of a noble foal IS
estee med, arn o n~ the tribes. as a snhj ecf; of joy and mnt11al co ~1gratu latioi1. Th ese horses arc e<lucaLcd in tent~, amo1'.g- th e ch ~l­
dren of th e Arabs, with a tender fa111iliarity wltJ ch trams them lll
th e habits of gc ntlc11ess a11d attac hment. They are accnstomed
only to walk and to gall op: their sensations. are 11~t blnnLed by
the in c<!Ssant ab 11 sc of L11 c sp11r a11<l 1,lw wl11p: th eir powers arc
rese rv ed for the 1110111 e11ts u( Jli g ltt :urtl pursuit ; bu t 110 soo ner <l o
they feel th e touch of th e liaud or the s ~irrnp,. tlt.a~1 they d~rt
away with the swiftness of the wiml: and 1f the1~· . :I ri end be dr smoun tetl in the rapid career, they i11sta11tly stop till he h as recovered his seat.
In the sands of Africa and Arabia the camel is a sac red and
precious gift. That stro11g and patient beast of bnrden cau perform , w it] 1011 t cati11g or /lri11l<i11 g, :L journey o( several 1hys; '.tml
a reservoir of fres h wate r is preserved. in :L large bag, :t l1fLlt
stomach of t he an imal, whose bocly is imprinted with t he marks
of senitude : th e l a rge r breed is capable of transportin g a weight
of a thousa 11 J pounds; a u<l th e dro111edary, of a li g hter and more
active fram e, outstrips the fl eetest co urser in the race. Alive or
dead, alinost eve ry par t of th e camel is se rviceable to man: her
milk is plentiful a111l nutri tious; the young a nd te nder flesh h~ s
the taste of veal; all(l tlr c lon g hair, wh ich fallR each year and is
renewed, is coarsely rn a uu(actnred into the garments, the furrtiture, and the tents of the Bedoweens.
The perpetual indepe11Je11 ce of the Arabs h as been the theme
of praise among strangers and natives; and the arts of c?11troversy t ran sfor m this siu g nl ar event into a prophecy ~ nd a miracle,
in favor of th e posterity of Jghmael. Some except10n s, that ~an
neith er he dii:; sc r~bl c d nor elnded, render this mode of reasonmg
as inili sc rcet aR it; iR s11pr,rf1 11 011s. Yet t,lH'SP. nxccptions arc tmnporary or local; the botly of UJC 11 ation has escape<l .the yoke of the
rno 8 t powerful mo11a.rchi es; the anni RR of Sesoi:;tns a11d Cyrus,. of
Pompey and Traja11, could 11ever nehiove the cou~uest o[ Arnlna;
th e present sovereign of the Tnrks may exercise a Rhadow of
jurisdiction, but his pride is reduced to solicit the friendship of a

pnopl o whom it is tla11gerous to provoke, an<l fruitl ess to attack.
The obvious causes of their freedom are inscribed on the character and country of th e Arabs. Many ages be[ore Mahomet, their
intrepid valor had been severely felt by their neighbors, in offensi ve and defensive "var. The patient and active virt11es of a
soldier are insensibly nursed in the habits and di scipline of a
pastoral life. The care of the sheep and camels is aba11doned to
th e women of the tribe ; but the martial youth, u11d er the banner
of the emir, is ever on horseback, and in the field, to practise the
exercise of t he bow, tir e javcl in, antl the sey metar.
The lon g memory of their independence is the firmest pledge
of its perpetuity, and succeeding generations ·a re animated to
prove their desce nt, and to maintain their inheritance. In the
more simple state of the Arabs, the nation is free, because each
of her sons disdains a base submission to the will of a master.
Hi s breast is fortified with the austere virtues of courage, patience,
and sobriety; the fove of independence prompts hi1u to exercise
th e haliit,s o[ seU-co mrnaml; a11<l the fear of tlisho11or guards lrim
from tl1 e mea ner apprehension of pain , of dan ge r, an d of death.
The gravity and firmn ess of the mind is conspicuous in his outward demeanor: his speech is slow, weighty, and concise; he is
seldom provoked to laughter; his only gesture is that of strokiug
his beard, the venerable symbol of manhood; and the sense of his
own importance teaches him to accost his equals without levity,
and his superiors without awe.

252

253

EXERCISE 108.

Make a complete analysis of the following, arranging the
time elements in their order as main headings, with the
descriptive <letails in their order as sub-headings.
Vari011s portions of our country l1ave at different periods suffe retl severely from !,Ir e inHuence of violent sLorms of wi11<l, some
of which have bee n known to traverse nearly th e whol e extent of
the United States, and to leave such deep impressions in their
wake as will not easily be forgotten. Having witnessed one of
th ese awful phenomena, in all its grandeur, I will attempt to .
descriue it. The recollection of that astonishing revolution of

--· _S;

255

Coniposition-llhetoric.

In What Order to Say It.

the ethereal element even now l>rings with it so disagreeable a
sensatim 1, that l fee l as if aho nt to be :dfoctcd hy a su<lde11 stoppage of the circulation of my Llood.
I had left the village of Shawauey, situated on the banks of
the Ohio, on my return from Ilenderso11, which is also situated on
the banks of the same beautiful stream. The weath er was pleasant, and I thought not warmer Llta.11 usual at that season. My
horse was jogging quietly alo11g, and my tl1011ghts were, for once
at least in the course of in y life, entirely eugaged in commercial
speculations. J liad ford ed .Ili gltb111l Creek, and was 011 tl1e eve
of entering a trad of liottmn l:tnd or valley that lay between it
and Canoe Crnek, when 011 a sutld c11 I relll:trked :L gn):tL 1li1Tere11cc
in the aspect of the he:we ns. A hazy thick uess had O\"erspread
the country, and I for sollle time expected a,11 ea,rthquake, but my
horse exhibited 110 propensity to stop and prepare for such an
occurrence. I had n early arrived a,t the verge of the valley, when
I th ought, fit t.o stop J1 ea,r a brook, and dismoun Led to quench the
tl1irst which had come upon me.
I \vas leaning on rny k11ces, with my lips about to touch the
water, when, from my proxillliLy to the en.rth, J heard a distant
· murmuring sound of an extraonli11ary nature. I drank, however,
and as I rose on my feet;, looked toward the south-w est, where I
observed a yellowish oval ::;pot, the appearance of which vvas quite
new to me. Little time wn,s Jc[t me for consideration, as tl 1e i1 ext
moment a smart breeze began to ag iLate Lhc taller t.rees. It increased to an unexpected h eight, and already the smaller branches
and twigs were seen falling in a slanting direction towards the
ground. Two minutes had scarcely elapse d, when the whole forest
before me was i11 fearfnl moti.011. Here and there, where 011e
tree pressed again st another, a creaki11g noise was produced, si milar to that occasioned by the violent g usts whicl1 sometimes sweep
over the country. Tu ming i11 sti11ctively toward the direction
from which the wind blew, 1 saw, to my great astonishment, that
the 1wLlest trees of tltc\ l"orcst l>c11L Lltcir lo[l;y l1c:uls fo r a while,
and, m1able to stand agai ust the blast, were falling into pieces.
First, the branches were broken off 'ivith a crac kling noise ; then
went the upper part of the massy trunks; a11d in many places
whole trees of gigantic size were falling eJJtire to the ground . So
rapill was the progress of: the storm, that l1cforc I could think of

taking measures to iusure.. my safety, the hurricane was passing
opposite the place \vhere I stood. Never can I forget the scene
which at that moment presented itself. The tops of the trees
were seen moving in the strangest manner, in the central current
of the tempest, which carried along with it a mingled mass of
twigs a11Cl foliage, that completely obscured the view. Some
of tl1c brgest trees were seen Lending and writhing under the
gale; otliers suddenly snapped across; and mauy, after a momentary resistance, fell uproote<l to the earth. The mass of branches,
twigs, foliage, and dust Lhat moved through the air, was whirled
onwards like a cloud of feathers, and on passing, disclosed a wide
space filled with fallen trees, naked stumps, and heaps of shapeless
ruin s, wl1ich marked the path of the tempest. This space was
about a fomth of a mile in breadt.h, and to my imagination resembled the dried-up bed of the Mississippi, with its thousands
of planters and sawyers, strewed in the saud, and inclined in
various degrees. The horrible •noise rese mbled tliat of the great
cabrncts of Niagara, aud as it howled along in the track of the
desol:Lti11 g tempest, produced a feeling i11 my rniu<l which it is
impossiul e to descriue.
The principal force of the hurricaue was now · over, although
millions of twigs and small branches, that had ueen brought from
a great distance, were seen following the blast, as if drawn onwards
by so111c 111ysteri ous power. They even floated in the air for some
hours aft.er, as if supported by the thick mass of dust that rose
high a.Love the ground. The sky had now a greenish lurid hue,
and an extremely sulphureous odor was diffused in the 'atmosphere. I waited iu amazement, having sustained no material
injury, uutil mtl;ure at length resullled her wonted aspect. For
some moments, l felt undetermined whether I should return to
l\forgautown, or attempt to force my way through the wrecks of
the tempes t. My business, however, Leing of an urgent nature, I
ventured i11to the path of tl1e storm, and after encountering in11u111cr:Ll1lc difliculLies, succeeded in crossing it. l was oLlige<l to
lead my horse by the bridle, to enable him to leap over the fallen
trees, wl1ilst I scrambled over or under them in the best way I
could, at times so hemm ed in by the broken tops and tangled
branches, as almost to beco 111e desperate. Ou arriving at my
house, I gave an account of what l 11ad see1f, when, to my sur-

254

- ----256

Composih'on-Zlheloric.

prise, I was told that there had been very little wind in the neighborhood, although in the streets and gardens many branches and
twigs had fallen in a manner which exci ted great surprise.
J\Iany wondrous accounts of t li e devastating effect of this hurricane were circulated i n t he country, after its occurre nce. Some
log houses, we were told, hnd been overtu rn ed and t heir inmates
destroyed. Oue person inforrned rn e that a wire sifter had been
conveyed by the gust to a <1istance oI many miles. Another had
found a cow lodged in tl1e fo rk of a half-broken t ree. Dut, as I
am disposed to relate on ly wh at; T l1 ave myself see n, T w ill not; lead
~O ll into I.li e rng io11 or l'<llll:lll C(~, 1,11[, sl1 :tl l COllL<~nL rn y11eH wil.h say111g that much damage \\·as don e by this awful visitation. T he
valley is yet a desolate p lace, overgrown with briars a nd bushes,
thickly entangled amitls t th e tops arnl trunks of the fal len trees,
antl is the resort of ravenous a nim als, to which thev be take them selves when pursued Ly man, or after t hey h ave c~mmitted their
depredation s on tho farrns of Lhe surrounding district.. I h ave
crossed t he path of th e storm, at a distan ce of a hundred miles
from the spot wh ere I wit nessed its fory, and, agaiu, fo nr lrnndrcd
miles farther ofE in t h e StaLe o[ Ohio. Lastly, I observed traces
of its ravageR on the summits of the mountains connectetl with the
Great Pine Forest of Pennsylvanin, three hundred miles beyond
the place last m ention ell. T11 all these different parts, it appeared
to me not to have exceedcu a quarter of a mile 111 breadth. AununoN.
EXERCISE 109.

Make a li st of t he points you would mention if ask:eu to write
on one of tl1 e following topics. In what order would you t reat of
the po in ts iu your list?

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

A pnlllic build ing in your town.
An h istorical incident.
A scene on the phygl'Ound.
The most renrnrlrnble person you ever met.
An int.eresting picture.
A personal :Hl ventme.
The pictme of a battle.

In What Order to Say It.

257

8. The coming of the storm.
9. A shower during a picnic.
10. A race - waiting for the signal.

EXERCISE 110.

Write an essay on one of the outlines matle m the last
exercise.
LESSON

a~.

Sentence-Order for Clearness and Ernphasis.
In the English sentence, the proper placing of words is
all-important. Carelessness in this respect is almost sure
to result in ambiguity, for (excepting in the case of pronouns and nouns in the possessive) there is nothing in the
form of English l·VOrds to indicate their office. vVe rely
almost entirely upon the position of a word, phrase, or
clause in th e sentence for determining to what element it is
to be joined. The rul e for arranging words, phrases, and
cl:::w ses is to place them so that they cannot fail to refer
to the one element which they modify.
In the following selection (fourth sentence) the words
"a,t first" were introducetl a,t one of the points indicated
by the caret (,,.J. If these words were introduced at the
first caret, the mea,ning woultl be clearly that after a time
she continued to feetl them, but at irregular intervals.
Sentences [) to 9 show, however, that this is probably
not th e meaning intentletl by the writer. If the words
" at Jirst" were introtluced at the third caret, the meaning
would be clear, that she continued to feed th em regularly
and did not seem tLt fir st to notice the fact that they were
ca.ptives. Sentences [) to 9 show that this is probably
the meaning intended by the writer. But the writeT placed
the words "at fi rst" at the second caret, and the meaning

-

-258

00111,position-lllwtoric.

In What Order to Say It.

was cou::;equently not clcn,r. One coulcl not tell at a, glance
wlwtli cl' the Wl'itcr 11w:mL "regularly at Jirst" or "at iirst
not seeming to notice." ·whe11 a sentence-element is thus
faultily placeu, it is said to squint. 'rlie squinting construction should be avoided_.

He felt that he had gained nothing in yielding himself to his
great sorrow without; a sLrnggle. Ile 11ow looketl back /\ upon
t hose years which he had spent in aimless wandering /\' \York,
- he now saw plainly, -steady, unremitting work, is the only
effective -remedy for sorrow.

1. A Lout a. week ago, we capture<l a nest of you11g orioles.
2. 'Ve put them in a cage and hu11 g them in a tree, intending
to release them after stullyi11g their develop111e11t a few clays.
:J. Tl1eir llloLIH:r was ~-me11 :d1011L, ealli11g Ll1e111, a111l a[L!!r a liL Lle
while, s he brought them some worms. 4. /\ She continued regularly to fe.ed them /\ not sce111i11g /\ to not.i ce tlie fact that they
were captives . 6. But Sn11Jay there came a, tragedy. G. She
brought them a sprig of green and J isappeare<l, not return i11g any
mor~. 7. In less than an l1our after picki ng at the sprig, the
captives were dead. 8. \Ve found it tu be the deadly larkspur, a
weed that will kill full-growu cattle. 9. Evidently the mother
had sternly resolved that li er offspring should die uy her own act
rather Lhan live in captivity. 10. Tl1e tlieory /\ Ll1aL som e of the
fe~thered triue will murder their captive young/\ is 11ow accepted/\
with confidence /\.

H,dn,te1l worcls, phra,ses, a.nd clauses should be brought as
close as possible to the elements which they modify. 'l'he
expressions most likely to be misplaced are only 1 (which
is 1e:tsf; :u111>ig11ons wl1 en it sta1Hls inunc<liately before the
expression it mouities); not only- but also (the two parts
of whieh should staml before the same parts of speech);
1;mleecl, never, even, cdways; the prepositions to, for, of, by
(which arc often left stramleu at the enu of a sentence,
separated te0 far from the worus to which they belong) ;
nt least, at ctn!} rctte, at all events, in truth, to be snre, in fact.
Constant watchfnlness is needed in placing these expressions.
'l'he Jollowi11g sentences show the correct nse of some of
the expressions just uameu. 'l'he carets show the points in
the sentence at which the italicized expression is liable to
be inserted by a ca.reless writer.

0

•

In the tenth sentence the writer inserted at the second
caret the words "long h clu by observers of birds." Iu that
position it was nut clear ·wltctlicr U1e wonl "held" refe rs
to ''.young" or to "theory." 1f "helu" refers to "theory"
(as ls probable), the words "long held by observers of birds"
shoulU be insel'ted at the first caret. In the same sentence
the writer adueu at the last caret the words "in the scientific world.~' DouLtless tl1e ·writer meant, not "with confalenco in tho scientific worltl," Lnt "accepted in the scientit.ic 1-:orld .with confi!lenr.c," ur better still "accepted_ by
sc1c11J;isb; wrth cu1dide111:n."
In the following the writer used the worus "with recr~·et"
0
at the second caret iu the secollll sentence. 11'rom the context it seems probaLle tl1a.t "looked brick with regret" ls
the meaning inteudeJ, nut "wandering with r egret."

259

The condition of the poor is only ameliorated /\ by the philanthropy of the ri ch (i.e. 110 lastin g reform is brought about). •
The co11ditio1t of the poor is /\ ameliorated only by the philanthropy of the rich (i.e. there is no other ameliorating agency).
Sir \Valter Scott's works were /\ exceedingly popular not only
with his countrymen, but also with the educated classes in every
other civilized country.
They /\ intend /\ to pass not only another high tariff bill, but also
a reciprocity hill.
H e /\ ought at least to /\ apologize /\ for his conduct.
llc waR now co111pcllcd to defe r t.o lllCll Jin· whose opinions he
had never entertained much respect /\·
1 For a discussion of this troublesome adverb the teacher may consult
Modern Language Notes for November, 1895: "The Misplacement of
Only.''

261

Composition-Rhetoric.

In Wliat Order to Sa,y It.

When the sentence is long a1Hl the clm1scs arc nnmerous,
great skill is needed in pbci11 g L]1 e parts so t h:.it the meaning shall be clear at once. The fo llowing sentence secures
1
clearness at the close by placing the predicate, " w:is t o be
decicleLl ," before the suLj ect, "the question." If the predicate were placed in its u snal position (i1Hli catctl by the caret),
there would be too wide a separation from its subj ect.

as a sort of tempor::iry subj ect, with two purposes in view,
(1) to bring "seems to put the matter beyond dispute " in
an un emphatic position, and (2) to defer the emphasis until
the word "is" has been passed. 'rliese illustrations show
that the subj ect gains emphasis by being changed to a position at or near t h e end of t he sentence. 'fhe converse of
this statement is true of the predicate, but, in prose, the
predicate cannot usually stand first as it does in the poetical
lin e, "Now ,tiu lP.s the glirn111el'i11g ];\,ll(lsc:i,pc on the sight."
111 the following the preuicate "is not and cannot be" is
brought emphatically before the subj ect by means of the
introductory word "there."

260

In primeval times the plain of L:iJ.i11rn mu st have liee n t.110 scc nfl
of Lite gTa1Hk;L co 1ifli ef.H o[ 11al.11rn ; u 11 l.lie 0110 Hid e, Ll1 e Hlll\vl y formative agency of water was llepos.i ti11 g, and ou the other side the
eruptive fo rce of mighty Yolcanoes was upli eaving the successive
strata of that soil >vhe reon was tu be decided t he question to what
people sh ould l>elollg Lhe sornrcig11ty or tl1e world /\'

The English sentence elianges the natnral order of its elements when one of t lt ese is to be nutde especially emphatic.
Compare the follo\viug : I.
1. Knowledge is the indispen-

sable condition of expa11 sion of
mind, and the instrument o:E
attainin g to it. 2. A 11 a1orow
mind is thought to lie that wl1ich
contains liLLle lrnowkdge; a11d
an e nlarged Ill in il, tli at which
holds a great deal ; allll t he f<tct
of the great number of s~ mlies
which arc pursued in a U niversity, by its very profession, seems
Lo pnL Lhe 111 a t.l.er lH'yo111 l di spute.

II.
1. The indi spensable condit ion of expansion of mind, aud
the instrnmeut of attaiuill g to
it, iR k11owledge. 2. A narrow
llli1Hl iRtl1ougl1t to be t hat whi ch
co 11L:~i11H little kn owled ge; and
a n eulargcd mind, t hat which
l1 olds a g reat deal ; and what
see ms to put the m atter beyond
cli l' pute is the fact of the great
1111ml>er o:E st udi eR which are
p11r R 11c ~ <l in a. lJ ni ve rs il.y, by iLR
very professio11.

The change of the word " lmowleuge" from the beginning
t o the end of tlt e first sentence nrnkes it 1nore emphatic. In
the second sentence, fir st column , "seems to put the matter
beyond d ispute " occupies t he place of emphas is, at the encl.
N oticc that the wonl " w l1:Lt" is 11sctl , in the sccoml column,

The gentleman speaks fluently of a community of interests between the two sections. There is not and cann ot be a community
or interests so long as the union is part slave and part free .

Emphasis is gained for a modifying word by placing. it
after the word it modifies. Such a ch ange may also avoid
awkwardness of expression, as in the first sentence below.
I.
l. Ile Rpeaks on too deep topics
to Le read ily understood by the
co111111on people .
2. No govern ment can carry
on a war without strongly f eeling
the in1pulse to aggrandize its
ow n powers and to put its oppo1ients a nd its critics down with
a strong 11 a11(1.
3. The fram ers o:E the constitntion had to giYc to the
governm ent a permanent and

1. He speaks on topics too deep
to be readily understood ny the
COllltnOU people.
2. No governm ent can carry
on a war without feeling strongly
the impulse to aggrandize its
own powers and to put its opponents a nd its critics down with
a strong h a nd .
3. The framers of the constitution had to give to the govern ment a form permanent and

conservative form.

conservative .

II.

4. I cannot express the regre t
4. I cannot express the regret
and sorrow with which I con- . and sorrow with which I contemplate the heavy loss l lrnve
t emplate the heavy loss I have

262

In ·w hat Order to Say It.

Composition-Bhetoric.

sustn.i11 ed. Bcdicve me, n of.l1i11 g
cxcc pL a lost hatll e is so Lurr ihl e
n.s a w on lmttle. Tl1 e glory a ri sin g from s uch act io11 s is 110 eon solation to rn e, a rnl 1 cann ot
suggest t h at it h as any consoln.t ion t o you.

s11 staincL1. Beli eve m e, 11 othi11 g
(~xccpf. a hall le lost i>i so Lc rrilil c
aR a ballle won . The g lory a ri sinn·
front :m elt aeLion s is 110 eo11t>
solation to me, alHl 1 c::tnn ot
suggest tlrnt it h as a uy co nsolation to yo n. - \VELLIN «TON :
Lett er w rill en
!Vat erloo.

on th e Eve

r!f'

TJ1n follo wi11 g :-w 11L(~ l1< '. t' :S ill11s LraLo lio w ( ~ 1111d1as i s is g: t.i1 wd,
by cha nge of pos i.Lio n, f u r phr:1.scs

a11tl 1·.l :i.1ts (' S : -

l.

IJ.

1. Though h e was an inveterate sm ok er l1 im self, h e wouhl
preach to his co ug rcgatio11 on
the evil s of sm okin g.
2. Ji l1i s ac Ls <li<l 11 0 1, ldi e l1i R
wonl s, li e ·wo uld exert gre: iLcr
iufluen ce.
a. \Vlten t he t i me fo r act.ion
has co me, t he peol'le always r ise
t o the occasio11.
4. \ Vh erever you put hi111 , he
pro veR lti111 sel [ co 111pete11 L.
G. l'rovi ded yo u li aYe plenty
of good ideas, it is not very
hard Lo wri f.c.
G. The h a ml of d eaLh was
u p on liim; h e kn e w it ; a ud t h e
only wish wl1ich h e ul;tercd was
th a t swonl in han1l he mi g h t di e.
7. IL is a lwn.yH dillir '. 1ill, f.o
scparnLe Lh c .li Le rnry el1 a rndcr
of a man wh o lives in our ow n
time fr om his perso nal cha racter. It is pec11liarl y difficn lt
i n the case 1?f Lorri. Byron to
m ake tl1is separntio n.

1. Ile would preach to his
congregation on th e evils of
smoking, t lw ugh lte was a n inveterate smoker ltimselL
~ - J k wo 1ilrl < ~X('. l' L g-rna.Lcr
i11f111c11cc, if liis ads did 11 01;
b eli e It.is wo rcls.
H. The p eople al ways rise to
t he occasion, wh en t he ti 1ne for
action h as co me.
4. 1-I e proves himself compet ent, wl1 ercv er yo n put hi111.
G. lt is 1J ot very h ard to wri te,
provided yo u liave p leuty of
good i<leas.
G. Tl1 e l1 a nd of Llea.t h w as
npon him ; h e kn ew it; a nd t he
only wish whi ch he ut tered was
t hat he mi gh t die sword in hand .
7. If. is alway>i dini c11lf; to
Hcp;u a Ln Lli e liLera ry cl1 :trncLe r
of a m an who lives in our own
tim e from his person al charac l;er. It is p eculi arly difficult
to rn ak e t his separati on in the
case of L ord B y ron.

263

Arrange the parts of sentences so that the bearing of one part on
another will be clearly understood. To emphasize any part, put it
out of its usual position.
E XERCISE 111.

Insert the bracketed expression so as to bring out the
meaning intenclecl. Try it in different places, and note the
J.ifferent meanings that result.
l. Iii Lliis g raLc, all Lhc h eat goes up Lhc c!tirnney iu stead oI
co min g i11 Lo tl1 c room [as us ual].
~- J t requires a g reat d eal oJ readin g, or a wide range of informatio n, to warrant u s in putting fo r th our opinions on any serious
subj ect; and, without such learning, the i:nost orig in al mind may
be able t o d azzle, t o amuse, to refute, to perplex, but not to come
to a11y useful result or a ny trustworthy conclusion [indeed].
There are persons who profess a different view of the m atte r,
a11d eve n a.cl; on it [indeed].
a. One would be inclined to think that the picture is without
a ny 1nealling ; but the foll meaning gra<lnally comes to the beh older [after repeated inspections].
4. The speech of Lor d Strafford, upon his t r ial, is one of the
mos t simple, touching, a nd nob le in our language [in my opinion].

E XERCISE 112.

At which of the points indicated by carets should the
brn,nknteJ. clauses be inserted.? vVhat is the r elative gain
in each case ?
1. Our ancestors came from England with the app etite for news
already developed. Af ter perm a nent settlements had bee n made,
anil th ny W<'rn n'a.d y hi 011joy Ho1110 of. tl1 0 eo1nforl.s of. li fo, th o
desire /\ increased /\ [ th a.t t hey might know wha t their n eighbors
were doing, an d wh a t was goin g on in the Old World].
2. All news items, except t hose of a strictly personal character,
were set down by t he p ostmaster, and were repeat ed by him t o the
people . Often /\ h e would ma ke written circulars containing the

Oomposition-llhetoric.

Iri 1-Vhat Order to Say It.

news, and /\ would vend· them to callers at the postoffice /\ [in
order to :-;ave i,imo, ancl, pNl1:q1~;, to rn:drn a trifle of rnonoy].
U. TJ1e postmaster aL BoKLun l1ad so 111any of these llCW S circulars to write tl1at he d ete rmined to print tli em. This was in 1704,
when Boston had a population of 8000. But /\ he /\ had /\ to get
permission from the colo11ia.l legislature /\• for that body had
already asserted its determination to regulate printed publications [before h e dared to carry his plan into effect].
4. /\Ju tl1e midst of 11rncl1 curiosity and enthusiasm,/\ the first
iRsuc o[ Tiu: !lost on JV r: 11 1.~- !~ 1' ff1T rnad!) i LR appearance, April 211,
170'1, /\ with J'ust masler Ca111pbcll as cllitor /\ [a[ter tl10 legislature had dnly g rnntecl the necessary permission].
5. The first sheet was t aken damp from tlie press, by Cl1ief
,Justice Sewell /\ as a wonderful curiosity /\ [in order that he
might show it to President Willard of Harvard College].
6. The ]-,Tews-Letter /\ co11ti1med publication through seventytwo years /\ [a complete file of which is in possession of the New
York Histo ri cal Association J.
7. /\ It was priuted, So lllelimes 011 a single sheet of foolscap,
and /\ often on a half-sh eet, two columns on each side /\ [Lecause
paper Vias very expensiye].

clislikings? 6. Anyhow, if my accuser is able thus to practise
11 pon my readers, the more I succeed, the less will be my success.
7. lf I am 11atural, he will tell them "Ars est celare artem "; if I
am convinciug, he ·w ill suggest that I am an able logician ; if I
show warmth, lam acting the indignant innocent; if I am calm,
I am thereby detected as a smooth hypocrite; if I clear up difficulties, I am too plausible and perfect to be true. 8. The more
triumphant are my statements, the more certain will be my defeat.
!J. So will it be if my accuser succeeds in his maumuvre; but I
do no!; for a.11 instant; believe that he will. 10. \Vhatever judgment my readers may eventually form of me from these pages, I
am confitle11t that they will believe me in what l shall say in the
course of them. 11. I have ·110 misgiving at all that they will be
ungenerous or harsh towards a man who has been so long before
the eyes of the world; who has so many ta_speak of him from
personal knowledge; whose natural impulse it has ever been to
speak out; who has ever spoken too much rather than too little;
who would have saved himself many a scrape, if he had been wise
enough to hold his tongue; who has ever been fair to the doctrines
and arguments of his opponents; who has never slurred over facts
and reasonings which told against himself; who has never given
his name or authority to proofs which he thought unsound, or to
testimony 'which he did not think at least plausible; who has never
shrunk from confessing a fault when he felt that he ha,? committed
one; who has ever consult.eel for others more than for himself;
who has given 11p much that he loved and prized and could have
retained, but that he loved honesty better than name, and truth
better than dear friends.

264

EXERCISE 113.

Reau the followi11g selection carefully, and perform the
work preseriLeJ. at Uw close: 1. The habitual prejudice, the humor of the moment, is the
turning-point which leads us to read a defence in a good sense or
a bad. 2. \Ve interpre t th e defence by our a11tecedent impressions. 3. The very same seutiments, accordiug as our jealousy is
or is not awake, or our aversion stimulated, are tokens of truth or
of dissi mulation aud prete nce . 4. There is a story of a sane
person being, by rnist;akn, slrnt 11p in the wards of a lnnatic asylulll, and that, wl1 e 1t lte ple:1,1led l1is cause to 801110 strangers visiLiug
the establishment, the only remark he elicited, in answer, was,
"How nat;urally he talks! yon would tliink he was in 11is senses."
5. Controversies should be dec ided by the reason; is it legit,imate
warfare to appeal to the misgivings of the public mind, and to its

1. Put the first eight words in a more emphatic position.
2. Re-write this sentence on the following ,Plan: "It is by
that we . . . " and explain the change in emphasis.
3. Bring the first four words close to the predicate. What readjustment of emphasis results?
4. "Thero is a story of . . . and that . . . " - make these corresponding parts parallel in form. Put "by mistake" in a I~ore emphatic position. What is the emphasis of the when-clause?
5. Can you re-write the question-part of this sentence so as to
make "legitimate warfare " come at the end of the question ? How
is the emphasis thereby changed?

-

•
266

•

•

Composition-Rhetoric.

In TVhat Order to Say It.

