\·

..
.\ .
. ,\
~

G·RAD UAT-ED SERIES;

~

Dl!SIGNIID FOR

·,

~trilhrm lrditm1t t~t a~es fJf ~ir .nnh Jf.ow:tun ~tars :
'·
CONTA!NINCJ 1 .ALS01

.\.

...

r·~. ·~1

•·":

,\

• ~

.. ' ,··

" l •

\

INFORMATION ON , COMMON OilJECTs? r. ._ , .
·Yi',~·

\
I

q

\.,1"

\J

cu:._
'
~

BY E /

PREFACE.

\

.'
'

'

.

1, .

'··

Tm: fourteenth edition of "Lessons on Objects"
was published in London in 1855, under the auspices
of the Home .and Colonial Training Institution, and
underwent at that time a thorough revision.
In this American edition many changes · have been
made in the arrangement of·, the
Lessons. Some
/:..,,
'
\
of the terms have been modified,' others left out 'altogether. A number of' the lessons have been omitted and others substituted in their place, an d much
information on common objec ts has been added. 1 In ·
.-:...
the original work there were but few Model Lessons ;
in this, a large a dditional number have been inserted.
·'
T hese have been taken from "Mamrnl of Elementary In'
struction," "JUoclcl Lessons," and ':Notes and Sketches
of Lessons," all London publications. The arrange\.
ment of the.Steps correspond to the arrangement in t ho
i
"Manual of E lementary Instruction." 'r!ie first three
steps are designed for the first th ree years of the child's
school life, or for the Primary Schools. 'l'he fourth and
.: ,,~t~ ~\
. fifth steps are adapted to the junior or intermediate
~c~\:.
grade; or for pupils from ten to fourteen years of age. ·:. ;.... :::;·~J
The Models given are designed to aid the teacher · ,/1C ::: ~ ... '• ·
in the preparation of her lessons, as suggestions i~_t~ ; i\·

{

Entered, BCcordiog lo Act or Con gre~s. in tho ycnr 18G3, by
CHAR LES

Sc nrmnm,

lo t!le Clerk'• Ollie~ of" tho District Conrt or tho United Btntes, for the
Southern District of Now York.

2°"3 '901

.
,II

0

·

·

,.
• , .._

"· .

I

r i-:i.._ . :/~..

;~,~-~{-~·:.?:

4

PREFACE.

\

gard to the proper method of arranging and presenting t.hem, and not as forms to be implicitly or blindly
followed.
In cases where lists of the names of tfioqualities of
objects are given, it is not essential that the children
should be led to the discovery of all the qualities named.
, . As the object of these Lessons is to cultivate the
senses, to awaken and quicken observation, and lead
the children to observe carefully everything in nature
about them that comes within the range of the senses,
it is important as far as possible to give the children a
good deal of latitude, and let the discoveries be their
own, except as they may be guided in part by the
teacher. So that if they should leave out in their investigations some qu~lities named, and put in others not
named, it is not a matter of importance, provided they
are correct as far as they go, and accuracy of observation is cultivatcl1. It should be adclcrl, that as the 1"deas
are clearly developed, the giv.iug of terms to express
these ideas is closignccl as a preprirntioh for "Languaf!;e
Lessons," and to give the children a vocabulary by
which they are enabled to express the observations they
are continually making on the objects of the external
world. Thus observation and language ar<t boLh culLivatcd.
We cannot do better here than insert the Preface
to the Fourteenth London Edition.

_
. <. .
\

\

·,, ..-- '·

i.t

··:\

~

·\::r~
,l:_..,.

•,"".' ,\ '.'1

PREFACE
TO TIIE FOURTEENTH LONDON EDITION.

•

WrmN this work was first presented to the public, nearly thirty
years since, the i<lea of systematieally using the material world as
one of the .m eans of oclucating the minds of children, was so novel
an<l untried a thing in England, that the title "L.cssons on Ob- ·
j ects " excited many a smile, and the' success .of the littl~·: volume
was deemed to be, at best, very dubious:-- The plai~ ~ountl seuso
of the plan, however, soon recommended it to our · i~aehers ancl
•
j
'
they d1scoverccl tli[lt reading, writing, aucl nrithmeti c, <lo not form
the sole basis of elementary education, but that the objects and
actions of every-dr1y lifo should ha\·e n very prominent plnco in
their programme.
Iu spite of the ominous forebodings which atton<letl the first
introduction of this little volume, tho public has given a deci ded

sanction to tho system of teaching it, nnd tho degree in wl ii ch it
has in consequence modified books for tho young nnd the practice
of elementary instruction, can scarcely be calculated.
Successive editions of the.Lessons have issued rapidly from the
press, hitherto without any alteration; but it is now thought desira-

,..

ble. to p:ofit by the experience gained by the introduction of such
1
additio+'ns....... ;o:·
a course of instruction, and to make a few changes ;nd
~
As the work is

m~ch ~Bed in instit~tions for-the t~~i~of r~oh":.;;
l >'

.'/:

-;·"~·

•

'I.

'•

'1 '

·t~~

;,"' ..

:;·

'·

·.

..,.•.,

/'

·,

6

PREF.A.CE.

PREF.A.CE. .

ere, the following nccount of the plan of the whole course is given
ns a guide in the use of the lessons, and a help in carrying out the
idea. Those who foll into a mechanical way of giving such. instruction, and do not perceive the principle involved, completely
defeat its intention, and they had far better keep to old plans and
old books.
The work contains progressive series of lessons, the prevailing
aim being to exercise the fac ulties of children according to thei1·
natural order of development, aiming also at their harmonious
cultivation.* The first series chiefly exercisOll tho perceptive

An objection has been mnde to these Lessons,' that ·they put , .
fine words into children's mouths, nnd give them nn air of ped-'
antry-but the evil in :eality is the effect of the ignornnco thnt
has hitherto prevailed as to the properties of the _most common
things by which we are surrounded, and the consequent poverty
of the poor man's language. When the love of knowledge is
excited, and the h ab it of intelligent observation cultivated, words
nnd phrases are r equired to define accurately what so often otherwise remains vague . impressions on the mind ; consequently a
more exteadeu vocabulary is requisite, nnd when no simple and
common words can be found to express (for instance, such very
importnnt nnd common qualities as opacity and transparency),
the only terms our language affords must be used, and the reprnach
of pedantry be risked.
Teachers making use of those Lesso ns are earnestly n<lvised to
road carefully the introduction to n series before they commence
the lessons which it contains, and to endeavor ' to understaml, anu
then to net up to the principles and aim set forth. They should
gnard ngninst mere mechnnicnl work, or allowing this in their
pupils; the latter, after having heard a few names, will often,
without thought or observation, npply them indiscriminately.
Neither should tho lessons be shl"ishly followed in nil that is set·
down; they should rnthcr he use<l ns affording suggestive hints;
nntl v:iri cty shonl<l be sought for-the children often themselves
indicate what their minds require.

faculties, arresting attention on qualities ~isco vornble by the senses;
and then furnishing a vocabulary to clothe tho ideas, and so fixing
them in tho mind, where they will be ready for reproduction when
tho faculty of conception begins to act. The second and third series, in addition to this, exercise the conceptive powers in recalling
the impressions matle up on tl10 senses by external objects, when
they are removetl from observation-also in leading from what i.i.,
become known to what is unknown. In the fourth series, tho
children are exercised in tracing rrscmbhnccs and <liffcrcnces, in
drawing comprrrisons rtnd recognizing nnalugics, thereby cul Lirn.t-'
Ing th e power of arranging and cbssifyiu:r.
In the fifth series, tho reason nn<l ,jml;m cnt ure brought into
activity; in tracing tho conn ection between cause nnd effect, between nse nrnl n<lnptation; hnp:nrt p:o or tho power of expression
is oultivnted ; the idea.~ developed iu tlie lessons of the previous
sorics n.ro .cxprcsscil either in simple "· onl' m· 'hort sentences;
but throu'ghout this series the pupils 11ro rcquireu to put down
all the knowledge they ncquire, in the form of consecutive nar. rntive. This plan promotes fixedness of attention· during the giving of the lesson, n. clear npprehonsion of facts and truths, and
facility in arranging and expressing what has been acquired.

*

"i

ELIZABETH MAYO.
Hampstead, July,

See "Home Education," p. 198.

1~55.

·

'.,.

•.
/;

\

\ .

A

~ f~

\.

.. .... . , , ;- ,

.....

/,.

i

•
:
I.

-

=·t·-· ,·~

... .} ..
'

I

~n 28.
29.
80.
31.
82.
83.
34.
35.

-.·

...

'

...

'

"

, , ;.'':.~~~

A Need!e ...... i ...
A Plont and a Stone ••• ,, .102
ABell ...·................. 103
A Wheel ................. 104
(,)amphor .. .. . ............ 106
Fire ....... .. .... .. ...... . 107
An Anchor ............. ; .109
A Bnlnuce ................ 110
FOURTH BTEP.
I

CONTENTS.
•

·

l'ago

Pago

H111T8 01181tBTOR WBITUIG ...·....... 11

FiltST STEP.

L.,son

jg: {3V~~r.to~:.~:::::: ::: ::: ::~

17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.

Ginger.... . ....... ......... 61
B1otllng Paper .... ....... . 61
A Piece of Willow......... 61
Milk ................... .. . 62
R ice..................... .. 62
Salt.... . ............. . ..... r.2
Jlorn ...................... U3
Irnry ...................... ()3
O:ik Ilark .. .......... , . .. .. 64
U11cut Lead Pencil. .•...•. 64
A Wnx Cnndltl ............ 65
A Pcn . . .... ..... .......... 60

Introductory R emark• .......... ..... 20
Lesoon 1. A Bllsk et, for its parts . ... . 25
2. A Net·dle, for its parts .... 25
3. A Penknlf'o, for Its parts ... 20
( . A Chliir1 for He parts ..••.. 27
6. A 'Vntcn, for its parts .... . 28
6. A Pig. . • •. •.•.. . •••••••.... 29
7. A Pencil .... . .............. 30
8. M.llk ..... . ... . .. •·· • • · • · .. . 32
9. A FQnlher . . ....•. ..•. . . •.. 33
10. Lonf Sugnr . ............... 30
11. F:lnt.. ...... . ....... . ...... 38
THIRD STEP.
12. 'Vool .......... . .......... . 39
13. A l'leco of ll:uk ........... 40 Intrnduclorv Remorke ................ 08
14. A nook . . !. ................ 41 Lesson 1. Chalk .. .................. .. 68 ·
15. A Pln ..................... 42
2. Con I .. . .... . ..... ... .. . .. . • 70
3. _<\. Mntch .................. 72
16. A Cube of 'Youd .......... 42
4. A Rose Lenf .............. .75
17. A Thimble ........ . ...... .4:1
5. Ilonry Comb ............ . . 'is
18. A K<'y . ........... ..... . . .. 43
19. A Cup . •••..••..•..••.•..•. 44
6. A Buttertly................ so
20. A Pair of Scissors...•..... 45
7. Rccnpitulatton . .• . •• ... . . .• 84
21. A Blrd ... , . . .. .. .-.... . .... 45
8. Maa••cre of Chtldren of
Bethlehem •• ••••••..• .. .. 86
22. An Orange ................ 46
9. A Quill.. .. . . ... ........... 89
JO. A Ponny .. . ............ .. . 90
11. Mns~•rcl Seed . . ........... 91
SECOND STEP.
Introductory Remnrke . ........ ... . .. 47
L esson 1. lnd1n Ru\Jber ............. 47
2. .A l'lccc of Sponge......... 48
3. 'Vhalcbono .....•.... :• ... .49
4. A Piece of Glass . ..... .... 51
6. A Piece of Slnte : ........ .. ~2
6. J, Mther ......... ....... . . . . 53
7. LoafSugnr ........ . ....... 56
8. A P iece of Gum Arnbic . .. 57
9. A Picco of Sponge.......... 57
10. 'Vool ................ . ..... 58
11. ·wnter ..... ..... ........... 58
12. A Piece of Wnx ........... 58

U: ~::g~~:::::::::::::::::Jg

g: Brown
Ci1~.:~'f~\v-·.-;~ii'.: :-. :::: ::ii~
Sugnr •• •• . .•••.•.. . 92

14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24 .

An Acorn . .... . ....... .... 93
A Piece of lloney Comb .. 93
Refined Sugar ............. 9t
A Cork ............... . ... 95
Gluc ..... . ................ 95
Pack Thread .. . ....... . . . . 96
Honey .................... . 96
Jluttcrcnp .• .• ; ...... ...... 96
A Lndy J3i rd ..... ..... . ... . 97
.An Oyster . ..... ... . ....... 98

j~~: ~u~'.~. ~-~''.~::: :: ::::: ::::i?i::
27. A Laurel Lenf ............ loo

J'

.

Inlroductory Remark! . . ... .... ..... 113
Leoson 1. Prppor ... ... .......... . : .114
2. Nutmeg ....... .... . . ..... 116
3. Mnce ............ ...... ... 117
4. Cinnamon ................ 119
5. Ginger ......... '. ......... 119
6. All•/•!ce .. ; .. . ............ 120
7. AC ove .................. 121
8. 'Vater . ..... .. ............ 124
9. 011 ....................... 126
to. Deer.-;••· ... : ........... ; .127
11. Foreign White. Wine ..... 128
12. Vtpegar ....... .. ; ...... .. 120
13. Ink .......... ...... . ...... 129
14. Milk ................ , ...... 130

Meta.ls.

'

l.i \' · ·,; •
0

Gener•! Observntlone' on the Mrtola .132
General Co11vert1at\on on the Metals .138
~•son 15. Gold, .............. ,:..... 139
16. 811\'er ·............ : .'..... 143
17. QulckoUver·or Mercury .. 145
18. · L end . 1.; .. ; , .. , .. " . 1 . . . 149
19. Coppcr,. .... . ............ 152
20. Iron .•• 1... 1.; ............ 156
21. Tln . ... l .. ) .............. 159
2':!. Comparieon of Melnls .. . 162
23. On Metals In General •••• 163

Natural History.
,

1

24. A Beo .... ..... ; ......... 168
25. Honey Comb • .. ~ ........ 170
26. Covering bf Dlrd• . . . •. .• 173.
V27. Adnptntlon of Feathers
to Hnbits and 'Vimts
of Birdo.... . ... ....... li6
28. Books of Birds .......... 178
29. Tho Mo!e-No. 1......... 180
30,

H

'

U

'

2,, • o • , , ,,]82

U

81. On Fur-No. 1. .......... 188
"
" 2 ...... ... ..189
32. The Pig.< ......... ...... 191
83. Solublllty.... ; ........... 193
M. On the Seneeo.; ......... 199
85. F_eellng o; Touch ...... 1 . 201
86. Sight ; ;" .... , ..... .... .. 204
87. Hearing ................. 205
88. Smell............ ....... .
89. 'flll!te ... ( .. ........ : .. ,.. 297
FIFTH .STEP.

.

.

.

:\

'

'

In.troductory Remarko . ..... . ~ ..... 208

l*

PMo
Le •on f5 'Mu•cle. .............. • •.. 2il7
Mothcr-of-l'enrl · • • • • • • • .. w 5

• '6:

Miscellaneous Objects.
'

f7. Bone• .... ...... . . ·· .. ... . · 209
_4B F'eather•. • • · · · • · · · · · · · · • .ao;z

' ~·
60°
61:
62
'

i

1•

g

Gluc ........ • .. · .. · ··· ·· · 3 6
Hurn· .. · · · .. " · · "" · · " 3 8
Horse Hair .. ··· ·· ··· .. · · 310
Ivory ... · · .... · · · .. · · · • · . 311

ii ~:. ~~~'.~~:::::::::::::·
::.JH
Snongc. · · · · · · ...... · .....
1

3

65

I!

,.II

·•

CONTENTS.

10

66. 'l'oriolEC Shell .... · .. ·•· · 31 9
67: \Vhnlc\Jone . ·•· · ·· · • · ·· ·-~~~
68. Coral... · · · .. • • · · · .. · · • · · 325
69, w nx Condie• ... · · · · · · · · ·
oo. Shellao ... · • · · · · · · · · · · · · ··825
61. Dutter.. •······ ···•" ·· · · 320
327
. (l2. Cbeeoo.... · · .. · · · · · · · · · ..
63. Felt. ................... .. 328

Textile or Woven Fabrics and
. their Materials.
Leo•on 64. Cotton .. ... .. ·· •·· ·· ···· ·~l
65. Flax.. · · · · · • · · · · · · • • · · · · · 330
66. H emp .··· ...... · · .. · · ·· ·sag
67. Silk.... . .. ••·•·• ·• •· ..... 341
68. \Vool. ... ... ..... ..... ···

Minerals. '
342
Ob•orvatlon• on ... ·••· .. • .. •• ·•· ·· .. 340
Leason ~~: 1ii'~:i;1 ;;~ (,j.'
:348

Argii'.:::: ::

Pago
Lcooon 71. .Alum • • · • .... • " .. · · · · · -~~g
72. Emcry .... ......... T.!..
73. Rottrn Stono and r ·
poll. .... ......... ..... 85 34
74. rum ico Stone ... · .. ·· .. -g~
75. Slato .... · · ·· • · • • · .. · · · .. 5
Silicioua .Hinerala.
Leeson 76. Band and Sandstone .. . . -g~g
77. Gl_ass ...... .............. 364
78 Mica. .... · ... ········.... 5
79: Granite .. . . ····· · ······· · 86
I11fiammabl6 Mintrala.
Lesson 80. Sulphur .. · ...... · .. · · · .. · :~g
81. Plum \Jngo .... · · · • · · · · .. ·
82. Coal. ............ ·•···· · · 371
Saline lli1leral6.

•

·~

.. .

\

l;

\

'.

\ ..

·'

LESSONS

ON ': OBJECTS.
_

,I •

:: ~~:~i~~::::::::::::::::::a97

Ot .OSS ARY .. . .............. . .... ..... sog

1·

.•

,

I

HINTS ON ·SKETCH WRITING.*

-.

Manufacturei\ Articles.

aii

'-. I

'.'

83. Snit .. ... ·· ········· · ·· · .. ~7~
84. So<la ..... · ··· .. ·· ·· .. ·· ·· '

Leeson 85. Porcelain .... • · ·· ·· .. ·· .. ~~~
86. Ne•dlc•.. . · · · • • · · · · · · ....
87 Nalls .... · ·· ·· ··· ··· .... . 385
as: Knh·ce ..•.... · · • · · · · · · · -~n
89. Scl•eors .... · · · · · · · · · .. · ·
90. Steel Pens .. ·· .. •····· · · · 300
01. Limo . . ..... · · · · • · · · · · .. · 3 1
92. Brass . ... · .... ·"··· .. ' .. 3943

.. ,....

is, perhaps, nq practice better adapted to insure
effective oral teaching,· than .diligent preparation of the les- ·
I
.
sons which the teacher intends to \ give her pupils. · The
recent impulse imparted to popular education.1 ~w~ile it has.' ..
directed attention ~to this important subject, h~s . shown; . ·
,also, how much it has been neglected. This fact; with . the- difficulties attending first attempts at the practice, renders
, i t desirable to furni sh a few hints to teachers and students,
which may help them in this branch of their work, and lead
to its better appreciation.
TnERE

Experi ence daily proves that an unprepared lesson, or
what may be termed EXTEMPORE teaching, is sure to be
vague, diffuse, and shallow; and on the other hand, that a
well-prepared lesson is generally clear, to the point, and
given with spirit and effect.
If, with all the advantages of well-disciplined minds,
those who instruct adults find careful preparation indispensable, far more so must it be to those who have to

* Taken from

"Note& and Sketche& of .U&aon&." .

/"

i .

I :·

12

·•· ,

HINTS. ON SKETCH .WRITING,

HINTS ON SKETCH WRITING.

,,

teach children, and who in many cases are very deficient
in mental culture.
An accurate knowledge of her subject gives self-possession and composure to t he teacher; enables her to attend
to the effect of the lesson on the minds of the children;
i)revents tedious repetition, and important omissions; and
gives her such a power over the children as to produce a
consciousness that tho teacher is guiding them, not they
her; Success is then sure to follow, in winning their attention, and eliciting their inquiries and remarks. Moreover,
the teacher who has diligently acquired, thoroughly digested, and suitably arranged her matter, will not easily
be seduced from her subject by incidental association or
irrelevant questioning; she readily detects the one, and
discourages the other.
Drawing up sketches also affords much salutary mental
discipline to the teacher herself. She is practised in analyzing subjects of instruction; and then, in reconstructing
them on the principles of good teaching. She learns to
view the lesson as a whole, to sec the prominent beari.n gs
of the subject, and to grasp and retain them firmly whil13
working them out.
' Again: if a teacher can overcome her natural love of
ease, and once make up her mind to the practice of preparing sketches of lessons, it will not only tend to cultivate
and disciplin!'J her mind, but greatly contribute to the
pleasure of her daily occupation, economizing at once time
and labor. She will enjoy the interesting work of determip.ing the end to be aimed at, of seeking the means of
its attainment, and then of watching its success. Further:

ct~--

· · \ 1·

'.

!

,

In a Scriptyre lesson, the meaning of the P.!!!Jsage selec~-- ;·:. }
ed should be carefully studied ; the parallel ·'passages\· hnd ':,.
texts consulted ; every reference to places;:·m~nners)cus· ~' ' .
toms, &c., clearly understood; that the te;icher may, <?6me · .;.,
forward with a mind enriched ,with knowle-~gel in:i:d :a):i.~:t , ~,t'
imbued with religious feeling. '
· · .. ' ' ,' 'rd~-~.,;:•
4;;_;,,,·;'.-pi' 4"'t.>
':;- . .
,
In secular instruction, the best infor~at1on;shoula..!.b~ 1.
obtained from books and a:ctual observatldn:~ Th · 'oih

...

,

.

•

.

...:t~_'1J,- ~-"

•
'/

'

if, after having prepared the sket~li, the teacher takes' '.care,· . ,.
at tl'le close of the day, to enter that sketch in a book, and · ·
to notice the omissions made, and other incidents connected .
with the lesson as given, she will at tho end of a singlA .
twelvemonth find her task greatly lightened, and her work
with every now class of childrcq comparatively easy. Her
pupils '"ithal, by the help of a systematic and regular
•. ··
course of well premeditated and prepared instruction, will
ba,•c their minds properly excrcisea, and make solid prog·
ress: the same lesson will not, as is now often the case,
be repeated within too short a space of time; and when it
is again g iven, it will have the full benefit of the teacher's
experience and correction.
'·
It may seem very trite to say that, in order to prepare
a good sketch of a lesson, · a ~eacher should -thoroughly ac·/ .' ·
quaint herself with the subj ect, , both · in itself and in its
~ifferent bearings on relative subjects; yet much vagueness
on the part of the teacher, and much inattention on the
. part of tho children, are owing to tho neglect of a truth so
""'obYious. Whatever may be the skill of the teacher, with·
out proper and ample materials, no valuable result will .b e
produced.
. "· ; .: t .~.J-:..i: ...

I'

.

·~

- •

14

llINTS . ON .SKETCU :WRITING: ; .

HINTS ON SKETCH W!UTING.

to which to lead the pupils should be determined, whether
relating to historical facts, to utility, or to the connecting
dependence of one part of the snbJect on anotlier. Truth,
thus acquired by search, will be valued and rcmcmbcrerl,
the harmony and <lcpenclcnce between various irnths per.ceived, and its existence become a reality to tl1em.
It is of great importance that. teacl1c•rs E-linnld be well
suppliecl with concordances, commentari es, and other books
of reference. The scanty library of many of our t eachers,
while the mechanic is so well supplied with choice tools of
every kiucl, is cnot1gh to lllake those deeply momn \l'ho 1ri 0 h
•
well to the cause of education.
The cxpcnili t ure on this account would be richly repaid
in the enhanced uscfnlness of the teacher.
Assuming that good ancl sufiicient matter has been collected, the next point is to determine what the special subject,
or leading idea, of tbe lesson shall be. In order to do this,
in a Scripture lesson , for example, the teacher should ascertain the current of thought that runs through the passag<>,
the particular truth it teaches, and the practical application
of which it is susceptible. The advantages of attention to
this rule in religious instruction, are strikingly expressed by
Inglis, in the "Sabbath School." H e says, "A person,
when he has settled the subject of his lesson in this way,
.has before his eyes a definite purpose to serve. Instead of
occupying himself with unconn cct etl explanations, pioul1,
but pointless reflections, and hap-hazard questions, he tries,
we shall say, on that day and by that one lesson, to convince the children-of the value of their souls; or, of the
evils of hypocrisy; or, of the holiness of God; 01', of the

,,
'

::

.16 :

'·'

happiness of heaven; something at least tangible ' ~nd ~ , , · · : ~··~:
. portant. Instead of wandering at random wherever the
- ··.~:~
impulse of association or the answers of the children may
lead him, l1is subiect
is a helm to his thotirrhts
and 0(l'uides
J
0
'
them steadily lo the point. Ile tries to lodge one o r t wo
gre:tt truths in the minds of his scholars; and this dis tinctness of purpose gives method :tnd clearn ess to every part
of the lesson. Doth teacher and scholars know where they
arc, and what they are about."
~··

In preparing the sketch of a lesson on a secular subject,
the teacher should in like mann er, so far as is practicable,
confine herself to a single point,-or at most, a few points,
tow;ird wh ic.:h the whole ins t ruction should tend, as rays
to a centre. Her attention should not be directed to what
she can or migl,it say on the .subject,
but to
supply what, is
I
.
most suited to the children's minds and acquirements, to
their present and future wants; and what they can well
receive and digest.
The plan, or method of the lesson, is another very important consiclerntion. The information which the teacher

'.

::~

•'.

... ·,,.~
·l

h.as collected is placed in her own mind in the order · in
w~ich she has acq~ired it, and not in that in which . it ::~: \ .":",•
1
.sliould be imparted to the children .i . ·She has, therefore .. to;r:Pm
--~
· '
' '1:..·t •
ei,leavor to throw herself into the. minds of her pupils ;.:-:to' J;)
r.ealize to herself their actual state, and to consider '.what ·i8.{'<L.,.v
known, that she may obtain a firm footing from ·whence • to ~'\ - ;-<· .•
.
·t
proceed
to that which is unknown and new. ·-. Sho .has . also i.);'
..
~
to analyze her subject, that she may commence -with ,what ~ · ~;·
is simple and elementary, and so to;arrange her p6ints· tb~t. ii~;~
she m'.ly proceed, by a series of... :well-graduated steps/ to·,..
•

•

.,

--4

.,

,

"5 ': .

v

16

\

that which is more difficult, or is complex in its char:icter.
The ideas presented or gathered from the subject will then
be received in their right order, their suitable connection
felt, and the whole will be adjusted satisfactorily in tho
mind. She has, moreover, to determine how she should
present her subject so as to seize that point of view which
is most suitable, and likely to excite the greatest degree of
interest and healthy exercise in her class,-varying this, in
different sketches, that she may not continue in a hackneyed
course, or put the children's minds in trammels. Teachers
are very apt to adopt some model in their teaching, and to
wear it threadbare. They, in consequence, lose freedom of
mind themselves, and their pupils become weary of travelling al ways by the same road. It is better to make a few
mistakes (by which, indeed, they gain experience), than
lose their energy and independence of thought.
In drawing m1t the heads, it is of great importance that
a proportionrite d<'grec of attention be pai<l to each, that
too much be not given to the subordinate, while the prin·
cipal are left indefinite am1 incomplete. Oare should also
be taken that the beads are not too numerous: minute
divisions impoverish the snbject, and diminish its effect.
They should also be marked by clear, distinct, and broad • .
lines. Teachers who cnde:wor to take a comprehensive
view of their subject, will succeed far better than those
who bring to it a critical, fanciful spirit.
It is hardly necessary to point out that there is a great
difference between a sketch designed simply for the teacher's use, and one written for the inspection of others ; the
object of the one is simply to suggest, that of the other to

, . 17

HINTS ON SKETCH , WRrriNG. ~

IllNTS ON SKETCrI WRITING,

I

~..·;--:,

i- <\ )

inform. :' In general, the former contains only the memo;anda .
of what the teacher intends to bring before the children, in ·
the order it is to be given; while the latter should contain ·
more or less of the teacher's method of giving the lesson,
and greater fulness of information.
To a teacher of long experience, who has in he1· own
mind a well-acquired method, memoranda may be sufiicient;
still, method must be attended to in preparation, though it
may not be essential to exhibit it in notes for her °'~n use.
She should not only know that a lesson requires reasoning,
description, illustration, and application, but her own mind
. should be made up as to how a point is to bo reasoned out,
described, illustrated, or applied. The character of the
matter is important, and the ar~angement of it necessary ;
but the method of presenting it 1to the children is as important as either; for, as the l~te Dr.- l\Iayo has well said, "it
is as important how children learn, as what they learn."
But for students in a training school, who prepare sketches
for their own improvement and the inspection of others
(and it is to this class that these hints may be comiclerccl
more immediately applicable), it is requisite to state in the .
sketch the method as well as the matter of the lesson. · ItF
formation may be nicely put together, but more is needed·
to insure a good lesson-the manner in which children's ·
. minds are to be exercised up~n it ; this should, thereforei 1
be stated in the sketch. It is easy enough to collect .infoi:.;
mati on from books, but not :BO easy to . show how•Buch-\ f.
information is to be used n8 a means of developing the'<'t•.
minds ·of the pupils ; and this is what ought to be done · by •, · ;;·
a good teacher.
·
· ·'
.·'•' ~.- .': ;,,~;-'

I

'

I

18

HINTS ON SKETCH WRITING.

Method and order should by no means be confounded ;
-order has to do with the arrangement of the information,
the raw material, as it were, of the lesson; method, with
the moulding and fashioning which it undergoes in the
·hands of the teacher, constituting the manner in which it
· should be presented to the children, so as to exercise ·th eir
mental powers at the right time, and in clue proportion.
Order deals, as we have seen, with the information-the
1mbject matter of 'the lesson ; method, with the mind, the
development anrl furnishing of which is the object of the
instruction. Thus, order is more concerned with the instrument used; method, with the end to be attained. And
while order is method to a certain extent, method includes
more than mere order.
In addition, therefore, to information and order, a student's sketch should show how i.t is proposed to introduce
what is general and abstract; to help to thP. conception of
what is absient; to illustrate what is not understood; to resolve the complex into its simple elements; and to fix in the
memory that which is received hy the understanding. In
fine, the sketch should contain the skeleton, or outline, of
the lesson, showing the principal points on which it is intended to exercise the ·children's attention, and the manner
in which the subject should be treated, so as to secure their
interest, and fix the icleas clearly and thoroughly in their
minds.
A teacher, in the selection of her subject, may have a
general aim ; thus, in a Bible lesson, to produce a religious
impression; in a lesson on an object, to call out observation;
in a lesson on number, to cultivate accuracy and draw forth

.

•

:.:~,,u 'ii"~~
- ··' ..·.,,.
:· u•...-.1·
.L..I., .I. D 0N t·s·
w Jil'l.~UiJG;"{. ·· ,"
-~·
. ...~ . . A :.l:!U'li
. ; ... _· --;
~ .
--;.