6. Emphasize "thus" and "will be."
7. 'Yliat is the rclal.ive mupltn.siH o[ the H-clauses as co rnparecl
wit.It that of the principal clauses? Compare scutcnce 11, "who

not succeed so well in translating poetry of a more serious style.
[Make "however" less emphatic. Make "he does not succeed so
well" more emphatic.]

woulcl have savecl himseH," etc . E1111>h~1size "thereby."
8. Change so as to make "n.rc" and "will lJc" most prominent.
!J. Expbin the e111phas is of t,he fi rst four words; of Lite H-cl ause.
Make "for an instant" more emphatic.
10. Give" th ey will beli eve me" a more emphatic position.
11. Give "so long" a still more emph atic position. Change "personal knowlmlg-c" tn "knnwlr.clgc that is pr.n;o nal ," a11<l note the
ch:111gc u[ ei11ph:tf'is. Expl:t.in I.li e e1111ih:1sis u[ "who::m n:1t11ral impulse," etc . 'VJ1n,t docs "n.L lcn,st" modi Cy? 'Vhat degree of emphasis has" when he felt Ll1 at," cte.?
EXERCISE 114.

Three of the transla,tors of foreig n poetry, who belong to this
period, are very emin ent. [Dri11 g "three" close to its verb.]
Sir .Tohn J Iari11gt.011's Lr:1,11 fl laLion of t,J1 c Orl111ulo Furioso lin;t
appuarcil, in lG!Jl, wh e n I.lie :wLlt0r was in his thir(,ieLh year.
[Emphasize "first;."]
lt is a work of g reat inge nnit.y aud talent, though it does not
convev all the a-low and poetry of Ariosto. [.i\Iake the though·'
b
clause less elllpltatic.J
The translation of: Tasso's great epic, by lMvvard Fairfax, ·was
first published under the title of Godfrey of Bttlloigne, or the
Recouerie of J erusalem, in ] GOO. [Emphasize "umler the title,"
etc.]
This is a work of true genius, full of beautiful, rare, and effective passages. [Emphasize "beautifnl, rare, and effective."]
It is throughont executed wit h as nmch care as taste and spirit,
altl1ough by 110 rnea11s a perfecL ly cxn,ct or servile version 0£ the
Jtalian original. [En1phn.size the first half of the sentence. ]
Sir Richard Fa11sliawe is the author of versions of Camoens's
],1,1,s£flll, o f 1,11 0 O<lPR of lloracr, a 111l nf i,J1c Spa11iHl1 dnunaList
.i\iendoza's 'l'o Laue .fin· Loue's Sake. Some passages from the lastmentioned work, the ease and flowing gaiety of which have never
been excelled even in original writing, may be found in Lamb's
Specimeus. [!\fake "the ease -writing" emphatic.] However, his
genius was sprightly and elegant rather than lofty, and he does

267

EXERCISE 115.

In the following paragraphs, insert the bracketed expressions so as to secure clearness and force : 801ncLi 11tes 1.h o progreRs of rnau is so rapiJ that the desert reappears behind him. The woocls stoop to g ive him a passage, and
spring up again [when he has passed]. 1t is. not un common to
meet with deserted dwellings in the midst of the wilds [in cross- 1
ing the new states of the west]. The traveller frequently discovers the vestiges of a log-house, which bears witness to the power,
and 110 less to the inconsta11cy of man [in the most solitary retreats]. I1t these abandoned fields, and over those ruins o:E a <lay,
tlio pri111cvn.I forest soo11 scat;ters a fresh vegeLaLion; Llie beasts
resuuw Lhe l1auuts which were once their own; and nature covers
the traces of man's path [wi th branches and with flowers, which
obliterate his eva1;escent track].
I remember that in crossii1 g one of the woodland districts which
still cover the state o:E New York, I reached the shore of a lake,
which was embosorned with forests coeval with· the world. A
small island, wl\,Ose thick foliage concealed its banks, rose from
the centre of the waters [covered with woods]. No object attested
the presence of man [upon the shores of the lake J, except a column
of smoke which might be seen on the h orizon hanging from the
tops of the trees to the clouds, and seeming to hang from heaven
raU1er than to be mounting to the sky. An ludian shallop was·
h a nled up on the sand, which tempted me to visit the islet which
had at ftrst attracted my attention, and I set foot upon its ban ks
[in a fow minutes] . The whole islancl formed 0110 of those delicious so litnlles of the N cw ·world, which almost lead civilized man
to regret tlie haunts of the savage. A lux uriant vegetation bore
witness to the incomparable fruit:Eulness of the soil. The deep
silence, which is common to the wilds of North America, was only
broken by the hoarse cooing of the wood-pigeon and the tapping
of the woodpecker upon the bark of trees. I was far from sup-

II
268

1

Cornposition -Blietoric.

posing that this spot had ever been frihabited [so completely did
n ature seem to be left to h er own caprices]; but I thought that
T discovered some traces of m an [wltc n T r eached Lhe ce ntre 0£ t he
isle]. I then proceeded to exarni11e t he snrronndin g objects [with
care] , a1Hl I soo n pe rcc ivc<l t.hat a. E 111'opc:tn ha<l 1u11lonbtcd ly
been led to seek a refo ge [in thiR retreat] . Yet ·wh at cha 11 ges lt ad
taken place [in the Rcn 11 c of l1i s lahorn] I The logR w hi r.It he h n.d
hastil y hew n to b nild ltimse l[ a Rhed had spro uted afreRh ; t he
very props were intert,vined ·w ith li vin g ve rdure, and his en.bin was
transfnr11rnd i11l.o a h nwN. A fpw Rf,11111'8 W!'I'<~ Lo lie RP.l\ ll f i11 I.ho
midsL of Lltesc Hhru us], lilaeke11 cd wiLh fire a nd sprinkled wiLlt Llt in
ash es ; here the hearth !t ad 110 donbt been, and the chinrn ey had
covered it with rubbish [in fallin g]. I stood fo r some t ime in
silent admiration of t he exuberan ce of nature a nd t he littleness
of man; a nd wh en I was obli ged to leave that e nch antin g Ro li t ude,
I exclaimed with melancholy, "Are ruins, then, already h ere?"
EXERCl SE llG.

Re-write your b st essay, scrutini zing each sentence to
see that all words, phrases, and clauses are 'in the best order
for clearness. Read it aloucl to see whether the important
words in each sentence hold emphatic positions.

CHAPTER VI.
HOW MUCH TO SAY.

LESSON 33.

Scale of Treatment.

IF we should ha.ng upo n the wall, side by side, three maps
of the United Sta.tes, a very large map, another one-half
the s~ze of the first, and a very small one, we should notice
a rapid decrease in th e number of things appearing on the
maps. 'l'he largest map would find room for an accurate
outline of t he coasts ; all the bays would be shown; the
mountain ranges, both large and small, would appear; the
n:wi ga,blo ri vers n.s ·well as their lesser tributaries would Le
<li st;i 11 g11i slt :i.l >l o ; t ho milro:\,(ls, 8tn.to a11tl ove n count;y lin es
coulcl Le rnaue out; aucl all of the cities ancl towns of more
t han 5000 inhabitants would probably be marked on the
map and their names printed.
In the half-size map many of these details would, of necessity, be left out. The coast-line would show indentations
less deep, mur all of the indentations below a certain depth
would have disappeared. Only the large mountain ranges
ancl rive rs, and only a few of the through lines of railways,
would be shown. State lines would be distinguishable, but
county lines coul<l. not be seen, and only towns of perhaps
100,000 and more inhabitants would be marked on the map
and their names printed.
269

- - - -- -·-

_,::.-,_=,,.=-= - -~-=-

-.

·---··-·-··--·-·,.;. .,.,.--~

-.--_,....,,,.,..,_..--=---------- - - -

.......- - - ---:.::.....i.- -- -- -·-··-·-----..... -.........

271

Compos·i tion-Bhetoric.

1-Iow J.Wu cli to Say.

The smallest map would. find :room for only the few most
striking :t1Hl irnpol'btnL fo:tLn rcs, - the gn 11 ernl tli recl;ion of
the coast-outline, tl1e two hrgest 11101mtain rrtuges, the Mississippi and St. I.JawrcJl ec rive rs, and lJC d rnps the frve
largest cities. Prouably the re woukl not ue shown, in such
a small map, the state lines, the railways, or any of the
lesser uetails that appc:tr Oil the other maps.
It is evident that a good mn.p-rnaker procee<ls on a certain
system of selection ancl omission. 'J.'h e ve ry la rgest map
cannot show :tll of Llw Jeat.111·es of LJ JC co unl.ry i11 ueta.il.
So tl1 e rnn.p-makc r n,1ln pts n. cmt:i,in Rr•.aln of t.re:tl.111 c11t. lf
he dce id cs ll}>Ull :t sea.k o[ lil'Ly miles Lu t l1 n ineli , Lii e pl1 ysical features of the couatl'y will appear in brger proportions
than if h e ueciues on a sea.le of one hunchecl miles to the
inch. Moreover, a greater number of the ph ysical feat ures
will appear on the first scale than on the second.. In the
latter HHW.Y o[ t h o lc:-;sc r :f'cat;urcs wonlrl 1Jc so .rccluccu
in size, uy the se:tle a<loptcu, as to make it i mpossiule to
show them a.t all. In all his work on the s~wrn map the
maker applies the same scale.
Consiclerations very like those of the maker of a map
apply to goocl writing. Compare a school histol'y of the
UHiteu 8t:t1;cs wiLh :t large r ]1i stu ry of tl1 0 U nit;c<l St:t l;c ~.
The nmin topics trcaLeu arc lik ely to Lo the same in Loth,
but in the larger history the main topics are treated. with
greater folness ; sub-tupics whic h are dismissed with very
urief mention in t h e school history arc worked mtt iu detail
in the larger history, and a place is fou11u for many minor
t opics which a.re not even mentioned. in the sch ool history.
l1'o:r instance, both will have for one topic, the causes of the
ltcv olution, fl.ll(l \Jot. Ii wi ll :-d.:i.t.1 i !.li e 1·.au :-His; Int!; t.)10 sehool
history will stop there, whereas the larger history will
explain at g reat length the operation of each of the canses,
will show h ow one cause work.eel with greater force in some
colonies than in others or influenced. a certain class of the

people more than another class. The school history is not
likely to mention the fear of an established church as one
of the causes, since this was a suboruina.t e cause, but the
la.rgcr history will treat of this cause, and while making the
reader see that it wa.s a suuoruiuate cause, will show to
what extent and where it operated. These differences in
fulne ss of treatment arise because the two histories are
written on different scales. The same relationship among
t opics is p reserved in both, tho same discrimination of more
i1u portan t :tnd Jess i111 portaut topics is mml c in Loth, but
one is wri ttcn on n. brgc scale and. the other 011 a srn a.11 scale.
To i llu stratc :-;t;i ll furth er, notice the followiJJg pai'a.grnph
011 the suujcct,

270

vVasliington's Contribution to Nationality .
The first of the forces which may be regarded as havin g largely
contrihnted to tl ie lmilcli11g up of a nationality was tho personality
oI Geo rge W asl1 i11 gto n. Hu was to th e plastic oJomeuts of the
country, in t he outset to t hat great political experiment, more than
all other states men put togethe r. In securing comparative peace
betwee n the a ngry factions of that day; in h ole.lin g the nation, as
no otl1er man could have done, out of the giant struggle between
Franco and E ngland; in impressing r espec t for law, for public
credit, a.1111 for t he for111 s o[ tho now gove rn1u c11 t, nntl in silently,
but p owerful ly aml grandly, t eaching the lesson of devotion to
union , ho n ot only gave time for a fortunate trial of the Constitution, but h e contributed a positive force Fhich '>Ve can11ot overestimate towanl it.s orderly and energetic ope ration during the
first cri tical years.

This single paragraph of only one hundred. and forty
words treats the subject successfully on a. small scale. It
iR clr.ar, it mcJ1ti o11 s t lw iu1porL;rnt Jn.cli:4, arnl it; gives n. gootl
id.ea of their :relative importance. But jtthe scale of treatment is so small that there is no room for going into explanations ancl details. The paragraph might be analyzed.
thus: -

•
272

Composition-Bhetoric.

vVashington's Contributioit to Nationality
I. llis personality was preeminen t;,
A . 111 mouluing t he plastic elements of the country.
B. Over the other statesmen of the time.

II. His statesmanship encoura.geu t he spirit of nationality,
A. By securi11g peace between angry factions.
B. Dy adopting a foreig n policy of neutrality.
C. By impressing respect for law, public credit, and the
forn1R of Ll1n 1inw gover 111111)11t.

1J. .Uy teach iug

tl1c lesso n of <levotion to the Union.

Now if the subject of this paragraph were treated on a
la.rgcr scale, the very same fa,cts woultl be giveu, Hecessarily,
for they are the essenti::i1 :facts in the case; lmt more would
be given about each fact. \Ve should be tol<l, for instance,
uuder the first headi11g, what were the "plastic elements"
which \ i\T ashington was especially capable of moul<ling; the
doubt might arise of his preemillence over at least two of
the other statesmen of tho time, and their in:A.nenco over
other statesmen wonl<l J1ave to be cornpm·etl. with his.
Under the second heatliug, the "angry factions" would
be designated; sometl1i11g would doubtless be said of the
tronblcs in tJ 1c U:dJill nL, a11cl o[ tlin gwwth of an JC11glish
faction and a, French fadion amoug the people, and we
shoul<l. be shown how \ Va,shington dealt with these factions
so as to g ive the spi rit of 1Httio11alit_y a ckrncc to grow. In
connection with the policy of neutrality, the question would
doubtless be aske<l, what would have h:.tppened if vVashington had permitted this conntry to take part in the giant
struggle Letween ]£ugJaml a,n<l l i'r::tnce '?
A.11d h cl'c anoLltcr rnlaLetl Lop ie, for wltieh t ho siugleparagraph treatment of the su!Jject finds no place, would
be introduced and <liscusseu fully, - \ Vashington's management of the Jay Tre:.ity troubles a.nu his reasons for signing
it, <lefective as it was; his chief reasons being, to keep the

How Mucli to Say.

273

eountry out of w:tr, to discourage di visions among the
people, and to make them feel that this country had national
interests of its own.
vVe should be told, too, how Washington impressed the
people with respect for the forms of the new government,
what these forms were, what were their objects, and how
they tended to make the people feel the presence of a national government in which they could take a common pride.
J\{nelt wo ul<l be sa,id ou t ho topic, how ho impressed respect for law and public credit. His Indian policy would
be shown to have had a nationalizing influence, because it
wa,s canied out in defence of settlements in which no one
state hau any special interest. It made the people feel that
there was a national interest in defence of which all must
cooperate, and it turned their eyes to the great west as the
place for unbounded national development in the future.
Hamilton's measures, as sanctioned by ·washington, would
be treated as nationalizing measures establishing the credit
of the new government, giving it respect at home and abroarl.
'!'.he immense importance of the bill for assuming the debts
of the states, the superior position which this bill gave to
the new government over the state govemments, would be
dwelt on, nn<l tho NatiounJ J~ank measure, which introduced
the nationalizing do_c trine of implied powers, thereby greatly
increasing the functions of the governmt nt, would be given
the inq,wrtaut treatment it deserves.'
The ·whiskey Hebellion would probably be selected as
the best illustration of the fact that ·w ashington, when
necess::iry, did not hesitate to force obedience to the laws of
the new government an<l to compel law-bren.kers to respect
bw, thereby demonstrating the govermnent's power and
rnaki1l.g all the people feel the presence of an effective
central government. In conclusion it would be shown that
in ·all° his acts he t aught, by the force of his conspicuous
example, devotion to the Union.

274

Oomposition-lUwtoric.

Th e first outli110, filled i11 fo1· 111orn tltow11 gh treatment of
tho s 1dJjoct 011 :.t hrgur seale, would Uien reatl a\Jout as
follows: -

\VaRl1ington's Co11 Lrib11Lion Lo Nationality.
l. Ilis person ality was preemin ent,

A· In moulding U1e plasti c clem ents of f;Ji e country, which wer e,
1. The survivors of his army, who were
a. J\ l;t.rwl1r.1l tn Iii 111 hy tinrH<mal tirn;, a1ul
b. lnJluential in th eir respective localities.
2. Th e co mmercial an<l creditor classes, who
a. B eli eved in him m; a safe man, and
b. Brought to his a.id the power of money.
B. Over the other staLes111en of the time.
1. Over Hamilton, the Secretary of the Treasury,
a. \.Vhose influence was limi ted somewhat by the
.fc:tr L11at Jin was a "mona.rch ist." ·
b. IVl1 osc <1isag rcc11 1e11ts with J efferson lost him influence with large numbers.
2. Over ,Jefferson, the Secretary of State,
a. \ Vhose qua rrel with Hamilton showed both of
them to lie prtrt.y m en, whil e IV ashi11gton still
k ept himself auove party arnl faction.

II. Hi s statesman ship e11couragcd the spirit of nationality.
A· Dy keeping c0111parati ve p eace between the angry political factions of the day.
1. B etween warring elements in his Cabinet.

a. lfami lton a11<1 ,Tcffcrson.
2. B etween t he En glis h party and the I<'rcnch party.

a. Th e story of Genet.
B. By his foreign policy of ne utrality.
1. K eepin g th e 11 atirrn out, of the struggle between Englrtml :u 1tl France.
a . I>robrtble effects upon nationality if the United
St[ttcs had entered the struggle.
( 1) Wm· with England or France, or both.
(2) P ermanent divisions at home.
(3) Failure of the R epublic.

How Much to Say.

275

2. Favoring the adoption of Jay's Treaty.
a. In spite of its defects.
(1) On the subj ect of right of search.
(a) The facts in the case.
(2) ( )11 the snbj cct of impressment.
( a) The facts in the case.
b. In spite of the subsequent En glish "provisional
order," r endering its ratification alm ost impossible.
( 1) What the "provisional order" was.
(2) Randolph's guilt.
(3) Fauchet's intrigue.
c. In spite of its immense unpopularity.

C . In impressing the people in his domestic policy with respect for the government of the United States.
1. R espect for the form s ·of the new government.

a. F orms to uphold its dignity .
(1) om ein.l etiquette .
(2) Treatment of foreign ambassadors.
b. J<'orms to' secu~·e time for the consideration and
transaction of public business deliberately.
(1) Communication with the Senate and
House in writing.
(2) Sensible r eserve of the President.
2 . Hespect for public credit and for law.
a. Vigorous Indian policy on behalf of outlying settlements as a scarc.~ly recognized part of the nation.
b. Support of Ilm:nilton's financial measures as nationalizing measures.
(1) To pay the foreign debt.
(2) To pay the domestic debt.
(3) To assume the state debts.
(4) To establish a National Bank.
(a) Carrying with it the President's
Ra11ction of the nationalizing
doctrine of implied powers.
c. He put down the \.Vhiskey R ebellion, thereby
demonstrating the power of the new government to enforce the laws, and, if necessary, to
compel respect for law.

D. In devotion to the Union.

Oonip osition-Rhetoric.

How Much to Say.

Treated on this la,rger scnJe, the subject would demand
a dozen or fifteen pan1graphs an<l perhaps at least eighteen
hundred words, instead of the single paragraph of one
hundred and forty wor1ls. But the reader woukl see,
no matter how extensive the scale of tre<1,tment, that the
principal topics are the same in the larger as in the smaller
treatment.
·w hat scale of treatment to auopt rlepen<ls (1) on th e snb-

told in a hundred words or in a thousand words ; in both
cases the two or three principal points are the same. A
description of any object or scene may be written at greater
or less length, but (the purpose remaining the same) the
main features mentioned will be the same. So with essays
and arguments.

276

:i< '- d

its< '.l r, (2)

Oil

t lH \

1<11!1\Vlr'.dgr'. JHI SS(\SS!'. d. 11y

Llin

pr \l'S(IJ IS

for whose \Jenefit the writing is dune, (0) ou the purpose of
the writer. Some snbj cds will not admit of ::tn cxtcmled
scale of treatment; they are so small in th emselves that
but litt;le can be saitl on tlH~ lll without nee<llnss rep etitious.
The persons addrnssed may have a superficial knowledge or
a thorough knowledge of the subject. If the former, there
is opportunity for a larger scale of trea,tment; if the Intter,
muelt may be takcu fm gnmtetl, and cxpb1rntiou anu details
omitted. The single-parn,graph treatment given to the subject analyzed above, was a,<lllressed to those who were supposetl to know quite t hornughly the facts antl cletails of
vVashiugton's administration; the writer was addressing
people well-inforrned in l1i stol'y ; so h e necclc<l onl y to recall
the main facts a,1Hl to bri 11 g out :1 certain meaning w liich he
thought those facts possesseu, -to treat \iV ashington's policy
in relation to the idea of nationality. ·with a different
audience in mind he wonld doubtless have written ·w ith
greater fuln ess. His pnrposc wa,s accomplish e<l by the
mere statement of his theory n.s to the meaning an<l intent
of \Vashington's policy. H e relied npoll the r easo11:1bleness
of hi.s theory to ensure its accepta.uce. If his pmpose had
been to convince those who helr1 strenuously to another
theory, a greater show of reasons would have been demanded
of him.
The writer is compelleu to consider scale of treatment, no
matter what he is writiHg about. An adventure may be

277

The length of a paragraph or an essay depends upon the scale of
treatment adopted; the scale of treatment, upon the subject itself,
the · knowledge possessed by persons addressed, and the purpose of
the writer. In the same production, the same scale of treatment
should be preserved tlll'oughout.
EXERCISE 117.

·w1iat scale of treatment is suggested by each of the following subjects, considering only the character of each subject? How deep would it pay to go in writing on each?
·what topics wou.l d you mention under each? About what
length wonld the .writing attain in each case?
1. How a field of corn appears in July. 2. The Mexican
vVar. 3. A street fight. 4. Why women are entitled to
vote on sel10ol mattern. j). "Causes of floods. G. The difficulties of school life. 7. Superstitions about picking up
pms. 8. The Chicago Fire. 9. The advantages of Feudalism. 10. A runaway horse.
EXERCISE 118.

Taking as a criterion your own knowledge of each of the
following subjects, what scale of treatment would you adopt
if asked to write on each of them ? vVhat topics would you
mention under each ?
1. The cause of eclipses. 2. Reforms advocateu in recent
years. 3. How a president is elected. 4. Tree-planting.
5. Christian Endeavor Societies .and their purposes. 6. The

278

Coniposition-lllietoric.

IIow Much to Say.

antislavery movement. 7. fl;vih; of strikes. 8. Athletics
for girls. 9. Advantages of uicycle rilling. 10. The early
history of this State. 11. 'fhe future of the horse.
12. Popular songs.

There is absolutely nothing extreme or uniq ne about the world
we live on . It lms more l1 eat from the sun than some planets and
less than others. It h as an atmosphere, and seve ral of them have
atmosphe res. ]t is in te rni ediate in size. U ence there does not
seem to be anythi ng to ,;how that tl 1e earth is except.ional and more
fitted for the abode of life Lhan other planets.
This is an olcl argu 111 ent, and in general a good one, but nowadays there are several others to s11pport the opinion that forms of
life should exist, on other plan ets. For instance, astronomers have
fou11d out that tlie clen1 c ntary bodi es in the earth are substanLially
the same as the clen1ent:i.ry lJoflics in the sun, a ntl a lso that the
materials from which s uch pla11ds as VcJ1us and l\fars l1 ave been
built arc act.11ally the sa111e ki11d o[ rnatcrials as those Lhat make
up the earth. Ily<lrogc11, carbon, sodiu111, irnn, in fact practically
all the componeiit;s necessary for physicitl liie, exist as abundantly
upon some of t he other planets as 11pon the earth. One weak link
in the chain is the apparen t; lack o[ oxyge n in the other planets,
but this is merely a lack of our ability to prove the presence of
oxygen.

a long in a line; I first;, aml the other men after me; trying to keep
my track, but fi11ding legs and streugth not up to it. Most of all,
John Fry was groaning; certain that his time was come, and sending messages to his wife, and blessiugs to his children. For all
this time it was snowi11g ha rder than it ever had s11owec1 before,
so far as a man might guess at it; a11cl the leaden depth of the
sky came down, like a min e turned upside down on us. Not that
the flakes were so very large ; for I have seen much larger flakes
in a shower of J\faroh, whil e sow.i ng peas; but t hat there was 110
ruunt lJcL wccn Lhc111, nc iLl1 c r a.11y rnbxiug, 11or any change o[ direction.
' 'Vatch, like a good and faithful dog, followed us very cheerfully,
leaping out of the depth, which took him over his back and ears
already, even iu the level places; while in the drifts he might have
sunk to any distance out of sight, and uever found his way up
agaiu . However, we helped him now and then, especially through
the gaps and gateways; and so, afLer a deal of floundering~, some
laughter, and a little s-.veariug, we ca.me all safe to the lo"·er
meadow, where most of our flock was huddled.
But behold, there was no flock at all! None, I mean, to be seen
anywlierc; only at one corner of the field, by the eastern end,
where the snow drove in, a great white billow, as high as a barn
and as broad as a house. This great drift was rolling and curling
beiieatl1 th~ viol ent blast;, tu(ting and combing with rustling swirls,
and carvetl(as in paUern s of co r11i ce) where the grooving chisel of
the wiud swep t; ro1111d. Ever and again the tempest snatched little whiffs from the chanHelled edges, twirled them round, and made
them dauce over th e cl1ine of the monster pile, then let t hem lie
like herri11g-uones, or the seams of sand where the tide has bee11.
And all the while from the s mothering sky, more and more fiercely
at every blast, came the pelting, pitiless arrows, winged with
murky white and pointed with the barbs of frost.

It must liave snowed most wonderfully to have made that depth
of covering in about eig ht l1onrs. For one of 1\faster Stickles's
m en, who had bce u out a ll t he ni ght, sn.id that 110 snow began to
fall until nearly midnight. And here it was, blocki11g up the doors,
stopping the ways ai 1J the watercourses, and making it very much
worse to walk tha11 in a saw-pit 11cwly used. However, we trudged

The actual practice of fraud, even when yon discover it, must
give you interesting <prnstioll, unless you are cock-sure of your sociology. I was once met by a little girl 011 a cross-street in a respectable quarter of the town, who burst into tears at sight of me, and
asked for money to buy her sick mother bread. The very next
day l was passing through the same street, and I saw the same

EXERCJSE 11!).

Account for tho scal0 of tre:itmeut adopted in the following, by the writer'R ovid01il; purpose. Is the trnatrnent sufJici n11 LI y 1'1ii1 i 11 vi n w of' y 0111· p rm;c 11 [; k 11ow !nil g1\ '? Mark
any points tlmt you would wish to see treated with greater
fnln ess of explaua,tion anu uetail.

279

280

Composition-llhetoric.

Ji ttle g irl burst into t ears at sight of a benevolent-looking lady,
whom uudonbtedly sh e ask ed for mon ey for the sallle good object.
The b e11cvole nt-lookin g lad y gave li er 110Lhi11 g, a n<l sh e trie<l h er
woes upo n several oth e r people, 11 011e of "\Vh om gave h er a nythiug.
I was forced to <loubt whether, upon tlie wh ole, h er game was
worth the candle, o r whether sl1e was r eally making a provision
for li er <lccli11i11g year s by t hi s 111 eai 1s. T o be s m e, h er time "\Vas
not worth muc h, a n<l sh e co uld hardly liave go t; any oLher work,
she was so yo ull g; but it see med li a rdl y a payi ng indu str y. B y
any carnf11l calc11la.Li o11, l do no t. licli evc sl1e woul<l l1 avc h ce n fo1111d
to h ave amassed more than le11 or ftftcc11 ce u ts a day; all(l perl1aps
sl1 c really lt:-Hl a s ick m o t.he r a t. l1 orn c. J\'lnny pe rso ns are obli ged
Lo force Lhci r e 111 nLio11 s Jor i1 1om'y, \\'!tom vve sh onkl ll o l; acco unt
wholly n11d ese rvi11 g; yet I s 11ppose a really good citize n wl1 0 fonncl
this little girl trying to culti vate the sy mpathi es of charita ble people by that system of irrigation, would h ave had h er suppressed as
an impostor.
In a: way sh e was a n impostor, thongh h e r sick m oth er may h ave
b ee n starving, as sh e said. Jt is a uice question . Shall we always
g ive to him that asketh? Or sh all we g ive to him that ask eth only
wh en w e know tliat h e h as come by his destitution h on est.ly ? Jn
ot he r words, wliat is a dese rving case of ch a rity- or, ratlier, wlmt
is not? Is a starv in g or fr eez in g p erson to b e denied b ecau se he
or she is <lrunken or v icions ? What; is d esert in th e poor? ·wirnt
is <lcserf; in t h e ri cl1, J s11pposc 1.hc r ead e r would aiiswe1'. If 1.ltis
i s so, a1Hl if w e 011gl1t n ot t.o s1tccor an u11<lese rvi11 g poor p e rso n,
then we onght n ot to succor an nn<leserving ri ch p erson. It will
b e sn,id tliat a ri ch persou, however undeserving, will n ever b e in
n eed of o m s ucco r, but this is 11 ot so clear. If we saw a ri ch person fall in a fit before the h orses of a Fifth Avenue omnibus, on ght
n ot we to run and lift him np, although we kn ew him to he a man
whose life was stain ed by eve ry Yice and excess, and crnel, wan ton,
idle, luxurious? I know thaf; I am imagi nin g a quite impossible
rich person ; but once i mag i nccl , ought not we to save him all the
same as if h e were deser vi ug? J do 110t believe the most virtuous
p er son will say we ought not; and ought not we, then, to rescue
the most worthless tramp fallen und er t.l1 e wheels of the .Tngge rn aut of ·want? ls charily the re wanl of J11 nri t '/

How Much to Say.

281

EXERCISE 120.

On on e of the following subjects, prepare a single paragraph
of less than two hundred words: -

1.
2.
3.
4.

5.
G.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Probabilities that other planets are inhabited.
The irntionalizing influence of the Louisiana Purchase.
Should we bestow charity only on the deserving?
The motives that led to the declaration of war with
Mexico.
A <lescri ption of the court-house.
A mtrmtivc of n, personn,l experience.
Th e story of Tennyson'i, Enoch Arden.
Tli e story of Abraham Lincoln 's early life.
A llescription of the interior of a factory.
The p1:ocess of glass-making.
EXERCISE 121.

Make an outline analysis of the paragraph written for
th e preceding exercise; fill in sub-topics suggested by questioning each of the h eadings of your outline analysis (why?
when? where? who? what were the circumstances? etc.),
arnl write aga.in on a larger scaJe, preserving the same order
aml r clativo importm1ce of main topics as before.
LESSON 34.

Proportion of Parts.
·whether the scale on which a subject is treated be lal'ge
or smn11, a gooc1 writer ·w ill show, by what he says on the
different topics and sub-topics~ which of them he considers
more importan t, and which less. The main topics are not
all of the same importance even though they occupy the
same rank in the outline; and sub-topics of the same rank
also vary in importance. If the long analysis given in the
preceding lesson should be developed into an essay, three

282

flow JJ1ucli to Say .

Oomposit£01i-1Uietoric.

courses w011ltl be opm1. to tl10 writcl' for Rl1owin g tlw i:el<Lti ve impmtan ce o.f the topies marked res peeti vely l . A,
I. B, II. A, II. B , II. C, IL D, ·with all the suL-topics inclrnle1l unllcl' cacl1.
li'irst, the writer mi ght give but one pnm gl'a.ph to each of
theRe topics. In t l1 iR case\, t he cssa.y wc.rn l<l be cornpose11
of six par:-1,g raphs, awl their Telative import.a.nee wou ld be
s] 1own by tlteir n~ lati ve l cngtl1 , th e most important being
t ho lun gn:·d;. 11 . () wo1il d lH •. L l 11 ~ l111 1g1:s L p:t.l': 1gl':q il1 ()r L l H~
six bee<1,nse it contains (nmler th e sub-topic uuuked 2) the
points that are most essenti al to the snbj ect. II. B woultl
be almost ns lon g becltuse it deals with ·w a,shington's foreign policy, which was so important in cultivating the spirit
of nationality, almost ltS important, in fact, as the fin ancial
measures of Hamilton . TI. A would Le third in importance
aml lengtJ1, but wo11 hl be considenibl y sltol'ter than II. B
and IL 0. l . A and J. 1J wu11ld. 1.H) sti ll shorter, ga,ugc1l l.Jy
their importance. II. D , standing as a conclusion, would
not require much space, fo r it would inherit the accumulated force of the preceding topics.
A secoml course, open to th e writer, would be to nrnke a
sr.pa l'a,tr. pn,mgmpl1 for eve ry s11 h-topir., J. A ·1, T. ..II 2, T. B :1,
1. n ~,etc. Th ese wo uld ~ltow their relative importan ce by
their relative length, IJut each woultl he very shmt as compared with any one of the six paragraphs before mention ed.
T he 1l isadva11tagc of the fil' st plan wonlrl he the excessive
length of paragraphs 11. 0 mill II. B; th e disa11 vantage of
the second plan wonhl be the large 11lunber of very short
paragraphs. To obviate both of these di satlvautages, a
good w riter follows ;1, t l1inl co11rsn. He t li rowR together
into oue p:.iragraph two or tlu·ee less important suL-topi cs
which fall Hnder th e same main t opic, while to an important sub-topic h e gives a whole paragraph. Thus the grouping into p aragraphs of the th eme under consitleration would
perh aps be : -

Numhnr.

l

2
....

'->

4
5
(j

7
8

Amonnt incl ndcrl .

I.
I.
II.
JI .
lI.
II.
IL
II.

A I, 2.
B 1, 2.
A 1 a.
A2a.
1J 1.

U 1 a ( 1), (2), (3).
B2 a.
13 2 b, c.

Number.
{)

10

11
12
13
14

15

283
Amount included.

IL
II.
II.
II.
II.
II.
II.

C la(l),(2),b(l),(2) .
C2 a.
C2 b (1), (2).
C2 b (3) .
C 2 b (4) (a) .
C' c.
JJ.

811 l' li grnupi 11 g arni<lR nxtrr.rnely long alHl nxtrcmcly short
paragraphs. 'l'he r eatler at once sees that, when a whole
paragraph is tlevoted to one sub-topic, that sub-topic is of
as much importance as two or three others which are united
in one paragraph, so that the number of sub-topics brought
into one paragraph is in inverse ratio t o the importance of
each . Hut grouping alone would not be r elied on. The
'IVTiter would have more to say on a sub-topic the more
i1 n purtant it appcarccl to him, and so the length of h is
paragraphs, as well as their grouping, would be an index of
t:1eir relative importance. Paragraphs 12, 1.3, and 14, in
the schedule above, would undoubtedly be longer than any
of the others; and paragraphs 6 and 9, notwithstamling the
grcatr.r munber of sub-topics in c:w h of them, woulcl not be
so 1011g as parngm]Jh 10. vVhcn t he Seale. of treatment is
large, this third plan of imlicating r e]a,tive importance,
both by leng th of paragraphs and by grouping of subtopics, is the best to adopt.
In a single parag raph standing by itself, the relative
importance of t he val'ious parts is shown by the amount of
spa11e devo ted to each. Thus, in the following, the fir st
part, which Rtates the whole thonght in general , terms, and
Lriugs it duwu to a pattieular question at the close of sentence 4, is the most important compa1;ed with any one of
the three following sub-topics, and occupies about one-third
of the whole space; sentence 5 introduces the three subtopics of the second part Leginning r espectively "first,"

llits-#fioi
- iili1--llltt
...
. -""5"'""iil@iliil·iiWilliFW!iiliili?iiij-ji
~-E ,::
-...,.
~·oir..i
· ---- liiiifiiiiii'F""
' --...
- ..............

~-

..._...._

--- liiiiii

Ooniposition-Rltetoric.

How Much to Say.

"secondly," and "Lnt, thi r1ll y," a,ll of which are of about
tlie sa.111 0 Jnngth ~111ll i1111H1rta11 ee. 'L'l11~ bst Hcntrnll ~< ~ starnls
as a couclusion.

111e away from home, antl hasten thither, to don the clothing, by
Lh eir a1lvicc, which my own seuse told me was needless ? lG . I
invite subscriptions to a Henry ·w adsworth, .Tr., Club, of which
two 111 ottoes are, "Look in and not out," and "Mind your own
business."

284

1. Jt is well lrnow11 that man y men and mos t women who would
shrink from t he practice o[ tlivinity or law, or from t.liat of medicine if they we re paid fo r it, love to offer advice and eve n p hysic
11n asketl and Cree. 2. ~Wh at one 011 gli t to wear in tl1 e New Engbml climate is a pnzz le ; but it is safe to say that most men, by
the ti111e they are thi rty-fi rn, liave fonud out each w liat li e ought
to wear. 3. It seem s to 111 e Lhat 111a11y of 111 y neig hbors wrap up
too h eavily, and make themselves tender by it; at least, that I am
better with n o "great-co:i.t," as people used to s:i.y w hen I was a
boy, a large p:i.rt of t he coltler weather. 4. But when I appear
dressed a la Vice-President; lfamlin, [ am constantly assailell wi th
this remark: "Don't yo n think it is i111prndent to go without an
overcoat?" 5. Now, l respcct fnlly ask, what does t l1is phrase
m ean, and what is th e object of as king it? G. F irst,, if a rn nn has
t ho11g l1 t :tbo11t hi s 011tnr gar111 e11 Ls aL :I.I I, 11111sf; he not t i ii 11 k Ii is co m se
is prudeut? Are i1111•rnlle11 cc a11Ll Llioug hL co 111paLible ? Docs uot
the questio n mea11 , "Don't you think you're thoughtless?" 7. The
querist means," I think you are imprnclent "; L11t wi shin g to 111ake
his interference in a11other ma11's bus i11 ess po lite, - which h e cann ot, - h e puts i t as a bove, a11d 111akes an absurdity of it. 8 . Secondl y, is it likely .t h at a n a<l1tlt 111 ale, often twice t he age of his
allviser, will be s udd on ly roused i nLo pru llcnce Ly this vol nnteered
advice ? 9. H as he not probably been guilty of this impru dence,
if it be one, a sco re of ti mes, and run the gauntlet of a score of
older and nearer acquaintances ? 10. How would t he querist take
similar advice? 11. 1\[ost of my amateur docto rs are co nsumers
of tobacco; I am just as ce rtrtiu they are riskin g their health by
cigars as they are t lnit I am risking min e by expos ure. 12. ,S uppose I reply, "Don't you think you smoke too much?" Lhey wonltl
scoff al; the advi ce a11d 11 ot rlrr.a m of rtH<:ri11g- t,hnir co1Hl1tcL. l ~I. Il11t,
tldnlly , wl11rn Ll1 ey giv<~ 111n Uii s <:01111 se l, I :t111 ge ll<\rnll y alJoll.L eight
miles from li o me . 14. What do t,Jiey expec t; m e t o do? Hi. Go
into the first ready-made clothier's and buy a garment in which I
should look like a hall t hief; or go to a custo m tailor 's and have
one made "while you wait"; or break off whatever has brought

285

In t he following, the ca.t-bircl as a rival t o the mockin gbird is disposed of in a single sentence; the brown thrush,
a, more formidable rival, r equires about three times the
spaec; while the a.dmirnLle qualities of the mockiug-Lird
fill much the greater part of the paragraph. The desirability of encouraging the mocking-bird to stay is also treated
with considerable fuln ess.
1\fockin g- birds are scarce in Chattanooga. To the best of my
recollec tion, I saw none in the city itself and less th an half a doze n
in th e smTon11cli11 g conntry . A yo u11 g gentleman whom I qnest ionell 11po11 Lhe subj ect Lold 111e t hrtt tlH\y use<l Lo Lo co111111011 , and
attributed their p rese 11 t increasiug rarity to the persec utions 0£ boys,
w1'o find a profit in sellin g the young into captivity. Their place,
i11 the city especially, is taken by cat-birds; interesting, imitative,
and in their own measure tu11 efol , but poor substitu tes for mockin gbirds. In fact, it is impossible to think of any b ird as really filling
tl 1at u) le. Tli e brown thrush, it is true, sings quite in the mocking-Linl's manne r, and, to my ear, almost or quite as well; bnt
he possesses no gift as a mimic, and fur thermore, without being
exactly a bird of the forest or the wilderness, is instinctively and
irrecla imably a recluse. It would be hard, eve n among hum an
bei1ws
o ' to find a n ature less touched with urbanity . In the mocki11 g-binl -.;he elelll ents are more happily mixed. No t gregarious, ·
intolerant of rivalry, and, as far as creatures of hi s own ki11d are
concerned, a stickler for elbow-room, - sharing with his brown
rn lal,ivo i11 Lhi R roRpccf;, - ho iK n.f; tlw Ramo ti 1110 a 1101'11 cit;izon a1ul
11eigltl.ior; as fo nd oE garde11s and door-yanl t rees as the thrasher is
of scru hlands and barberry bushes. "Ma n deli ghts me," he might
say, "and woman also." H e likes t o be listened to, it is pretty
ce rtn i11 ; and possibly h e is dimly aware of t.he artistic value of
appreciation, without which 11 0 artis t ever did his best. Add to

286

-

....
287

Composition-lllietoric.

How Miwh to Say.

this eudearing social quality the splendor and freedom of the
mocker's vocal performances, multifarious, sensational, in comparable, by turns entrancing and amusing, and it is easy to understand
how he has come to hold a place by himself in Southern sentiment
and lit.e raJ,nrc. .A city wit.liouf; lnllcking-hird s i.~ only ha![ Sont.l1ern,
though black faces be never so thick u1)01L the sidewalks and mules
never so com111011 in the streets. "If the boyr-; l1:we driven the great
mimic away from Clin,tta11ooga, it, is time the fathers took the boys
in hand. Civic pride alone ongltt to bring this about, to say
11ol.lii11g or Ll1n pwisildn nl'l'P1:I, lllH•ll rnal l\sl,al,n V:t.l111:s of Lhn :i.111111 dant arnl familiar presence o[ this worlcl-re11ownell, town-loving,
town-charming songster. - Atlantic, 77 : 198.

suffices for the development and hatching of the young birds, and
the mother can go where she likes and occupy herself as she wishes,
without being troubled by the duties of setting. In the small
island of Ninafou, in the Pacific, another bird has a somewhat
si111ilar l1abit, in so far aR it; also abandons its eggs; hut in place
of obtaining the necessary heat from fermentation, it gets it from
warm saud. The Leipoa or 11ative pheasant of Australia acts like
the rnegapod, and watches the temperature of its mound very
closely, covering and uncovering the eggs several times a day to
cool tlw111 or l1l\at l.lwru, rts boeo111nR ncecsRary. i\[ter hat,ching,
the young bird remaius in the mound several hours ; it leaves on
the second day, but returns for the night, and not until the third
day is it able to quit the paternal abode.

Show by length of treatment the relative importance of the
thoughts in an essay or in a single paragraph. Where, in an essay,
sub-divisions are nmnerous and minute, a number of less important
sub-topics may be grouped in one paragraph, while a relatively more
important sub-topic may occupy a paragraph by itself.

EXERCISE 122.

Divide each of the following pa.ragraphs into its two or
three parts. Show how the length at which each part is
treated indicates its re laJ,i vn inq>ortauce.
It is well known that the A trntral ian megapod is a bird that is
accustomed not to sit on its own eggs. In certain parts of Australia are found numerous mounds of considerable size and height,
which the first explorers took to be burial rnounds. Tliese ·w ere
made by the .1l:le.17apodius twrw/11s, which uses them for hatching its
eggs. Tl1ey have somet·.i111es cons id e rable di1ue11sions: a nest that
is 14 feet high and 55 feet in circumference may be regarded as
large. Each megapod builih its own nest with rnaterials which
it gathers from all sides, and these are exactly what the gardener
ll8CS in Ute 111011th or 1\fan ~ h l.o 111alrn Ii .is forci11g--hndR; ll:t.lllely,
leaves and decomposing veget.ablc matter, which, by their fermentation, give off an appreci<tble amount of heat. In the forcingbeds, this heat haste11s tl1 e spro11l.i11g of the seeds; in the IJ(~st, it

't.
}

The courage we desire ai1d prize is not the courage to die decently, but to live manfully. This, when by God's grace it has
b een given, Iles deep in the soul; like genial heat, fosters all other
virtues and gifts; without it they could not li_ve. ln spite of our
innumerable \'Vaterloos aud Peterloos, aucl such campaigning as
there has been, this courage we allude to, and call the ouly true
one, is perhaps rarer in these last ages than it has been in any
other since the Saxon Invasion under I-Iengist. Altogether extinct it can never be among men; otherwise the species man were
no longer for this world: here and there, in all times, under various guises, men are sent hither not only to demonstrate but exhibit
it, and testify, as from heart to heart, that it is still possible, still
practicable. - CARJ,YLg: Boswell's Life of Johnson.
In whatsoever light we examine the characteristics of the Laureate's genius, the complete and even balance of his poetry is from
first to last conspicuous. It exhibits that just combination of lyrical elements which makes a symphony, wherein it is difficult to
say what quality predominates. Reviewing minor poets, we think
this one attractive for the wild flavor of his unstudied verse;
another, for the gush and music of his songs; a third, for idyllic
swcetuess or tragic power; but in Teunysou we have the strong
repose of art, whereof - as of the perfection of nature - the world
is slow to tire. It has become conventional, but remember that
t10t.hing endures to the point of conventionalism which is not based

288

Composition-Bltetoric.

How llfucli to Say.

upon lasting rules ; tl1at it once was new a11d refreshin g, and is
s ure, in future days, to regain t he early charm. -STEDMAN: Victorian Poets, 182.

given to man for his life in nature are his senses and his hands.
Instruction in science becomes unprofitable when it is not based
on the pupil's own obse r vation and activity.
Yet, while progressive high-school teachers agree on laboratory
work in natural science, another element should receive equal
consideration. Just as necessary as an acquaiutauce with the
archetypal fo rm s of nature by direct inspection, and of the observatio nal facts by direct experiment, is the unifying, reasoning
procesi:;, which sits e11 throned above the myriads of facts and is as
irnporta11L a comlitio 11 o[ obKe rvaLion as t.he activity of Lit e senses
anJ the hands. Reaso11, with its generali zing powers, is the comp:ts8 wlriclt alone preve nts I.h e 8tude11t from becomi11g Lewi!Jercd
in the m aze of tletails. Not only the typical facts, Lut t he lead in g
lines of the whole field of the study should be surveyed by the
pupil. These leading lines, however, cannot always be taught by
experiments performed' by t he pupil himself, but he must receive
some truths at second-hand through experi t11ents which he witllesses but does uot perform, and by li terary comt1111 11icatiou
through text-book and lect ure. The total elimin ation of textbook stndy by laboratory work would be an extreme that does not
commend itself. The individual scie ntist who does not kn ow a
hundred-fold more of nature than he has learned from his own
personal experimenting would be comparatively ignorant. Thoroughness i n a Ii mited field is not at all opposed to a ce rtain comprehensivenei:;s of inforu1atio 11 . It is in fact aided by a ge neral
acquaintance with the leading liues of the subject. ·what reader
of Gibbon's Rome, when ope11i11g a new volume, would not feel
aided by a prelirninary comp rehensive survey of the period in an
encyclopredia or brief text-book?
The old method of the literary study of natural science, which
sac rificed tlt oronglt ness to comprehensiveness, a11d depth to
breadth, was vicious; Lut the oppoi:;ite course would be as great
au error. Ge uerally speaki ng, t li oro ughness m ay become, aud at
ti111es has l>eco1ne, a fetish to which hecato111Ls of vital ec.lucatio nal
interest have bee n sla ugh te1•ed . For instance, to keep a child in
the elementary school on one top ic for t he purpose of attaining
ideal perfection until livi11g interest and a n1 bition are killed, and
instruction becot11es irkso 111e, would be paying too high a price for
thoroughness.

EXERCISE 123.

]\fake one paragraph of cithel' of the following. Give to
eaeh. point a le:1g th of treatment correspo1~cling to what yo u
consider to be its r elative importance.
.Sla11g sl1 oul1l 110 avr~idc r.l liccawm (11) so 111 e o( it is vul gar anJ
lmngs up b~td suggest101 1s, (b) some of it while not offensive in
that way is wi(·.J1nut 111 ea11i11g to ol.l11 :r pr:ople to whom i t 111 ay Le
~JJrcsscd, (t:) a!J _oJ ii". is needl ess : t here are words o( good standrng". fo r _all of om id ea> a nd (d) the co ntinued use of a pet slang
p.lua~e rn ~11a11y 111ea11111 gs preve nts the user from m aking due distrnct1011s 111 the use o[ lang11age, from searchin g for the fittiuo·
\~onl to use in every case, and t hu s from acq.uiring anll increasin~
~us. vocal.ntla? of repuLal>le words, ( e) besides, a sla ng expression
1S likely to slJp out hefo re Jte t hinks, Oil a n occasion wJi en it leads
to his discomfort and e1u barrassment .
A certain amo unt of daily exerc ise is of advantage to every man
who works with his brain, Lecause (a) it enables him to do more
and better ·w ork, ( b) it p rornotes a spirit of clieerfulness an<l sociability, (c) it di minishes li alJi li ty to disease and break-down
(d) it gives him extra strn 11 gth for t.i111es of great mental labor 0 :.
anxiety, (e) it tends to prnlong his life.

EXERCISE 124.

Account for the relati vc prnpol'tions of the following connected parngra,phs : The laboratory 111eL liorl i11 naL11ra l i:;cic 11 ce iR vai:;Lly s uperi or
to the now obsolete exc lusive (;ext-book mctl1 od, which was u~cd in
some places a ge11erntio11 ago. The st udy of 11atural science loses
its value as a means of cu lt ivating t he faculties, when the method
er'.1ployed fails to lead to !.lie obsetY:ttio n of, a,ud expe rimeutiug
with, the objects of natme. The tools which Providence has

289

-

-

I

290

- -

Oompositio1i-Rlietorie.
l!~XEllCJSJ<:

Ifow Mueli to Say.

291

125.

. l. ?fak~ an ana!ysis of l;he essay Ly Higginson in Exerc~se 08, with heaclmgs and sub-headings. Is any snb-topic
given ~ wl~ole par~graph by itself? vVhat groupings of
sub-topic~ rn~o a srngle paragraph clo you notice ? Test
the relat1 ve unportauce of paragraphs by their relative
length.
2. Make a similar ana,lyRis of an essay in
llHLgaziucs. 1

etUT<.rn t

0110

of the

EXERCISE 126.

Make t}uee paragraphs of the following material showina
by group.mg of sub-topics and length of treatm~at wh:~
you consider to be their relative importance.
'

LESSON 35 .

Subordination of Parts.
Besides length of treatment and grouping of sub-topics,
other devices are employed at times to show the relative
importance of topics. Sometimes bold expressions are used,
such :ts "'l'he ma.in point is this," "Less important but still
worLlty of u1C11Liou ii:; Lho followi11g," "Aft.er :tll, the gl'mLt
fact rmnains that," "A more important reason is." 'rhese
and similar expressions tell the reader plainly, though somewhat Lluntly, what relative degree of importance to attach
to the paragraph or part of the paragraph concerned.
The following paragraph contains an expression of this
kim1, here printed in italics: -

Advantages of a 1!""'ree Public Library.
1. Advantages to the community in general:_
a. It elevates the :one of life in the community,
(1) By creatmg au intellectual interest
(2) By supplanting lem> worthy intercs;s,
(3) By affordi ng :i cc11tro of cnlLmo.
b. Out of it usually grow other worthy institutions:
(1) Literary clubs and socio Lies of various sorts,

(2) Lecture courses.

c. It helps the work of schools and churches.

2. Advantages to individuals in the community.
a. To the teacher it alfonls a wider range of reference book
b. To the pnpil a chance for further reading in the line

school studies.
c. To the general reader a wider selection.
d. To non-readers a stimulus to begin.
1

o~· his

A list of essays for practice of this kiud will be found in Appendix

c.

The present inspection of immigrants at American ports before
they are permitted to land seems to be about as effective a way as
can be devised to exclude the prohibited classes. The inspection
system now in force lays down rigidly who are excluded from landing under the laws. Inspectors are appointed to enforce the regulations . JI nrl more i111porta11l titan all else, the steamship companies
a.re rnqnirml f.o carry back tho exclrnlod in1111igra1it.s at their own
cost. This makes them very careful in taking i1111nigrant passengers. It imposes on them the preliminary inspection in Europe.
The rest is done by American inspectors, whose work, if necessary,
can Le supplemented by agents stationed at European ports. The
weeding out of undesirable immigrants from the flood of Italians
now ponring into New York is evidence of the good work possi Lle UJttler the existing system. The carrying back of° a few
hundred immigrants amounts to a heavy fine 011 the steamship
companies for bringing them over.

In the following the subordination is less blunt and more
skilfully managed. Notice especially the latter part of the
fourth sentence beginning with the word "but."

292

Composition-1Uwtorie.

How JJ:fucli to Say.

I. I pray you, 0 excellent wife, not to cnm ber yourself and me
to get a. ricl1 di1111 er for l;l1is JJ1a11 or this wo111:w wh o has alighte<l
at our gaLe, 11or a. bcd-cl1a111lier rnadc rc:uly at too great a cost.
2. Th ese tliinwi, if th ey arc curious in Lh em, Ll 1ey can get for a
dollar .at any village. 3. But let; this strnuger, if he will, in your
looks, 111 your accent and b ehavior, read your h eart and earnestness,
y~ur thoug~1t aud will,.- which h e ca.unot lmy at any price in any
village or city, and wluch h e may well travel fifty miles, and dine
sparely and 8leep hard; rn order to hehol<l. 4. Certainly let the
board be spread, a nd let t he heel be dressc<l for I.he t.ravcll cr, but
let not Lhe e mphasis o[ hospitality li e in these things. G. Ho 11 or
to the honse wh e re t l1 cy a re si 111pk~ to I.lie vr.rgc of l1anlslrip, ::; 0
t ha t Lhcrn Ll1 c i11Lcll ccf; is awak e a 11<l read s Lh c l:t,w o[ f.he universe,
the soul worships truth and lov e, l1011or and courtesy fiow into all
deeds. - E11rnnsoN : D omes!ic Life.

than well-read men, or men of information, they have not what
specially <l cserves the 11a.rnc of culture of mind, or fulfils the type
of Liberal Education.
In like manner, we sometimes fall in with persons who have
seen much of the world, and of the men who, in their day, have
played a co nspicuous part in it, but who generalize nothing, and
have no observation, in the true sense of the ward. They abound
in information in detail, cnrious and entertaining, about men and
tltingfl; and, havin g liv ed und e r the influence of 110 very clear or
Rettled pri 11cipl eR, they spBak of every one and every t hin g, only
as so rna11y ph e.11onie11a, which are complete in themselves, and
lcall Lo 110l.lii11g-, .11ot lliscussi11g tlte111 , or teaching any truth, or iustrucLi11g Ll1 e l1 eare r, but s in1 ply talking.

Statements introduced by "and," "likewise," "but,"
"ther efore," "accordi11gly," rtrc recognized at once as of
at lca:->t oqnal jrnpo1'ta11 en w iLlt (J1'Ct'.edi 11 g RtaLemc11lis.
There is 110 e nlarge rn enl;, 1111les1> there be a comparison of ideas
one with another, as they come before the mind, and a svste matizing of them. "\Ye feel our minds to be growing and ex1;anding
then, when we not only leal'll , but refer what we learn to what ·we
know already. . . . And ll1 err:fore a truly great intellect is one
which takes a connected view of old and n ew, past and present,
far and 11 eai·, and which lias an in sight into the influence of all
these, one on another; without which there is no whole, and 110
centre.. lt possesses the knowledge, not ouly of things, bnt also
o.f their mutual a.nd true relations; knowledge, not merely considered a.8 an acquirement, lrnt as phil osophy.
A cco1:di11gfy, when . tl1i s analytical, distributive, harmonizing
process is avvay, the n11nd experiences no enlargement, and is not
reckoned as enlightened or cn111 1w0l 1cnsivc, wktf;cv()r it may a<ld
to.its lm ow ledge. For i11 s La.11ce, a gro:it 111c1n ory, as J have already
said, does not make a pl1ilosophcr, any more than a. dictionary can
be called a grammar. There a.re men who emb1:ace in their minds
a vast multitude of ideas, lmt with little sensibility about their
real rebtio11s towards each other. . . . If they are nothin g more

293

The reader r ecognizes that such expressions as "it is true,"
"to be sure," "indeed," "I admit that," introduce concessions which the writer wishes him to regard a.s of less importance i;li:i.11 the Rcmtcnces introduced by" st;ill," "yet,"" bnt,"
"i10v ertlwlcss," or "however," which arc almost sure to
follow.
Th ere are virtues, indeed, w l~ich the world is not fitted to judge
of or to uphold, such as faith, hope, and charity; but it can judge
about trnthfulness; it can judge abont the natural virtues, and
truthfuln ess is oue of them. Natural virtues may also become
supernatural; trntltfulness ifl such, but that does not withdraw it
from the jurisdiction of mankind at large.

At the main divisions of a long discourse there are sometimes found whole sentences, more often parts of sentences,
whose business it is to indicate the relative importance of
the divisions in the scheme of the whole discourse.
Th 11s in \r elmter'8 eu logy of Adams and .Jefferson Lhe second
division of the disco urse begins as follows: "The occasion, fellowcitizens, requires some account of the lives and services of .John
Adams and Th omas Jefferson. This duty must necessarily be
performed with great brevity, and in the discharge of it I shall be

294

Composition-}lhetoric.

obliged to confine myself, prineipally, to those parts of their
history a nd character ·which b<~lo11gc1l Lo t hem as pnblic men."
By this am10u.ucemeut the reader is prepared for tho short
biographies which form the second and third divisions ( paragmplis 12-2~-). Tho fonrt~h division begins as follows: "Auel
11ow, fellow-citizeus, without pnrsui11g the biography of these
illustrious 1nen furt her, for th o present, let us turn our a.ttent.ion to
the most promi11e11 t act of their lives, their participati on in the
Declaration of Indepernle11ce." Since this suggests a :fuller treatment, tl10 rna<ler is 11 01; s11r['risn<l to fr111l tl1a,f; tlH\ fourth 1livision
contains twcnf.y-five paragra.pl1s. 'J'lte fifth division is but a single
paragraph, and is appropriately introduced by the foliowing
sentence, "It would be unjust, fellow-citizens, on this occasion,
while we express onr veneration for him who is the immediate
subject of these remarks, " ·ere we to ornit a most respectful, affectionate, a.nil g ra tef ul rncn tion of those other great men, his colleagues, who stood wi f.h 11i111, and with tl1e sa1u c spirit, the same
devotion, took pa.rt in tho interesting transaction."
Cano n Farrar in l1is kcL11rc on Ua11Lc, aft.er (lw cllin g at so111c
length upon the Inferno, opens tho Lricfer seco nd division of the
lecture wit.h the words, "Ti Ille does not permit me to giYe you
even a n outline of Purgatory," and the still briefer third llivisiou
with "I shall say scarcely anything of the Parndise." The length
of the conclusion is indi cated by the words, "I h asten to conclude" and" I will end with Lwo rc111arlrn."

It i0 easy to fall into the habit of using more of these
subonlinnting expressions than are necessary. Jl'ew of them
are needed when the thoughts are clear and well arranged.
Use expressions of subordination, when necessary, to indicate the
relative importance of thoughts.
1~x1mc1s1~

121.

Point out subon1ina.ting expressions in the following.
Classify these expressions and show that each indicates
properly the relcttive importance of the sentences or parts
of sentences which it seems to subonlinate.

Row Much to Say.

295

Pitiful is the case of the blind, who cannot read the face;
pitiful that of the deaf, who cannot follow the changes of the
voice. And there are others also to be pitied; for there are some
of an inert, uneloquent nature, who have been denied all the symbols of co mmunication, who have neither a lively play of facial
expression, nor speaking gestures, nor a responsive voice, nor yet
the gift of frank, explanatory speech: people truly made of clay,
people tied for life into a bag which no one can undo. They are
poorer than the gipsy, for their heart can speak no language under
heaven. Such people we n1ust; learn slowly by the tenor of their
acts, or Lhrough "yea" and "nay" co111111m1ications; or, we take
then1 on trust on the strength of a general air, and now and again,
when we see the spirit breaking through in a flash, correct or
change onr estimate. But these will be uphill intimacies, without
charm or freedom, to the end; and freedom is the chief ingredient
in confidence. Some minds, romantically dull, despise physical
endowments. That is a doctrine for a misanthrope; to those who
like their fellow-creatures, it must always be meaningless; and,
for my part, I can see few things more desirable, after the possession of such radical qualities as honor, and humor, and pathos,
than to have a lively, and not a stolid, countenance; to have looks
to correspond with every feeling; to be elegant and delightful in
person, so that we shall please even in the intervals of active
plea.sing, and may never discredit speech with uncouth manners,
or beco111n n11cousciously our own burlesques. But of all unfortunates, there is oue creature (for I will not call him man) conspicuous in misfortune. This is he who has forfeited his birthright of
expression; who has cultivated artful intonations; who has taught
his face tricks, like a pet monkey, and, on every side, perverted or
ent off his means of communication with his fellowmen. The
body is a house of rnany windows : there we all sit showing ourselves, a'n d crying on the passers-by to come an<l love us. But th is
fellow has filled his windows with opaque glass elegantly colored.
Jli s hou se inay lie a.tlmirc1l for its design, the crow1l may pause
before the stained windows, but meanw bile the poor proprietor
must lie within, uncomforted, unchangeably alone. - STEVENSON:
Virginibits Puerisque.