-

.
- ~~.power ; m a lesson .on nn ·animal, t6'exhibit 'thij

~- ·· · J:'I·

:. j,:

.

goodness displayed in its structure, a~d thus ttd.~~ .#'or
admiration and love toward the Divine Creatob.".' But;-'fons----~--;;-~~i
the treatment of the particular lessori, "there ·should,
repeat, be one, or at most two or three prominent poiiit~- ~ : ·..•
pnt down in tho sketch, which should be natural, simple, ' """
and striking ; it should be the special aim of the teacher to
..'•
work them out. The sketch should <leclare tho plan by
which the children are to be conducted to these points
thus, in a lesson on an object, it should show how any par·
ticular iJea is to be developed, or how the children arc to
. - .i"
be led to discover the fitness of the object for its use; in a
lesson in natural history, how an animal's organization is
adapted to its habits; on number, by what steps the children
are to be induced to draw conclusions fo.r themselves·,
.
in a Bible lesson, how it is purposed to produce an impression, and to bring a truth or precept within the sphere of
the children's perception and self-application. 1
With respect to the details of informati~n, a sketch,
whether drawn up by a teacher for her own use in the
school, or by a student in training,* should contain what
may be called suggestive hints of th e subject of tho lesson.
~It should equally ;avoid detailed information, on the one
hand; and on the other, mere general notices, such as con• ·
stitute a table of contents, or heading of a chapter. In the
former case the document would present the appearance of
a depository of information, rather than a sketch ; and tho

·we:

0

:

'

• For . examples of these two kinds of sketches, or r~ther of memo.'
randa and sketch, see the memoranda nnd the sketch for lessons. on the
Mole, p.
, Fourth Step. ·

.,_·~

"'

!~. . .,.

to the discovery of :my truth: Precise, unvarying rules may
be laid down for mechanical operations; but mind alone can
act upon mind, and bring it into vigorous exercise; and all
instruction must be dry and uninteresting, which has not
undergone some modification from the person by whom it
is communicated.
There are several faults into which teachers arc likely
to fall· one is that of telling too much, for though the in'
.
formation may be received with pleasure, and appear to
profit, yet under such n mode of instruction, the pupils'
minds remain almost passive, mid they acquire a habit of
receiving impressions from others, at a time when they
ought to be gaining mental power by the exertion of their
own faculties. Another mistake is that of giving a term
before the pupil has felt his want of it.* 'When the id ea
of any quality has been formed in his mind, withont his
being ulilo to oxprnRs it, tho 11a1110 given under Rneh circnm·
stances fixes it on tho memory: thus, when a child observes
that whnlebonc, nfter having been bent, returns to its original position, ho may be told that this property which he
has discovered is called elastic.
In the First Step the children arc · led to discern and
nmno tho sovcrnl pnrts of nn obj ect,, ns also to tho distinct
perception of some of tho more obvious qualities, without
· • The writer desires particularly to enforce this remark, having in one ·
or two instances seen the lessons altogether misused. Thus the qualities
were told, and the explanation of the terms given, instead of the object
being presented to the children that they might make their own observations upon it, and learn from the teacher how to e1press qualities clearly
discerned by them, although unknown by name,

~"\~ .

.
"'·. '. .
the communication of a term by which to 'express"such 'per~'.

.,. '\

ception, except in those cases where the term is familiar. :':

r-:. ·I ·~

:r

:';·:t':,,

. •r,,":

LlJ:SSON I.
A BASKEI', FOR ITS PARTS.

Require the children to name the object, and to tell its
use-as to hold potatoes, peas, bread, tea, sugar, books,,
work, paper, &c.; and then to' point out it~ parts, as the lid,
the handles, the sides, the bottom, the i9side, the outside,
and the edges; to describe the use of the lid-to cover the
things contained in the basket, and to prevent them being
seen; and to tell also the use of the sides and of the bottom. What would happen if the basket had no lid? The
things it contained would be see~, a~d the dust would get
in. What would happen if it had no handle? . It could not
be conveniently held. Show me how you would be obliged
to hold it if it had no handle. Would yon like to have to
hold it in that way? What would happen if there were no
sides to the basket ? ' The things it contained would fall
out sidewise. What would happen if there were no bottom
to the basket? They would fall downward, nor would the _. ·
'
basket stand safely. ,' Then make the chil<lren repeat together ~.he names of .tho various parts of a _basket. "The
basket has a lid, a handle," &c.

•

-LESSON II.

I+

so

'·

FIRST STEP.-LESSON VII.

ence. What they have seen pigs doing? Their color,
shape, &c. Where pigs Jive? If they have ever seen a
sty? What they eat out of? &c., &c. Thus leading them
to talk familiarly and to say all they can about pigs.
II. Speak of the use of the pig to man. What it's flesh
is called? If they have ever tasted it?
III. Who made the pig? How we should feel toward
God, who has given us this useful animal. How it should
, be treated; giving some examples which have come under
their notice of cruelty to the pig ; appealing to the children .
if this conduct is right, or pleasing to God. How God
would regard such children. How all animals which God
has made should be treated, and if they would like to be
treated cruelly t11emselves. By these and similar questions
exciting humane feelings toward animals.
LESSON VII. •
A PENCIL, TO DEVELOP THE

~EA

OF l'IS PARTS

~

. ,-v.~". .'"'tf·'. ,:., .· ' ,1-~~-.~·'I.
•

'·
· "'·r;

./

A.<'PENCIU·
.•
1

;with~·~ .' R~p~~t toget~~r·.; ~ A~e:tca :

. to draw
•i
..·"·
write with and to ~raw with." If you wished tdwr.ite~
draw, could you do. so if you had a pencil · alone;"'a~d .~::i:1,,
·,

~

•

The children repeat together: This is a pencil. Who
can tell the use of a pencil? It is used for writing. What
do you mean by writing? Look at me. The teacher
makes some unmeaning marks on paper, and asks : Is this
writing ? No. The teacher next forms some letters or
words, on the board, and asks : Is this writing ? Yes, it is.
NOW you can tell me when we write with a pencil. When
we use it to make words . . Do any of you know a:ny other
use of a pencil? Some child will perhaps say: It is used

/

• A:"{i.1

1\.1

-

It_

'

.,.

• ;:T•

v·
'\fr

'.

.

•

nothing more? No. Right; you must have paper r·or··.. ' ··
,
'·
something to write or draw upon. Now look :well at the /
pencil, .and tell me if it is everywhere alike, as this piece
Df chalk is? What can any or· you see? · The wood ·of ·
the pencil. What more? The · lead of it. ·The ..~oodSis
not then the whole of the pencil? .what is it?
is ~·'.:part
of it. And what is tho lead? . The. lead ~s · also · a · partof
the pencil. What can you say the pencil '- h~ ?'.' ·; Th~ .,
pencil has parts. Try and . find soff1e other parts. ' ~all.· :· .
n child to touch some part of. thel:I>e~cil t..h,e ,'Yill~ Di~st .\:" '!>,_·~·~
likely touch the end11; ·the ·children may' npt ;know; Mw'i:-t~ / ..
.
,
•
•
, • . . \ '.,.
·, ~·t , .... ·l·t J):. Y ·~ ···~·~·
to call them ; they may be told .t hey are ~he "enc1s; t>f\ th.a ; "· ~
pencil, and then . ·repeat togeth~r: ITh~ p~n~ti'ch'a~·l ~-~d~/ ':f.:~·:
How many ends has a pencil? Tw<:h- ~efqr~ .' finY,5~otje -~~
can use tho pencil . fo~ ·writing, wha~ .mftst :. b~l 4~ri~-:~'.;,-:7.
one of the 'ends? . It i must . be cut;· Whht 'do' we't'form·»''~.;~ 1
~ '·~
when we cut it? We form a point'. What · in~re' do .: :.',
: you see on the pern~il? " . Some .: words.''· . That '. is1tthe . ; . ~."
I
.
," . .
·'
maker's name. · N oWi repeat together the parts ) · pen: · . -~· ;.
ell has. A · pencil has wood, &c. IWhat is the 1use ·. of , · r l.
the lead '? What 'fOuld be the consequence ir_ ~the~e/~'f;;;:
were no lead in the pencil? - · What i$ ' the. us~'Tof~ the J ',",; \
wood ? What do you think would be the consequettce ' · 'l··
if the pencil were ·all · lead ? Yes; •one dis~dvantage
would be tha.t it ~ould blacken our fingers. - Now. tell ..':'·
me where the lead is. . Repeat together: ·. " Th~. fe~d ;"'.\\
1
runs along the .middle of th~ . pencil." · · Where'i~~ff,.~, '!>'
'

THEIR USES.

~·:

_.'!'r ;;.'

F.~"·_..

32

FIRST STEP.-LESSON VIII.

)

A FEATHER.

to them to be food fo.r their young. · Why' is milk so, 'suit~
able for the food of young animals? Because it is so nour·
ishing. How kind it is in God to give animals such nice
nourishing food for th~ir young, to keep _the little things
alive till they have teeth to bite the grass I What is the
young of the cow called ? A cal£ Now repeat all you
know about milk. "Milk comes from tlie cow. God gives
it lo tlie cow to feed the young calf when it has not teeth
to bite the grass. .llfilk is wliite, and ioe cannot see through
it; it tastes nice and sweet; it is a liquid, and makes very
nourisliing food.

LESSON VIII.
l\llLK.

IL

Ii!
j

1.

.
., r •

the wood ? Repeat together : " T lie wood is round the
lead." Where is the point? Hepeat together : " T lie
point is at one end of the pencil."

I"

'·

What is this in ·the glass ? Milk. Where do we get
milk? It comes from the cow. How can you tell that this
is milk and not water? By its being white. Is there any
other reason for your saying that it is not water? We
cannot see through it. Repeat together: "Mille is white,
and we cannot see tlii·ougli it." Taste it. It is very nice.
What kind of taste has it? It has a sweet taste. Repeat:
·.. Milk has a nice sweet taste." You have told me in what
it is unlike water, now find out something in which it is
like water; now look at me (the teacher pours out a little
of the milk in <lrops) ; it will wet anyLliiug; it forms itself
in drops. vVe call those things which make others wet, and
form themselves into drops, liquids. "What then is milk?
. Milk is a liquid. T ell me some other liquids. Wa'.;er, beer,
. &c. What use do we make of milk? vVe drink it. Why
nre little cliildren fed upon milk? To make them grow.
Yes ; and because it makes them grow it is said to be
nourisliing. Tell me some other things that are nour·
ishing.
Do you know any other. animal besides the cow that
gives milk? Yes, the ass and the goat. I think you can
11,ll tell me wh! God gave anim.als milk. Yes, He gives it

LESSON IX.
\

i

A. FEATHER.

\

I

. , ,.

':~ {··"'

I

.

:.~·

,;:· .

What is this? A feather: "\Vhence-does it come? '. lt
comes from off a bird. · H ow <lo you think a bird would
fcrl withont its fp::i t.hers? V ery cold. Of what use then
are feathers to birds? They keep them warm. vYhat Jo
we wear to keep us warm ? Coats, frocks, aprons, &c. Do
you know one word by whi;h to speak of all these together ? Yes; clothing. Yes, and feath ers are the clothing of bii·ds . . Now lo~k at this feather (the teacher throws
it up in the air); what do you see? It flies about. If I
throw this cent in the air, will it do the · same? No,
. teacher, it will fall to the ground at once. · Why does
}·Y ·
the feather float in the air:, · and the cent fall t<? t~e ·. : .· \~; ·
.
t 1~ ;a
ground? Because the feather is /iglit, an d t b e ,/ ~e~ ::,t:> ·
is heavy. I wish some of the older chµdren to tel\diie~~.t 1.
why a covering so light as feathers is best suite~ to b~:~~/.
.J..,

2*

r·

.

·~ · ..... 1'fr·:· • "
f..•~ll·
.

.

.

34

A FEATH.ln?, · .~·,, · '."

\

·.

I

: . :1
·,r I·11

I

\

'" As feRthers vary very much, the qualities will, of course, depend
npon the particular ~pccimen chosen for the lesson.

........

~

...

\, :. ·-.1~.~~f;~~~2~\f~f

FIRST STEP.-LESSON IX.

Because they have to fly in tho air. Yes; and if they had
very heavy clothing they would fall down. We see then
that the great God who is in heaven cares even for tho
little birds. He tells us in His Holy Word, that not even a
sparrow falls to the ground without His knowing it ; and
if He observes all that the little birds 'do, and takes such
care of them, do you think He will ever forget you or me?
Oh no, dear children I ·Ile knows everything you do, and
everything that happens to you; and, in the same chapter
of the Bible in which Ho speaks of His care of the sparrows,
He says, much more will he ta.kc care of His children ; you
shall learn this verse, and I hope, when you see the little
birds flying about so happily, you will remember that God,
who takes such care of them, will never forget you.
But now examine the feather, and tell me what colors you
see in it. Part of it is white, and part of it is brown. Here
is another feather; what color is it? It is green. What
then do you perceive as to the color of feathers. Th ey
differ. You may say, then, f eathers are of different colors.
Pass the feather round, and try to find out more ab<;mt it.
It is soft. Is every part of the feather soft ? No, not tho
part in tho middle. And what of that ? It is hard. That
hard part of the feather is called the shaft. What can you
say of the shaft? It is hanl All repeat : the shaft qf the
.fcatha is 11ard. "\Vhat othC'l' diffe rence is th ere b ct11·ccn
the shaft of the feather and the downy part of it ? * The
shaft shines, :rnJ ihc downy part docs not. \Vhat do yon
call things that shine? Brigid. AnJ things that do not

;

I

,(I
!.1
'
'( .I
1; •

r1
' I

:. !

\,'1!:!'~:;.ti;f{iff,,§,l;·~f;f

. '

:~"t:i~t;;x··

.~

.i)

\;; ~,

shine? · .Dull. Then the shaft of the feather is ~£;~~,~~d!./.
the down is dull. What other difference do yon perceive?~ ·"
Feel the feather. We cannot easily bend the shaft. Do .
any of you kno\v what we call things that cannot be easily
bent ? I think you must have heard; but attend, and try .
and remember what I say to you: things that cannot easily.
be bent are said to be stiff. Tell tne some things that
stiff? Wood, slate. And what can you say of the shafta;; .
the feather ? It is stiff. Yes, the shaft is stiff, you cannot ·
easily bend it; but the down you can easily bend. Hold up ,
the feather to the light ; we can see through it. Can you .
see through the feather itself? No, but behreen the .
parts of it. But if I put all the parts of th.e feather
close together, what do you find then ?i We cannot see··
through it.
.
. · -·- '.
. •~,;,~- .
And now you shall tell me what arc the uses of feath~~s ?~ .
They are used for beds. Why do they make nice beds ?
Beca~se they are soft. Why are they a suitable clothing
for birds ? Because they are light. Feathers then are
useful to us because they are soft,- they are useful to birds
because they are light, ,and keep them warm. Did you
ever see a slender piece of wood, pointed at one end, with
three feathers fastened on the other end ? Yes, teacher.
What is it called? An arrow. "\Vhy were the feather~ \
put on the wool! ? To make the arrow ily iu a straight
line.
"\V ell; yon shall now repeat all that you have said about .

feathers: "Featliers are the clothing of birds,- God.has ,
given birds a very liglit clothing; that th~y may the more ,
easily fly in the air," God t(],lces care of the birds, ~.iec,. , .;_

.,.;.. .. '
~

·~

· ~·'f,1'}.