29G

Co11ipvsi tion-1lhelorie.

How Much to Say.

297

E XERCISE 128.

Insert prop er 1vonls of suLonlina.tion in the foll owing at
places indieat ed Ly carets: In read in g the Russ ian p apers, th e Czar noticed t hat they were
n ot so outspok en as the papers of other co unt ries. Ile noticed /\
that, in their g ua rde.<1 u tterances, li e 11eve r fo uml a 11 y refe rence to
official alrnses which , he kn ew, must exist in ltnssia as in other
co un t ri es. H e k11 ew /\ Ll1 at t here is n. cr~ n sorn l1ip of th e press in
l1is real111 , liu L he h n,J nut Lhc s lig htc:-; t i<lca o( th e exte nt Lu which
the censors s uppress indcpe11tle11t exp ressions in tl1 e p apers . H e
de term i ncd /\ th a t a t least 011 e pnper s hould L>c pe rfectly free to
cri ticise t he governm ent . /\ he s1unmo11ed the editor of Th e
St. P etersburg Viedomosti, a paper t hat has bee n p ul>li shed for
170 years, and a 11 no u11 cccl his intent ion of relievin g him of censure . ·wh en t h e high offi cials leari ied of th e Czar's purpose, t hey
/\ ad vised strongly against it. The Czar /\ remained firm . Then
the ollicials h ad reco urse Lo an uld a ml well-tri ed 111et.J10tl of circumventin g t heir in1peri a l rn n.s ter, and of savin g t he mselves from
expos ure. TJ1 ey prodded t he eLlitor with a pos ition in the ltussoChin ese Ba nk a t a p rin cely salary, and snhscribed fo r m a ny thousands of copies of th e pap<'r. Th e prosperity of the Viedomosti is /\
assured . lt is /\ a p rosperity t hat depends on co ntinued offi cial
favo r. Th e paper is free to cri ticise ; /\ stran ge to say, it show11
less <li spos it io11 to find fault; wi th the uflicial classes than befo re iL
was relieved of censorship. /\ iLs freec10 111 is an illusion. /\ the
Czar is puzzled.
E XERCISE 12!).

E xamine, wit;h your t each el', one of t;he following for
expression s which indicate the rela tive importan ce of the
parts: 1. De Quin cey 's .l(irl/I, rf A rr:. ~. One of l\faca ul ay 's .Essays.
3. An a rticle in 1'he Fo rnm lllagazi11 e. <t An article iu 1'he No rth
American R eview. 5. An article in Th e N ew York I ndep endent.
Ci. Any chapter of a book wl1i ch your teacher 111ay assign to you.

LESSON 36.

E xpansion.
ln onl e 1~ t o mak e an important t opic show for what it is
worth, it; must; be developed into its particular phases or
conside red fr om several points of view. On e or more of
the geuernl methods describecl in J_;essons 12 to 19 may be
crn ployed for t his purpose, Lu t in some cases a particular
application of one of these general methods will be more
convenient. JTor instan ce, an apt anecdote or incident is
a very frequent meth od of ex pancling an important point.
Thus in the following : The A dmirals are t ypical in the full force of the word. They
are splendid exa111ples of vir t ue, indeed, but of a vir tue in which
most En glishmen can claim a moderate sh are ; and ·wh at we
admire in their lives is a sort of apotheosis of ourselves.
Duncan, lyin g off the T exel ·with his own flagship, the Ve nerable, and only one other vessel, heard t hat t he whole Dutch fleet
was put Li,,11g to sea. U e told Captain H otham to anchor alon~­
side of him in t he n arrowest part of the channel, and fight lus
vessel t ill she sank. " I have taken the clepth of the water,"
adJed he, " anJ when t h e V enerable goes clown, my flag will still
fl y." AlHl yo n observe t his is 11 0 n aked Vikin ~ in a pre his t~ric
period ; but a Scotch m ember of P arlia ment, w1tl.1 a smattermg
of t he classics, a telescope, a cock ed hat of great size, and flannel
underclothin g . - STEVENSON: Virginibus P ;uerisque.

An apt quot ation of consider able len gth is another method
of expa nsion. In t h e following, Steven son ha.ving. ask~d
wha.t; motive insp irecl t h e h ero D ouglas t o burn up with lns
ship, th e .Royal Oak, w]1 en h e might h ave ~eft; i t; and sav.ed
his life, cont inues : "1\fouy will t ell you it was the desue
of fame." I n opposit ion t o t his view, Stevenson quotes
fr om Montaigne's essay on "Glory " as follows: -

w

298

CJomposition-lllieto1·ic.

To what <lo Cresar and Alexander owe the infinite grandetir
of their renown but to fortune? How many men has she extinguished in t he beginni11g of t heir progress, of whom we have no
kn owledge; who brought as llluch courage to the work aR they,
if their atlverse hap h atl llot cut t liem of'f in th e first sally oJ their
arms? Amougst so mau y a11d so great dange rs, I clo i10t remember to Jiave anywliere read t l1 al; Crccmr was ever wo11.11d ed; a t housand l1 avc fall en in le1;1-; d a ngern Llrn11 Lile Je:tst o[ Ll1ose lie went
through. A great many urave actions must be expected to be perf orrn ed witho11t wi t,nf!RR, for 01w f.11nJ, cn 11 ins l,n rm rn n 110Li co. A 11in.11
is 110L alwa.yx aL Ll1 c LO[I or a hrnael 1, or a[, th e l1 cacl ur a n ann y, i n
the sigh t of l1is ge neral, as 11po11 a platform. li e is often surpri Re<l
between t l1 c h edge a nd the diLcl1 ; he 11111 sL nm the hazanl of his
life agai nst; a hen-roost; li e 111\lRt di Rlodge fon r rascally m11sketee rs
ont of a lmrn; he rn11 st pri(:k 0 11L si ng le from liis party, as necessity arises, a11cl mee t atlventHres alone.

Sometimes an importn.nt though t is merely stated in one
paragraph in co1rn cet ion with otl1 eL' thoug hts, and is expanded in the next para.gr::tph. 'l'his is illustrated by t he
prece<ling c1 uotatio11.
·when it is desired to expn.ncl one part of a narrative or
description, more details and prtrticulars are added to that
part. Thus in T om .731·o·wn rit 0.1;/iml, Chn.pters XIII a.nd
Xl V, tlic author uxpaJl(ls in one dcseripLion the iuci<lcuts
which he tren.ts briefly iu the other. TJ1e followi11g extracts
will exemplify his method: CHAPTER XIII.

It is a n awful moment. But
the coxswai.11 , though almost
dra.gged b:i ckwartlR o ff his seat.,
is equal to the occasion. Il e
h olds liis waLcl1 i11 l1is rigl1L
h and with t he t.i Ll cr rope .
"Eight sccou<ls i11o re oHly.
Look out for t he fl as h. Rem ember, all eyes in the boat."

CHAPTER XIV. .

After a few moments of
breath.less hush on the bank,
the ln st gnn is fired and they
are off.

How .iWiwli to Say.

299

There it comes at last - t he
flash of the startin g-gun. Long
before tl~e sou nd of the repor t
can roll up t he riv er, the whole
pent-up life aud energy which
has been held in leash, as it
were, for the last six minutes,
is let loose and breaks away
with a bou nd and a dash which
lie wl10 l1ax felt. iL will rui11 c 1nuer fo r hi s life, but t he li ke of
which, will he ever feel again ?
Th e startin g-ropes drop from
the coxswai ns' h ands, the oars
fl ash into Lhe waLer, and gleam
on the foaLh er, th e spray flies
front them, and the boats leap
forward.

Iu a single sentence to which the greater distinction of
greater length is to be given, single acljecti ves a.re changed
to phrases, phrases to clauses, and new phrases and cla~1ses,
goinO' more into detail, are added. These changes are illustratc~l by the p::tmllcl p~tssn.gcs Lclow. 1'hosc in tl:e le~t­
hand column are from Green's Short lfistory of the English
P eople ; those in the right-lrnn<l column are from the same
author's longer Ilistory.
1. His enjoyment of the gayety of life stands in bright contrast with the gloom an<l sternness of the later Puritanism.

1. Milton's enjoyment of the
gayety of life stands in bright
contrast with the gloom and
sternness which strife and persecution fostered in Puritanism
at a later time.

2. Hooker urged that a Divine order exists, not in written revelation onl y, but in the
moral relatious, antl the social

2. Hooker urged that a Di·
vine order exists, not- in written
revelation only, but in the moral
relations, the historical devel-

1

-300
and political
men.

Uomposition-.Ulwtoric.
institutio1rn

of

3. Il e 11ow o ffered to sail l.o
the Orinoco, aml discove r a go lcl
mine whi ch h e be lieved to cxi s L
on its banks.

oprnent, and the social and political i11sLif;11tions of 1r1 e11.
:i. J\s years we nt; by, Llic new
worlcl, w)1(•rc he lia<l fonnded
Virginia a11cl wh ere li e l1ad
glean ed n ews of a Golden City,
threw more :111d more a spell
over hi s imagination; and at
tl1i s moment li e disclosed to
.J ;L111cs hi s knowled ge of a gokl
111i1ie 011 the Oriuoco, and prayed
that he might sail thither and
work its treasures for the kin g .

The latter part of a sentence if> sometimes expancled for
the sake of gi viug fnluess of sou ml at tho close. The words
after "region" at the close of the following are in point.
As surely as the wolf retires l>e l"orn citi es, does the fairy scr1ues~er herself from the 11auu ts of tli e li ce11 secl victnaller. A village
is too Htnch for h er n ervous deli cacy: at most, sh e can tolerate a
dis~ant view of a hamle t . \\re m ay jndge, therefore, hy the uneasmess and extra trouble which they gave to th e parson, in ·w hat
strength the fa iries muste reLl at Do111re111y; and, by a satisfactory
co11sequ c11 ce, l1ow tl1inl y so w11 wiLh 111( ~ 11 allll w0111 c 11 IHw-; t; liave
Lee n Lliat region eve n i11 iLs i11lmL1iLecl spoLs. - J)J.: <J,u1N CE \' : Joun

of Ai·c.

Additions made for this purpose sltonlcl combine fnlness
Wkttever is added
of sound with fulness of thought.
shonkl grow naturnlly from the ma in idea aud so become
a vital mcrnbcr of th e se ntence.
The need of cxpansiou appears when one is trying to interpret :mLl explain a tlillieult or obscure ]J:tssage which he
finds iu the writings of some author whom h e is stuLlying.
!n order . to bring out the full meaning of such a, passage,
it becomes necessary to re-state it at greater length, to examine it from more than one point of view, to use simpler

I-low Much to Say.

301

words, perhaps, and more of them, to provide illustrations,
aud to call atte ntion to hiLldcn meanings. There is danger
in this work of putting in something that the author did
not mea11, and of cheapening the thought, but in spite of
that danger, the work is n ecessary. Notice in the following
how the rather enigmatic sta.tement quoted in the first sentence is cleared up and filled with meaning by the comments
which follow: "It takes," says Thoreau, in the noblest au<l most u seful passage
I remember to have read in any modern author, "two to speak
truth-one to speak and another to h ear." H e must be very little
expe ri en ceu, or h ave no great zeal for truth, who does not recognize the fact. A grain of anger or a grain of suspicion produces
strange n:coustical effects, a nd 1nakes the ear greedy to re mark
offence. H ence we find those who have once quarrell ed carry themselves distantly, and are ever r eady t-0 break the trnce. To speak
trllLh th er e must Le moral cq nality or else no respec t; and hence
betweeu pare nt and child iuLer course is apt to degenerate into a
verbal fe ncing-bout, and misappreh ension to become ingrained
. . . and wh erever a person fa ncies himself unjustly judged, he at
once and finally gives up the effort to speak truth. With our
ch osen friends, on the other h and, and still more between lovers
(for 1nu Lual 1u1dersta11ding is love's esse nce), the truth is easily
iudicaLe(l hy tlte 011e and aptly compre hended by the other. A
hiut take n, a loo k umlerstoou, conveys the gist 0£ long and delicate
explan ations; and ·w here the life is known even yea and nay become luminous. In the closest of all relations - that of a love
well founded and equally shared - speech is half discarded, like a
roundabout, i nfantile process, or a ceremony of formal etiquette;
and the two communicate directly by their presences, and with
few looks and fewer words co ntrive to share their good and evil
and 11plwld each other's h earts in joy. - STEVIrnsoN: Virginibus
P.uerisque.
In expanding an idea, bear in mind the uses of anecdote, quotation, and details. Beware of additions which do not grow naturally
from the thought.

.. . . .

302

Composition-Rite toric.
f i;X 1 1~IWIRl 1 ;

l:IO.

ExparHl the followiug li.Y cliangiug the word or words in
italics to rt phrase or clause of eqni valeut meaning. Take
care that the ackled wonls shall be geuuiue additiolls to the
thought.
1. l\Iacaulay's essays are as good as a library: th ey make an
incomparable vade-mecum for t.lte b11sy ma11.
2. lf your little Loy carnc io yo u for jire-crar:ker inone.y, yo u
would give it to him hesitnti11.'JT/J .: and scci11g it fly off, th.0·11,r;h
lwn1i1essl11, i11 Jircworlrn, you wo11Jd l1:wc sonic idea tl1at it was

'\vasie!l.

a. Eamestness characteri zes ilrn manner of tl1 e speaker, and
truthfulness his lauguage.
4. Ilis delight in nature was deep, continuous, sometimes
rapturous.
Ex1mrns1 1; 1:11.

Adtl relevant words to the close of each of the following
sentences for the sake of fulness of sonnd : 1. Clara, upon hearing the thunder-clap, which sounded like the
crack of doom, jumped.
2. For three days after rcgai 11i11g a latitude which admitted of
plain sailing we had boistero us weather and a wild sea, but an unclouded sky. At such times th e ocean, in its ever-varying forms of
beauty a11tl clnwgiug sha!Ies of prismatic ligl1t in the sm1shi11e,
attracts.
3. The momentary waves rai sed by the passing breeze, apparently born to die on the spot which sa\v their birth, leave behind
them an endless progeny, which, reviving with diminished energy
in other seas, visi ti11g a thousand shores, reflec ted from each, and
perhaps agai11 partially <:011c< ~ 1d. ral .c ~d , µ;o 011.
4. llow they were aLLackcd, how !.hey resisted, how Lhey struck,
how they were eucotnpassetl, l1ow they tl1rust back those who were
hurled 011 then1 in the black 11ight, with the north sea-wiud like ice
upon their faces, and the loose African soil drifting up in clouds
around tl1em, they told.

How 'JYiuc li to Say.

.............

303

EXERCISE 132.

Ic'ill in detn.ils at the places indicated iu the following: There 11as been no periou of time in which wealth has been
more seusible of its duties than 11ow. Jt builds hospitals. [Tell
other things that it does.] One of the advantages of accumulated .
wealth and of the leisure it renders possible, is that people have
ti me to think of the wants and sorrows of their fello'ws. Thinking
on the ueecls of th e poor will lead the rich to greater benevolence
than the workl has yet k1~ow11. [Other results.]
When we sec what a woJHl crI11l instrument the ha.ml is, I think
we are great fools for not learniug to use it better. A parrot can
make a use of his beak and feet, which are also hands, in a way
that puts us to shame. [Tell what a dog can do with his mouth
and fore paws.] Some people can do little more than dress and
undress th emselves and bring food and drink to the mouth, which
docs the rest. Boys, without; being taught except Ly other boys,
learn to 11sc feet and hands in many ways, aml they amuse themselves aud learn at the same time. [Tell how the hands, eyes, and
feet are educated by games played according to rules.] I hope I
shall be excused if I say that boys' play is sometimes the best
thing that they do at school.
EXERCISE 133.

Interpret one of the following quotations, and comment
on the thought, bringing out fully all that it means or suggests to you.
1. If youth is not right in its conclusions about this life, there
is a strong probability that age is not much more so.
2. n takes two to make a quarrel.
a. Opiuion in good men is but knowledge in the making.
11. Tl10 cyn is Llio groat; i118!.r1111H~11I; of acqHiri11g k11owlellge.
G. ·w riLiug is a pa.rt of drnwi11g.
G. Jn the savage state, robbery stands in the place of taxation.
7. Parting is a kind of death.
8. Let tlrn great world spin forever clown the ringing grooves of
change. - TENNYSON: Locksley Hall.

...,Oiii

304

Oo1nposition-1lltetoric.

9.

Stone walls do not a prisou make,
Nor iron bars a cage.
LOVELACE: To Althea .from Prison.

10.

'Vl10 overcorneR
By force; ltatJ1 overcorne but lialf l1is foe.
l\LJLTON: Paradise Lost, J, G48.

]£ow i1fuch to Say.

305

where the very air is laden, like the bee, with sweetness, and the
south wi11d [a poetical quotation descriptive of the south wind].
The birds are carolling in the trees, a nd their shadows flit across
the will(low as they dart to antl fro in the sunshine, while the murmur oE the Lee, Uie cooi11 g o.f doves from the eaves, and tl~e whirring of a little humrniug-l>irtl that has its nest in the honeysuckle,
send up a sound of joy to meet the rising sun.

EXEROISE 134.

.E~paml tl10 following anconli11 g to tl10 clirnr.tinrrn p1'. i11tc<l
w1tlu1L the Lmekets: 1. I do not believe in violent changes. [Expand "violent" to a
cln.nse.J Nor do I expect violent clia11ges. [Express this idea in
other words at greater le11 gLlt.J Things i11 possei:;sion [repeat in
an explanat?ry clause or two "things which," etc.] have a
very firm grip. [Insert a se11 tence, beginui11g " They hold soci~ty;" et~. ] One of the sLro11gest ceme1 1ti:; of i:;ociety [i:;ubi:;titute
for "society" ;wotlter express io11 of greater length] is the convic~ion of rna1.1kincl that the sLaLe of thi11gs i11to which they are born
is a pa,rt of the order of the n11iverse. [ Adtl a comparison: "as
natural as," etc.] It is a co nviction that they will not surrender
except on compulsion; a11tl a wise society [further characterize
"society,''" a society whicl1," etc.] i:;hou ld look to it that this compulsion be Hot put upon thc111. [Add "slioul<l guard agai 11 st,'' etc.]

2. Lor<l Drongh;_tJn a11d. 111a11y oL li ern Ll1i11k Ll1at drea,111i11g occurs
only l>etwee11 sleeplllg and w:dci11g, - tlte stepping u[ the so ul into
~r out of the land of forgetfnl11ess, -aml that it is 111ome11tary in
its e~sence and action, though ranging over a lifetime or more. [A
~~etIC~l quotat~on. i1Justrati11g the brevity of the (lream-period.J
lh:ire is rnncl~ lll favor _o[ this. One l1opes tl1e sonl [a bric£ quotat10n_ expressrng the mmble, ethereal cha,racter of t he soul] may
somet1111es sleep the dreamless sleep of health, as well as its tired
drudge.
3. It is a bea11tifol 111 orn iu g i11 .J1rne, - so beautiful that I alrnost
f'.1'11cy m~self in Spa.in. Th e t·. essellaJ.e(l sha(lo w 0 [ tlte honeys uckle
hes mot10nlei:;s upon the floor, a,s if it were a figure iu the carpet;
an_d through the open wintlow comes the fragrance of the wildbner and the mock-ora11ge, reminding 011e of that soft., sm 111 y clime

EXERCISE 135 .

SLLHly the followi11g closely and write fully wlrn,t it suggests to you. Give all that it implies as well as all that it
expresses.

On First Looking into Chap1nan's Homer.
Much have I travell'd in the realms of gold,
And many goodly states and kingdoms seen:
Hound many western islands have I been
Which barcls in fealty to Apollo hold.
Oft of one w ide expanse hatl I been told
That deep-brow'd Homer ruled as his demesne :
Yet did I never breathe its pure serene
Till I heard Chapman speak out loud and bold:
Then felt I like some watcher of the skies
\Vheu a new planet Rwi ms into hi s ken;
Or lik e stout Cortez when with eagle eyes
He stared at the Pacific - and all his men
Look'd at each other with a wild surmise Silent, upon a peak in Darien: - KEATS.
[The following questions will be found suggestive : What were
the "realms of gold" in which Keats feigned to have travelled?
vVhat is meant by "western islands,'' and in what sense are they
l1 ehl by bards i n fealty to Apollo? Over what realm can Homer
be said to rule ? vVhat reason for calling him " <leep-browed "?
\Vliat is suggested to you by "pure serene,'' and how is it appropria,te as applied to Homer's poetry? In what sense do the drawings in Chapman's Homer "speak out loud and bold"? Read the
following from Robertson's llislory of Jbnerica, which was one of

30G

How Much to Say.

Co?nposition-Bhetoric.

Sometimes an apt quotation, an allusion, or a proverb may
take t h e l)l::tce of a large n,mount of explanatory matter.

Keats's school-books, and consider how the "wild s urmise" of
BallJoa's rn en co u!J prope rly Le co111pare1l to the poet's fo eli11gs
on first seeing Chapman's illustrations of H omer: "At le11 gLh the
Jmfot11s a::;:;ure<l them that from the top o[ Lite next rnoti11taia they
should discover the ocean which was the object of their wishes.
·when, with i111inite toil, they ha<l cli1nbed up the greater part
of that steep asce11t, Balbo:t [uot Cortez: Keats's memory played
him false] co mmanded his men to halt, and advanced alone to the
summit, that he mig ht be the first who should e11j oy a spec tacle
which h e ha<l so ]0 11g Llesirccl. As soo n as he liL) l1 el<l tlio So uth
Sea stretchin g in endless prospect below him, he fe ll on 11 is knees,
a11d, lifting up his luwds to heaven, returned thanks to Goll, who
had conducted him to a discovery so benefi cial to his country, and
so honorable to himself. llis followers, obse rvin g his transports
of joy, rushed forward to join iu his wonder, exultation, and gratitude ."]

An eloquent scholar has said, that ancient literature was ~he
ark in which all the civili zation of the world was preserved dunng
th e deluge of barbarism. vVe confess it. But we do not read
that Noah thou ght himself bound to live in the ark after the deluge h ad subsided. vVhen our a ncestors first began to .consi~e r the
study of the classics as the principal part of educat10n, little or
notlti 11 o· ·worth r eading was to be found in any modern language.
Cil'(.: un7.'3trt11 ces h ave coufesseJly changed. ls it not possible that
a chan ge of syste m may be desirable? - MACAULAY: The London
University.

Condensation in a paragraph or essay may he furth ered
by cutting out the parts that merely explain, or connect'. or
qualify the main idea. Such parts can often be spared without harm to the intelligibility of the whole.
The value of condensation appears when we wish to report fo r th e benefit of one who has not r ead it the principal
ideas of a book, a speech , or a magazine article. In this
work the problem is to find the important thoughts and to
r eport them with the same relative importance which th~y
hn,ve in the original. 'rhe danger is that the latter part will
be more condenseu th::i,11 the beginning. All p::trts shoulu
be condensed on the same scale. The following shows a
condensation of a portion of a magazine article : -

LESSON 37.

Condensation.
A process the direct opposite of expansion is necessary
when writing on the less important points of a p::tragraph
or an essay. These neecl to be compressed into briefer compass than th e important points. One w:1y of condensi ng is
seen in the following varngraph , in which the writer h::i,s
reuuced a sentence to a participial construction attached
to the next sentence. 111 the same way a sentence is reduced to a clause or phrase and attached. to another related
sentence.
Never did poet have a truer companion, a sincerer spiritual
h elpmate, th an J\fr. Bryant in Jiis wife. RPfineil i'.n tnste, mul elevated ·in thrmy!if, she was char:tderize1l alike by goodness and gentleness . J\lodest in h er ways, she liveu wholly fo r him; his welfare,
his happiness, l1is fame, were t he chief oLjects of her ambition.
To smooth his pathway, to cheer his spirit, to harmonize every
discordant elem ent of life, were purposes for the acco tnplishmeut
of which uo sacrifice on her part could be too great.

307

{

J

l·
!

ORIGINAL.

CONDENSATION.

After two wh ole generations it seems
as if some increase of genuine reasonableness of thought and action in all
el:\sRes of t.l1 c p opnlation ought to bo
discernible. Many persons, howeve r, fail
to see in th e actual co nduct of th e various
classes of society the evidence of increasing rationality. These sceptical observers complain that people in general, taken

While it ought see mingly to be one of the
effects of education to
ma.kc people think and
act 111ore reasonably,
there is no evidence of
increasing rationality
among the great mass
of the people. They

f'ffi

308

· "''"WSW' ·

z·

t

i'

Co mpos it ion-Rhetoric.

in m asses with prope r exclusion of exceptional in d ividu a li:;, are 11 a rdly more reaso nable in the co nd uct of life than t hey were
before free schools, pop ul a r co lleges, a11d
the cheap pri11 Lin g-press existed . . . .
They co lllp lain th at in sp ite of ernry
effort to e1di,ghLe n t he wl1 0Je body of I. he
people, all so rts of qu acks a1J d i 111posLors
thrive, a nd t hat one pop11lar del11 sion
or sopl1 is m succeeds :w oL11 cr, !.l1 P. h r~s t;
ncl11<:al.1:d classc)s co11 Lr il111 Li11 g- 1.IH !il' 1'1111
p ropo rtion of th e <lei mlcd. Th us the
astrologe r i11 t he 1\li<lLlle Ages wa s a r are
pe rso nage and usually a tlepe11Llcnt of
princes; but now he ad vert;ises in Ll1 e
pop ular newspape rs all d flourishes as
never befo re. 1\ le11 a nd wo111en of a ll
classes, 11 0 m aLLer wh at t heir education,
seek ad vice on grnvc matters fro Ill cla.irvoya11 ts, seers, Chri stia n scienti sts, miudcure practitione rs, bone-sette rs, Indian doctors, and fort u11 e-tellers . - C. \ ·V . E 1.1 0 T:
tV!terein l'up ulw· Educal-ion lt as F aded,
F ornm, 14 : 412.

][ow J.11.ucli to 8ay.

act from impulse, passion, prejudice, rather
t h::\.ll upo n sober reflection, very m uch as
people did Lefore free
schools we re in ve11 ted.
They fa ll a prey to delusions, sophistry, claptrap, and h umbug, as
casily as eve r, a1Hl tli e
l11:sl. c:cl11c :aLc)d cl :tHHUH
co ntribute a large port ion of Lhe deluded.
(~ uack s allll in1 post0l's
of eve ry ki nd flourish
as l ux uriaa tl y as in
t he l\fi Lhlle Ages, a nd
h are the ad vantage of
bein g able to ad verti se
in cheap newspapers.
-

CALV I N

T H OMAS :

Citizenship and the
S clwuls, 'l'lte A lumnus,
~: 50.

ProfcHsor .Jowett, in lti s tra,11 f:ilatio11s of J'l:tto a11cl 'l'hucyuicles, re-states th e priuci p: d itleas of t he text iu brief ma.rgiual
notes. The foll owing selection from his translation of 'l'hucydides will show the ski lfoln css of his couJ.cusa.tiou: TE XT.

MARGIN.

The whole army n ow foll in to 11 tter disor<ler,
and the perplexity was so gTeat that Crom 1ieither
side co uhl Lhe pa rticulars o ( Lh e co nflict be exactly
ascer tai11 e (l. I 11 t he llay Li lll C t he co lll1in.tan tR see
more clearly ; thoug h eve n Lhen only ·w hat is going
on immediately around t hem, and that imperfec tly
- nothing of t he ba ttle as a whole. But in a

All now
beco mes
co nf usion.
Th ose heltiud press on
those befo re,
who are al-

nigh tly engagem ent, like this in which two great
a rmies fo ug ht - t he only one of the kind which
occ urred duri ng the war - who could be certain of
a nything ? The moon was bright, and t hey saw
before them, as men nat urally would in the moonligl1 t, t he fi g nres of one an other, Lut were unable
to di stin guish with ce rtain ty who was friend or
foe. L a rge bodies of heavy-arm ed tr oops, both
Athenian a nd Syrncusa11 , we re mov in g about in
a 11 a1Tow s pace ; of. t he A t heni a11s, so me were
already wtirsLed, w Iii In oLli e rs, sLi 11 u11 eo 11q ucretl ,
·were carryi11 g 0 11 the original rnove meut. A great
part of Ll1 ei r army h ad uot yet e11 gaged, but eitl1 er
had j ust 111onn ted the h eights, or were makin g th e
asce nt; a ml 11 0 one knew whi ch way to go. F or
in frout t l.iey were defeated already; t here was
110thi11 g bu t co11 (11sion, and a ll disLin ction between
t he two an11i es was lost by reaso n of t he n oise.
The victo rious Sy rac usa11s a 11 d t heir allies, who
h ad no other means of co mmunication in the darkness, cheered on t heir comrades with loud cries as
t hey received t he onset of t heir assailan ts. The
Athenia ns were lookin g about for eac h other; and
eve ry one wh o met t hem, though h e might be a
fr iend who had turn ed a11 d fled, they i magined to
be a11 c11 e 111 y. 'J'li cy kept co11sta11Ll y ask ing the
watc h wonl (for there was no other mode of knowi11 g one a nother) and t hus t hey not only caused
great co nfu sion a mong th emselves by all askin g a t
once, Lut revealed th e word to the ene my. The
watchword of the Syrac usans ·was not so liable to
be discovered, because, bein g victori ous, they kep t
toge tli er, a nd were more easily recog nized. So
that wh en t hey we re enco nn tered Ly a snperior
number of the enemy they, ]mowi ng the Athenian
watchword , escapeLl ; lmt t he A th enians in a like
case, failin g to answer the ch allenge, were killed.
Most disastrous of all we re t he mistakes caused by
the so und of the P rean, which, t he same being

309
ready turning back.
The m oonli ght, the
dense
m asses, th e
narrow
space, th e
w atchword,
the P man,
co11 Lri\111 t.o Lo

the ro ut.
Friends attack fri ends.
Many throw
themselves
fro111 the
cliffs, leaving
t heir arms
behind;
others m iss
t heir way in
the dark and
are cut off.

310

Composition-Blwtorie.

heard 111 both armicR, waR a g-reat; sonrcc of perplexiLy.
Fur Ll1crn wern i11 Lhn li:d.Lln J\rgiv eR,
Corcyra~a n H, and oLhcr l>ori:i.11 al li e::i of Ll1c J\tl1cnia11 s, aml w heu they rai sed l,he Prc:m Lhcy inspired as much alarm as the euerny themselves;
so that; iu many parts o:f the army, when the coufosion had once begun, i1 ot 011ly did frie11ds terrify
frienrls and citize11s their fe ll ow-citizens, but tl1ey
attacketl one another, a111l were with diflic11lty tlisc11kt11glc<l.
Tl1 e grcaf;cr i11111ili~r oJ' Lliof:!u wl10
were pnrsue1l and killed perished IJy throwing
tltemRelvcs :from the cliffs; for t.hc <lcscc11t from
Epipohe is by a narrow path. The fugitives who
reached the levei ground, eRpecially those who had
served in the former army a11d knew t he 11eighborhood, mostly escaped to the camp. But o:f the
newly arrived many missed their way, and, wanclcring- ahout 1111tiJ daybreak, were then cnl; off by
t.hn S,Yrac11sa11 cavalry who wen! :-H.:ulll'i11g l,]w country. -Vll, 4'1.

To condense, omit such subordinate ideas as can be spared, and
express others in briefer constructions. Bear in mind the uses of
quotation, allusion, and proverb. In condensing a long article, be
careful to preserve the relative importance of the ideas.
EXERCISE li!G.

Cut out of the following as many of the words as can be
spared: You and I as well are teaching in ungraded schools of no small
atte11<la11ce. ,y,\ Lliernfnrc 11c<~il so111<~ Li111c-savi11g 1lnvice, an<l also
some source of ready help. J•'or we Jmve bunlcued ourselves and
our successors as well with both useless and avoidable duties. For
example, we · ha,ve been i11 the habit o:f forming new classes to
suit the condition o:f our irregular pupils, instead o:f adapting the
irregular pupils to classes already in operation. vVe are conse-

I-low ilfueh to Say.

311

q11Putly over-brirdened with labor and gain nothing by it. We
thus have our time co11s1u11ed to 110 profit, while at the same time
we despair over the coufused condition of affairs in our classes.
Now, then, I see no remedy so long as we continue utterly to
· ignore the necessity of an established and well-ordered course of
study which shall likewise be permanent from year to year, and
uniform too in all of the uugraded schools throughout the state.
'Vhat would such a course of study ensure? First of all and foremost of all, it \Vould introduce regularity o:f classes in schools
which do 11ot have reg11larity 11ow. In the second place, it would
furnish the teacher with a plan o:f work that would be easy to follow. Again, it would tend to prevent the teacher from favoring
certain studies at the expense of other studies, and this too, let me
say, is a real evil in many country schools where arithmetic,. being
t l;e favorite study of the teacher, receives the bulk of the time of
the school, little else being taught. Last, but not least, a pupil
comi ncr from one school to another could find his proper place
wit.ho17t tronble or dclny. Also, the work being alike in all
8C hoolH, Ll1eru could 11ot bo a11 irrng11lar pupil in auy of them.
EXERCISE 137.

Condense the following : Philatelists must in future content themselves with real specimens of stamps, the law having d eclared that it is illegal for any
on e to possess a die for counterfeiting them, even though the intention be the most innocent in the world. Mr. Upcott Gill had
one of these articles for imitating a Cape o:f Good Hope stamp,
but when the government officials summoned him to the Bow
Street Court, Sir John Bridge held that they had no case, as the
die was not to be used for an llnlawful purpose. The Court o:f
Queen's Bench has decided otherwise, and sent Mr. Gill back to
t,hc 111agistrate to lie Hued. lt was held by the j ndges of the higher
tribunal that the eagerness of philatelists to know all about stamps
and to gaze on imitations of what they do not possess in reality,
is not an excuse for the possession of a die, and the reasonableness
of that finding· will hardly be disputed. A man may order one to
be made in all innocence, but nobody knows into whose hands it

313

Cvmpos'itivn-llhetvric.

I-low Much to Say.

may ultilllately fall for uefario1rn nsc. Jn Mr. Gill's case there
was, of course, 110 insinuati on thaf; hi s 1n otive was anything except
the laudable one of i11 structing the puLlic, but this is a kind of
education at which the law, in the interests of the national reve nue,
looks askaucc. Under tltese circn111sta11ces Sir .Toh11 Uridge merely
infli cted the nominal penalty of ten shillings. The case will be
interesting to th e large army of philatelic enthusiasts as defm1ug
limits beyond which they must not pass. -London Daily Telegraph.

or to receive any one who does not possess some special. qualifications to be enrolled in its ranks. - London Saturday Review.

312

'Vhat originally co1rntit.nf.c<l n. rig-ht; to be in good socir,Ly in
England liar; Leen Llir;ca!'llccl. Birth and rank count for nothing,
unless th ey bring with th em int.o the great market of society other
claims to success; and the best claim to be a leader of fasbionable
society in England is to b e able to provide the greatest amount of
amusement. Every man a11d w011mn arc expected to contribute
·their mite to the common fond of amusement, and those who contribute the largest amount are the acknowledged h eads of society.
It is impossibl e that it should be otherwise; for agricnltmal distress - depreciation in the value and r eutal of land-has l>rokeu
down the territorial aristocracy of England, and the moneyed aristocracy has tak en its place. The growi11g size of society, the lu xury, and the variety of a muse ments it offers, are some of the
indications that it is based upon wealth; for such a society could
never have come in to existence i11 a purely aristocratic, and therefore a poorer, cornmunity.
'Vhe.t,hcr it is an ideal state or not is hardly a matter over which
we need agitate onrselves. Tlrnt it is much more amusing, much
more interesting, than the society which it has superseded there
can be no doubt. There is less restraint, more sense of enjoyment,
and we get much better value for our pains and money than in the
clays when a cold excl usiveness constituted the distinctive mark of a
good but very dull society. It niay seem a somewhat sweepiHg assertion to say that th ere is not such a tl1iug as good society in this
fin-de-si ecle Linic; lmt Lhcrn is r.c~rL:Linly 11rn1e in Ll1 c se11so in wl1ich
our predecessors u11Llersto0Ll it; aud could they but look for a moment upon modern English life, they would be amazed. 'Vhat was
simply an aristocratic caste has been swept away, and the heterogeneous mass which now calls itself good society is, at any rate,
clever and sharp enough not to be beguiled by any will-o'-the-wisp,

EXERCISE 138.

Read one of the selections from the list in Appendix C.
As you read make careful note of the leading ideas; ?onnect these in a single paragraph, omitting all illustrations
a,ncl explau :1.tio11s.

What Not to Say.

CHAPTER VIL
WHAT NOT TO SAY.

LESSON 38.

Digressions.

THERE is always a teiuloncy, as we write, to forget the
exact topic on ·which wo am writ;ing, nml to :t(lmi1; to a pboo
in our composition se ntouces, aud sometimes even whole
paragraphs, which, while they may have something to do
with the general subj ect on which we are writing, have little
or nothing to do with the particular part or phase of the
subject set before us for discussion. It is hard to stick to
our t ext. vVe are apt to be turned aside from our direct
pnrpose n,nd to wander in a long digression far away from
the topic. We stop to tell a story only r emotely connected
with our theme, or, having made an allusion perhaps fittingly
enough, we explain it in unnecessary detail.
The following paragntph from De Quincey illustrates t he
most frequent violation of unity - inclmling matter which
should be dropped altogether, or taken out and organized
hy itself.
1. "\Vlrnt r eason is there for taking np this subject of ,Joanna
precisely in the spring of 18117 '? 2. ]\light it not have b een left; till
the sprin g of 1947; or, perhaps, left till called for'? 3. Yes, but
it is called for; and clamorously. 4. Yo u are a\rnre, reader, that
amoug tli<:l many original t hinkers wh om modern France has
314

315

produced, one of the reputed leaders is M. Michelet. 5. All these
writers are of a revolutionary cast; not in a political sense merely,
but in all senses; mad, oftentimes, as March hares; crazy with the
Jaughill g-gas of recovered liberty; drunk with the win e-cup of
th eir migl1 ty revolu tio n; s norLin g, whinnying, throwing up their
h eels like wild horses in the bon11dless pampas, and run11iug races
of defiance with snipes, or with the winds, or with their own
shadows, if th ey can f'ind 11othi11 g else to challenge. 6. Some time
or otl1 er I, t.hat kwe leisure to read, may introduce you, that have
no t, Lo two or Lhree dozen of these writers; of wl1 om 1 can assure
you beforeha11d, that they are often profound, and at intervals are
eve n as i111pass io11 ed as if t hey were come of our best English
blood. 7. But now, confining our attention to M. Michelet, we in
Engfa11d who know him best by 11is worst book, the book against
priests, etc. -know him disadv a ntageously. 8. That book is a
rh apsody of incoherence. D. Uut his" History of France" is quite
another t hing. 10. A m a n, in whatsoever craft he sails, ca11not
stretch away out of sig ht when lie is linked to the windings of
the shore by towing-ropes of history. 11. Facts and the consequences of facts draw the writer back to the falconer's lure from
the giddies t heights of spec ulation. 12. Here, therefore, - in his
"Fra nce," - if not always free from fli ghtiness, if now a nd then
off like a rocket for an airy w h eel in the clouds, M. Michelet, with
natural politeness, n ever fo rgets that h e has left a large a udience
waitin g for him on earth, a ucl gazing upwaJ::d in anxiety for his
return: return, therefore, h e does . 13. But history, though clear
of ce rtain temptations in one direct_ion, has separate clangers of
its own. 14. It is impossible so to write a history of France, or of
England - works becoming every hour moi"e indispensable to the
in ev itably political m an of this day -without p erilous openings
for error. 15. If I , for i11 sta11ce, on the part of En gland, should
happen to t nrn my labors in to that channel, and (on the model of
Lortl J'erey gui1 1g Lu Chevy Cliai.m)
" A vow to Gou should make
My pleasure iu the Michelet woods
Three summer days to take,''

probably, from simple delirium, I might hunt M. Michelet into
delirium tremens. 16. Two strong angels stand by the side of his-

316

Composition-Rhetoric.

What Not to Say.

tory, whether French history or English, as heraldic supporters:
the angel of research on the left hand, that must read millions of
<lusty parchments, a nd of pa g es Llotte<l w ith lies; the angel of
meditation o n the r .ight l1ant1, tl1at urns t clean se these lying records
with fire, even as of oltl the drapuri eR of asfi<'sfos were clea11serl, and
must quicke n th e m into r eg e n e rnLed life. 17. ' ·Villi11gly J aclrnowledge that 110 man will e ve r avoid innumerable errors of detail;
with so vast a compass of grou 11tl to traverse, this is impossible;
but such errors (though I have a Lushe l on hand, at J\f. Michele t's
Rervic1!) n,r() 1101; U1e ga111P T cd1aH1~; ii. iN f.1111 l1il;l,l'r a11d 11111':1.ir HpiriL
i11 wliieh 1\1. J\liel1ulet wriLrn-; agai.11 HL E11gfa11J. 18. Even t!tat, after
all, is but my secondary object; the real one is .Toamia the Pncelle
d'Orlcans for h ei·self.

Condensed and stripped of digressions, what the paragraph stands for is this: "One reason for ta.king up this subject of Joanna now, is that l\L J\ li eJ1e.Jet, in his IIislor.1J of
France, while treating of this same subj ect, writes against
England in a bitter and unfair spirit. 'l'hat,, however, is
only a secondary reason; the real one is Joanna the Pucelle
d'Orleans for herself." ·where and how De Quincey has digressed from this theme is shown in the following analysis.
I.
llfain Tlumie.

1- :3. 811 ujcct of .J oam1a called for.
4. Michelet

7, 8. Michelet
9. l\Iichelet's History of France a. good
book.

II.
Slight lhy1'cssion.

JJT.

S erious Digression.

a leading French
thinker.

5, G. All origin al
thinkers of modem
France revolutionary,
but profound and impassiouctl.
known in England by
his worst book.

317
10, 11. History \:loes
not adm it of wild
flights of speculation.

12. M:ichelet's History ad.heres in the
main to facts.
13, 14. History h as
openings for error.
15. De Quincey, if
he wiRhr.d, con ld foul
errors in .M.ichclcl's

History.
10. The two angels
that stand by the side
of history.
17. No historian will
ever avoid error.
17. De Q n inc cy's
object of attack is
the bitter and unfair
spirit in which Michelet writes.
18. Even that is a
secondary object; the
primary obj ect is Joanna for h erself.

The matter in the first column is clearly pertinent to the
theme of the essay, as well as to the theme_ of the_pn.ragrap~ .
That- in the second column might be retamed without s~n­
ou~ ,offence against unity. But the matter in the thud
with the
theme of the
co] umn ]·s so i·e1notely connected
·
.
h
pu.ragrnph, and some of it so little pertment even ~o t e
t1 1e1ne o·f tl1e
, e"s"y
,, '" ' thn.t
' it must be regardetl ·as senously
· l_
.
.
A consiclerable part of the matter lll the
cligress1ve.
h tlnn
the
column might be used to form a separate paragrap on
general character of lVIichelet's I-H story of France, were such
a paragraph desirable.
The following paragraph, after the first sentence, is a

318

Uomposition-Bhetvric.

1Vliat Not to Say.

series of lligressicms, each receding a li tt;]e fartltcr from the
pro per s u IJ j ect of rewark than its foregoer. 'l'he relation
of the cligressions to the topic-sontellce and to one another is
shown by the clegree of irnleution. 1

"What woulcl be lost if I should strike them out?" Especially Le ou your guarcl against the temptation to retain
"fine passages."
4. If digressions are discovered, consider whether the
d igressive matter should be dropped altogether, or should
IJe taken ont aml organized Ly itself.

But what must we do with tlte sciences in schools - I mean
the eleme11 tary part of tliein?
For I hope that tl1e philosophern k now a fact which I have
already laid down, - that the a11101tnt whic h we can teach in a
school Lo Llie ordi11ary k i11d ol' l1oys, f.haL is, tlie very g reat
majority, is not much.
J [ Llic pliil0Ro1d1ers do 110L k1iow L11i ~, l.l1 ny arc 1rnfit Lo
discuss Lhe question, allll arc 11ot wortlt argui11g with.
I have already spoken of a small 1rn111ber of clever
boys in a school, who can learn anything, auJ will
learn something, w hethcr yo u teach them or not.
I write as a man should write ·who deals with
rcaliti<Js a 11d 1101. wif.11 <lrna111>1 _.: w l10 is Jook i11 g
aHer Lhe great body of boys, aml 11ot the very
stupid or the very clever.
\V-riters who fail to secure unity in their compositions
may be helped by the following suggestions: 1. Make a careful pbn before writing. One may see
reasons for modifyiug and revising tho iihn as the writillg
proceeds, Hllll one shoulcl never l1esitate to clo this, but
having a plan to follow and tryiug to follow it closely will
ltc]p great]y to :woitl offo11ecs agaiJ1st nnity.
2. When the composition is eornpleteu, test each paragraph by pluasiug in rt single sentence the main iclea for
which the paragraph stands.
3. Chall enge snspicio ns se ntm1 cc::;, arnl m[drn thern give an
account of thernsel ves. Ask p ersistently snd1 q ues tious as
"\\That Lnsiness have these sentences in the paragraph?"
1

This m ethod of indicating digressive subordi nation is adopted from
Moulton 's Lite1·m·y Study of the Bible, Appendix IV, " On the Use of the
Digression iu the Book of Wisdom."

319

To secure unity, stick to your text.

EXEH.CJSE 13!).

,l'Vliat part of the follo>ving paragraph is on a different
subject from that announced in the topic-sentence at the
beginning ?
1t is not requisite for the honor of Joanna, nor is there, in this
place, roo1 11 to p11rsnn li er brief career of action. That, though
womlcrfol, forn 1s tl1c earthly part of her sLory: Llie spiritual part
is the saintly passion of her irnprisonrnen t, trial, au<l execution.
It is unfortunate, therefore, for Southey's "Joan of A re" (which,
how ever, should always be regarded as a Juvenile effort), that, precisely when her real glory begins, the poem ends. But this limitat ion of the i11terest grew,
doubt, from the constraint inseparably
attached f;o the laws of epic unity. J·oanna's history bisects into
two opposite licmisphcres, an<l both could uot have been preseutccl
to the eye in one poem, unless by sacrificing all unity of theme, or
else by involving the earlie r half, as a narrative episode, in the
latter; wl 1icli, howev er, 111ight have been done, for it might have
been conunm1icated to a fellow-prisoner, or a confessor, by Joanna
herself. Jt is sufficient, as concerns this section of Joanna's life,
to say that she fulfilled, to the height of her prornises, the restoration of tlte prostrate throne. France had become a province of
Englaud; a nd for the ruin of both, if such a yoke could he maintained. Dreadful pecuuiary exhaustion caused the English energy
to droop; and that critical opening La Piicelle uf'e<l with a correspondin g folicity of audacity and suddenness (that were in themselves portentous) for introducing the wedge of French native
resources, for rekindling the national pride, and for planting the

no

.'

-320

!!!!!

Oomposition-lllietoric.

What Not to Say.

dauphin once more upon his feet. \Vhen J oanna appeared, he
had been on the poiut of g iving up th e strnggl e ·w ith th e Eu glish, distressed as they were, and of fl yin g to the south of France.
She taught~ him to blush for mic h auject counsels. She liuerateJ.
Orleans, that great cUy, so decisive by its fate for t he issne of t11e
war, ancl t hen belcag nercd by the En gli sh with an elaborate application of eng i11ee ri ng skill 1111prec<~ dc11 Led i 11 Eu rope. En tcring the
city a(ter s1111 scL, 0 11 Ll1e '.WLh of J\ pril, sl1 c sang a 111ass 011 S und ay,
May 8, for the entire disappearance of the besieging force. On the
2.9th of .Tun e, she fought and gained over the En glish the decisive
l 1al.l, l c ~ of l'al.ay; 011 Ll11\ !lLlt of .July, sl1 n took Troyes liy :t co upde-m ain from a mixed garrison of Euglish and Burgundians; on
the 15th of that month, she carried the danphin i11to Rheims; on
Sunday the 17th, she crowued him; and there she rested from her
labor of trinmph . All that ·was to Le done she had now accomplished: what renmi11ed was - to s 1~fl 'er.

due regard for unity, making as many paragraphs as you
think necessary.

EXERCISE l40.

In the following, two umelateLl paragraphs are wrongfully
united. ·where does the second begin ?
An amusing sLory is tol<l i n t:ihraltar of an English soldier who
lost his heart to an officer's daughter on the voyage hither from
England. Impatient to h eh ohl his sweetheart again, he set out
for h er house t he very even i11 g o( t.h c hllll i11 g, but unluckily
entered th e outer gate just as Ll1 e s un se t gu n closed th e inner
one, so the importun ate lover spent the night miserably pacing
the pavement between them. Gibraltar has fared stran gely in
the ha11ds of fort;nnc. Dedicated hy the colo11izi11 g l\foors with
an in scription i11 the castle mosque to t he "G od of P eace, the
great Pacificator," it has become the stronghold of war, and even
the quiet Franciscan co nvent has c\·olved into I.he governor's palace,
where balls and fun ction s make it gay and festive. - Cosmopolitan,
19: G24.
EXERCISE 141.

Make of the following a careful analysis by the method
suggested at the beginning of this lesson. Re-write with

321

If the happy invention of printing had been known from the
bcginni11 g, we might have had the experience of men of olden
tirn cs, who li ved ten t imes as long as I have · lived, recorded in
folios wit.hont end or octavos entlless, for it matters little, when a
Look has 110 e lld, in what shape the volumes are. And it may be
supposed that the experience of these aged men would have been
t en tim es as great as min e, and th eir books t en times as wise; hut
this] Lake t.l1 c lihcrt.y o( sayi ng would l>c a very unsafe conclusion.
lTor I n,m pretty 111uch 0£ the miud of the Roman emperor, Marcus
Aureli us, wh o says that a man who has lived forty years has seen
everything that is to be seen in the world. i think indeed that he
was onl y forty years old when he wrote this, and that if he had
written it in the last years of his life, he would have allowed a
little longer time for seeing eve rything. My own judgment is
that I have li ved long enough to see all that a man can see in the
world, and partly for this reason that men after my age see very
little ; certainly I have lived long enough to hear all that is said .
and a great deal more than is worth listening to. This mention
of .M arcns Aurelius -leads me to make a remark which the reader
ought to bear in mind all through this book, and I make it now
without considering whether it comes in the right place or not,
rnain ta i11in g, as I do most stoul;Jy, that a. good remark is always
goocl, contrary to the opinion of those interested persons who
speak of a wi se saying being spoiled by being put in the wrong
place; which piece 0£ criticism is bred of mere envy, such persons
knowin g very well that they have nothing to say that is worth the
trouble of rcmemLering. On the contrary, as I have a good many
good things to say, and as th ey come into my head quicker than
they can ru n off at the end of my pen, I am compelled to let them
come as they list;, and it is better that they should jostle one another a littl e and co me in no order at all than that the world
should lose a11 y of them. For I verily believe, and I say it in seri·
ous sadness, that big Looks are ·w ritten nowadays, in which a man
shall n ot find from Leginning to end one single clear idea, one
remark worth pocketing and keeping, or one single fact that he
did not know before, but a great many false facts, and a great

!!!I!!!!

m . -· .... -- . - - lliiiil

.

~ ....

-~

322

Co111positio'li-.lllwlo1·i1:.

ma~1y trn e facts put in a fal se lig·ltt. T miglif; go oil to me 11 tio 11
var101rn .l>oolrn ol' f.l1i8 );i11<l, :1.11'1 I 111iglif, cvrn 1 f.\dl t,liPir 11 a 11108 , if l
wcr,e s_p1Lefol euou~h aud if J did uot think more of doillg good
myself 1,hau exposmg those who do l1ann. ll ut l,o cnt this matter
sh~rt and 11ot t~ clo lik e ~o rn a ny who nm away from th.cir subject
a~ if th ey ktll fo'.·goLLc n it or were ashauied o[ it, I w:i,s speaking
of J\:larcus Anrelrns, a nd of wl1at he sairl about cxperifrn ce. J now
say that this good e1'.1per or adually says wltat l say that he says ;
and so all t~Hc.rngh tlns Look, w li eu 1. tell the reader that any wise
man has said anythi11g lw m ay liclir!vc t l1at I tell l1im Ui e f;rnth I
Aud I ask 11 i111 Lo believe m e because J tell 11i111 so, ant! 110 t tu
cl~ubt because he does uo t see an exact reference to each passage
with book and chap ter 11arne1l , an(l sometim es Greek and Latin
and other languages printed with occasio11al mistakes ; and h 0 w
mnch trouble this l1a.s caused the priuter, aucl whether it J1as 110 t
so_rnetimes alrnost brou g ht; an oath even out of a pious printer, I
w1l~ not sa.r:. B ~tt ~11 e tlti11g I will say - and this is the way of
sayrng a tluug fo rcilil y-0 11 e tltin g l will s:ty, wl1iclt is this: J
know from 111y own cxpcriorH :l:, a11rl 111y own cx11cri(:11ec is Lli e lrns l;
part of rny lrnowlellge, f.11a t tlwsc learned refercuces are as often
wrong as right in the books of all tli e second-hall(l dealers in learning ; and I say it with g reat g ri ef, that these poachers on other
rne u's lands a re not near so useful as old clothesmen, for these fellow~ can~ at least a genuin e arti cle in their bags a nd have paid
for ~t, be it ever so tattered aucl worn; and they are very much on
the mcrease, I ~nean the poaehers; and I know nothing short of
an act
Parhameu_t that is likely to stop them, unless people
should give over buyrng t heir books, which I am di sposed to thiuk
would come to th~ same thing as not allowing them to be printed.
I h ave auother tlnng to say aud th eu I have clone with this matter
an~ it is this, - that the learn eel au th ors to whom these learned
wnters of our days r efer often coutraclict them, from which comes
the couclusion, that our fine scholar either never looked at the
passage to wl1ieh li e refors or f.liaf; li n co11l1l 1101; 1111dcrs tn.ntl it.
NoLhing of tlii_s kind will Le fonntl liere. .L shall not quote any
.. learn~d man without looking into !tis book; and as to my unders ta11dm~g wh~t th e book says, I trust that no reader will have got
so far Ill tins address without placi11g full confideuce in me. I
have already told the reade r that I am a learn ed m an, and I am

r-

--- llilll .

w

Wltat Not to Say;

323

not asham ed of it, and I will not deny it; and before he has read
1.l1ro11gh f,hi s hook, l hope tliat T shall liave convinced ltim that I
am a man of sense, which is rather better than bein g a learned
man; or at any rate if it is not better, I will say this, that learning
witliont sense, if the thing is possible, is not worth half as much
as learning and sense together; ~nd lastly I earnestly wish t he
reader to believe, and I shall try to convince him of that too, that
I am an hones t man, and I think this is worth more than learning
and sense together, though I think that an honest man should
have some se nse, and for my part l wonlcl not trust his honesty if
I could not trust his souse.

LESSON 39.

Incoherence.

Closely connected with the question of unity, lww to
stick to t l1 e t ext, is the qncstion of coherence, how to make
the ]Jarts of a composition hang together. I11cohereuce in·
a composition r esults most often from a lack of careful planning at the outset. Successive paragraphs in an incoherent
composition do not show logical relationship to one another,
and the same may be true of successive sentences within a
paragraph. vVhen a sentence is unduly prolonged, it is
quite likely to lack coherence; the parts do not hang together well.

o!

.

.>

Upon the return from CaJes without success, though all the
ships, and, upon the matter, all the men were seen, (for though
some had so surfeited in the vineyards, and with the wines, that
they had been left behind, the generosity of the Spaniards had '
sent them all home again;) and though by that fleet's putting in
at Plymonth, 11 ear two lrnnclred miles from London, there could
be but very imperfect relations, and the news of yesterday was
contradicted Ly the morrow; besides that the expedition h ad been
undertaken by the advice of the parliament, and with an universal '
approbation of the people, so that nobody could reasonably speak
loudly against it; yet, notwith standing all this, the ill success was

-324

-

Composition-1lhctoric.

What Not to Say.

heavily borne, and imputed to ill conduct; the principal officers
of the fleet :.tll<1 army divided amongst theLUselves, and all united
in their murmurs against the general, the Lord Viscount \Vimbledon; \Vho, th~:mgh an old officer in Hollan cl, was never thought
equal to the enterprise. - CLARENDON: I-listoi·y of the Rebellion,
I, 70.

The attempt to have a sentence say too much frequently
leads to confusion, making the main idea hard to find.

'fhc same clanger which Lesets the paragraph, of forgetting the exact topic and putting m something irrelevant,
besets the sentence also.
In the United States every male child that is born has a chance,
though 1t0I; an C<I ua.I chance, .fin· so111e <11'('. 11atumll_1; more .IJU~ed
than tlteir fellows wit!i a genius for success, though ow· Constitution
says t!tey are not, of becomi11g tlte foremost person in his city, i.11
his state, or in the community at ltirge.

325

Of the French town, properly so-called, in which the product of
successive ages, not without lively touches of the present, are
blended together harmoniously with a beauty specific - a beauty
cisalpiue and northern, yet at the same time quite distinct from
the massive German picturesque of Ulm, or Freiburg, or Augsburg,
and of which Turner has found the ideal in certain of his studies
of the rivers of France, a perfectly happy conjunction of rivet·
and town beiug of the essence of its physiognomy- the town of
Auxerre is perhaps the most complete realization to be found by
the actual wanderer.

This confusion not infrequently shows itself in involved
clauses, -wh~els within wheels, -which are to be avoided.

There is also the danger of over-crowding a sentence with
details which, though pedu1ps relevant, are so munerons as
to make the thought hard to follow. 'fhe third sentence
below is over-crowded with details about Dryden, which
would better have been omi t;te<l or taken out and orgauize<l
into a sentence by themselves.

In the crowd near the door there was found upon the ground a
hat, in the inside whereof there was sewed upon the crown a paper,
iu which was writ four or five lines of that declaration made by
the house of commons in which they had styled the duke an
enemy to the kingdom, and under it a short ejaculation or two
towards a prayer. - CLAHENDON: History of the Rebell-ion, I, 51.

1. Davies is remembered for his philosophical poem, the earliest
of the ki11<1 in the language. 2. Jt is wriLteu in rhyme, iu the
common heroic ten-syllable verse, I.mt disposed in quatrains. 3. No
other writer has managed this ditlicult stanza so successfully as
Davies: it has the disadvantage of requiring the sense to be in
general closed at certain regularly and quickly recurring turns,
which yet are very ill adapted for an effective pause; and even all
the skill of Dryden has been un:tble to force it from a certain air
of mouotony and languor, - a circumstance of which that poet
may be supposed to have been hirnself se1rnihle, since he wholly
aLantloned it after oue or two early attempts. 4. Davies, however, has conquered its difficulties; and, as has been observed,
"perhaps no lauguage can produce a poem, extending to so great
a length, of more condensation of thought, or in which fewer languid verses will be found."

'fhe involution of clauses in the foregoing sentence may
be imlicatc<l thus : (a) There wn,s found a hat
(b) in the inside whereof there was a paper
(c) in which was writ four or five lines of that declaration made by the house of commons
(d) in which they had styled the duke an enemy
to the kingdom.
There mn,y be so many things mentioned in a sentence
that the reader cannot tell just what the sentence-topic, is.
Such a sentence is said to be heterogeneous.
His [King Charles's] inclination to his i:ew cup-~earer _[Villiers]
disposed him to administer frequent occas10n of d1scoursmg of the

.

_____

. - ... =-== '="--.,...,= --.,.,.........- - - -------.....-

326

,

Oomposition-.lllwtoric.

What Not to Say.

court of France, and t h e transaction s there, with which he had
been so lately acquainted, t hat. li e could pertinently enlarge upon
that subject, to Ll1e kin g's great delight, and to the gaining the
esteem and value 0£ all the standers-by to himself: which was a
thing the kin g >vas well pleased with. He :tcted very few weeks
upon this stage, wh en lt e mounted higher; and being knighted,
without any ot her q nal iJication, he was al; the sarne time made
gentle man of the betlclia111b cr and lrnigl1t of the order of the
garter j anc I in a short tin ie (very sh ort for such a prodigious
asce1it) li e . r·~ made ~ har~n, .a viscount, an earl, a l ~iarqni~, and
heca111c lore l11 g h adll11ra.l. o l. l•, ngla11J, lortl warLlen o( the crnque
ports, master of the horse, and entir ely disposed of all the graces of
the king, in confe rring all the h onors and a ll the otlices of three
kingdoms, without a rival; in dispensing whereof, he was guided
more by t he rules of appet.ite than of judgme11t; and so exalted
almost; all of hi s own nu111 ero11s family and dependants, whose
greatest merit was their alli a nce to him , which equally offended
the ancient 11obility, and the people of all conditions, who saw the
flowe rs of tlie crown every dity fading and witlt.cred; wl1il st the
demesnes and r evenue ther eof were sacrificed to the enriching a
private family (how well soever originally extracted) scarce ever
heard of before to the nation; and the expenses of the court so
vast and unlimited, that t hey h ad a sad prospect of that poverty
and necessity, which afterwards befell t.lie crown almost to tlie ruin
of it. - CLA l tENDON: Histor.11 of the R ebellion, T, 18.