··.,~I
· ~:

,._·,~;;
: <~

.-,~ ·

::·s ~

: '.~ .
. ". ,., ,

36

..· '\.-·~:-

.

more will He take ca1·e of us j feathers are of various colors j the shaft of the feather is hard, bright, and stiff j
the downy part is soft and dull, and we can easily bend it j
we cannot see tlirougli tlie feathe1· j feathers are used for
stuffing beds, because tliey are soft, and f01· arrows, to make
them fly in a straight 'line.';

t
., .

;
:1

LESSON

X.

LOAF SUGAR.

- You can all tell me what this is. Yes. It is sugar.
What kind of sugar is it ? \Vhite sugar. Those who can
tell me what sugar is, hold up their hands. You remember
where the lead comes from? Out of the earth. And the
feather? From off the bird. Now I will tell you about
sugar; it is made from the juice that is pressed out of the
stem of a plant. H erc is Lhe picLure of Lhe plauL. The
plant is called the sugarcane, and a very nice juice,~
cont:-1in~ the sng:w, i:o; pressed ont from t lrn stem . Lo
tho people in this pictmo. Are they like mo? · No, t
er, they arc ,-cry cl:nk .

:-iomc thy we " ·ill t:1lk :1ho11t

conntries in which the sugar-cane grows, ancl where
chrk-colorccl people live. ~ow, you must tell me all you
can yourselves find out about the sugar. It is sweet. You
all know that. R epeat: " Sugar is sweet." Look, I put a
piece of the sugar into some water; what clo you perceive?
It dissolves. Look again: I hold it to the flame of the
candle. It melts. What then· can you say of sugar? It
dissolves in water and it melts in fire. Repeat : "Sugar

k. ·- .'~\~.. '
_,,37,., .. ,·.

• 1

LOAF SUGAR. ,- ·c·:'. ,·

FIRST STEP.-LESSON X.

dissolves in water and melts in fire."'-* Now in' what "do '.'
lead and sugar !1-iffer ? They both melt in fire, but .the ·
sugar alone dissolves in water. Now look at the sugar,
and feel of it, and tell me anything you find out. It is
hard. What more? It is white. Is all sugar white?
No, some sugar is brown. Look at this piece of .s ugar
again. It is bright. Is it bright in the same way that lead
is bright? No, little bits of the sugar are bright. · Yes, it
. appears like a number of little bright sparks; it is said to ·
be sparkling. What can you say of sugar? It is sparkling. Repeat together: " White sugar is spp,rkling."
Well, try again. It is in a lump.' Is all sugar the same?
No, brown sugar is not in a lump as this is. Did you ever
see an uncut piece of w~ite sugar in a grocer's shop?
What was its shape? - Round: Was it all the 'way up the
same size ? No , it became smaller and
- smaller,. till it ended in a rounded point. What is the use of sugar ? To
sweeten tea. What more? To S\Yeeten puddings; .to
sweeten our food. Now repeat the heads of the lesson;
"Sugar is maJe from tho juice of su:;m·-canc; it is t'a.1;'
su:cet ; it melts in ffre and dissolves in 1ratcr. L oaf sugar
is 1d1 it,-, hm·rl, anJ sparkling; sugar is uscJ to s1ccctcn

.

·>t:'
:. ,'· '.!.l'

our food."
·'

'

'I

•

'

~

•

•

"

I ,· ....

be·.\ .... "\

• The teacher should, have a clear perceptioµ .· of. the ·_difference '
tween the melting or fusion 'of a solid- substance and the dissolving of ", substances.
·
.
. t · . . : :. ' '
'

·.1

·. V'A- l · ·.
. ·\ . .

' ~· ......

~

'. 't;
· .f·

38

FIRST . STEP.-LESSON XI.
.

'J'.

I

!.1

I

LESSON XI.

LESS.O N. XII•. _,. 7

FLINT.

WOOL • .

What is this? A flint. What is a flint? A sort of
stone. Where do we find stones ? In the earth. Look
at it; what can you say of it? It is black. The teach er
holds up the flint. What do you all say of the color of the
flint? It is black. Repeat together: "The flint is
black.'' What more do you see ? It shines. All of you
repeat: " The flint shines." Do you think a piece of flint
would make a good window? No. Why not ? We
could not see through it. All repeat : u We cannot see
through flint," Tell me some other things through which
you cannot see. The walls, the slates, &c. Now pass the
flint round and feel of it. What now can you say of it ?
It is hard; it is cold. R epeat together: " .Theflint is hm·d
and cola." What more do you observe ~ It is smooth.
Repeat: " The flint is smootli." !~e el the edges. They
are sharp. · Repeat: " The edges of the flint are shmp."
The teacher strikes a piece of flint and a piece of steel together. What am I doing ? Striking th e flint and steel
together. What do you see? Sparks of fire. What pro'
duced the sparks? The striking the flint and steel together. · Repeat together: " ·Flint strikes fire with steel."
Now repeat all that has been said about flint: "Flint
is ·a stone / it comes out of the earth; it is black ; we
cannot see through it / when we touch it we feel that it is
cold, hard, smooth, and sharp at the eilges ; anil it is used
to strike fire."

What is this?
It comes from off the sheep's qack. ·.:W:hat is a sheep?• .An } ,.
animal. What is wool then ? Part of an animal. . Of : ~.
what use is the wool to the · sheep? . It keeps it warm. ':i,.
' ,,].
Can the sheep make its own wool ? No. ·Who gave, the
little sheep this warm clothing? God. Yes, God gave the,. .
sheep this W;\rm clothing, because it could no~ make cloth- .
ing for itself.
.. ">:· .
Now pass this wool round the class: look at it, and feel.;... ·.' ._ ::·, ·~
it, and tell me what you can find out about it. :-It .is ,soft.; ,.., . . · ~ '·l/i,
. I
.
·.···
. 1~
Repeat: "Wool is sol't."
It is all"hairs.
, Yes; .. .Depeat
: · · ··''$
'J '
~l
.I:~.
~ .. 1 -.•4 \}
~ ~
then : •1 Wool is formeil of hairs." . Feel- it again. ·~ It i(' ···: .""' ~ .. '
ilry. Repeat: "Wool is dry." What more? .1 It is f arm.;:;: .•"i • ~!4
Does it feel warm, as fire does? No. What do yo~ ..mean ~~~'.' · ·-· •
then ? That anything made of wool keeps us warm. R~~ ..~ .~
eat : " Wool keeps us warm." Yes, it keeps us warm, beuse it prevents the warmth of our bodies from passing
away from us.
':ho can tell me what wool .is us~d for? To m~key~r
1
stockings and flannel. What do you,: call tha~.. y-,e ry thick '·t
flannel which you have on your beds? /Blanket. '. D,o yo.u , ·
know any kind of clothes which are made of wo9l."- es;•~".•
our fathers'. coats. And what have some persons Qn their."-,; , ' ~} !..·
.
'" . •-1 ..
floors to keep their feet warm? · Carpets. . Carpets ..are : . . . ~
made of wool.
.\ '
· 1 . ~·, ," ·• - :;;:-,\

i

I

'

•

,

, • '

I

~

•· '

\

• . •

.::

'

"'

Now repeat all you have said of wool:; " l[~oz.,.~o~~~-;:• ··f_J·.
' ·'~-!.-~~ rt~·

.•

'

40

FIRST STEP.-LESSON XIII,

from off the sheep's back; it is the clothing which God
gives the sheep to keep it warm ; wool is soft, dry, and made
up of hairs.; it lceeps us warm; it is made into stockings,
. flannel, blankets, and carpets."
LESSON XIII.
;

fl

LESSON,

A PIECE OF BARK,

.xry.
r •

What is this? A piece of bark. All look at it.
Where do we find bark? On trees. ~n \Vhat part of
trees ? On the stem. On which part of the stem? Look
and see. (The teacher brings in a piece of the stem of a
tree on which the bark still remains.) On the outside.
Repeat together: "Bark is the outer part of the stems of
t1·ees."

,,
I
I

:<

Look at the bark ; what do you perceive ? It is brown.'
Repeat: "Ba1•k is brown.'.' Look again; is it lik~ glass?
No, we cannot see through it. What can you say of it
then? We -0annot see through bark. Compare :it with
glass. It does not shine. When anything does not shine
at all, it is said to be dull; what is the bark? It is dull.
·Repeat: " 7:he bark is dull." Show me some things in the
room that are dull. Now feel of the bark. It is t·ough.
And what more? It is d?'Y· Now look (the teacher
separates the nbres), it has strings or hairs. These strings
or hairs are called fibres, and we say the bark is .fibrous.
Repeat: " The bark is .fib1·ous." Some plants have very
fibrous stems, and are very useful to us on this account ;
here are some of the fibres of hemp; and here are some
of flax, which supplies much of our clothing. I think -you

Parts•.
The outside. I
inside. · · ·.1 '
I
'.
r edges.
corners. , .
binding'. .

...

"·:

j'.':,>:.·
,!

ides.
top.
bottom.
title page.
preface.
'introduction. ·
contents.'
end.

I'

42

FIRST STEP.-LESSON XV.

The children should determine the position of the dif..
ferent parts, their form and uses.

LESSON XV.

1-, f'

1 Parts . .:,
The surface.
faces.
edges.
corners.

A PIN,

!

Parts.
The head.
shank.
point.

Qualities.
It is hard.
white.
bright.
solid.
smooth.
The head is round.
The point is sharp.
The shank is straight.
tapering.
Use.-To keep together ~or a time parts of dress, &c.

LESSON
A CUBE OF

XVI.
woob.

The cube will convey to the children a good idea of a
surface; but as some confusion is likely to arise in their
minds, when they are informed that what bounds every
part of an object, and can be. felt or seen, is tho surface,
and then, 'when thoy find tJrnt the surfoco is divided into
parts, to be told that these divisions are called surfaces, it
is therefore necessary to give them a name for the divisions
of the surface-that of faces has been adopted. A sphere
may be shown as an example of an undivided surface, and
by comparing it with the cube, a clear idea of what is meant
by surface and faces may be elicited.

. rim.
border,
(

•'

I

fl,. ,

LESSON XVIII.
A KEY,

Parts.
The ring.
barrel•.

Qualities.
It is hard.
steel.

44

FIRST STEP.-LESSON XVIII.

Parts.
The wards.
grooves.
edges.
surface.
corners.

Qualities.
Tlie bright.
smooth.
stiff.
liable to i•ust.
Part of the barrel is hollow.
The barrel is in the form of a cylinder.
The ring is curved.

Places locked up by a key.-Doors, gateE1, boxes,
desks, portmanteaus, trunks, portfolios, tea chests, ·closets,
drawers, cabinets, &c.

LESSON XIX.
A CUP.

Parts:
The bowl.
handle.
upper rim.
lower rim.
bottom.
inside.
outside.* ·
edges.
surface.

Qualities.
It is hollow.
hard.
curved.
glossy.
smooth.
glazed.
thin.
The rim is circular.

I•

" .From the ex11mination of such nn object ns 11 cup, glas.9, nny vessel,
or a box, children may be led to discriminate clearly the difference between outside and surface, and to see that the former is the opposite to
the inside, while the latter is the boundary of every part of an object.

,\:

LESSON XX.
A PAIR OF

Parts.
The limbs. ,
· bows.
blades.
shanks.
rivets.
pivot. ,points.
surface.
faces.

46

FIRST STEP.-LEsSON

Parts.

xxn.
Parts.

The feathers.
bones.
claws• .

The skin.
feet.
joints.

. AN ORANGE.

· Parts.
Qualities.
The peel.
. It is reddish yello~, or
rind of the peel.
orange color.
white oft.he peel.
in the form of a ball.
juice.
. ;~ugh on the outside.
pulp.
Th e pulp is Jmcy.
seeds.
soft.
eye.
cooling.
divisions.
sweet
when ripe.
membrane;
vegetable.
inside.
solid.
outside.
It
has
a
sweet
smell.
surface.
I

.. , .

•

\{,

(

48

,;,.

.~·

.: .4j .~ - •. ..:

SECOND STEP.-LESSON II.

its place when let go. Children, repeat this together. Do
you ·know how to describe this property of India rubber?
It is said to be elastic. R epeat this word together.
When are things said to be elactic? Tell me something
that is elastic. Why do you say that India rubber is
elastic?
Call upon a child to name that property of India rubber
which bas been illustrated in the lesson, and then all repeat
the name of the property together.
LESSON II.
A PIECE OF SPONGE, TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF ONE KIND
OF ELASTICITY.

The name of the object first to be determined ; then a
child is to be asked to try what can be done to it, when it
will be found that it can be pressed close together. Ask
bow the sponge appears when it is pressed tightly. It appears much smaller than before. Then tell the child to let
it go, bidding all observe; the sponge returns to its former
shape and size. One child is now to describe that which
they have all oh8erve•l to occm·, hrith -n·hr n til e epong c >ras
pre;:f'e•l , nnd wh en Uic prrc:snrn

1;- ;i<;

rc•11wr c1l ; tL.cu :ill r e.

peat together : " Sponge can be pressed into a small space,
but 1·eturns to its own sliape and size wlwn no longer
pressed." Do you recollect something else, that after you
have stretched it out, comes back to its shape when you
let it go? What did you say that the India rubber was?
In what are the India rubber and the sponge alike? They
both return to their size and shape when you leave them

·· WHALEBONE,, .

-~

,.

1 ' - I

' · ··

to· themselves. Was the same done to both? .. What was
the difference ? The India rubber was stretched, the
sponge was pressed. In what were they alike? They
both returned to thei1· shape when left to themselves.
What did we say the India rubber was? The sponge
is also elastic. Now what things are elastic? Why is
the India rubbei: said to be elastic? Why is sponge said
to be elastic? The children to be questioned as to the different ways in which things return to their shape or size,
till they gain the clear idea " that those things are said to
be elastic, which, when their shap e or size lias been changed
by force, return to it if left to themselves." They should
repeat this together several times. The children th en to
say what is one of the most striking qualities of. a sponge.

.. .

.

I

-. , .

LESSON III.
WHA.LEilONE, TO DEVELOP THE .IDEA OF ONE KIND OF
I

ELASTICITY,

See that the children know what the obj ect is; and then
~vh :-i t li e cfln do to it. ; li e

c:lll nn c nf thf'm t o try :1m1 see
will find th:1t he c:ln benrl. it;

it, and bid tho others obs

t n l rt g o one en tl of

happens; after this,.'
ng to its. former shape.
·was bent? What when

"'\ \
50

·•.

SECOND STEP.-LESSON JII.

what he sees. The cloth remains bent, but what did you
observe in the whalebone? After bending it, it returned
to its own shape. What then can you say of whalebone?
it can be bent; and on being let go, returns to its own
shape. Anything which has this property which you have
obse1:ved is said to be elastic. Repeat this word together. What is whalebone? Why is whalebone said to
be elastic ? ·
Let the ehildi·en be required to say .wh at other things
they have learn ed about, which arc elastic, ancl describe in
what respect their elasticity differs from that of whalebone.
One of these, when sti·etclied, returns to its former shape ;
another, when compressed, returns to its former shape; and
whalebone, when bent, returns to its former shape. In what
were th ey all alike? Th ey all take their own shape when
left to themselves. vVlrnt can you say of all ? They are
. all elastic. Let the 'children next give the reason for their
calling India rubber elastic, and then be told to rep.e at together: " India i·ubber is saicl to be elastic, because, after
being stretched out, it goes back to its own shape when
left to itself." L et another of th em say why sponge is said
to be elastic, and then let all repeat together : " Sponge is
said to be elastic, because, after h:iving been compre$secl,
it takes its own shape and size when left to itself." Another should say in what manner whalebone is elastic, and
then all repeat together: " TV!ictlebone is elastic, because,
when it has been bent, it goes back to its own shape when
ieft to itself."

A PIECE OF ' GLASS.

\.
\

·: '.

'' '

LESSON IV.