Coherence will be proinoted by maki11g the princi1H1l
chnse read as follows: "1-:le heard a low, faint titteriug,
which scemecl to come fr0111 the interior of the earth."
One n eeds to be cautious a.bout appending a phrase or
clause to a sentence as if by an afterthought.

327

Though he stood on the very spot where Leonidas and his h andful of Greeks had repulsed the Persian hosts and stayed the tide of
Oriental barbarism, he could thiuk of nothing but his lost umbrella
and he could call up no sentiment more noble than a desire to be
' seated, clothed and in his right mind, in a fhst-class hotel before a
good hot dinner, which is not an uncommon experience fol' tourists.

'l'he words of reference, especially the pronouns, need
careful attention. The writer should see that every one of
his words of reference points with unerring accuracy to the
word or expression to which h e wishes to refer. Common
errors are the use of their for its 1 (a word in the singular
preceding) and there is for there are (a word in the plural
followinr·).
I A fortune of $ 118,000 is hanging on the grammatical construction of a
single word, in the superior court of San Francisco. A jury, among :"horn
there is not a school-teacher or any one claiming to be au authonty on
grammar, Imel, up to a week ago [Jan. 12, 189G], devoted 12. days to the
cousid eration of the point, and at last account the case was still unsettled.
The learned judge and some half dozen high-priced lawyers had been helping to dise11 tangle the intricacies of the problem.
The prize depends on the exact meaning of the word " their" as it
appears in a clause in a contract. It is plain that the word is a pronoun,
staudin" for an antecedent noun in the sentence, but there are two such
This is the $ 118,000
11 onns, ~111.l tho point is as to which it refers.
se11lo11co: -

A suudcn antl uu expncLcJ. clw.11 gc of suujcct in a sentence
is a 11iuurance to cohes ion.
As li e paused 011 the crest of the hill, lookin g foolishly abont
J1im anfl wond c ri11 g· vv11cre Iii ::; torn1e11t.or could l1 :wc hidde n he rself, a low faiut tittering was lteanl, which seemed to come from
the interior of th e eartli.

--

Aud at their option the Adams company is to have the use of all the
machinery and coal hoistiug appliances now in use by the Southem companies.
I

i

I

I

Th e Southem companies referred to have the money which is at stake,
and if the· jury decide that the "their" refers to them they will keep it.
If they hold that" their" refers to the Adams company, then the .Adams
company will get it. The sentence occurs in a contract by which ~he
Adams company was to unload all the coal ships of the Southern P~c1fic
Railroad company for five years. The Adams company owned machm?~Y
for unloading the coal, but it broke down, and then the ~ou.thern Pa?1fic
company's machinery was used, tile Adams company clairnmg the ng~1t
to use it by virtue of the clause quoted. After the contract had run six
months the Southern Pacific's machinery also broke down, and the Adams
company alleged that the Southern people ought to repair it. The South-

&&±

328

a

ill ..

"

=

•

Ouniposition-llhetoric.

Wliat Not to Say.

In the following the writer has been careful to use the
word "it" to refer to but oue thing throughout the p~ua­
graph.

especially of classical learning," proceeds as follows: (1) the
idea of learning in general is carried from sentence to
sentence by means of the synonymous expressions "literature," "learning," "literature, ancient as well as modern,"
and the allied expression " learned men" ; (2) the idea of
classical learning is similarly carried on by literal repetition of the words "classical learning," and by the synonymous expression "scholarship," and the allied expression
"scholars." (3) 'L'J1e pronoun "it" is used to carry on now
one now the other of these ideas. In the illustration the first
series of roforcnce words is put in small capitals, the second
in italics, and the word "it" is in small capitals or italics
according as it takes the place of the first or of the second.

If t~e.re _Js such a thing as a prose poem, the grnndest example
thereof _is 1· \ _o lll: l :rng~nage: jf; js Carlyle's Frenclt Rr.uoltttion. Jn
co11ccpt10n . 1s Epic; lll vocaLulary Cyelopie, in executio n 'l'iLa11ic.
It sta11~s al on~. It is strange, marvellous, solitary. It has nothing
about it that 1s cxe 111plary or propagative; it m:i.y Le admired, hut
it cannot be i111itated. 1L ltas 110 advice for the sLudeuL but Lu
wonder n.1111 sl".a11<l aloof. H is a11<l 11111 sf; remain 1111in 11 e · 'll'olific
. •. .
l
'1
' .t
1" 1s 110L, 1elo11 g i11 g Lo 110 species; .iL iH a /11ws 1wllt1 ·w, a str:t11ge
and happy sport, a chanceli11g in Nature. - EARLE : English
Prose, 165.

'l'lte main iJea of a paragraph is kept prominent, and
coherence thus h elped, by repeating it literally or in synonymous express ion s al; V[trio11R poinl;s in tho paragraph.
In the following paragraph, for example, Weuster, Jesiring
to k eep attention fixed upon the idea "the value of learning,
em objected and insisted that as lon g as it used the machinery the Adams
company sho11ld k eep it in ord e r. Th e troubl e thickened, and finally tlie
South e rn comp:wy t11rn crl the Ada111s co rn11a11 y out an1! got another concern to unlo:vl the coal. Then the Adarns comJ1a11y hrnught suit to recover
$ 118,000 , th e profit " ·hich would ha ve been made had the contract run its
a g reed leng th.
It is said t hat the Southern Paciflc company's lawyer did not see the
possibilities in the qu ee r bit of g rammrtr until long after liti gation had
been begun. It was admitted in the firs t answer to the snit, that the
Adams company had the option of usi ng the Southern Paci.fie co1ilpany's
rnachi11 cry. nut the latter co111pa11y 11ow rests the e ntire case 011 U1 e conte ution that the word "their" meant the Southern compa1des anu not the
Adams company. In the scnt<~n ce 111ulc r dispute appcat· the words" Adams
company is," a111l the So11ther11 co111pa11ics claim that the won!" cornpa 11 y"
is t herefore written in the si 11 g ular se11sc aud the wonl "their" canuot
apply to it. If the writer hacl m eant it to apply to the Adams company,
he would have used the word "its" inst.cad of "their." The other side
claims that the word "their" must r efer to the Adams com pany because
the latter is tlie nearest noun to the disputed pronoun. -San .f'1·ancisco

Examiner.

329

LITERATUHE sometimes disgusts, and pretension to IT much
oftener disgusts, by appearing to hang loosely on the character,
like so 111 eLhi11g foreign or extraneous, not a part, but an ill-a<ljnsted
appen<lage; or Ly seemiug to overload aud weigh it down Ly rrs
· unsi g htly bulk, like the productions of bad taste in architecture,
where there is massy and cumbrous orname1it without strength .or
solidity of column. This has exposed LEARNING, and especially
classical learning, to reproach. Men have seen that it might exist
without mental superiority, without vigor, without good taste, and
without utility. But in such cases classical learnin,q has ouly not
inspired natural talent; or, at most, it has but made original feeble·
ness of intellect, and natural bluntness of perception, something
more conspicuous. The question, after all, if it be a question, is,
whether LIT ERATURE, ANCIENT AS WELL AS MODEHN, does not
assist a good understanding, improve natural good taste, add
polished armor to uati ve strength, and render ITS possessor, not
only more capable of deriving private happin ess from contemplation a11<l reflection, lrnt more accomplished also for action in
the affairs of life, and especially for public action. Those whose
memories we now honor were LEARNED MEN; but their LEARNING
was kept in its proper place, and made subservient to the uses and
objects of life . They were scholars, not common nor superficial;
but their scholarship was so iu keeping with their character, so

- ·P

330

- $

Composition-1lltetoric.

lVlwt Not to Say.

331

I

ble~1ded and inwrought, that careless observers, or bad judges, not
\, see mg au ostentatious <lisp lay of it, rnigli f; i 11for that it did Hot
exist; forgetting, or not knowing, Lliat classical learnhzg in men
who act in conspicuous puLlic stations, perform duties which exercise the fac ulty of writing, or address popnlar, deliberative, or
judicial bodies, is often felt where it is little see n, and sometimes
felt more effectually because it is not seen at all. - WEnsTrm:
Adams and JeJferson.

Coherence is h elped by mnploying what is Jrnown as the
"echo" from seute11uc Lo seut.eHue or frum Jmragraph to
1
Compare th e following, notieiug how much
paragrapli.
more closely the "echo" worcls (h ere italicised) are brought
together in the second column than in the first.
The old Greek citizen fournled
cities in hi s settlements beyond
tlte sea, cities free a]l(J indepen-

dent from the Leginniug. Let
us_ now see what has been fou nded
by the modern European colonist, suLject of a kingdom. Ile
has founded settlements o:f various kinds in differe nt cases;
but lie ltas nowh ere fo1u1dc1l
cities free a111l i111lcpcmlent lik e
the Greek and Phcenieian Lefore him.
He has indeed
founded cities in one sense, vast
and mighty cities, busy seats
of art and industry and cornmerce, but Hot cities in the
elder seuse, cities independent
from their birth, ciLies 1.liat a rc
born the political equals of the
mightiest ki11gdoms.
1

The old Greek citizen, in his
settlements beyond the sea,
fo11 11dcd cities, cities free and independent from the beginning.
Let us now see what the modern
European colonist, subject of a
kiu gdom, has founded. He has
fow1ded sett;lemen ts of various
hind s in different cases; but he
has 11o whern fou nd ed free a11d
i11depc11dcnf;cilies like the Greek
and Phomician Lefore hi1'n.
Cities indeed in one sense he
has founded, vast and mighty
cities, busy seats of art arid industry and commerce, but not
cities iu the elder seuse, cities
independent. from their birtl1,
ciLi es that a re Lorn tl1e political
equals of the mightiest kingdoms. -}'nEEMAN.

Sec J. l\f. Hart, Ilandbook nf English Composition, pp. 14, 31.

Coherence is also helped by a careful use of words of
explicit reference, words which point clearly arnl accurately
to certain other words before or after. The principal words
of this kind are conjunctional and demonstrative words and
phrases, snch as .further, on the contrary, nioreover, nor, bitt,
however, still, after what has been saicl, for this reason, so too,
in this manner, therefore, first, secondly, lastly, the one - the
other, and the rela.tive and demonstrative pronouns.
Omit or re-organize any part of your composition which does not
hang together with the rest. Make each sentence stand for some
one idea. Attend carefully to the outward signs of coherence, such
as reference-words and repetitions.
EXERCISE 142.

Point ·o ut the words of reference in the following: One of the most graceful poetical writers of the reign of James I
is "\Villiam Drummond, of Hawthornden, near Edinburgh; and he
is :further deserving of notice as the first of his countrymen, at
least o:f any eminence, who aspired to write in English. He has
left us a quantity of prose as well as verse ; the former very much
rcse 111Lli11 ~ the style of S ir l'ldlip Sidney in his Arcadia,-the '
bLLer, in 111a1111er and spirit, fo nnetl rnore upon the model of
Surrey, or rather upon t hat of P etrarch and the other ltalian poets
whom Surrey and many o:f his English successors imitated. No
early English imitator of the Italian poetry, however, has excelled
Drummond, either in the sustained melody of his verse, or in its rich
vein of thoughtful tenderness,

I

EXERCISE 143.

In the following paragraph are four different subjects of
remark: a, "several pious indivi<luals"; b, improvement
of the condition of criminals; c, the new prisons; d, the old
prisons. These are denoted, as often as they occur in the

332

Ooniposition-Rhetoric.

•

paragraph, by the letters a, b, c, and d respectively. Re-write
the paragraph, substitutin g· for these letters · proper words
aucl phrases of explicit reference. '.L'ake care to iutrocluce
some variety into the refereuce-worcls_, and see that the
thought grows in repetition.
Some !~ars ago several pious individuals undertook to melio.rnte
the condi~iou of the prisons. The puLlic was exc ited by the staterne1~ts wl11ch a p~1t forwan1, aud b became a very popular undert~long. New pnso11s were bitilt; a11<l, for the first time, the idea
0
~ b for~~ed a part of pris.on lliscipli11 e. Hut b, in which the public
h.'t~l taken s~ lie~rty a n rntercst-., a nd which the exertio ns of the
citizens had ru~·es1stibly accelerated, could not be completed in a
mome11~. . '' lnle c were being erected (and it was the pleasure of
the 1.1l::LJ onty .c sho.uld be t_errninated with all possible celerity),
d existed, winch still coutawed a great number of offenders. d
bec.ame mo.r~ unwhol:sorne and more corrnpt in proportion as c
wern. bea ut.die,l :111<.l rn1provn<l, fol'l11i11 g a co 11tra:;;1; wlridt may ho
readII~ understood. Tlie majority was Ro eage rly e111pJoyeli in
f~undrng c that d were forgotten; and as the general attention was
diverted ~~ c, the ca:re which l_iad hitherto been bestowed upon d
ceased. lhe salutary regulations of discipline were first relaxed
and af_terwards broken; so that in the immediate neighborhood of
c, d rmght be met with.

EXERCISE 144.

·
, . Examine
.
~
.the
., foll
. owmg
sen t ences closely for unity and
eoheience. he-wnte or amc1HL to n,void violations of unity
and coherence.
If you had known when you writ 1 your letter the satisfaction
I have ~o hear from you, you would not have given youn:;elf the
so 111:wy
. ·I ·1·
ltrouble to lr. avo made
.
. 1~xcmH~R 1,0 llH'• ..[oi· 1·1·. ..
, ..111 ,1 II, 101101
wpe my SISLer will never Jmve more occasiou to make you n he1:
1

This letter is by the Princess Mary, wife o.f William of o.
Th
"writ" f . " . t ,, .
.
range.
e
. lt
.
or. w10 e was m general nse in the seventeenth and
eig i eenth centuries.
form

What Not to Say.

333

secretary, yet that you will sometimes write, which, whenever you
do it, will be with great pleasure to me both for your own sake and
rny sister Jsabella, that I may hear how she Joes, wlrich will be
the greatest joy t hat can be to me when I hear she is well, and
otherwise a very great affliction; for though she is so little as not
to he sensible of the love I have for her, yet I cannot help telling
, it to you, and desire you to be very well assured that for yourself I shall always have great kindness for you, and be ever your
affectionate friend,
MARY.

Having passed thus all the wiirter, until about the latter end
of January, without any such memorable accident as I shall think
fit to set down particularly, I took my leave of the French King,
Queen Margaret, and the nobles and ladies in both courts; at
which time the Princess of Conti desired me to carry a scarf into
England, and present it to Queen Anne on her part, which being
accepted, myself and Sir Thomas Lucy (whose seco ud I had been
twice in France, against two cavaliers of our nation, who yet were
himlere!l t.o figl1t wiLh us i11 the Jiold whore we n.Lte nded them),
we came on our way as far as Dieppe, in Normandy, and there
took ship about the beginning of February, when so furious a
storm arose, that with very great danger we were at sea all night.
The master of our ship lost both the use of his compass and his
reason ; for not knowing whither he was carried by the tempest, all
the help he had was by the lightnings, which together with thunder
ve ry frecpiently that night, terrified him, yet gave the advantage
sometimes to discover whether we were upon our coast, to which
he thought, by the course of his glasses, we were near approached ;
and now towards day we found ourselves, by great providence of
Goel, within view of Dover, to which the master of our ship did
make. The men of Dover, rising by times in the morning to see
whether any ship were coming towards them, were in great numbers upon shore, as believing th~ tempest, which had thrown down
barns and trees near the town, might give them the benefit of
SOllle wreck, if perchallCO tl.11,Y Rhip WCl'O uriven tJiil;lterwards.
We coming thus in extreme danger, straight upon the , pier of
Dover, which stands out in the sea, our ship was unfortunately split
against it; the master said, "Mes arnis, nous somrnes perdus," or,
"My friends, we are cast away;" when myself, who heard the ship

334

Cvmpvsit.ion-llltetvric.

crack. against the pier, aJHl then found, by the master's words, it,
was tw.1e for every one to sav e themselves, if they could, got out of
my calrn1 (though very sea-sick), and, climbing up the mast a little
':'ay, d.rew my sword and flourish ed it; they at Dover having this
sign g1ve11 them, adventured in a shallop of six: oars to relieve us
;vhic~1, ~e i11g come with great danger to the side of our ship, I go~
mto it .fust, with my sword in my hand, and called for Sir Thomas
Lucy, saying that if any man offered to get in before him I should
resi st him with my sword; whereupon a faithful servant of his
taking Sir Thomas Lucy out of the cahin, who wafl half dead o:f
Hett-Hicl<11c8s, pn(; hi111 into 111y ar111s, whurrr af'Ler I bad received,
I bade the shallop make away for shore, aud the rather tlrat I saw
another s.lrnllop coming to relieve us; when a post from France,
who earned letters, finding the ship still rent more and more
adventure~ to leap from the top of our ship into the shallop:
where, falling fortunately on florne of the stronger timber of the
boat, and 11ot on th e planks, which he must needs hav e broken,
and so sunk us had he fallen upon them, escaped, together with
us two, unto the laud.
·
1 must confess, myself, as also the seamen that were in the
shallop, thought once to have killed him for this desperate att~mpt; but finding no harm followeLl, we escaped together unto
the land, from whence we seut more shallops, and so made means
to save both m:n and horses that were in the ship, which yet itself
was wholly split and cast away, irrsornnch that, in pif;y to Lhe rnaflter, Sir Tl101t1as Lucy and 111yHeH gave £:JO towanls his loss, which
yet was not so great as we thought, since the tide now ebbing, he
recovered the broken parts of his ship.
EXERCISE 145.

In chapter 23, volume 1, of Jmnes Bryce's American Com,~nonwealth, on the interpretation of the Constitution, the
111tl'Orl11dio11 n11ds wit.Ir LliiH Hntil,c11cc, wJ1ieh byH d.own tho
plan of tlte whole chapter: "There are three points tha.t chiefly need discussion:
(I) the authorities entitled to interpret the Constitution
(II) the main principles follffwed in ueterrnining whethe:.

'What Not to Say.

·1

335

or no the Constitution has granted certain powers, (III) the
checks on possible abuses of the interpreting power."
The chapter is an admirable illustration of the way in
which coherence is secured. Following are the beginnings
all(l some of the enclings of the paragraphs. Study them
closely and answer the questions at the close.
I. 1. To whom does it belong to interpret th e Constitution?
- - - - - - - the Supreme F ederal court.
2. Where Llro Federnl courts have declared Lite 111ea11i11g o[ a
law, every one ought to accept and guide himself by their deliver-·
ance.
3. There are also points of construction on which every court
will refuse to decide - - - - - - - -. These points are
accordingly left to the discretion of the executive and legislative
powers.
4. It is therefore an error to suppose that the judiciary is the
only interpreter o:f the Constitution.
5. The above is the doctrine now generally accepted in America.
But 'at one time the Presidents claimed the much wider right of
being entitled to interpret the Constitution for themselves - - -.
Majorities in Congress have more than once claimed for themselves
the same independence. - - - - - - - - If the latter have
not u serl this .freedom to stretch tlte Constitution even more than they
have tlou e, - - - - - - - -.
ll. G. The Constitution has been expanded by construction in two
ways. - - - - - - - - This is one way. The other is

-

7. Questions of the above kinds sometimes arise as questions
of interpretation in the strict sense o:f the term.
8. Now the doctrines laid clown by Chief-Justice Marshall may
be summed up in two propositions.
0. Firs t, every power alleged to bn vested in tho National government, or a11y organ thereof, urns(; be aflirmatively shown to
have been granted. - - - - - - - 10. Secondly . \Vhen once the grant o:f a power by the people
to the National government has been established, that power will
be construed broadly. - - - - - - - - One school of

-

- -·

337

Cornposition-Rltetoric.

What Not to Say.

statesmen urged that a lax construction would practically leave
the States at the mercy of the National government - - - -.
It was replied by the opposite school that - - - - - - 1 l. This Zaller contention derived much snpport from the fact
that there were certain powers - - . - - - - - - uot mentioned in the Constitution - - - - - - - - so obviously
incident to a N ational government that they must be deemed to
be raised by implicaLion. For instance - - - - - - - -.
12. The three lines along which this development of the implied
powers of the government has c lii c ny progTcssc<l, have hccn those
rnark e1l 0 11 t l>y Llin Lhnm cxpr<'SS pownrs oE 1,axi11g and uot.Towi11g
money, of regulating commerce, and of carryi ng on war. - - The execntive a nd the majoril-.y in Congress found themselves
obliged to stretch this [the war] power - - - - - - - -.
13. Tl1e courts have occasionally gone even .further afield.
14. The above-ment-ioned instances of development have been worked
out by th e courts of law. But others are due to the action of the
executive, or of the executive ai1d Congress joi11t.ly. Thus, in 1803,

22. The interpretation of the Constitution has at times become
so morne11 to us as to furnish a basis for the formation of political
parties; _ _ _ _ _ - - Constitutional interpretation
was a pretex t rather than a cause, a matter of form rather than of

336

15. The best way to give an adequate notion of the extent to
which the outlines of the Constitution have been filled up by interpretation and construction would be to - - - - - - - - enumerate the decisions.
III. 16. TVe now come to the third question: How is the interpreting
authority restrain ed ?
17. The answer is two-fold. Jn the .first place - - - - -.
18. Jn the second place - - - - - - - -.
19. A singular result <~/ the importance of constitutional interpretation in th e American gorernment may fie here 1·e;j'erred to. It is this,
that the Uniteu States legislature has been very largely occupied
in purely legal discussiotis.
20. A furth er consequence of tliis habit is pointed ottt by one of the
most thoughtful among American constitutional writers. L egal issues
are apt to dwarf an<l ohsr.11rc l.hn rnorc s11bsk1.11l.in.lly importn.i1t
iss11es u[ principles a1Hl poliey - - - - - - - 21. "The English leg islatnre," says ,J nd ge Ifare, "is free to
follow any course that will promote the welfare of the State
- - - - - - - In the United States, on the other hand,
the question primarily is one of power - - - - - - -

substance.
23. The results were both good and evil. They were good in
so far as - - - - - - - -. They were evil - - - in cultivating a habit of casuistry - - - - - - - ~24. Since the Civil ·war there has been much less of this casuistry, _ _ _ - _ - - - the Broad Co11strnction view of
Llie Co11sLiLuLio11 having praclically vrev aileu.

(e1.) vVhat expressions in paragraph 5 serve to prepare for
the second main division?
(b) ·what words at the end of paragraph 1 ~re repeat~d
at the beginning of paragraph 2? Find other mstances m
the subsequent paragraphs of this device for binding paragraphs together.
(c) Explain the relationship to what precedes or what
follows which is expressed by the words "also" and "accordingly" in paragraph 3; the word "therefore" in paragraph
4; "above," "at one time," "the same," in paragraph 5 ;
"this," in 6; "now," in 8; "first," in 9; "secondly," "one,"
"opposite," in 10; "this latter contention," "for inst~nce,"
in 11; "this development," in 12; ''even further," m 13;
"above-mentioned," "others," "thus," in 14; "the extent,"
etc., in 15; "now," in 16; "result," "this," in 19; "further,"
in 20; "ou the other hand," in 21; "this casuistry," in 24.

APPENDIX A.
DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING MANUSCRIPT.

.~

1. Use only black ink, the blacker the better.
2. ·write 011 one side of the sheet only.
3. Leave the margin blank for the t eacher's corrections.
4. vVri te as legibl y as you can, avoiding flourishes and curlicues.
5. r~ut the ti tle on the first line, and to show what it is, underline it with three strai ght lines or one wavy line . Leave one blank
line between the title aud the body of the essay.
6. By fatkin g pains as yo u write, avoid the necessity of erasures
and interlineatious. If correctio11s must be made, make them
n eatl y. To strike out a word draw a horizontal line through it,
but do not enclose it in parentheses. In making additions, use the
caret.
7. Indent for a paragraph at leas t one inch. Beware of indentin g where no paragraph is intended.
8. E xcept at the end of a parn.g raph, avoid a 110ticca.blo blank
space at the cud of a seute11cc. (See Fig. 2, page 341.)
9. Leave the sheets of your manuscript flat. Do not fold them;
do not fasten them together, or turn down the corners ; above all,
do n ot r oll them .
10. ·write your name and the number of the page in the upper
ri ght-h and corner of each sheet. 1
11. lu making an outlii1 0, or skeleton, or analysis, follow the
fo rm of ontli11e given on page 271 of this book. Do not disfigure
th e page Ly usi11g "Lraces ."
12. Locate yo ur quotations by giving the author's name, th~
name of the book, the numLer of the volume, and the page.
1 F or more detailed instruction s, the teacher is referred to the Rhetoric Tablet,
publishccl hy Ginn & Co., Roston .

339

340

Composition-lUietorie.

341

Appendix A.

a ~ -· ""/ ~ L _,,rufl ·fww'M
a{
L, m~. k
cJt
j;lV/~r a;vu;lARA~Wf 1k
~.
mwui Wvt,d,

OJ

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0-WW

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lckM tl~ ~/L Of·tl~~. dw
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Ulnd L

oluch (/IM,ol w-rrtoU cvw

aMd ~

M

AviMJeall

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4 1J1 ,~

i<>

U»W.

Jwdu,, 'W"J w-lw ~ J,,, Le, 1du,
wV

er-al _,,,, 1 C,U,>enr,
w._tudly ~~
~ 1tl.uulLw OMdv ~dnw 1oJ1 vl .
a,

WO

a;,,,

~1dto.i ~-

1~ aAU ,t!,, ~. de,, f;MJ:.
~b 1 ~ lcw.,cl ~ dkcl.

1:-

FIG.
~ pag-e of m~nu scr ipt prcparn1l in accor<la nco with the instructions give n
com er
on the p1cced1111; page. 1' or the meaning of tho figures in the upper ri..,ht-lmnd
0
see the Rhetoric Tablet.
'

wlei cJJ, J,,
.

FIG. 2. -This shows a common fault In pupils' manuscripts. Beginning each new
sentence at the margin, the writer has left noticeable blank spaces at the right.

Appendix B.

343

Does " h aving dared" b elong with "friends" or with
"him"'? "Looking across the bay a large ocean steamer
was see n headed directly for the harbor." To what word
does the participle "looking" belong?
Ant. - Antecedent needs Attention.

(1) 1'wo or more possible ctntecedents.

APPENDIX B.

Be sure th at t he a ntecedent to whi ch a relative refers
is clear and unmistakable . See pp. ~27-329.

MARKS USED IN CORRECTING.
ll.

(2) No a11tece1lent.

I N 'l'llJi:MN.

Guard against using a relative clause that h as 110 antecellent.

The ·w ord s, clauses, ot· sc11 te 11ceR to which the marginal correctio11 s refer, arc imlicatell b ,Y crossi ng out, by Luulerncori11g, or by
e nclosing in brackets or ci rel cs. A c~irct sh ows the poi 11 t at which
something is to be supplied. Au inve rted caret marks the omission
of the apostrophe or of quotation marks.

b.

IN THB MAH.GIN.

Amb . -Ambiguous.

(1) Squinting construction.
' Vhen a phrnse or clause is so placed that it may
equ ally well be u11Jerstood to r efer to wh at precedes it
and to what follows it, it is said to squint. See pp. 257,
258.

(2) Participle for clause.
Supplant a pn.rticiple by a clause whenever more than
one interpretation is possiLle. Example: "Situated on ly
a few miles from St. l'aul, Minn eapolis l1 as grown with
marvell ous rapidity." ' Vrite either "Because it is situated," or "Although it is situ ated,'' according to the
m eani11 g intended.
(:~)

)lfisrelu.tecl Pm·lic1) Ile.
The granunatical relation of the participle to t h e rest
of the sentence should not be left in doubt. Examples :
"Having dared to take up the cause of the abolit;ionists
his friends would no lon ger consort openly with him."
342

(3) R elative and a,ntecedent do not agree.

)

Si ugular antecedents require singular pronouns of referen ce; relative a11d antecedent should agree in number.
"He is one of t hose men w ho disapproves of every new
iJea," sli onltl be "Ile is one of t hose men wh o disapprove,''
etc . "Everyl>ody votes according to th eir own co11victio11 s,'' should be "Everybody votes according to his own
co11 vie tious."

(4) R epeat the antecedent.
R epeat an idea when the relative alone is not sufficient
for clearness. " Ui s opponents were at thi s ti 111e involved
in expellfiivc li LigaLio 11 , which partly accounts for t he
feebl eness of their oppo~itio n ." The meaning probably
is "a cfrcwnsta11ce wh ich partly accounts for," etc. See
pp. 328, 32D.
Cap. - Capitalize.

See Appe11dix E .
Cl. -Not Clear, Vague , Obscure, Indefinite.

(1) Omi'.ssi'.on of necessar1; wortl O'I ' words.
(2) Word or 'i dea needs to be repeated.
Repeat a word when its omission would cause obscurity.
See pp. 328, 329.

(3) Confusion of Ideas.

--,I

344

C01nposition-llhetoric.

Appendix
':

Cnst. - Construction Faulty.

(1) lV?·ong construction.
Examples: "Ile found that going to school was different than (say ji·om what) he expected ." "l\iy principal
had forfeited the privilege to cltoose (say <!f choosing) his
own weapons."

(2) Unexpected chanye of construction.
Jn similar parts of the sentence use the same com;truction. Vo not say, "L prefer c!wosiny my owll friends alld
to carr,11 out my owll pla11s," lint either, "I prefer choosing
my own frieuds aml carryi11g out my own plaw;," or "I
prefer to choose my own friends and to carry ottl my own
plans."

(3) Awkward construction.

Beware of involved clauses.

See p. 325.

Con. - Connection Faulty.

nsed.

Distinguish different degrees and different kinds of
connection in snch words as yet, still, but, however, and,
so, while, whereas, eren, together, with, since, hence, because,

See p. 105.

Couuectives may sometimes be omitted with a gain to
force. Thus it is less forcible to say "Run and tell your
father the house is on fire," than to say "Run ! Tell your
father the house is on fire."

(4) Transitional phrase or sentence needed.
Short summarizing phrases or sentences may be needed,
at times, to indicate the direction which the thought is
next to take, or the mam1er of treatment to be pursued.
See pp. 134, 135.

(o) Illogical sequence.
See pp. 241-243, 323-325.
Cond. - Condense.

D. -See the Dictionary.
E . - Bad English.

(1) Diction inipure, inaccurate, or unidfomatic.
See pp. 205-209.

(2) Construct-ion borrowed from some other language.

Eu. - Euphony Violated.
Exp. - Expand.

(1) llfeans of eil.·pUcit reference (con:junctions, clernonstrati ves, modifications of sentence-strncture) not slci'.lfully managed.
See pp. 328-331.

for, etc.

(3) Connectives used where they can be omitted.

A construction borrowed from some other language
requires a change to the natural word-order of English.

(4) In·volved clauses.

cUJ~j'unction

345

See pp. 306-310.

Avoid awkward constructions, such as, "She inquired
of the SuperiHtenden t as tot.he prouability of her Lrother's
suspension from the school" (better, "She asked the Superintendent if her brother was likely to be suspended from
the school"). "Their desti1rntio11 was arrived at by them
by daybreak" ("By daybreak they arrived at their destination").

(2) lV?·ony

. '{

B.

See pp. 297-301.
Fig. - Error in the Use of Figurative Language.

(1) Mixed nietaphor.
Sec pp. 2:H, 225.

(2) Allusion obswre.
Images of things that are familiar are easier to understand than images of things that are unfamiliar. See
p. 224.

-- . . .,.........

346

-- -~====- ·-

r

ts

Appendix B .

Cv mpos ilion-R lwtv·rie.

(.3) Figure unwllell for.
Seep. 223.
FW. - ' Fine Writ in g.'

T h e attempt to give a commonplace idea dignity and
force, or h umor, liy the use of big words ancl prete ntio us
ph rases, is ter111ed ' fi11 e writ;ing.' Thus "A n in d ivid ual
des ignated by tl1c 110t un cu 111rn o11 cog110 me11 of Smith "
is 'fine writing ' for " a man named Smith."
Gr. - B a d Gra mmar.

(1) Concord in nnmber or tense not observed.
(2) Use of S hall ancl I Vill.
Sec p. 208.
Kp. - Out of Keepin g.

(1) Tone of the composition not consistently maintained.
At no poi nt should the composition vary perceptibly
from the level of t li o11g ht or fee liug 0 11 which it was uegun .
A commonplace or colloquial remark in a composition
whose prevailing tone is pathetic, a jest or a piece of slan g
in a composition whose prevailin g uote is spiri tual, are
often ruin ous to t he effect t hat would oth erwise be prod uced.

(2) In ball taste.

(3) Uniniportant words in emphatic positions.
See pp. 2G0-202.
R.-Repetition to be Avoided.

A void 11 eedless repetitions of the same word or so un d.
Rel. - Relative Pronoun at Fault.

(1) Coi>rd'inate for restrictive relative, or vice versa.
Seep. 209.

(2) Re1a.ti.·ve 11w.y lie mnUted. ·
T li c rcsLr icLivc rclaLive, when the oujec t of a verb,
may often be omitted without loss of clearness. Thus
" I a m th e man you seek " is sometimes preferable to " I
a111 tl1e m an t li at yo u seek. "
Sent. - Wrong Form of Sent ence.

(1) Periodic for loose sentence, or vice versa.
See pp. lG l - 105, 175-1 80.

(2) llfonotonous recurrence of the same form of sentence.
See pp. 142-145, 157, 102- 1G4, 177.
Sl. -Slang.

Seep. 207.
Sp. - Bad Spelling.
T . - Tautology.

l. c . - Change Capital to Small Letter.

Tr. -Transpose.

p . - Bad Punctuation.

U. - Unity Violated.

Sec A ppe11 dix E .
Pos. - Wrong Position.

(1) Belated words sr7wmted.
ltelated words, ph rases, and clauses should be brought
as close as possil1l c f,o 1;lw clcrne n1;s whi ch tl1 ey m odify .
See l'l' · 260, 2GU.

(2) Important worcls 'in wi.em11hatic positions.
Irnporta11 t words should occupy emphatic positions.
See pp. 250- 202.

347

(1) Sentence contains unrelated idea or too niany ideas.
See pp. 324, 325.

(2) Clauses appended or not propei·ly subordinated.
Appended p hrases and clauses sho uld be red uce d to
inconspicuous :forms or transferred to i11c(rn spicuo us posit ions. Subordinate details sh ould be kept subordinate in
form of statement.

(3) Unity of paragraph violated.
See pp. 314-319.

2!!!1

348

Oompos1:tion-R!teto1·ic.

W.-Weak.

(1) Terms too general.
Use particular and concrete expressions to give vigor
and interest. See pp. 219-223.

(2) Anti-clhnci;v.
Sec pp. 2M-23G.

APPENDIX 0.

(3) I-£cickneyeli 1vorlis or phrases.

,.

A void trite and meaningless expressions.

ir
No
6

'

MATERIAL FOR ANALYSIS AND REPRODUCTION.

.-Paragraph.

ir

~;

-Omit.

O

- Join the parts of a word, incorrectly separated.

(-)

-Hyphen to be supplied.

AT BEGINNING OR END OF THE

1. Aldrich.

2.
3.
4.

X or ?-Error, not specified.

c.

(a)

''I

-Do not paragraph.

5.

6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

MS.

One of the above marks placed at the beginniug or end of the
manuscript warns the writer against a prevailing fault. The general character of the rnann8cript ifl indicated by the following
letters: A, excellent; B, fair; C, poor; D, very bad, rewrite.

11.
12.

13.
H.
15.
lG.

17.
18.

HJ.
l

'; ·

;.
w
l

!

20.
21.
22.
23.

24.
25.

STORIES.

Marjorie Daw. Atlan., 31: 407.
Hawthorne. The Gentle Boy.
Higginson. A Charge with Prince Rupert. Atlan., 3 : 725.
Hale. The Man without a Country. Atlan., 12 : 665.
Jevvett. The Shore House. Atlan., 32 : 358.
Eggleston. Gunpowder Plot. Scribner, 2 : 252.
Davis. Life iil the Iron Mills. Atlan., 7 : 430.
Hale. My Double and How He Undid Me. Atlan., 4: 356.
Higginson. The Puritan Minister. Atlan. Essays, 191.
Howells. A Pedestrian Tour. Atlan., 24 : 591.
Higginson. A Night in the Water. Atlan., 14: 393.
Burroughs. Tragedies of the Nests. Century, 4: 680.
Burroughs. Signs and Seasons. Century, 3 : 672.
Bisliop. Braxton's New Art. Century, 6 : 871.
Bunner. The Red Silk Handkerchief. Century, 6 : 275.
Stockton. ~V'reck of the Thomas Hyke. Century, 6 : 587.
Janvier. Orpiment and Gamboge. Century, 7 : 397.
Foote. A Cloud on the Moui1tain. Century, 9 : 28.
Jackson. The Mystery of William Rutter . . Century, 9 : 103.
Boyesen. A Child of the Age. Century, 9: 177.
Clemens. The Private History of a Campaign that Failed.
Century, 9 : 193.
Matthews. Perturbed Spirits. Century, 10 : 74.
rage. A Soldier of the Empire. Century, 10 : 018.
Hart. Left out on Lone Star Mountain. Longm., 3 : 259.
Dodge. Pursuit of Knowledge Under Difficulties. Atlan.,
5 : 272, 417.
349

350
26.
27.
28.
2!).
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.

35.
3G.
H7.

:38.
:l!l.

40.
4-1.
4-'>
'1:J.

'14.
15.

1

1G.
47.
48.
40.
50.
51.
52.
53.
5±.
55.
GG.
57.
!)8.
50.
60.
Gl.
02.

Gr3.

Appendix C.

Coniposition-Illwtoric.

Thanet. Day of the Cyclone. Scribner (N. S.), 3 : 350. ·
Haggard. J\Iai wa's Heve ngn. llari1c r, 77 : 181.
Harte. An Apostle oI t he Tules. Lo11gm., 1885 : G7.
'Vilson. Talc of Ex1Jiatio11. H.ccrcatio11s of Cl1ristopher
North, p. 33.
Aldrich. A Midnight Fantasy. Atla.11., 35: 385.
Phelps. ln t h e Gray Goth. Atla11., G: G87.
Jewett. Ueephaveu C r011i es. Atlan., 3G : BIG .
Jam es. The Last of the Valerii . Atla11., 33 : 169.
Taylor. 'Vli o was S ite ? At.Ian ., :a: 207.
Stocklou. Our Story. CeJ1t ury, 1l: 7G2.
Aldrich. A Strngglc for Li [e. J\ Lian., 20 : GG.
Stockton. A Story ol' i\ ;;s isl.c1l l 1 ':ti,(~ . Allan., G!): GS.
Tay !or. A \ \Teek 011 Capr i. At.la11., 2 l : 7'10.
Ilow el ls. A S hak er Vi ll:1 gc. A Lla.11 ., 07 : tillD.
Lowell. A Pocket Cele uration of the l<'ourth. Atlan., 2 : 374.
Hawthorne. Ethan Brand. (ln The S uow Image, etc. )
Cable. Don ;roaquin. Harper, 52 : 281.
McCarthy. Wan teJ - A Soni. Harp1~ r , 52 : 54!).
Woolson. Miss V eJder. Harper, 68 : 500.
Davis. A Story of t11e Plague. H arper, 58: 443.
Stockton. The TnLnsfcrreJ (;host. Centnry, 2 : 43.
l\icD011alJ. The Portent. Corn h., 1: Gl7, 670; 2: 74.
Gray. The Silver Casket. Murray's Mag., 2 : 203.
Hardy. The Waiting S upper. Murray's Mag., 3 : 42, 100.
Appleton. A Half-Life and Half a Lifo. Atlantic Stories.
V{helpley. The Denslow Palace. Atlantic Stories.
Cooke. l\liss Lucinda. Atlantic Stories.
Hale. The Queen of the lled Chessmen . Atlantic Stories.
Nordhoff. Ellrnnah Brewste r's T e111ptation. Atlantic Stories.
Chesbro. Victor and ,Tac1pteli11 c. Atlantic Stories.
Arnold. \Vh y Thomas " rn.;; Discharged. Atlantic Stories.
Lowell. AH.aft that No l\l:rn l\fade. Atlantic Stories.
O'l1rie11. Tl1e Dia111011d Lc11s. J\l;la11tic 81.ol'ies.
,Jewett. Marsh Rosemary. Atla11., 57 : 590.
De Quincey. .Joan of Arc.
Thackeray. The Fatal Boots.
Craddock. His Day in Court;. Harper, 76 : 5G.
l\latthews. A Secret uI the Sea. I larper, 71 : 78.

Bishop. Choy Susan. Atlan., 54 : 1.
Hawthorne. Ken's Mystery. Harper, G7 : 925.
Jewett. King of Folly Island. Harper, 74 : 10.
Frederic. Brother Angelus. Harper, 73 : 517.
GS. Craddock. Lonesome Cove. Harper, 72 : 128.
G9. R eade. Tit for Tat. Harper, 66 : 251.
70. Boyesen. A Dangerous Virtue. Scribner, 21 : 745.
71. Boyesen. The Man who Lost his N a!1ie· Scribner, 12 : 808.
72. Clemens. A Curious Experience. Century, 1 : 35.
7H. Phelps. The Tenth o[ .Tannary. Atlan., 21: 345.
74. Bishop. The Brown-Stone Boy. Atlan., 55: 330.
7G. Taylor. Frie11d Eli'R Danghtnr. Atlan., HI: 99.
71i. Tl1ackcray. BlueLca.rcl 's Ghost.
77 .•J:1111es. Tlie Romance of Certain Old Clothes.
78. Alllrich. A Uivcrn1outh H.omance. Atlau., 30 : 157.
79. Dickens. \Vreck of the Golden Mary.
80. Dickens. George Silverman's Explanation.
81. Thackeray. Rebecca and Rowena. (In Christmas Books.)
82. Bishop. One o[ the Tl1irl.y Pieces. At.Jan., 37 : 43 .
83. Hale. The Modern Psyche. Harper, 51 : 885.
84. Steve nso n. The l\Ierry Men.
85. La111L. Adve11tures of Ulysses.
86. Pyle. Stephen Wycherley. Harper, 75: 56.
87. ' Voolso11. A Flower of the Snow. Galaxy, 17: 76.
88. Bates. The Intoxicated Ghost. Century, 24 : 393.
80. Kiug. Balcony Stories. Century, 24 : 230i 372, 374, 544, 547,
722, 724, 884, 889.
90. Jewett. The Hiltons' Holiday. Century, 24 : 772.
91. Eggleston. The Redemptioners. Century, 24 : 625.
92. Drake. The Curious Vehicle. Century, 25: 217.
93. King. Kitwyk Stories. Century, 25 : 27, 22G, 759; 28 : 334.
94. Foote. On a Side-Track. Century, 28 : 271.
95. ,Je;vett. The Only llose. Atlantic, 73 : 37.
fJG. Cat.herwoocl. The Wi11digo. Atlantic, 73 : 52G.
97. ' Vister. The General's Bluff. Harper, 89 : 508.
98. Grant. In Fly-Time. Harper, 89 :·296.
99. Woolson. A 'Vaitress. Harper, 89 : 88.
100. Matthews. Vignettes of Manhattan. Harper, 89 : 33, 222,
457.

64.
G5.
G6.
67.

l
..

J

I

''

351

352

Appendix C.

Composit·ion-Ulwtorie.

101. Page. The Burial of tl1 e G nns. ScribJ1er (N. S.), lG : 410.
102. Shelton. A Man witho ut a Me mory. Scribner (N. S.),
lG : 68.
103. Bunner . French for a Fortnight. Scribner (N. S.) , 16 : lGl.
104. W e bb. Electrician-in-charge. Scribner (N. S.), 16 : 31G.
105. Pal mer. The Man t ie of Osiris. Scribner (N. S. ), lG : 718.
106. Matthews. A Primer of Imaginary Geography. Scribner
(N. S.), lG : 729.
107. Parke r. Tl1 e Going of the WhiLe Swan. Scri bner (N. S.),
17 : 65.
108. Matthews. The J<i11etoscope of Time. Scribner, (N. S.),
18 : 733.

(b)

ESSAYS, Sl'EECHES,

1. Representative British Orations.

;<I

SKETCHES.

3 vols .

2. Representative Am er ican Orations. 3 vols.
3. Huntington. A l'lea for Itaifway Consoli<lation. No. Am.,
lf)3 : 272 .
4. Livermore. Cooperatirn ·w omanhood in the State. No.
Am., 153 : 283.
5. Douglass. Hayti and th e United States. No . Am., 153 : 337.
6. Bryce. Thoughts 011 the Negro Problem. No. Am., 153 : 641.
7. Luce . Ben e fits of \ Va r. No. Am., 153 : 672 .
8. Powde rly. The ""\Vorkin g rnan ai1d I•'ree Silver . No. Am.,
1513 : 728.
9. Hubert. Tho N ew Talk ing .Machines. Atlan., G3 : 2G6.
10. 1~arkman. The Acadia.a Trage<ly. Harper, 69 : 877.
11. Starbuck. Hawthorn e . Andover Rev. 7 : 31.
12. Phelps . Shylock vs . Antonio. Atlan., 57 : 463.
13. Lon g . 0:( Style. An Ohl ]\fa.n's Th oug hts .
14. Davis . Shakespeare's J\Ciranda aml T ennyson's Elaine.
Poet-L or e, .Jan. 18D3.
lG. Stoddanl. Tl1e Englis h Laureates. Com ll op . •Tan . 1803.
lG. Billson. The English Novel. W es tmin . R ev. Jan. 1893.
17. Rogers. G. \ V. Curtis a nd CiYil Service R eform. Atlan.
Jan. 1893.
18. Johnson. The Transformation of Energy. ""\Vestmin . Rev.
Dec . 1892.

20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.

White. llomes oE the Poor. Chautauquan, Jan. 1893.
Bartlett. The Priso n Question. Am. Jour. Politics, Jan. 1893.
Higgin son. Boston. St. Nicholas, .Tan . 1893.
Acworth. Railway l\lismanagement. · 19th Cent. Dec. 1892.
Brooke. T enn yson . Contemp. Rev. D ec. 1893.
Mace. Universal Suffrage in :E'ran ce. No. Am. Jan. 1893.
Dodge. A Bible Lesson for Herbert Spencer. No. Am. Jan.

26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.

1803.
Williams. The Kindergarten Movement. Century, Jan. 1893.
Flower . A re \ V c a Prospero us P eople ? ·Arena, Jan. 1893.
Hadley . Jay Gould arnl Socialism. :Forum, Jan. 1803.
Campbell. vVomen vVa.ge Earners. Arena, Jan. 1893.
Gosse. Tennyson. N ew H.ev. Nov. 1892.
Kingsley. English Literature. Lit. and Gen. Essays, 245.
Repplier. B enefits of Superstition. Books and Me.o, 33.
Dawkins. Settlement of Wales. Fort. R ev. Oct. 1892.
Edmunds. Politics as a. Career . Forum, D ec. 1892.
Scmlder. The Place of College Settlements. Andover Rev.

rn.
~

Oct. 18U2.
Adam s. Mu11icipal Government. Forum, Nov. 1892.
Andrews. Are there too Many of Us? No. Am. Nov. 1892.
Matthews. Two Studies of the South. Cosmop. Nov. 1892.
Cable. Education for the South. Cosmop. Nov. 1892.
""\V alsh. The Ethics of Great Strikes. No. Am. Oct. 1892.
4-1. Gunsa.ulus. The Ideal oI Culture. Chautauquan, Oct. 1892.
42. Sto<ldar<l. · J am es Uusse ll Lowell . . Lippincott's, Oct. 1892.
43. Garucr. l\fo11key's Academy in Africa. New Rev. Sept. 1892.
44. Patmore. ·Three Essayettes. Fort. Rev. J uly 1892.
45. Adams. Some Recei1t Novels. Fort. Rev. July 1892.
46. Johnson . The First University. vVestmin. R ev. Sept. 1892.
47. Flower. The Menace of Plutocracy. Arena, Sept. 1892.
48. llabberton. Social Science in Business Life. Chautauquan,
Sept . 1802.
4fl. Besant. Literature as a Career. Fornm, Aug. 1892.
50. Farrar . Shaftesbury's \Vork among the London Poor. Meth.
Mag. Aug. 1892.
51. Repplier. Wit and Humor. Atlan. D ec. 1892.
52. Fowler. ""\Vhittier a nd T ennyson. Arena, Dec. 1892.
53. Glad<len . The Proble m of Poverty. Century, Dec._1892.

36.
37.
38.
39.
40.

f'

,,I

353

--354

Composition-Rlietoric.

Appendix 0.

355

54.

Srni~h. Arnold of Ungby. Educ. Rev. Dec. 1892.
N e vmso11. Goethe as a l\tlinister of State.
Coutemp. Rev.
Nov . 18D 2.
56. Schwa tka. Lalld of the Living Cliff Dwellers.
1892.
Century, June
57. Bigelow. Bisma rck. Conl;emp. Rev. May 1892.
58.
Parke. How Ge11 eral Gordon was Rca,lly Lost. Nin eteenth
Cent. May 1892.
59.
Tyndall. Coast Protection. New Rev. April 1892.
GO. Gladden. The Plain J>ath of Reform.
_.,.
J> .
01,,,••'-hies
~eview
A pn. 1 18!!2.
'
GI.
Bradley. Patrick Hemy. Macmillan's lVfag. March l8D2.
G2.
Scudamore. Egypt allll the Late Khedive. Blackwood's F b
1892.
' e ·
G3. Gilder. Paderewski. Century, l\farch 1892.
64. Hubbard. The Tax on Barbarism. N. E. and Yale
March 1892.
Rev.
65.
Bue.I. The Louis ia11a Lottery. Centmy, F eb. 18!J2.
GG.
"~lute. Suppression of Lotteries. 1''onun, l<'e b. 1892.
G7. 1he Short Story. A tlan. F eb. 1802.
G8.
Edmunds. Perils of our National Electious Forum Feb.
1892.
.
'
69.
Tolman. Studies in l\Iacbeth. Atlau. Feb. 1892.
70.
Dodge. , Progress in Agriculture. Amer. Agric. Jan. 1892.
71.
Gale. 1he l\Iarble Faun Iuter1)reted N E a d y 1 I)
·
. . cn
a e ~ev.
J an. 1802 .
55.

72. Boy~sen. '"'-, D. Howells and his Work. Cosmop. F eb. 1892.
73. Atkrnson and Cabot. Personal Liberty. Pop s l\"" F b
1892.
. c. '.l.O. • e .
74.
Adams. Rise and Fall of Fonseca. Cosm op. F eb. 1892.
75.
Goodwi11. English aud American Schoolboys. School and
College, l<'eb. 1892.
7G.
TValker. How a Bill prese nted in Congress becomes a Law.
Cliauta11q11a11, F<d1. I H!J2.
77.
Davies. ' Compulsory Education. " res tmi11ster Rev. Feb.1802.
78.
Earle. The Study of English. Forum, March 1892.
79.
Cox . . l\'fen of '61. Why they Fought. Atlan. March 1892.
80.
Lath1op. John Boyle O'Heilly. Century, Dec. 18!H.
81.
.
Lowell. Shakespeare's Richard III. Atlan. Dec.
1891

I

82. Sears. Football -Sport and Training. No. Am. Rev. Dec.
1891.
83. ,fames. James Russell Lowell. Atlan. Jan. 1892.
84. Powell. A World-wide Republic. Arena, Jan. 1892.
85. Stedman. Juliet's Runaway. Poet-Lore, .Jan. 1892.
86. Mills. General Booth's Experiment. Unitar. Rev. Dec.
1891.
87. Walton. A Brief for Ophelia. Poet-Lore, Nov. 1891.
88. llaudy. Negro Superstitions. Lippincott's, Dec. 1891.
SD. Free1111w. Dangers to the Peace of Europe. Forum, Nov.
1801.
90. Benton. .Lowell's Americanism. Century, Nov. 1891.
91. Potter. The Profit of Good Country Roads. Forum, Nov.
1891.
92. Atki11so11. Free Coinage of Silver. Forum, Oct. 1891.
93. Farr:tr. An English Estimate of Lowell. Forum, Oct. 1891.
94. Gosse. Rudyard Kipling. Century, Oct. 1891.
95. Repp lier. The Oppression of Notes. Atlan. Aug. 1891.
!JG. Cla rk. Public Life. Foru111, July 1891.
97. McCracken. Six Centuries of Self-Government. Atlan. Aug._
1891.
98. 'Valker. Immigration and Degradation. Fortun, Aug. 1891.
99. Thatcher. The l<'ailure of the Jury System. No. Arn. Rev.
Au g. 1891.
100. Di Ike. Trades Unions for vVomen. No. Arn. Rev. Aug. 1891.
101. Hurlbut. Reciprocity and Canada. No. Am. Rev. Oct. 1891.
102. Shaler. Nature of the Negro. Arena, Dec. 1891.
103. Mathews. The Whole Dnty of Critics. New Rev. Nov. 1890.
104. Martin . The Chin ese as They See Us. Forum, Feb. 1891.
105. Gosse. Influence of Democracy on Literature. Contemp.
Rev. Apr. 1891.
lOG. Osgood. Political Idea8 of the Puritans. Pol. Sc. Quart.
March 1891.
.107. H.ai11Rford. 'Vhat can vVe Do for the Poor? Forum, Apr.
l8!Jl .
108 . McCracken. Arnold Winkelried. .Atlan. Apr. 1891.
109. Hice. The Example of a Great Life. No. Am. Hev. Apr.
1891.
110. Morris . New Africa. Lippiucott's, Apr. 1891.

e

"'
356

111. Nelson. Town and Village Government . Harper, June
18!)].
112. Richardson. The College Settlement. Lippincott's, June
1891.
113. 1Valker. Colored Race in the Uuited States. Forum, July
1891.
114. Caylor. Theory and Introduction of Curve Pitching. Outing, Aug. 1891.
115. Blum. The Russia of To-day . Arena, May 1891.
116. Ro11ss. Cash 1111. Crn1lil;. B1dfonl's Mn.~ . .March 18!)1.
117. SprcckclH. The Futnre of the Sandwich l slauds. · N(>. Arn.
Rev. ]\[arch 1891.
118. Salter. The Problem of the Unemployed. New Eng. Mag.
l\farch 1891.
119. Stark. Silver Coin age. Arena, .Tan. 1891.
120. Shearman. The Coming Billionaire. Forum, Jan. 1891.
121. Shaler. Individualism in Education. Atlan. Jan. 1891.
122. Allen. The Ca;-""<>!\of Roger Williarns. Unitar. ReY. Jan.1891,
123. McCracken. L egend of William Tell. Atlan. Nov. 1890.
124. Gladden. The Embat tled Farmers. Forum, Nov. 1890.
125. Kitson. The Logic of Free Trade and Protection. Pop. Sc.
Mo. Nov. 1890.
126. Tilly. The Shibboleth of Public Opinion. Forum, Nov.1890.
127. Stoddard. Thomas J3ncl1anan Reed. Lippincott'R, F eb. 1891.
128. Brid~<ls. Cor.1l1w:tl.io11 i11 AwiKf! IJ11ivnrniLieK. Pop. Sc. Mo.
Feb. lH!J I.
129. Roosev elt. Au 011j cct Lesson in Civil Service Reform.
Atlan. Feb. 1891.
130. Miles. Progress in Agricnltnral Science. Pop. Sc; Mo.
Feb. 1891.
131. Hyatt. Public Parks . Atl:in. F eb. 1891.
132. Woods. University E xtension in England. Andover llev~
March 1891.
133. Coxe. Do We Hate England? Forum, March 1891.
13 !. Danziger. Labor Unions and Strikes in Ancient Rome.
Cosmop . .l\1n.rch lS!Jl.
135. Graham. Supposed T endencies to Socialism. Pop. Sc. Mo.
l\Iarch 1891.
136. Child. The Argeutine Capital. Harper, March 1891.
1

Appendix O.

qompositio n-1lltetoric.

l

137.
138.
139.
140.
141.
· 142.
143.
144.
145.
HG.
147.
148.
149.
IGO.
151.
152.
153.
154.

357

Parsons. The Saloon in Society. Atlan., 59 : 86.
Cable. The Freedman's Case in Equity. Century, 7 : 409.
Cable. The Silent South. Century, 8 : 674.
Landor. Steele and Addison. ·works, Vol. 5.
De Foe. The Fire of London.
Johnson. Life of Addison.
Macaulay. Essay on History.
Quincy. Invasion of Canada. Speeches, p. 355.
SumnE;Jr. Are "\Ve a Nation? Works, 12 : 191.
S1u1111or. No I>roporty in Man. vVorln1, 8: :350.
Sumner. Duties of Massachusetts. Works, 3 : 121.
Everett. American Literature. Orations, 1.
Webster .. The Constitution not a Compact. Works, 3.
Lowell. The Independent in Politics. Essays, 295.
Walker. Socialism. Scribner (N. S.), 1 : 107.
Lowell. Democracy, 3-42.
Macaulay. On the Athenian Orators.
Short. Claims to the Discovery of America. Galaxy,
20: 50.
155. Fiske. The Federal Union. Harper, 70 : 407 ·
156. Higginson. The Era of Good Feeling. Harper, 68 : 936.
157. Kingsley. The Fount of Science. Nat'l Sermons, 108-133.
158. Geo. Eliot. Address to vVorkingmen. Essays, 322.
Hi9. Whately. Historic Doubts Relative to Napoleon. 11-85.
lGO. l>n.wmi. J\11 U11k11ow11 Natio11. lforper, 7G: u98.
Hil. Warner. Connueuts on Ca11a<la. Harper, 78 : G20.
162. ·w hite. Ou Reading Shakespeare. Galaxy, 22 : 518.
163. House. The Thraldom of Japan. Atlan., 60 : 721.
1G4. Powell. The Failure of Protection. Fraser, 104 : 99.
165. Froude. The Book of Joh. Short Studies, 1 : 228.
lGG. Howell. Strikes. Fraser, 101 : 118.
167. Black. The Electoral Conspiracy. No. Am., 125: 1.
1G8. White. Popular Pie. Galaxy, 18 : 532.
1G9. "\Vhite. Americanisms. Galaxy, 24 : 376.
170. Gladstone. Kin beyond Sea. Gleanings, 1 : 203.
171. Gladstone. Aggressions on Egypt. Gleanings, ·i : 341.
172. Gladstone. Wedgwood. Gleanings, 2: 181.
173. Froude. England's War. Short Studies, 2 : 382.
17 4. .Froude. Party Politics. Short Studies, 3 : 309.

-

C

358
175.
17G.
177.
178.
179.
180.
181.
182.
l8rJ.
184-.
1SG.
180.
187.
188.

~~9.

190.
l!H.
102.
193.
194.

195.
190.
197.
198.
l!W.
200.
201.
202.
203.
204.
205.
206.
207.
208.

Appendix G.

Gompositio n-Rhetoric.
Freeman. George \V asliin gton. Greater G reccc, etc., G2.
Green. .JEncas. St.11di1:s, etc., 227.
Welles. llif;f-, ory o[ E111a11 cipation. Galaxy, 11: 8i38.
Coan. The Value of Li[e. G:d:txy, 15: 7!il.
Smnner. Politics in A rn eri ca. No. Am., 122 : 47.
Roosevelt. Recent Criticism of America. JVlurray's Mag.,
4: 289.
Arnold. General Grant. Murray's J\fag., 1 : 130.
Allen. La11dow11i11g an<l Copyright. Fraser, 102: 343.
JI owe]]. Trn,'l"s I J11irn1 s. Frase r, !l!l : 22.
Fiske. Manifes t DesLin y. Essays.
Tyllllall. Scion f.i li e lJsc o[ t ltc ln1agi11 at io11.
Bagehot. The En glish ConsLituLion :u 111 OLii er Essays.
Camp. College Athletics. Centnry, 24 : 393.
Van Rennselaer. At the Fair. Century, 24: 3.
Roosevelt. :In Cowboy-Laud . Century, 24: 276.
·west. The Poets Laureate. Century, 24: 476.
Fortun e. SLn!d l':LVing- in J\ 111cri ca. Ccnt.ury, 2t: 8!H.
Clrnn1berlai11. A (:l a nce at. Webster. CenLury, 21t: 70!).
Nott. Huntin g with the Ulietah. Century, 25 : 507.
Simpson. Sir .Tani es S im pson's Introduc tion of Chloroform.
Century, 2:) : 412.
Sewell. My Firs t and Last Balloon Ascension. Century,
25: 834.
Holden. Earthqn:tkcs an'l How to Mea:rnrn f;li em. Century,
25: 7,rn.
Adams. Lincoln's Place in History. Century, 25 : 590.
Seton-Karr. J\ly First Lions. Ceutury, 25 : 22.
J\Jaxirn. A New Flyi11g--Mn.ch i11 e. Century, 27 : 444.
Keeler. PicLuring Lite l'lanets. Century, 28 : 455.
Flynt. How l\len ueco me Tramps. Century, 28 : 941.
l\lcGiffen. The Battle of t he Yalu. Century, 28 : 585.
Repplier. Ghosts. AtI:-tu., 74: 741.
Lowell. l\lars . J\Lla11., 7G: f'>!H , 7 11!1; 71l: l<Hi , 22'.l.
Si dis. A St udy of t he l\lob. Atlan., 7G : 188.
Bell. The Subtle Art of Speech-Reading. Atlan., 75 : 164.
Robinson . A Voyage in the Dark. Atla11., 75: 172.
Trowbridge. Some Confessions of a Novel-vVriter. Atlan.,
75 : 316.