"'

A PIECE! OF GLASS, TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF TRANS·
PARENCY,

The teacher is to show the children a piece of gbss, and
to lead them to observe its transparency; preparing them
for this by holding a pebble, or any similar object, behind
the black board or the slate, and asking them what she has
in her hand; this they will not be able to tell; the object
should then be withdrawn from behind the board, and held
behind the glass, and the sa~e question :isked; which they·
will now be able to answer. She may tiien ask them why
they could not tell her what she had in her hand when she
held it behind the slate, and why they could tell. her what it was when she held it behind the glass. Then they should
be asked what they can say of the glass, . and repeat together: " We can see through the glass."
The teacher asks the children what they have observed ·
in glass, and says : Now I will t E)ll you
t we call that
quality which you have observed. '
we can ~e_9_ .../ ~;·~
through ; thillg we say it ls transp
eat this word · ~ · :\ .f ·.~:
•

I

I

.

·

I

•

.

'

<

•

\', ,-

"<.:

together: ·· what is glassi W
say it is. trans- ,·
•. \
parent ? What can you say of .
en are things .
,
called transparent? De~ire ·the children also to mention ' .: , ::i.
some other thin<Ys
that they can see through, and what
. "t' ~· ,,.,
,:
t:>
.
•
• .....~, ~·
T'

.they can say of them; the word transparent i~ th.~~;~}~• \,~\}"~:"'~X
1
ten on the board, and tl!ey learn to spell ~t. /•' ~ ';.\;..,~ i:.:::, ..·~'. ·~;. ·,,,) ·
~.·
:0~:
~~

..

.

.

..

..- ",,'- ..;; ti

·

52

SECOND STEP.-LESSON y,

LEATHER;
-·

LESSON V.
A PIECE OF SLATE, TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF OPACITY.

What is this? A piece of slate. Repeat together:
" Tliis is slate." vVhieh of you can tell me in what part
of a house slate is sometimes used? (Show of hands.)
Yes ; in the roof. It does well for covering the roof; but
what would you say to inaking the windows of slate?
Why would it not do as well as glass? We could not see
.• throL1gh it. . Let us try whether we can see anything
through slate. The teacher holds it up, and puts several
things behind it, which of course cannot be seen. What
then can you say of slate? Why would it not do for windows? We should not be able to sec through it. But
more than that. Suppose the windows of this room to be
of slate instead of glass, what would the room be? It
would be dark What is it that comes into the room
through the gl1ss? Light. What then is it that does not
come through slate ? Not even light can be seen through
slate. What can you say of slate? We cannot see through
slate. Now that you have observed this quality in slate I
. will -tell you what such things . are said to be. Tell me
again what this quality is which you have observed in
slate. That we cannot see through it ; we cannot even see
light through it. Such things are said to be opaque. Repeat this word together. Now repeat together: " Slate is
opaque." Tell me something else that is opaque. Why
are wood, stone, and such like things, said to be opaque?
What do you say wood is ? Repeat together : " Wood is

·: .:.·~ .. ~- . ._.;

_- ;

opaq:ue," &c. When is anything said.to be opaqu~? '::The ',, : · ·
1
word must now be written on the board, and the children
should learn to spell it. Now repeat together that quality
of slate which you have now noticed. " Slate is opaque."

VI.

LESSON

\

• •

"'<","

.,

LEATHER.

What is this? It is loather. ·. What · is leather? It . is
the skin of animals. Name some animals, . the skins of
which are used for leather. The' cow, the horse, the · calf,
the sheev, and the dog. Does the skin of. these animals
look like this leather? · No. What· is, tbe ,di:trerence? _
Their skins are covered w1th hair. w'hat .bas;bee~ :aone·
to them in making the leather? The hajr 4as been scrape~ .. ,.
off. . Yes.; and the skin bas ~een ··ae:meu an~ . smootbed. ::
·IIow do we get paper? It is made of rags. { Is leather ,.··, .
made by man, as paper is?:, No. ', But has he notp~n~· to ::.•~
do to the skin of the animal in order to .make . 1t"mtp :. ~;.
l~ather? · Yes; · it i~ prepared by him for ~se. ' :· · . · '. ". :<.._ ::'°'~
· · This is a piece o~ the s~m of~ horse. fWhat ·ha~ !>.een.z1\ :./:·
look· · at '.1t:
~<'.;
d one t o 1't .?. It hJ been prepar~d;
· · Now
.
· .a nd
.,,. ·1/_·~
-' • ··
. tell me what yo~ ska· ' ' It is ·~lack. · ·· Y~s; this · side .oft,·:.?~:,
it is black· but this
wn. · And what,,side :would ,yoq. ,-: · /;,:~
'h.
h
.
The _upper side. . .And what tha~
ca11 t h at w ic is
. 1 • · •, . .:,..,.
which is brown
der side. Then how sbo~ld you·i · · \?fF'
'be tb1"s
leather? : The upper side of it ,is ' . .~ ··.,~· .
d escn
. .
. · 1. ·
.' n·
black, and 'the under side bro:wn. Look at it a~ain. ~~ _ '· j"f.)
cannot see through it. , You ' have learned t~e. t~r~.Jor,~:oi•l'
1

1

' .

.

• ..

. . ~1;
(.

;-

=~· ft,

"::·~~·~:·

·1

54

SECOND STEP,-LESSON VI,

this, have you not? Yes; it is opaque. (The teacher writes
the word on the board, and the children spell it.) Tell me
some things \vhich are opaqne. Stone; wood, slate. What
are all these? Look at the leather again. It is dull. Observe both sides of it. The upper side is rather bright ;
the under side is dull. Now you have said that this leather
is black and briglit on ' the upper side, and brown and dull
on the under side, and that it is opaque. How did you find
out these qualities? Yes, by your sight.
Now, take the leather in your hand, and tell me what
you observe. It is thin. But if you compare it with · the
paper, what would you say ? It is not so ·thin as the paper.
What more do you notice when you feel of it? It is
smooth. Compare the two sides. The upper side is the
smoother. Try again what you can do with it. "\Ve can
easily bend it. · What could you do with the paper? Fold
it up. Can yon do the same with the leather ? No ; we
can bend it; on this account it is said to be flexible. "\Vheu
do we call a thing flexible? "\Vhen we can easily bend· it.
What can you do with the paper besides bending and folding it ? We can tear it. Try to tear the leather. We
cannot do so. Why ? Because it is tougli. Tako it •in
your hand again, and try if yon can say anything more of
it. It is light. Now, you have told me that this leather
is tliin, smootli,jlexible, tough, and light/ bow did you discover these qualities? By our hands. Yes, by feeling or
touch.
Now shut your eyes, and I will hold the leather neai;
you, but without letting you sec it or touch it ; what can
you tell me about it now? It has a smeil. w·natevcr has

a smell is .said to be odorous. ' What then · is ~eath~r? :: ,rt - ,:,
is odorous. How did you' find out that it was odorous? ·
By the nose. In what manner? By smelling it. You
found out some qualities in this leather by the eye. Yes.
In what way? By looking at it. And some qualities you
found out by the hand. Yes. How clid you do this ? We
touched it. And you found out that it was odorous by the
nose. In what manner? We smelled of it.
Are you now wearing anything made of leather ? · Yes,
shoes. Why is leather fit for shoe~? . It is strong. · Yes,
it is strong or durable. Why does your mother, in wet
weather, wish you to have a good pair of leather shoes in
which there are no holes? That our feet may be kept dry.
Then the water does not come through leather. It is waterproof. ·why then is leather fit for . §hoes ? Because it
is durable aud waterproof. You have before mentioned
some other qualities which make leather fit for shoes; you ,.
would not like, I spould think, to wear iron shoes? Why
not?. Because they would be so heavy. Leather then is
fit for sho.es because it is light. Why would wooden shoes ·
be unpleasant to wea~· ? They would hurt. the feet~ Why
does leather not 'hurt the f;
It bends to the sha,pe o~ ,
the foo~. Yes; it is:ftexib
, i .
. 1.
Now, I will show · y
ng, more in the leather; . .1
see, I put it in the fire
es ~ up. · What did YO\! no- \
tice in the paper whep. ut into th~ fire? It w:as soon:·.
burned up. And .what do yoU: obse~ve in the. leath~r~ .~ IV ' .
has a very unpleasant smell when burning., . This is,.~hil't~~::1;~·
happe11s to animal substances when you burn
frizzle up, and give out a disagreeable odor., ,
'

.

th~nr;)~~y/;~)

56

A

SECOND STEP.-LESSON VII.

Now, repeat together all that 1ias been said about
leather: "Leather is the slcin of an animal." vVhat is
done to it ? It is prepared. "Leather, then, is the JJ?"e·
pared skin of an animal. By the eye, or by the sense
of sight, we find out that it is black and brig/it on the upper side, brown and dull on the under swfaoe, and that it
is opaque," by our hands, or by the sense of feeling, we
find that it is t!iin, tough, flexible, and smooth," by the
nose, or by the sense of smell, we find that it is odorous.
When we put it into the fire it frizzles up, and gives off a
disagreeable odor: it is fit for shoes, because it is lasting,
thin, light, jle'J:ible, and waterproof."

PIECE OF OUM .ARABICl :·· ."·:·:.•, '. -,

.,

'.
\

LESSON VIIL
A PIECE OF G.U M ARABIC.

Ideas to be developed by this lesson- semi-transparent,
adhesive.
Qualities of Gum Arabic.
It is hard.
It is solubl_e in water.
adhesive when melted.
. ht.
b ng
yellow.
solid.
semi-t~ansparent.
Use.~To

unite light and thin, substances. .

LESSO:N :IX. · .\.
·'
~PONGE,\'

LESSON VII.
LOAF SUGAR,

Ideas to be developed by this lesson--poro?fS, absorbent. ·

Ideas to be devel?pcd by this lesson-soluble, fusible, . ,
brittle.
Qualities of Loaf Sugai·.
It is soluble.
It _is white.
fusibie.*
sparkling.
brittle.
solid.
hard . .
opaque.
sweet.

Qualities of Sponge.
_I t is porous.
It is elastic.
absorbent.*
dull.
flexible.
I
soft.
tough. I
light brown.
opaque. 1
.I

lTse.-To sweeten our food.
• The quality of ab
• The difference between fusibility nnd solubility may be rendered obvious to the children, by_dissolving one piece of sugar in water, and holding another over the_ candle. It is better that such simple e:xperiments
should be performed in their presence, than that a mere description of tho
operation should be given.

be made obvious to tho clnss by show-· ·

liq~id. It possesses this ~u~ty in ~on- · ·
ing that the sponge sue
sequence of its being full of pores. The use to which an obJect is ap.phed,
often leads to the observation of. tho quality upon which the uso 18 de·
pendent.
3*

\.

I

~

I .

58

SECOND STEP.-LESSON X.

LESSON X.
WOOL.

Qualities of Wool.
It is soft.
absorbent.
white.
flexible.
elastic.

It is tough.
durable.
opaque.
dry.
light.

·.·

CAMPHOR.

\

~\-::::~,.

Qualities of Wax.
It is sticky.
It is solid.
yellowish.
opaque.
hard.
dull.
odorous.
tough.
smooth.
fusible.
Use.-T~

make candles and tapers.

LESSO.N

xm.

C.AMPHOit.

Uses.-For making cloth, flannels, blankets, carpets,
stockings, &c.

LESSON XI.
WATER.

Ideaa__ to be develope'd by th1's Iesson-co zorless, ?'e·
jlective, inocl<ftrous, cleansing.

Qualities· of Water.
It is liquid.
It is inodorous.
reflective.
transparent.
glassy.
cleansing.
colorless.
· Uses.-To cleanse; to fertilize; to drink; for cooking
•purposes.

LESSON XII.
A PIECE OF WAX.

This substance is here introduced, because it possesses
many of the qualities already noticed.

It is aromatic. ·
stimulating.
. white. :
semi-transparent.
bright. /

Uses.-For medici
to preserve ca9ine

small, insects.
I
I

SSON XIV.

I
BREAD·)
Ideas tp be developed by tpis
•
some, nutrz't'ious, moist.
.\ ~I ·
•. \ .-\

Qualities : of .Bread.
It is porous.
It is opaque.' . .
· ·. absorbent.
solid. · '~ · ·' L ·

60

SECOND STEP.-LESSON XV.

Qualities of B read.
It is wholesome.
The crumb is moist.
nutritious.
The crust ·is hard.
edible.
brittle.
The crumb is yellowish white.
brown.
. soft, when new.
Use.-To nourish.

LESSON ' XV.
SEALING WAX.

Idea to be developed by this lesson-impressible.

Qualities of Sealing Wax.
It is hard.
It is smooth.
bright.
colored."'
brittle.
inflammable.
fusible.
odorous.
opaque. .
When fused it is soft.
soluble in spirits.
impressible.
light..
.
adhesive.
solid.

' LESSON XVIL
»

GINGER.

Ideas to be developed by tJ?s lesson-pungent, ~~dici- ·-.

nal, jagged.

Qualities of Ginger.

It is pungent.
dull.
hard.
dry.
fibrous.

·
·-

aroma~ic.

Uses.-To flavor food;

Use.-:-To seal letters.

LESSON XVI.
WHALEBONE.

Idea to be developed by this lesson-fibrous.

porous.
soft.
thin.

. pinkie~. ·

Qualities of Whalebone.
It is elastic.
It is fibrous.
durable.
opaque.
.hard.
• stiff.
Uses.-~s a stiffener ; for whips, &c.
• The color will be determined by the specimen presented.

- -

-·~-

-

-

..

~

A

'

It is tough.

PIECE

Itis hard.
, inflammablei;

. I

"'If.

1;:/ '

62

SECOND Sl'EI'.-LESSON XX.

.

It

is

Qualities of Willow.

opaque.
solid.
elnstic.

It is white.

It is flexible.
white.
odorous.

LESSON

,_

. A UORN.

Qualities of Salt.
It is hard.

MILK.

'.

,

...

>I

"

opaque.
soluble.
fusible.
preservative.

sparkling.
granulous.
sapid, or has a taste.
salt, or saline.

x
.,.x.

_'\63; " .

Uses.-To flavor food; to pi;eserve from putrefaction;

Idea to be de"eloped
•·
-gi·easy.

to manure land.

Qualities of .Milk.

It is white.
liquid.
opaque.
wholesome.

.

LESSON XXD

is greasy.
nutrition~.

sweet.

lTses.-To make cheese
fl d
' butter, puddings,· to d .
oo for young ammais.
rmk ;

Qualities of a Horn ..
It is hard.
.It is tapering. .
dull.
uneven.
hollow.
odorous when burnt.

LESSON XXI.
RICE.

Qualities ofRzce.

It is white.
hard.
opaque.
smooth.
stiff.
bright.
Use.-To nourish.

It is solid.
porous.
absorbent.
wholesome.
nutritious.

·

·:Jf

.,I

.

\

·1
tfalities of I.vory.
,. · It 'is opaque.:
,.

It is hard.
white.
smooth.
·_bright.

Ideas to .be developed by thi 1
.
.
s esson-granulous
l:
.

:._;.. ..

-=:::: yellowish.brown. ': ., :.. ,,
· fibre.us. ":-'J{;,: ,.~r- :·

xxrv.

fl.ALT.

.

. \ opaque
stiff. .· ". '

Uses.-To make combs, glue, lanterns; ' handles to
j
knives and forks.

LESSON XXU.

sa zne, preserv(ltive.

A. HORN.

.:.J

' sapc,u,,

'

~-

,,

I
; · II

solid.·
durable. ·

..
.• j,

\
t

~
\'

.,

.'
·~ '

•j

·..