-\

I
II.

359

Brooks. The Harvard and Yale Boat-Race. Harper, 89: 181.
Sicard. Trial Trip of a Crniser. Harper, DO : 52,1.
Howells. True I talk of Drea1ns. Harper, DO : 836.
Coo le Stories iu Stone from Notre Dame. Scrilmer (N. S. ),
15: 09.
213. Winthrop. Webster's Reply to Hayne. Scribner (N. S.),
15: 118.
214. Baldwin. The School-Master. Scribner (N. S.), 15: 171.
215. Harris. The Sea Island Hurricanes. _Scribner (N. S.),
15 : 228, 2(i7.
210. :Ferree. The High Buildillg and its Art. Scribner (N. S.),
Hi: 297.
217. Thanet. The Farmer iu the North. Scrilmer (N. S.),
15: 323.
218. Hubert.
The Cable Street-Railway. Scribner (N. S.),
15 : 371.
219. Kobbe. Life under Water. Scribner (N. S.), 15: 426.
220. Dauidgc. W orki ng-Gi rls' Clubs. Scrilrner (N. S. ), 15 : Gl9.
22 1. Shaler. Th e Dog. Scrilmer (N. S.), lG : G!J2.
222. Thauet. Th e Working-Man. Scribner (N. S.), lG : 100.
223. Bergen. The Tapestry of the New vVorld. Scribner (N. S.),
lG: 3GO.
224. Prout. Railroad Travel in England and America. Scribner
(N. S.), 16 : 399.
22G. Ralph. Election . Night in a Newspaper OJfice. Scribner
(N. S.), 10: Glll.
226. Shaler. The HorRe. Scribner (N. S.), lG: 5GG.
227. Dana. Giants and Giantism. Scribner (N. S.), 17 : 179.
228. ~'r etzler. vVill the Elec tric Motor Supersede Steam? Scribner (N . S.), 17 : 594.
229. Hubert.. The Bicycle. Scribner (N. S.), 17 : 692.
230. Edwards. Life at the Athletic Clubs. Scribner (N. S.),
18: 4.
2rJ1. Sl1aler. J>olllcsticaLcd Birds . Scribner (N. S.), 18: GOl.
2132. Melliss. Wild Beasts as they Live. Scribner (N. S.),
18: 705.
233. Roosevelt. w ·hat A mericauism Means. Forum, 17 : 196.
234. Hopkins. The Stability of the House of Lords. Forum,
17: 329.

209.
210.
211.
212.

360

Ov mposition-Bltetorie.

235. Collier.
Honie Lifo, English and Am erican.
Fornm,
17 : 31G.
23G. Cook. The Antarctic's Challenge to the .Explorer. Forum,
17: 505.
237. Harrison.
George Eliot's Place in Lif;eral;ure. Forum,
~O: GG .
238. Newcomb. The Civil Service as a Career. Forum, 20 : 120.
209. Howells. The Nature of Liuerty. Forum, 20: 401.
240. Ferrero. Crime among Animals. Forum, 20 : 492.
241. Arnold. Victoria, Queen a11d E1npress. Forn tn, 20 : GG7.

(,

APPENDIX D.
SUBJECTS FOR ESSAYS.

(a)

•'

'I . I

I

ESSAYS IN DESCRIPTION.

1. The face I know best.
2. A political cartoon.
3. In the wilderuess.
4. A cabinet of curiosities.
5. Portraits of Tennyson.
6. Shylock, as I conceive him.
7. Some absurd costumes of our great-grandparents.
8. A street-arab.
·
9. The pop-corn man.
10. The oldest house in town.
11. A portrait of Goethe.
12. The face of Bryant compared with that of Longfellow.
13. A typical Indian.
14. An i mrnigra11 t.
15. l'ortraits of George \Vashiugton.
16. A stone hatchet.
17. Our camp on the lake.
18. The beginning of the tournament -waiting for the signal.
19. A corner of the old barr1.,,
20. An actor o.ff the stage.
21. The House of Commons.
22. Cosf;ume of a11 ancient Roman.
23. Scene in a Roman school.
24. The Acropolis restored.
25. 'Vlrnt a diver sees at the bottom of the ocean.
26. A freight train, in motion.
2'7. Moses, by Michael Angelo.

3ul

362

Composit.ion-Bhetor ic.

28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.

A piece of coral.
The first, steamboal;.
The tower-clock.
The long-distance telephone.
A ship 011 the stocks.
A curious advertisement.
Our newsboy.
A Chinese laimdry.
A yacht u n<ler full sail.
The old bo;tt 011 t.11 e liead1.
Two tramps.
An o1cl violin.
The canals of l\fars.
Scene on the Amazon.
The Eiffel towe r.
An electric motor.
Interior of a power-l101rne.
A c:u1tilnvnr liridg<'.
The i11siLle o[ a sL<;a111-boilcr.
A Rontgen photograph.
The first locom ot ive.
Onr chemical laboratory.
Scientific kites.
A silver min e.
My favorite apple.
A spring flood.
Difference between a head of wheat and of rye.
How to tell a ·weed from a flower.
The most perfect shade tree in our town.
A dynamite explosion.
The old-time schoolma.ster.
A natural gas well.
The insid e of a piano.
The vul.i11g-l1u11Ll1 .
A greenback compared with a national bank note.
A canal Jock.
How orauge orc1rn.n :ts are irrigated.
The face of N apolcon compared with that of Juli us Cresar.
Resemblances in the faces of great orators.

1G.
4G.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
GO.
<il.
62.
63.
G·1.
G5.
66.

Appendix JJ.

.I
I

1

67.
(i8.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75 .
7G.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
81.
85.

~

10.
11.

12.

I

~

A .Japanese co1npa re1l with a Chinese.
A Ro111an banq net.
The Alhambra.
An English catJ;Gdral.
The three most famous pictures in the world.
The 'Vashington monument.
The park at night.
An ocean greyhound.
A torpedo boat.
The old garret.
A salt works.
The flag-man at the railway crossing .
The crowd at the ferry landing.
An old-fashioned ferry-boat.
The heart of the woods.
A Dutch windmill.
An African fetich.
Raro postn.go sLa111ps.
llow my Licycle lookeJ after the collision.

(b)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

13.
14.
15.
16.

17.

363

EssA YS IN NARRATIVE.

'Vhat happened at the caucus.
How cider is made.
A battle between flying-machines.
My first loaf of bread.
A day in Lilliput.
Legends of Merlin.
The story of Ruth.
The charge of the Light Brigade.
The signing of Magna Charta.
The building of the boat.
Our trolley-party.
Ilow l loarno<l to liko gootl music.
A trip dowll the river.
The evolution of the modern bicycle.
Taming a squirrel.
My experiences as a reporter.
A moonlight ride.

()

_ _ -::- EEC

364
18.
19 .
20.
21.
22.
23 .
24.
25.
26.
27.
28 .
29.
30 .
31.
32.
33 .
34 .
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46 .
47 .
48.
49.
50.

_g

Ill!!

Appendix IJ.

Oomposition-Bhetoric.
A ru naway.
Landing a l>ig fish.
A visit to tbe falls.
An extraordinary dream.
W h y I was tardy.
A singula r coincide nce.
My ghost.
A break-down on the road.
Flying the Lig kite.

4. vVhat the Greeks knew about music.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

A i.r ip l.o l.l1 n I.op o l' l.l1 n w:i.l.1! r-l.ownr.

llov,r a rail way is Luilt.
How I caught the train.
Ilow .the nest was 111atle.
}\lending the clock.
'Yhat I rernernber of my earlies t childhood.
Strange history of a dog.
How I tried to find my friend ,John Smith in Chicago.
A visit to a clairvoyallt.
' Yhere I found my knife.
The big stonn.
The fish I left behind me.
A narrow escape.
' Vhere our grapes went to.
How the fire started.
How I eal'lled my firnt dollar.
The re tum of the bi rtls.
How my friend Blank sharpells a lead-pencil.
A struggle with a fountaiu-pen.
Selliug tickets for the conce rt.
The tramp's story.
How we harnessed the old horse.
A fashionable call.
Caught in the rain.

(c)

ESSAYS IN EXPOSITION.

1. Important city ordinances.
2. vVhy workmen strike.
3. Uses of a royal figure-heall.

v

I

I

Habits of aPts.
Principle of th e low-pressure steam-engine.
Comparison of a dynamo and a motor.
How a ship sails against the wind.
Cause of the moon's phases.
How electricity has affected the price of horses .
11. Condition of the roads in this neighborhood.
12. Diseases of flowers.
] ll. J\lovc111011 LH of cu 11 1ol.R.
H . What are sun-spots?
lG. Uses of the spectroscope.
lG . ·why does not the sun go out?
17. 'Vb at is a storm centre?
18. vl eather signals .
19. Why the tide rises.
20 . The ri11gs of Saturn .
'.:ll. 'V11 y we Ree 011 ly one side of the moon .
2·) How to determine tlie h eight of a building by geometry.
23. Coustruction of a binocular microscope.
24 . 'Vhat is a copyright?
25. The Bertillon method of identifying criminals.
26. \Vhy men become tramps.
27. La-...vs that youug people ought to know.
28. T he eight-hour question.
29. 'J.'lie veto power.
30. Powers of the Euglish premier.
31. The Chiltern Hundreds.
32 . How new money gets into circulation .
33. W h o is entitled to a peusion '?
34. How to obtain a position in the Civil Service.
35. Causes of financial panics.
3G. Speed of railway trains.
:J7. Dangers of hypuotism .
38. Onr city school system.
39 . Benefits of manual training.
40. Spelling-reform.
41. Popular songs.
42 . How water-mains are injured by currents of electricity .

365

=
366
43.
411.
45 .
46.

47.
48 .
49.
50.
51.
52.

53.
54 .
55.
56.
57.
fi8.
59.
60.
61.

Tl1e flora of tl1e school-ground.
Killlls of dog::; iu our tO\rn.
llow to patent au i11ve11 tio11.
The Australian ballot systeni.
I Vhy does cider become " hard "?
. The siugle-tax theory.
How Canada is governed.
The lllClians of Alaska.
How much power has the Interstate Commerce Commission?
Tlte Spc:tlrnr of 1.lt<~ I low~ <~ of Co11111 1011 s co1 11p:trc<l wil.li L11 e
8pcaker of tlte l1011 se of neprcse 11Lativcs.
"'hat is 11wanl; by "proL!\t:Lio11 for reven11.e 011ly "?
Imperial fodernLiou .
Reciprocity.
I-fow the President is elected.
Why private post-offices are prohibit~d by the government.
What is a kindergarten'?
A defiuiLion of slang.
Queer pro11 u11ciatio11s.
How to read the newspaper.
(d)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
G.
7.
8.
9.
10.

11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
lG.

Appendix JJ.

Cornposition-Rhelvr ie.
I'

t

21.
22.
23.
24.
~G.

2U.
27.
~8 .

29.
30.

J
•

31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
:JU.

ESSAYS IN ARGUMENT.

The summer vacation should be shorl;ened .
Bicycles sho u l<l be carrietl free l iy the railroads.
Ts ly11 cl1i11g ever j11sLifialiln '?
Tl)e United States shonld adopt a genernl policy of annexation.
Li11col n was Lhe greatest of oraf;ors .
The nihilists [tre justified in seeking the life of the Czar.
The President should b e elected by popular vote.
A voter should always support the r eg ular party nominees.
The civil 'var should hav e bee n prevented.
Alaska is not a payi11g inves tment.
Tho govcrntnont s lt on ltl lo:w 111011ey Lo farlllcrs.
Protection lowers wages.
Strikes i11jure the canse oJ labor.
Boycotti11g should be reganled as a crime.
All land should be owned 1y the govern me11t.
Supreme judges should be elected by popular vote.

17.
18.
ID.
20.

ll'
I

40.

'I!

41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
tJU.
47.
48.
4D.
50.

I

I
l

367

}-.oreign skilled labor should he kept out of the United States.
Nevada should be merged into California.
Voting should be cmnpulsory.
The Declaration of Independence is a more important docum ent thau Magna Cl1arta.
This country should have been named Columbia.
Ought we to adopt a national flower?
Gern1an is a more valuable acquirement than Latin.
Teacher.s should be made a part of the Civil Service.
Tl1 e ltiglt sc hool conrno slto11l!l l>e sh ort.e 11 etl t.o Lhree years.
E x allliuatious sltoulll he done away with.
ArcLic exploration 11as uot paid.
Exec utio11s should he secret.
Livingsto ne was a greater explorer than Stanley.
The earth is superior to the other planets as a l:abitation for
man .
Grant was a greater general than Napoleon (.Julius Cresar,
Frederick t11e Great, Wellington, Lee).
A great poet need not be a good man.
Novel-reading is a waste of time.
The population of this city will double in - - years.
Trotting horses will never go faster than a mile in two minutes.
The office of poet-laureate should be abolished.
The education of girls should be different from that of boys.
Su11<lay obse rvan ce sltonld be compulsory.
Al111 s-givi11g shoukl be exclusively practised by charitable
orga11izaLio11s.
Irebncl's demands are unreasonable.
Inlieritauces should be taxed.
Speculation in stocks is an unmitigated evil.
Horace Greeley would have made a good president.
The practice of tipping should be discountenanced.
Professor H enry was the r eal i1we11tor of the electric telegraph.
\Vito discovered aurustltesia 't
What is the best kind of street-paving?
Wh at is the best make of bicycle?
Advantages of a multiplying reel.
Cooking and sewing should be taught in the schools.

-

- -·

-

•
Appendix E.

369

Rhetoric is based upon the following sciences : Logic, which
cleals with the Jaws of thought; Grammar, which presents the
facts a11<l rules of correc t lauguage; aud Msthetics, which iuves.tigates the principles of beauty.

APPENDIX .E.

RULES FOR THE COM!lfA.

A comma is used in the following instances : -

CAPITALS, PUNCTUATION, ETC.

1. To scprirnLo grnnu1rnLic~ally in1lopomlo11L clomontfl from the
context; as, " Hejoice, young nrnn I "
2. To sep:m1te i11Lenne<liatc, transposed, and parenthetical elements from the context; as, "Even good men, they say, sometimes
act like brutes."
3. To separate expressions in apposition from the context; as,
"vVashington, the first President, served two terms."
4. To separate contrasted words or phrases, and words or
pl1rases in pairs; as, "We live in deeds, not years." "Sink or
swirn, live or die, survive or perish, I give my hand and my heart
to this vote."
5. To mark th e omission of words; as, "In war he was warlike;
in peace, peaceable."
6. Before short and informal quotations; as, " He shouted,
' Come in ! ' "

The following words sltonld hegi11 wiLlt cn.piLals: 1. The first word of every boo k, chapter, letter, and para.graph.
2. The first word after a period; a,nd, usually, after the interrogation point and the exclamation point.
3. Divine names ; as God, .fcl1ovah, the Supreme Heing.
4. Proper riames of perso ns, places, rivers, oceans, ships; as,
Franklin, Chicago, Mississippi, Atlantic, the 1\fonitor.
5. Adjectives derived from th e proper names of places; as,
English, Frencl1, H.on1an, Arnr.ric:~n:
6. The first word of an exnct quotation in a direct form; as, he
said, "There will be war."
7. The pronoun land the interj ection 0 !
8. T erms of great ]1 isto rical i 111purl;n,11 ce are usually capitalized; as, the H efonnation~ the Civil \Var, tl1e Whigs, the Revolution.
G1rnERAL

R u L1<:s FOH

NoTE. --It is quite possible to use the comma too frequeutly; as," It
is well known, that, wh en water is cooled, below a certain point, contraction ceases, and expansi on begins." Better: "It is well Im own that when
water is cooled below a certain point, contraction ceases and expansion
begins."

P UNCT UATION.

The comma, semi-colon, and coloH 1nark the three degrees of
separation in the parts of a Rente ncc; the comma the smallest
degree, the semi-colon a greaLer degree, and the colon the greatest
degree. To illu strate: Rhetoric is based upon Logic, Grammar, and .lEsth etics.
Rhetoric is based upon Logic, which deals with the laws of
thought; upon Grarn111ar, wl1i ch presents the facts and rules of
correct lan g uage; a11d upoll M sLheLics, which investigates the principles of beanty.
3G8

RULES FOR THE SEMI-COLON.

A semi-colon is used in the following instances: -

(,.

J

1. To separate members of a compound sentence, whe11 they
are complex or loosely connected, or when they contain commas.
2. To separate short sentences closely connected in meaning.
3. To introduce an example, before as.
4. To separate clauses havin g a common dependence. lllustrations of these rules: "Scieuce declares that no particle of matter

370

Oomposition-Bltetoric.

ca11 Le <lm; l,royed; l.l1 a l. 0acl1 al.0111 l1nH il.8 place i11 the 1111iversc;
and that, in sceki11 g t.l1 a l; placr!, c:tc l1 olicys certain fi xcJ laws ."
"~Vhcn ec111 ca t.io11 s l1 a ll l_1e itt:ttle a riu:t.li(icat;io n for s uffrage ; wh en
politicians s ha ll g ive pl ace to 8t:af;e:::11 1en ;--then , a nd 11 ot till then,
will the high est, <le r c loprn eu t of our cu un Lry lie reached."

RuLu:s

!'

The colon is used in t he following in stances : -

d

1. To i11t.rocl11 ce SPvc ral parLic11lan; co11 11ilcx iu .form, iu apposition to a ge neral te rrn , a u<l separated from oue auotlter by semi-

colo11s .

\I

(Already illus trnteJ.)

ABBOTT,

AGASSIZ, 48.
ArNGER, 62.

l. To m ark the completion of a declarative sentence.

FOR THE INTE RROGATION POINT.

Tl1e interrogat,i o11 point; is used

AUDUBON,

2. To express doubt or sarcasm ; as, "That man a poet l "
3. After interjec tions; as, "Oh!" '' 0 my Country!"

54.

CuR MOPOLTTAN MAOAZINF., 320.
C ttAN J~ , 142.
CRAWFORD, 96, 100.
CREIGHTON, 111.
CUMBERLAND PRESBYTERIAN, 60.
CURTIS, 80.

180, 182, 183,

'-f

BURROUGHS,

DE QUINCEY,

136, 300, 314.

Diction, Choice of, 205-209.
Digressions, 314- 319.

232.

PotN'r.

l. To exp ress stron g emotion; as, "He is dead, the sweet
musician ! "

COPPE E,

BAGF.JIOT, 8!), 96, 122.
BANCltOFT, 178.
BARRJE, 9, 32.
BLACK, 84 .
BRETT, 60.
BROWN, 83-201.
BRYC E 213, 23G, 3i34.
BuR1rn', 106, 135, 138,

2. In parentheses to express doubt; as, "In the time of Homer,
850 ('?) n.c."

The exclamation poi11 t is used

253.

Correction-marks, 342--348.

l. After every Jirec t questio11 ; as, "''Vill you come ?" "You
have been to Niagara ?" "lVhen was sucl1 a promise made? By
whom?"

Excr, AMA'rroN

2G3.

Climax, 231-236.
Coherence, 323-331.

AL COTT , 9.
I
Development of t ieme COLERIDGE, 100.
.
Ana I ogies,
Comparisons, Developm ent of theme
by, !l2-98.
.
by 92-98.
Analysis, Material for, 349-3GO.
Co nc'rete expressions, 222, 223.
A ND ERSEN, 5.
ANDREWS , 120.
Condensation, 30G-310.
An tecedent, 327- 329, 343.
CONGRESSIONA L RECORD, 227.
.
10~
Anti-climax, 234-236.
Conjunct10ns,
u, 112 • 124 ' 292 ' 344,
Antithesis, 231-236.
345.
Arrangement, 241-243.
Construction, Faulty, 344.
ATLAN TIC MONTHLY, 153, 213.
Contrasts; 103-·105.

THE PERIOD.

2. After abbreviatious; as, D.D., LL.D., Vt., Ala .

Ruu.:s Fon Tim

Clauses, Involved, 325.
Clearness, Sentence-order for, 257-

68.

Abstract expressions, 222, 223.

The period is useu i11 the followiug instances: -

Rur,Es

.
nm es of nuthors who se works are quoted nncl of periodi[Th c reference ts to pnges. N.
.
nre in SMALL CAl' t TALS.)
cnls from which extrnct.R lmvo been mm1e,

I

2. To introdu ce 1011 g form al q notations. If the quotation begins
a new parag raph a dash should be used instead of a colon.

Ruu-:s Fon

INDEX.

t.

Fon TIIE Co1, 0N.

161, 196.

DOWDEN,

•.

54.

Capitalization, 3G8.
CAlt LYLF.,

38, 287.

EARLE,

Cause aud effect, 110-113.
CENTURY MAGAZINE,

74, 84.

Chan ge of subject,. Unexpected, 326.
C H ATHAM , 179.
CLARENDON' 323,

328.

'Echo,' 330.
EL10T, 307.
EMERSON, 143,

144, 153, 228.

Emphasis, Sentence-order for, 257263.

325.

371

-

•
372

-

• • •
Index.

Composition-Jllietoric.

EVEitETT' Hi5, 213.
Examples, 87- !11.
Explicit rcforc11cc, 3<H.
Express i 011, 2!17-:lOJ.
Exprcssiou, C hoice of, 205-20!).

/ TRvrna, 11, 11, rn, 35, s2, 103, 12i.
its, 327.

Order, Logical, 241-243.
Order, Time and space, 246-ZGO.

118.
IJOHNS ON,
7B, 121.

Paragraph, a sentence-group, l-8;
E xternal form of, 1-2!) ; Structure
of, il0-39; Theme of, 42-44; Growth
of, 72- 133.
Participle for clause, 342.
Participle, Misrelated, 842.
Particular terms, 222, 223.
Particulars, Development of theme
hy, 79-SG.
l'lai.11 s L:Lt".cmo11ts, 222, 221.1.
PLUTAltCH, 49.
POPE, 229.
Preposition at e11d of sentence, 2G!J.
P1rnscoT'r, 34.
Pro11on11s, 327-32!).
Proofs, Development of theme by,
117-11!).
Proportion, 26!)-280.
Punctuation, 368-370.

.T1~nn,

I

I

I JOWETT, 308.

FARRAR, Hil, 228, 294.
FrnLns, 238.
Figures, 222-225.
'Fine \Vr iting,' 346.
FOitTNJGllTLY REVIEW, 55 .
FOSTER, Jl.3.
F1tANKLrN, 2s, 50; 10, 11:1.
FREEMAN, 330.
FROUDI~, 63.
GAYNOrt, fi4.
Gcn<'rnl ide:rn, 2Hl-223.
flmnoN, !il, Hi2, 156.
GIJ,MAN' 54.
GRADY, 3G, 5G.
GRAY, 210.
G1rnEN, 2H!).
GUYOT, Jl4.
HALE, 284.
HAl\1.EltTON, 58, 90, 105, 127, 128, 162,
1G3.
HARDY, 226.
HARPER'S \VEEKLY, 62.
Hart, 330 not e.
HIGGJNSON, 3G, 125 .
Hoon, 28.
HOJ,LAND, 247.
HOLMES, 7, 72, 83, lOG, 1:35, 225.
HOS.i\1EU, 57.
JloWAHlJ , 1!11.
HOWELLS, !J5, 101, 129.
HUDSON, 56.
HUGHES, 49, 298.
Huao, 29.
HUXLEY, 95.

I

KEATS, 305.
K.ecpi11g, 346.
KJNGLAKE, 112.
KINOSLI~Y, 141.

LA LOil ANJl MASON, GI, 62.
LA11rn, 63, G8.
L .ANGLEY, 94.
LJr.w1s, :l n ote.
[LINCOLN, 140, 217.
J,il eral cxpr e~s io11 s, 222, 22:3.
Lo.PG!•~,

104.
LONDON DAILY TELEGI'tAPH, 311.
LONDON SATURDAY REvrnw, 312.
LONGFELLOW, 8, 52, 53, 78, 154, 194,
1!l8.
Lov 11:1,Ac 1r,, :mit .
Low J<:r,L, 38, 88, !!4, H7, 13!J, 17!J, 220.
LUTH ER.AN WORLD, 53.

t!

l

Q111NUY, l7G.
RANDOLPH, 213.
Refere11ce, Words of, 327-331.
Helative, Omission of, 347.
Repetition, Development of theme
by, 72-74.
Repetitions for coherence, 328-331.
Reproduction, Material for, 34!!-360.
ROBERTSON, 306.
RoosEvEur, 104.
RUSKIN, 77, !)!), 101, 154, lSQ.

MACAULAY, 37, 55, 7fi, 78 , 8!), 93, !:16,
135, 155, 175, 203, 224, 307' 319.
MAcmrnzrn, 138, 143.
MAHAFFY, 118.
M•.' MAsTim, 107, 123.
l\'fanuscript, Preparation of, 339-341.
MAltY, P.RINCESS, 332.
l\fATTH.F:WS, 108.

I

Mr~ RlVALE,

m.

SAN FRANCISCO EXAMINER, 327 note.
SAUNDERS, 27.
SCHllllTZ, 119.
ScHu1iz, 51.
Scorr, 114, 250.
Selection, 41, 42, 270.
Sontenco-gro11ps, 1-3.
Seutoucc-onler, 2U7-2Gil.
Sentences, Balanced, 188, 189; Long,

Metaphor, Mixed, 22,l , 225.
Metaphorical expressions, 222-225.
MILJ,, 120.
MILTON, 304.
l\[ON'fAJGNE, 298.
MONTGOllIERY, 114.
MoTLrn' , 28, 47.
Moulton, :ns note.

hliomatic expressions, 207.
Images, · 21n-221.
Imaginative expressions, 219-225.
NAPIER, 236.
In cohere nce, 823-331.
not only- /mt also, 259.
Indention, 5-2!J.
Instances, specific, Development of OJ,JPHANT, 137.
theme by, 87-!Jl.
only, 25!J and uote.

I

I

. J:

ii

373

l.'H-158; Loose, lGl-165; Periodic,
17G-180; Short,, 134-145.
Sen tence-typcs, Combination of, 194-

ms.

I SEWARD, 218, 21!) note .
SHALER, 30.

! shall and will, Use of, 208.

I Similes, 222, 223.
Slang, 207.

I SOUTHEY, 60.
Specific expr essions, 222, 223.
'S•111inti11 g' construction, 257, 258,
~H~.

STEDJl'[AN, 287.
STEVENSON, 2!J4, 2!)7, 301.
Subject, Selectio n of a, 41, 42.
Subjects for essays, 36l-367Subordi11atio11 of parts, 2!H-2!J4.
Suspense, 178.
T AYLOR, 249.
TENNYSON, 303.
THACKERAY , 1()2.

80.
that, who, which, 20!J.
their, 327 and note.

TllANlf.T,

Theme of the paragraph, 42-44.
TIIOl\lAS, 307.
THOREAU , 88.
THUCYDIDES, 308.
Title, 46, 47.
Topic-sentence, 52-Gl.
TYNDALL, !JO.
Unity, 314-319, 324, 325.
VAN DYKE, 190.
\V°ALKER, 75.
WEnsTim, "60, 76, 77, 139, 176, 177,
196, 293, 329 . •
.WELLINGTON, 261.
which, who, tlrnt, 20!l.
who, which, that, 209.
will and shall, Use of, 208.

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ENGLISH.

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The Acade111y Series of E11glis/J Classics
Substantially bound in boards, and iss ued at a uniform price of

20

cents.

HE works selected for thi s se ri es are such as have gain ed a
conspicuous and endurin g place in . li te rature; nothing is
admitted eith er trivi al in cha racte r or eph emeral in interest.

T

Each volume is edit ed by a teacher of reputation, wh ose na me
is a g uaranty of sound a nd judicious an nota tion.

Tl i s th e ai111 o( th e N olco; !11 fur11i sl1 assis!;111 cc 01dy wh ere it
is absolutely ne eded, an d, in ge neral, lo permit th e author lo be
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his own int erpreter.
All the works in the Series (exce pting ·webster's R eply to
Hayn e) are printed " ·i th out mutilati on or abridgment.
Thoug h in typog rap hy, in pape r, and in mechan ical executio n,
the b ooks reach th e hig hes t s ta ndard, each volum e, containing
from 80 to 140 pages, is published at a uniform pri ce of t wmly
ce nts .

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Th e following is a li st of the books that have already appeared.
Other volumes are in preparation, and will b e duly announced.
Essays in C riticis m. Edited by Susan S. Sh eridan.
Conciliation with th e Colonies. Edited by Professor C . B.
Bradl ey.
Vv' EBSTF.R .
Reply to H ay ne. Ed ited by Professo r C. H. Brad ley.
Al!DI SON .
De Coverl ey l'apers. Edited by Samuel Thurber.
CARLYLE.
E ssay on Burns. Ed ited by H e nry W . Boyn to n.
On Boswe ll's Life of J o hn son. Edited by H. VI/. Boynton.
MACAULAY.
Essay on Add iso n. Ed ited by Samuel Thurber.
Essay on C ha th a m . Edi ted by Sa muel Thurber.
Essay on (:J ive. Ed ited by Samu el T hurb er.
Essay o n M ii ton. Ed ited by Smnn cl Thurber.
Essay on J o hnso n. E dit ed by Samu el Thurber.
Essay o n Warren Hasti n .~s . Ecl it crl by Samuel Thurber.
SIIAKESl'EA RI':. J1ili11 s Cn.es:1r. Erlit cd b y S:111l1Jcl Thurber.
MacbC' th. Ed it ed by Samu el Thurber.
l\'lerch:rnt n f \'1· 11i cc. l''. <iit cd liy S:1 1111.H'l Thurber.
i\s You Like It. Ed ited by Sa mu el Thurber.
ARNOLD.
BURKE.

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