·~

64

SECOND STEP.-LESSON. XXV,

· LESSON XXV.
A PIECE OF THE BARK OF THE OAK

TREE.

Parts.
The lead.
wood.

Idea to be developed by this lesson-astringent.

!

I

I

Qualities of Bark.
It is brown.
It is stiff.
rough on the outside.
solid.
smooth on the inside.
durable.
opaque.
fibrous.
dry.
dull.
inflammable.
astringent.*
lTses.-:-To guard the tree from injury; for tanning

LESSON XXVI.
. AN UNCUT LE.AD PENCIL.

From this obJect the children may become acquainted
with the cylinder; for they will not fail to observe t~at the
ends are flat, and that the other face is curved.
Idea to be developed by this

Parts.
Tho surface.
faces.
ends.

Jesson~cylindrical.

Qualities.
It is liard.
odorous.
long.

. • The children may be made to understand the quality of astringency,
by drawing their attention to the contracting effect produced in the mouth
by eating a choke cherry or piece of alum.

Tho wick.
wax.

66

SECOND STEP.-LESSON

Parts.
The surface.
faces.
ends.
edges;
top.
bottom.
middle.

Use.-To give light.

xxvm.

Qualities.
It is 'opaque.
yellowish w11ite.
Tho wax is sticky.
·
fusible.
The wick is inflammable.
tough.
white.
fibrous.
flexible.

The children should be asked, What must be done be.fore the candle gives light? What becomes of the wick?
VVhat of the wa.x ?

Parts.
The surface.
faces.
skin.
groove.
insid.e. ·
outside.

so~.
!·'t ··

LESSON XXVIII.
A PEN.·

A pen p)·osents many different parts; the qualities pf
some of these are opposite to tho qualities of others.
. •.. l'ff •.

Ideas to be developed by this lesson-angular, grooved, · ·"
spongy.

Parts.
The quill.
shaft.
feather.
lamin::e.
pith.
nib. ,
split.
shoulders.

Qualities.
The quill is transparent.
cylindrical,
hollow.
bright.
hard.
elastic.
yellowish.
horny.

~

I

\·

68

Tumn

STJ '
"P·-J...zsso~ 1.

. Cili lK • .

\

(l_g. '

·'-t%\· • .

a great deal of chalk in the earth in some countries, so that . . ,,
it rises up and forms low, rounded bills. Where have you ·
ever seen a hill ? Chalk, you say, comes out of tlie earth,
<111.~ from ci11ri!.· 71 il s.

l ':ipcr, yo11 n:mcmlwr, i~ mu J .; b j·

rn~i1-lcatlwr is

THIRD STEP
IN'I'RODU<.,"T

ony nEMAnKs
FOR TI!E DIRECTION
'l'EACilER.
" OF TII_E

IN this series the child
t: ·
rem may be led t h
ua ities whicl1 cannot b d'
.
o t e observation .

ofq

Thus by showing tfiem at t~e ::::ec~ merely by the senses.
cloth, and questionino- the1
time wool and woollen
11
0
two
ti
as to the l' 1r
. ' iey will read ·1
.
c lucrcuco of ti
• . . .
.
•
i y conccJVc ti , . l
ie
al tijicial.
In
th.
lU H cas of natu . l
• •
IS manner tl
,
· 1 a ancI
d1stmction between fiore;g !CJ Imay be led to remark tho
,. n :ll!c nativ •
·
[le
nous/ animal. .
e" exotic and indiAt this S
' vegetable, mineral, d':c.
tep the conce . t.
cidedly called . t
_P ive powers should be 111 • d
in o exerc1 .~e . th
OI e . e·
bY tiie cIcarness and vi ·a " '
e ll"1y
, £.or t li1s· is prepared
t11
vi ness of the id
b
o careful cultivation 0 f
.
.
eas o tained tl1rongh
pe1 ception.

LESSON I.
CIIALK.

What is this ? A .
chalk ? 0
piece
ut ,o f the earth.
out of b' h
w IC chalk is taken ?

of chalk. WJ
nrb
iere do we get
rr. at are th
Chalk . ose p1aces called
, pits. God has placed

pnparo l by m:lll , lint chalk is neither
. made nor prepared by man ; and it is therefore said to be
a natural substance. Why is chalk said to be natural ?
Because it is neither made nor prepared by man.
·why do you think that this is chalk? . It is white.
Yes, chalk is white, but milk is white also; how then do
you know chalk from milk? Milk is liquid. Yes, the
chalk does not flow ov form itself into drops ; it is in a
solid lump. Chalk Is solid.' Why do we call it solid?
Because it docs not form drops, but is found in a lump.
Now look at this lump of sugar ; this, like t11C chalk, is
white and solid; how do we know it from the chalk? It
is sparkling. Yes, and the chalk is dull. Now you have
seen that the chalk is wliite, solid, and dull. Look at it
ugh it. What then can you say
s by the sense of sight you dis·
solid, dull,'and opaque.
It feels very dry. Rub it. It
crumbles. Into what condition does it crumble? That
of a powder. Chalk is dry and crumbling. What hap·
pens when I draw the chalk across the slate? Some of the
chalk remains on the slate, and ljaves a mark. That is
because the chalk is crumbling. What quality of chalk
makes it useful to us? That of its being crumbling. . Who
gave it this most useful quality? God. Y mi; God, who
made the chalk, made it of a crumbling nature.

.'

.

<~

. · COAL· '• • "''.

•

70

THIRD STEP .-LESSON Ir.

Because yon said' ·that it was ·bh,ck, ;

And now
tell ine another sense b
qualit
· nclclition
- ·- · oud that it oame out of the ea<th, and,,.; u"ful to \»OU• .
y, m
to th
. y w h'Ich we find ouiX"
"\Vhat quality of coal is it which makes it so useful to man?
sense
. . of smell. W ell smelloscf of sight and t ouch ? ·Th.. n
Its being so inflammable. How is it that this quality of
It IS inodorous . IIow' do yo o fi the
B
d chalk. It b as no smell e.
coal makes it so useful? Because we can cook our food,
Y tastinoo it. B t
u m out that suoo . .
'
need
o
u " chalk;, not
o" " " " ' "
and warm our rooms with it. Yes; how sad it would 1iavc
not taste it, thou
meant to be eaten
been last winter, if there bad not been coals for fires. Who
and tell me h .
gh you may put it t
' you
y
w nt you obre"'
o you' ton•uo
made coals inflammable? God. How very good is our
es ; repeat. together . "
e. It sticks to the ton o '
Heavenly Father in giving to different things differing
Whcrn hove you
.
C1'alk """' to tM I
goo.
hlnck borucd .
•ecn cbolk
T o wnto
. ongue."
on the
qu,liti", that th•Y ro•Y ho of va<icd u.o to man I Bo h"
caused some to be 1iquid, that we may drink them; · some
Now all of you
g
you
have
learned
:
to be wholesome, that we may be . nourished by them;
about chalk.
"P'"t emythin
.
.
·some to be crumbling, that' we may write with them ; and
"Chalk is dug
some to be infln.romablc, that we roay be warmed hy them•
clialk in th e eartli iout of cliallc pits · Th ere is
Now examine this piece of coal. It is ver'f bright, and ·
Chalk;, a
n •ome coun"·i., h .
much
I
. MtW"al •nb•toncc f
' t " " fonn• Mll•
it
is
opaqne. Repeat together : " Coal is very bri9ht, and
we ook at chalk we find that
, o · great
use to m an.
.
·
When.
it is opaque." Feel it. It is hard, solid, and brittle. Reo.;aquc j by feeling it we fi d it Is wliite, solid, dull and
11
p.at togothe'' " Coal · a,d, ,,lid, ln"itt[,," Sometim.,,,
tae tongue
· .IS C1'Urnbling and that
'
ght yellow patches in the coal.
with
. . . J• It
th . it is <"l ry and
1 sticks to
, 1t Isi d
'
e1e1oreu fi
of
iron; atld we sometimes find
teacber, there
black bo d.no orous ). and it is . used fc se
for ioriting
ar "
or wntin g on the
. , and then we say it is not good, it
Yes, those ar

\

\

I
II

"'°"?

'°

~

~

pieces of sla
will not burr~ wcl •. ·
What use do we mako of con.l?

LESSON II.

I

.
,
. hI hold in my hanc'-' a prnce
f
:
you to tell me whot it i:? o notu"l "'Mauce, aud I
can by a natural substan ?
But first tell me what I

pie~e

"'~

wa>m ou< ,oom• with it. Whnt othc<
i• mndc of cool?
G"' U.,nndn from it. Whnt ;, the. u•• of g"? :'To ·1igbt
the ,c.eet•. What otl>et u•e i• mode of cool? . It is uied

COAL.

man • Th.e natural S b
ce
That
• W h'ICh is not
d
dug out of th
u . stance which I hold .
ma e by
e earth· 't ·
m my ha 1
guess wh at It
· IS.
·
' 'it "is bbcl<
and
"";
Yes,
a
of very useful to" 'man
coal. '\'Vhy d·a
1 you

We' cook our food and

'\

1

in producing steam. What does steam come from? From
boiling water. What makes tbc water boil so as to be· ·
come steam? The fire. And what makes the best fire?
.Coal: If we cannot get coal, what could we nse iusteacl of

.l
'I

i

\'

\.
\.
I

72

THIRD ST:i;:P.-LESSON III.

A MATCH.

..
Why is sulphur said to be a mineral ? Name any other

it ? Wood. And what must we do to get wood? We
must cut down our trees. ' Now repeat together your lesl
son upon coal: "Coal is a natural substance dug out of the
earth; it is very useful to man, because .it is very inflammable. It is black, bright, b1·ittle, liard, and opaque. It is
.
~
useful for coo Icing om· food and warming our 1·ooms; for ,
making gas, and producing steam, and also for many other
purposes."

minerals you know.
Now look carefully at the sulphur, and tell me something about it. It is yellow. Y es; all of you repeat together: "Sulphur is yellow." See, I put some of it to a
•
lighted candle. It is on fire. "\Vhat do you say those
things are that readily take fire? They are inflammable.
Sulphur is inflammable. Did you notice anything more in
the sulphur when it took fire? The tlamo was very blue.
Repeat: "Sulphur burns with a blite flame." I think you
can find out something more by my having set the sulphur
on fire. It gives off a very unpleasant smell. What are
those things called that give out a smell? Sulphur is odorous. By what did you find out that ~ulphur was odorous?
By the nose. What use did you make ·5 [ your noses then?
We smelled wlth them. ·By what did you find out that sulphur was yellow ? By the eye. What use did you: mako
of your eyes then? We saw with them. There is something more that th
oes to the sulphur ; what is it?
The fire melts ·
t: " Sulphur m elts wh en heated."
What is th _
t makes sulphur useful to us? I;_ts

LESSON ill.
A MATCH.

Do yon know what this is? Y cs, teacher, it is a match.
Aro matches found ready mal:le? No. How do we get
them ? They arc made by some person. Tell me then
what the different parts of a match are. The sulphur and
the wood. And where is the sulphur put? At the end of
the match. How many ends has the match? Two. Do
·y ou .o bserve any other parts? The sides. Then the parts
of a matc'i are, the wood, the sulphur, the ends, the sides.
And now tell me what is sulphur? Where does it
come from? It comes out of the earth. Who can tell me
what we call things which are dug out of the earth, but
which do not grow out of it? Stones. No ; we do not
call everything dug out of the earth stone; I think some
of you will recollect a very useful thing, which, though it
is dug out of the earth, we do not call a stone ; what is it ?
Yes, coal. But you would not call coal a stone, would'
you, or sulphur? No; but everything that is dug out of
the earth may be called a mineral. What then is a mineral ? And now tell me what sulphur is. It is a mineral.

.,
'!,

I

7l

.1.1

.

.:

"

.

.. . .

~

tree .
. , Now exaiii.lne' this piece of wood, and tell me s6met¥1!g , , .: ·
.
4
•
. \r. \"~·.._.: )
I

.,.. .
'

being infl.amm
i
Of what is the greater part of this match made? Of
wood. You have told me that sulphur is a mineral, because it is found in the earth ; now what is wood? · It is a
vegetable. . Y es; all repeat together: "Wciod is vegetable."
"What is it taken from ? A tree. What kind of wood is
this? It is pine. Yes ; and here is a picture of the pine

'

\

.. \

•.

'

'' ' .. •; •>, J_ I: ' ::
,,:r- ... ."¥:i'~"'~'-· ~

~

•/
1

\

..

~...

;.,

C...1.,.~

~ •, '\ / · \ \ .a.~ · ,~:.?1~ .•.:

74

A ROSE LEAF.

THIRD STEP,-LESSON III,

about it. It is h ard; it i~ dry; it is opaque; in color it is
yellowish white. Repeat these qualities of wood all to·
gethoc: . " .P ine wood is hard, dry, op:trp1 e, dull; th e color
is ydlowish white." Now I will put a bit of it to the flame
of this candle. It bas taken fire: it is inflammahlc>. 'Vhat
differ ence diJ yo n ob~e n- e b ct11·een the snlphnr a11c1 wnnJ
when put into t he fh11 1e? T l1 e sulphur took fire sooner,
and lrnrnecl \Yith n Llue Jl :unr. Yrs; ::rnc1 it a lso mel t ed
into dr 0ps; L11 t \r h:tt docs \roo d heco111c 1rlic11 it ltas 1iccn
lJnnwcl? It bccowcs a;;hcs. Now tuiak a little and t ry to
find out why both sulphur ::mil wn0rl are rer111 ire1l in nrd <' J'
to make a good lllatch? Tlt<) s11l 1>lt11r is used i11 :1 rn: 1trlt
Lcc:u1sc it lake's Jirc ~ " q11 ickly. A11tl 11 l< :1t ol' the wootl?
How lung did llH) s11 lpli11r Lum ?

short time.
one t (j li .c:·ht

It l ><1r11e<I ln 1t a Yery

lt \rnnl<l nnt l111rn )(Ing C'll•111 g li tll l'll :d1lc' any
:L C:lll >l! P

(11' Jir1' fr 11 11 1 it; l111 L L i l<~ \r11 1>(l l>! 1rn -:

:1

much l"11gcr.ti111c' ; so \H! l1ar1' th1' rnJ1,J11Ir l1c,·:L11-;1: it t:ik1e;;
fire q11iekl y, :rnfl ~cts fir'3 t o tl:1• \l' ( l (Jl1 : :irul the \l·n orl, hr-

c:rnse it lrnrns rn11ch l o n~cr, nn1l ('nnblc'.~ us to ligliL
cau<ll u

:1

liru or

11 i Lho u L Irn rry,

Now you shall r epeat all yo u have said abo ut th e match. ·
"A mnt.rh is mnfl e of 1rornrl :mil s1i!pl11w. The su lphur is
placed at one end j it is a mineral substance, and comes ont
of t/ie eai·th j it is yellow j it is very inflammable, burning
with a blue.flame j it also melts in.fire, and is very odorous.
Wood is a vegetable substaolice, ·and comes from a tree called
a pine ti·ee: The wood is inflammable, but it does not burn
away so fast as the sulpliitr 1' it burns to ashes j its color is
yellowish wliite; it is hard1 dry, dull, and opaque."

:;\ ,-

J

'.

•

~.

LESSON IV.
A ROS E LE AF.

What is t his ? It is a leaf. Where are leaves found?
Ou plants :md trees. \Vhat lc:wcs do cows and horses cat ?
Those of the grass. \Vhat leaves <lo we sometimes cat?
Cahhnrrc !cares nnu sl'in :1Ch, &c. Do you lmow a won1 Ly
i;rhich ;ou can at once speak of trees, and grass, aml cab·
hnrr<>~? \.V!t:tL i~ one of the largest Ycgetnhl cs yon have
~-~r -sr cn? An elm t ree. Tell me t he name of a smaller
one. \Vhc:lt. Tell me of one we often cat. Lettuce.
\Vliat arc nil these called? Vegetnhles. \Yhcre <lo vogc·
tnl>lcs cnmc from? They grow out of tho grouml. If I
had :i piece o f land withou t :m y vegetables growing upon
it , 1yJ 111 t m n~t. T l1 o t o raise ~n nw? Yon mu st SO\\ som e
Recd ia it. \\There must I put th e so ccl? In tho earth.
If I were to ~ o w Forno g r:iss ·scct1, what woul<l follow?
Somo grass would l'pring up. And what would it be at
first? Very small. If it wero liealLhy, woulll it continue
What would it do? It would grow. , If
80 small? No.

•

0

).

I were to put au ac6rn iu the g round, what would happen? .
A little root would burst out of it ·and go down into the ·
ground, and a little gteen shoot would come up and put out
some little leaves. · Yes, and at first it would be very small,·
but it would grow, so that in many years it would become
a great oak. But would the same occur if I buried ·a piece
of flint or coal in the earth? No.
out of the earth as vegetables do. · ·

These do not grow
. '' · '· '· .,,

N' ow you know the difference between a m~ner:s.µ
,..., ... "

...

~li .

'

.•'

':'"_: .,i..~
\

j

Md a

.,,.

.

. 76

A IWSE LEAJ<'.

vegetable. Look at this leaf, and tell me its different parts. ·
By what part do I hold it? The stalk. What does the

what are they like the midrib? They sink in like furrows
on the upper side of the leaf, and rise up like ridges on the
\lll(lcr snrEwc of it. Dn ynn S('C any othe r part. T he cn<l
The point or c11<1 is 0111iusitc lo tlic stai!.:.

- stalk lw:1r? The leaf: 'J'lic stalk tl1af, l1c:1rn a lc•af is c: dl ctl
tlic !cal' stalk; wl1at i:; tlii:-;? A k :it' stalk. Fi nd out some
of the parts of the lea[ Tlie eilgc. Herc :ire t 11· 0 lc.'tvc:s,
1

ouc from a rose tree, the other from the piant on which the
lily grows; what Jiilerence do yon observe in the erlg-e~ of
them?

has not.

The rose leaf has little l'ui11 t~, which the ldy leaf

Yes; the points arc called teeth, because they are

like the sharp pointed teeth of soruc auimals; :md an edge,
that has such points, is said to be toothed. What iR this

edge? It is toothed. Why is it said to be toothed ( Be• cause it lias poiub:i like the teeth of soinc [lnimals.
Find out some other parts of this leaf. There is a line
down the middle of it. Y cs; that line is ealleu the mid:rib. See whether the midrib is the same on both sides of
the leaf. It sinks in on one side :lllJ stands out ou the
other. Which of you can tell me what they call the hollow line made by the plough in a ploughed field? A fur·
row. And what do they call the raised part on e:icb side
of it? A ridge. What is the midrib like on this side of
the leaf? · A furrow. And on this side it is like a 1·idge.
· Now you see there are two sides or surfaces to the
leaf; by what names would you distinguish them? When
the . leaf i.s on the tree, which side is lip1)ermost? This,
therefore, is called the upper side; and what would you
call the other? The under side. Look carefully at the.
leaf again. There are other lines upon it. Where do these
lin::is spring from? From the midrib. And where do they.
end ? In the edge. These lines are called the veins ; in

.

'17 : ....

THIRD STEP.-LESSON IV.

·~

,;

.

' I
\

No w tell me some of the qu:tliti e'; of the lraf ; 11'11;it c:in

It is green ; it is rather uright. Look

yon say of it?

ac;ain, anrl fl<'e if hoth side9 are bright.

is Jul!.

No; t.l1e mH1er si<fo

Herc arG scYcr:1l k:iHs; 1rk1t t1ifl(:re1.1cc do yon

observe in their upper and uu<ler surfaces?

The upper

surface is th e brighter. Feel of the rocc lc:1!'. It i-i thin .; .
it is soft Anything more? It benr1s e[lsily. 'Vhat . do

you say of a thing which bends easily?

I~

is pliable .

\Vh::it cau yo u then say of this leaf? I t is pl!able. . \ Vhat
more do yon notice when yon feel of it? It is light ancl

smooth. \Vhat is its shape? It is n ;mnd. (The teacher
draws a correct circle on the black boai:d.) What, is it
like this in sh::i1.ie ? N o, not quite. I will draw the shape
of an egg; which is it more like? It is more like the
shape of the egg. We call the _shape of an egg oval,~
what would you say is the. shape of this leaf? It is oval. ·
Now you must l~t me bear you all together repeat the
beads of this lesson on the rol?e leaf. "A rose leaf is a
etable substance; it gro,~vs on a leaf st~lk ; it has a toot!!.ed . , .
.
I/
edge; it has a midrib, which is like a fm-row on the Upper
side, and like a ridge on the under side ; it has also many
veins, which are like fu~ows on the upper side, and like
ridges on the ·under side. Its · color is green; its shape is
oval. To the touch it is thin, soft, smooth ; it is pliable;
the upper side is rather bright, and.the under side is <lull."

veu-

\

·:

.

.

78

TUIRD STEl'.-LESSON V.

J,ERRON

V.

\Vhat i'l this? A pi crc of hrmcr coml.J. \\L crc clocs
iL come from? A l1ee hive. \\' l10 j•lacetl it in the hive?
The bees made it there. U:i.n yon tell me how the bees
made it? No, I am sure you cannot. They h:wc no
bands, nor tools, yet see how beautifully it is made; not
one of you could form such a piece of comb. 'Where did
the bees learn how to mn.kc t.hc eom b ? Y cs ; God taught
them, nnd enabled them to do it ·well. Hu has tauglil. aH
animals to do whatever is necessary to their comfort. Now
lo ok at tlie honey comL, auJ tell me what you see. It is
full of holes. The holes are called cells. What : parts do
you sec in the cells? vVhat do we call that part of this
room in "·hi ch the winc1o\1·s arc, and "here tho J.oor is?
'l'he sides. \Vell, sec 1rh:-it tho cells limo? They havo
sides. Count how many sides each cell has. Y cs; each ~ell
has six sicles. Look. again at the room, and tell mo wh~t'
you call those parts of it in which the sides meet each other.
-The corners. And what has each cell? It has ~orners.
How many cor_ners has each cell ?-count them. Six.
peat: ''Each cell has six coniei·s." vVhen you look into
tho cell, what part of it do you sec? The bottom, or floor
of it. And what is the other end called? The top. What ·
is there round the top ? An edge.

Now try to find ont some qualities of tho honey comb; .
you may take it in your fingers. It is very light and sticky. •1
Now look .at it. It is dull. It is yellow. Hold it

HONEY COMB.

' .70
~.r

r •

to the light. Is it transparent, or is it quite opaque? ·
'Vh:it do yon observe? We see the light through it.
'.Ylten VOii RP C ]igl1t tl1rough a suusta11cc iL is said to be
. t.. Wh.y i's this honey comb said to be translufra.n s l ucen
cent.? Bccausi.: w e c:rn sec the light thrnngh it . Now
look at it as I press it in my l i nger~ . I kn c ernslicll it;
it is b1·ittlc. Now I put it into the thmo of a camlle; it
melts. 'Vhcn docs it melt? \Vhcn it is heated. It is
fusible.
What use docs the bee make of the cells ? It stores up
honey in them. And where aocs the bee get the honey?
From floweril, Yes; in summer the be e collects honey,
which it stores up in some of the cells; but it also uses
others of tho cells fur anotlrnr purpose; thq young bees arc
kept in therp., and these arc feel and watcheu by tho olu
bees till they get their wings, and then they fly, and begin
to work tlwmsclv os. Auu \\hat do we m:-ikc of the honey
comb? \Vo melt it do wn i11to \Y:1X . Anc1 wh:-it nsc do we
make of the wax? W c make candles of wax. Y cs ; and
we rub furniture with it, to make it bright. I should think
tlrn,t some of you have seen wax used for other purposes beside these. Yes, teacher, my mother uses it. What does
she use wax for? She rubs her thread with it to make .it
firm and strong. Now repeat all you know about the honey
comb. "Honey comb is made by bees, who put into it the
honey they get fromflowers . It is formed of a number of
little cells, each of which has six sides, and six co1·ners, a
bottom, 0 1· floor, and a top with ah edge. Wax is very
light, thin, and stir.ky / its color is light yellow j it is dult j
it is tmnslucent ; it is brittle, and melts when heated. We

. I

·;

80

TllllW 8'l'JJ:l'.-LESSON Vl.

I '

.A DUTI'ERFLY.

1

'

\

use it to make candles and to polish furnitiwe; it
to strengthen thread."
LESSON

VI.

A BUTTERFLY.

What is this? It is a butterfly. .What is a butterfly?
An insect. What is an insect? It is neither a vegetable
nor a mineral; it is an animal. Now examine the butterfly,
and tell me its different parts. It has wings. How many
wings lias a butterfly? Four. vVhat difference do you
observe in these four wiugs ? ·Two of them are large and
two are small. What can it do with its wings? It can fly.
Where are the wifigs placed ? Two on each side of the
body. In what position are the wings when the insect is
flying? Arc th ey in the directio1~ of the walls of the room;
or of the ceiling ? They are in the direction of the ceiling.* In what other direction docs . the butterfly sometimes place its _wings? It sometimes puts them upright,
so that they touch each other; but wh en it flies they are
always spread open. If you hacl a piece of thin paper,
which you wished to float on the air, would you roll it up,
or spread it out? I shonkl spread it out. Yes; then the
air would support it. What docs tho butterfly do that is
like this ? t It opens its wings and spreads them · out• .
. • If the children h11vc learned the difference between tho horizontal
and vertical position, they m11y here npply thci1· knowledge. · '

· t

The youngest children should he led to the observation of facts.

The reasoning upon them, and drawing conclusions from them, is the work
of a later period.

.

X i .. :; ~ ( "': it, 0.
:
, .' ,h
,l~~:!,".-1 8l t ·: :_ .... · .. \' ~
\ .... l:. ,. • ,_J.,;_~... ~ '
\ t~·' }d
:

•

''"''

. ~~.\ ""' : .:"~~··\J· .. ~ ~t\;l.,.
:

~

......

~

1""' .....

/'t

'
.
?· ;' , .
What more do you observe ~n the b utterfl y s ~ wmgs . '!-; <;;~::::•t
They are beautifully marked. See, I i·ub the wings with · ,' · :}.,
my finger. What do you perceive ? The_color comes off.
There is a kind of down upon the wings which is easily
rubbed off. Repeat together : "The butterfly bas fou;
wings, two of them are large n;nd two small. They .are
placed on either side of the body. When it flies the wings
are spread out; when at rest, they are. often upright.
They are covered with beautifully colored down, which is

very easily 1·ubbed off"
·
Now what other part do you observe in the butterfly?
. The legs. How many legs has a butterfly ? It has six
legs. Where are they placed? Underneath the body•.·
What cari the butterfly. do wit.h its \ legs? .It .can w~lk. ,
Does it use them much m walkmg? ' No. What 9-o you,
generally see a butterfly doing ? Flying about. ·· ·.And .
when it is not .flying, what is it doing? It is standing.
vVhat do~s it stand upon? Its legs. When we ourselves
walk or move along we bend our legs ; what tlo we call .
that part where the leg bends? We call it a joint. And
what can the butterfly do with its legs? It can bend
them. What then must it have upon its legs ? · Joints.
Repeat together whai you know of the butterfly's legs: .,
"The butterfly has si~ legs placed under its body; the
legs have joi?its; it uses its legs chiefly to stand upon." ·
Now find out another part of the butterfly. Its body.
What sort of a body bas it? It is long and small. You:
may call it slender. Where is the body placed? Be·
tween the wings. What more do you observe in it? . It
is covered with hairs. Repeat together : " The body of the
4*

82

TIIIRD STEP.-LESSON VI.

A.

BUTIERFLY ~~·1 1

:·:1
\

butterfly is slender and covered with hairs j it is placed
between its wings."
What other part do you see? The head. And what
has the butterfly upon its head ? It has horns. How
many? Two. What sort of horns are they? They are
long. And what more? . Fine. \Yliat tlo you o1scne as
to the ends of these ? They arc thick. The horns of
the butterfly always end in thick knobs. w·hat more do
you see on the bead ? Eyes. How many ? Two. What
is the use of the eyes? They are t o see with. Look
again at the head; there are some things that stick out.
These are called feelers; most insects have four feelers.
Look, here is something which I draw out from between
the feelers. What is it like ? It is like a rolled up hair. .
This is the butterfly's mouth, and it is called a trunk.
Which of you can t ell me what butterflies feed upon?
Honey. And where do they find honey? In flowers.
Yes; generally at the bottom of the flowers. Could they
get at it if they had mouths like yours and mine ? No.
What then is the particular use of such a mouth as this to
a butterfly ? To get at the honey at the bottom of the
:flowers. Yes, the butterfly darts its trunk into the flo;,ers,
and as it is hollow, it can suck up the sweet honey through
it. What pleasure you will now have in observing a butterfly, and in thinking that God has given it just such a
mouth as an insect which feeds on honey needs, while ours
is the best for us I Now repeat together the names of the
part? of the butterfly's bead: "The butterfly bas two eyes
,an its heaa, and two horns, which are long, each ending in
a knob. ·It has four feelers ,' between ~wo of which is

•

.

:.,.

·'"t.

~~

~

:y .·

placed its mou}h, which is a long curled-up trunk;; ~~~~~~:0~·.
this trunk into flowm·s to get at the honey."
- .... '~- -c~ :t-"·~ "•!
The children's remarks upon the color and marks of the
.
butterfly must be determined by the particular species . of
tlwt brought before them. The teacher should _Je~d them
to admire its beauLy, and to 01J9crve the h appy ]1fo It se~ms
c1 and then draw attention to the sin of teasing a little
t o 1ea ,
f · ·
creature which God has formed to be happy, and o IDJUrinO" that which God has made so beautiful. No opportu- i .
.""t h ld be' lost of endeavoring to counteract that pro·
Ill y S OU
•
h•
pensity to cruelty which is so common in children; : is
evil disposition springs generally from a love of show~~g .
. they should therefore be encouraged to exercise.
power,
. .
· . h h ··
' d.may have bestowed, lll increasing. t e . ap- .
any power G o
'
, ·
..
~ ~
piness of all His creatures.... They should .be earlr tramed .
to feel that they are acc?tmtable for every ~ac~lt~- they . .
..

possess, even for their power over the most

i~s1~llif~~~·~ ·:
I

.

'

insect.
t ? · In
In what kind of weather do butterflies come .. ou .· .
fine sunshiny weather. How do they employ t~emsel~es?
In flyinO" about and gathering honey. Would ·1t be nght
in us t: imitate . the . butt.erfly? . No ; l ·because God has
given us all work to do, and tells us in His W or~ to M\~s
. d t ·ous as the ant The life of the butterfly is short1 it
m us n · ·
·
..
e should ·
needs but to provide for the present day ' but w , - . .
labor while we have youth and strength, tb:it we mar~~:~ ·:· ·: d~..~ -~~
be a burden to others when we become old. .
. .. ~. ~- ~:- l -~:·:-~
Now .repeat together all that we have said of .the bu~- • .. ·; ;~­
terfly. ''The butterfly is an insect: it has fou.r· wi~gs, t:wo . ~ . - .~;\:
. ll '• when it fhes .these , , . . . .". A~
bich are large an d two are sma
0f w
.':i• .. t ..
4,'" ·" .. !

.

..·· •'", :·. ._:?; . .~.::· .-:~--

84

\•

THIRD STEP.-LEsSON \'II.

RECAPITULATION.

are spread out; they are covered with beautifiul _,
· h Is
· eas1·1 y rubbed -IP. b t
uown,. .. ,
w Inc
•
•
0
.
•
:u . e we en t 1JC wmgs Is the bod
,., f
winch Is long and slender and
d .
y, . ,.. "
.
'
covere with soft hafrs .
und~r Its body ar~ six legs, which have joints; it does rlo~
use Its legs much Ill walking but ch"1efly. t d'
'
m s an ing · upon
the head there arc two long horns, with knobs at th~ end .
two eyes; four feelers; between two of th .{' 1
.'
J d
e , ee ers Is
p ace the. mouth, which is a long, hollow trunk, curled u
when not m use; it darts this trunk into flowers to get ~
the honey, upon which it feeds."
'
a

LESSON VII.
RECAPITULATION.

H e1:e.are th e four objects upon which you have had lesh
sons this week. What are they ? A
·
mate a leaf.
·
of honey comb, and a butterfly. Wh. h / h
'.a piece
by man ? The match
.
ic o t ese is made
who would m l
. What thmgs must the person have
.
a rn ~ match ? Sulphur ancl wood. Wh
kmd of a substance Is sulphur? It .
.
at
And wh t .
JS a mineral substance
a JS wood ? It ·
·
JS a vegetable substance
U
what othe1· vegetable substa
1 '
.
pon
leaf. Are the leaf and . nee. la\ e you hacl a lesson ? A
th
.
• •·
tlie wood wh ole vegetables? N 0 ,
'
ey mo but parts of
animal. T ell 1ne th vegetables. The butterfly is a whole
will ··t I
e name of another animal. A dog I
wu e t JC names f ti
.
butt ·fl d
o rnso two animals on the boardet y, og. · Now tell
ti
etables that I
' . me JC names of two 1vhole veg'
may wnte them a
I
wheat N
f
own a so. A rose tree
·
ow o tw
·
,
o mmerals. Sulphur and flint "Trr
ha ve now two
· l
· n e
anima s, two vegetables, and two minerals.

.,~'~

"°.

·~t:
. ~ ~:·~
... l~

.. ~~ ~.. . .,.·~ {_~ " ,.
Now tell me what can the · butterfly dd h It~ ~ah"ilyi"-: ,~<;i,<'
\

\'

'

What can tho dog do? It can rnn. · Can the· dog "fly,.; or ~·;" J:
the butterfly run? No. But can you not find . out some~
thing that we can say is done by both of them, ~hen the
one flies ancl the other runs? They both m~v.e. · In what .
manner does the butterfly move? It flies from flower to
flower. Whom does the butterfly please in thus flying from
flo.w er to :flower ? Itself. The butterflY: :flies about wheqever it plea.ses. And when the dog runs about or lies down
to sleep, whom is he pleasing? Himself. ' Then the dog
moves about whenever he pleases; what then can you say
that both these animals do ? Tbey . move about as they

Pleas~

.\
'
: ·
· •, · . ' ' · · ~ ;j,
But now think a· little about't ese vegetables: and.~tell ~~ • ';;;.~.
me how in this respe'c t they differ rom the animals: · ,Th~· :. :.~.~
vegetables cannot move ab;ut. ' . Did yo~· ne~~~·· see ·"."a' · tr~e .
I

f

I

•" '

move ? Yes ; when the wind blows. In what then is it_s
moving different from the moving of.an animal? The animal moves about when and where it likes, but the tree does
not move from place to place ; its branches move when the
wind blows them. But think wh;i.t vegetables do. If I ·
wished to have a crop of wheat in my field, what must I do ? i. 1
1
Sow some seed. Y es; I mµst put the Iittl~ seed into the \ /
ground; and what then? It wm · spring up . . ·And what I
will it become at last? Wheat. Yes; a plant of wheat
with a stem, an cl leaves, ::md a heacl. But what must· have
happened to the vegetable when, from being a little seed,
.

.

• Of course it is impossible to anticipate the exnct answers of children,
but the points here dwelt upon are those to which the teacher should direct
observation by questions.

:

.

~'f(!.•

8G

THIRD STEP.-LESSON

vur.

it has become a large plant ? It must have grown. What
then do vegetables do? They grow. Yes; vegetables
grow. Do animals also grow? Yes. Tell me how you
know that animals grow. 1Vc had a little kitten, which is
. now a great cat. 1-Yhat can you say of animals? That
they grow, and move about where they please. What can
. you say of vegetables? That they grow.
But now think about minerals; supposing I put this
~iece of flint into the ground, as I might •a seed; if I came
Ill a fortnight, might I expect to see any part of it above
the earth? No. Why not ? If I had put in a seed I
should expect to see a .little shoot coming up. yes ; be- .
cause the vegetable grows, but the mineral does not grow.
Well, then, you have found out that animals orow, and move
about as they please; vegetables grow; minerals neither
grow nor move from place to place.

LESSON VIII.
BKETcn OF
'·

A LESSON ON THE MASSACitE OF THE CHILDREN
OF BErIILEHEM.

·. · 1ntenilecl for Gliildren of nine or ten yea1·s of age.

l Picture examinea.-Gct tlie children to examine the
picture, telling what they see; as, a man, a woman, a child.
The man looks strong and fierce, holds a knife or dagger in
one l1and, a child in the other by one o'f its legs. The infant ~eems frightened; its mouth is open; it is crying. The
woman is kneeling at the feet of the man, stretching ont
her arms toward the child; she looks frightened and im-

imploring?
·
-· ::, • ·
Thus introduced, endeavor to make the children picture
to themselves the distressing scene recorded in .Matthew ii,
16-18; how wretched the poo~ mothers must have been to
see their helpless infants torn from them, and murdered be~
fore their eyes, by brutal men sent for that purpos~and
p~obably in every house a murder; expressed in the Ian·
guage of Jeremiah, " lamentation, and weeping, and grea~
mourning."
i
·
· •
II. Narrative tola.-Here read ·or detail to the children
the circumstances that led to this general massacre .of poor ~ ·
unoffending babes ; questioning them, ~o ascertain that they
are following the teacher. · The wise mf n's 'visi~they .apply
to Herod for information as to the birthpla~e of.the King of
Israel, who hears them with astonishment-he con~ults t4&
scribes, who point out Bethlehem as the place of Messiah's ·
birth-,.he is moved with jealousy, fearing that his throne
will be taken froni him-:-under a mask of ~ypocrisy he di• ' '•
rects the wise men to / find out! the · ew-born Prince,·and ,.' ·._: )'1
requests them to retur~ to him with .tidings, ,t hat. he,: may ,
~,;;
go and worship Him a1so-an angel tflls t~e~ to. return to -"'.\ / . ~~
their own country another way-He:od•s dj.sappomt~en~ \ · . : •
he orders the slaughter of all the children of a ·certam age; ·
both in Bethlehem and the neighborhood,· ·that ,.:·among
\.
them the Saviour might fall-with fearful exact11ess : biS
commands were carried out:-an example of. which we ' see,
.
'
in the picture before us.
' · : .' ··: ··: '. :'°• ·• • . ·r
Goa's Proviclence.-Lead th~ children to consider
'

, ~-oi I

.J

rn.

88

THIRD STEP.-LESSON VIII.

how God overruled Herod's wicked design, and preserved
the infant Jesus. What did Herod think he had done ?
Defeated the indications of the star, and accomplished his
own will in opposition to that of the Almighty. Bnt had
he done so? Remark that whatever crafty, cruel devices
were in his heart, the counsel of the Lord must stand.
This event formed another accomplishment of the words
of the prophet Jeremiah (xxxi, 15-17). Thus, also? 'the
date of Christ's birth was publicly marked, and all others
who could have J>retended to be the Messiah, as having
been born :it· Bethlehem about the same time, were cut off.
Lead the children next to see that Joseph knew neither the
danger the Child was in, nor, if he had known it, was he
aware of any way to escape ; but an angel appears and
tells him of both. ''Take the · young Child by night, and
flee into Egypt." Thus the infant Jesns was rescued.
•
How vain is it for man to contend against the Almighty I
IV. Practical application.-Direct the children, by
questions, to observe the main ideas in the preceding parts
of the lesson, and to make a threefold application: 1st,
What the cruelty of Herod suggP.sts. 2d, What the workings of God's pro\•idence. 3d, The preservation of the infant Jesus.
1st. Frorµ the cruelty of Herod we learn to what
lengths wicked men will go when they give way to evil
passions, and how guarded we should be against envy and
jealousy.
2d. From the working of God's overruling providence,
we see how He can. thwart and baffie the wicked designs ·
of men, and make their wrath to praise Him. But can the

LESSON IX.

. ~ QU1LL•\

This subject is taken as it bring~
viously developed.

Parts.
The. quill.
shaft. ·
ends.
feather.
laminro.' '
inside. · 1
outside.
groove.
surface.
faces. ·
pith . .
skin.

r

,,
'·.

Qualities .
it is long.
.'
stiff.
1··
useful.
natural. . · · · ~ \
,
animal substance .'~ ., 1J_ \ .. '.·: · :..
~
I 'J . •
• ' , ,,
is transpar4:)n~ : ·"-"' hf'·· :- ·~·· ,._
Th e barrel
'
'
. ••\' · .~.,_ '··j
,
hard. : ""•
elastic.
.
bright. ' ·.·
,.
yellowish.
cylindrical.
hollow.
. . . light. .
..: ' i~ j ::,-,-Th~ shaft is feathere?·
I

-

.;-'

90

\

QuC'lities.
The shaft is white.
stiff.
hard.
opaque.
solid.
ar.gular.
grooved.

Children may be led to remark the difference which fire
produces on animal and vegetable substances, both as to .
appearance and smell.
The t eacher now requires the class to give an explanation in their own words of the terms they have used.

lrESSON X.
A PENNY.

Parts.
The surface.
. faces.
edges.
milling.
impression. ,
iinage.
superscription.
date. ·

LESSO~il"' ·XI.

~

Qualities.
It is dull.
opaque.
.dry. ·
natural.
vegetable.
solid.

It is pungent.
yellow.
hard.
1mlverable.
indigenous.
spherical.
stimulating.

I·

LE~~~N
, ..·. .\,:n,~·
.
~

Idea to be devek.ped in this lesson-metallic.

Qualities.
It is round.
flat .
mineral.
metallic.·
opaque.
bright.
reddish white,.
fusible.
hard.
artificial.*
heavy.
durable.
uneven.

• The class should be led to remark that, though the workmanship is
artificial, the substance is natural.

'-

:MUST.ARD SEED.

THUW STEP.-LESSON :X:.

AN APPLE.

1

I

\

:< '
\

93
AN ACORN.

92

THIRD STEP.-LESSON Xlll.

Use.-To sweeten our food.
h' his cultivated in the
Obtained from the sugar cane, w ic Southern States.
ncl \Vest Indie3, aml some of the ._
E as t a

LESSON :S:IlI.
GLAS~

OF A WATCH.

The ideas to be developed by

tlti~ le s~ on - co n cau c

and

LESSON XV.

con1,•cx .

Parts.*

Qualities.
It is artificial.
transparent.
brittle.
b1:ight. .
thin.
hard.
clear.
curved.
The upper face is convex.
The under face concave.
The edge circular.

Uses.-To preserve the hands of the watch from being
injured, and to keep the works from clust.
LESSON. XIV.
BROWN SUGAR.

The idea to be developed by this lesson-native:

Qualities.

It is brown.
granulous.
sweet.
soluble.
fusible.
opaque.

It is useful.
vegetable substance.
artificial.
native. ·
sticky.
moist.

• The children should be rskcd whether there arn any parts to this ob-·
ject peculiar to it; and when, as in the watch glass, there are not, the
naming of the parts had better be omitted.

AN ACORN.

Ideas to be developed-oval, scaly.
Qualities.
Parts.
It is vegetable.
The cup.
natural. .
berry.
bard.
nut.
green.
point of the nut.
opaque.
scar.
The nut is ovaL ·
scales.
' bright,
surface.
solid.
edges.
The cup is dull.
The inside is concave.
.
smooth.
The outside is rough.
brownish.
scaly.
The edge is circul~r.
i
I

LESSON XVI.
A PIECE .OF HONEY COMB·

reg-

developed-compressible, hexag_onal,
Ideas to be
Qualities.
- u,lar.
Parts.
It is natural. The cells.
animal production.
divisions.

II

. -- .

v-·~

..

A CORK·

94

THIRD STEP •- L ESSON XVII.

Quu liti~a.

I'rirt.•.

The eJges.
base of cells.
corners.
surface.
faces.

It is light.
fusible.

sticky.
<lull.
semi-transparent.
yellowish.
thin.
compressible.
brittle.
The cells are hexagonal.
regular.
hollow.

Brought from the E ast and West Indies or tbe Southern
States in its raw state. R eliueJ. b y sugar bakers, and sold
by grocers in loaves of n. conical form.
LESSON XVIII.
A CORK•

Parts.
The ends.
surface.
faces.
edges.

LESSON XVII.
REFINED SUGAR.

The ideas to be d eveloped b tl ·
amorphous,
refined. .
y ns

Parts.
The surface.
edges.
middle.
crystals.
grains.
pores.

lcsson~crystalline,

Qualities.
It is white.
sweet.
sparkling.
crystalline.
solid.
fusible.
soluble.
shn.pclcss or amor h .
hard.
P ous.
refin ed.
nutritious.
crumbling.
opaque.
artificial.
ve?etable substance.
brittle.

Uses.~To

Qualities.
It is light. ·
compressible.
elastic.
opaque.·
dry.light brown. solid....
!
IJOrcius. .v \ .
smooth•· "-.,., .
cylindrical.dull.
inflammable. vegetable. The form is artificial.
The substance is natural.
stop bottles, ,to buoy Jleople up in the water.

Children to determine

wh~t qualities fit it for its use.

LESSON XIX·
GLUE·

Idea to be developed-tenacious.
Qualities.
It is translucent.
When melted, it is tough.
mahogany brown.
·
adhesive.

~

.·

.~.

I.

•

96

97

A LA.DY l31RD •

THIRD STEP,-LESSON XX.

Qualities.
. ; ,
It is hard. ·
When melted, it is sticky. ' ; "'
solid.
elastic.
animal substance.
t enacious,
:<rt ificial.

LEbSON XX .
Ide:-ts to be dm·clopci1 - t1 ds tcd, s{enda.

Qualities.
It is natural.
odorous.

Parts.

I

The c~p.
leaflets of cup. ·
The petals are yellow.
stamen~ .
·
· t"uc l'11s"ille
·. .
glossy in
·
·
pist1k
dnll on the outside.
~~~

.
·
place of inserlio11.
. .
msl<1r
. .
outside.
sur f:acc.

.

1

circu ar.
. t l t the 1)lace of
porn Cl a
.
t'o11
mscr
l
·
.· J
stnpc ·
opaque.
pliable.
The leaflets are greenish.
·
thin.
roembranaceous.
semi-transparent. ·
pointed.
The .stalk fa green.
•
grooved.
angular.
stiff.
fibrous.

Qualities.
It is durable.
light brown.
vegetable substance.
inflammable.
soft.
slender.
solid.
rough.

It is dry.
dull.
twisted.
flexible.
tough.
opaque.
fibrous.
artificial.

'

LESSON XXI.
HONEY.

Qualities.
It is a vegetable substance.
natural.
nourishing.
healing.
opaque.

It is sweet.
fluid.
thick.
liquid.
yellow..
sticky.

LESSON XXII
BUTTER

Parts.
The petals. ·
margins

o~

edges.

cur.
Qualities.
It is vegetable.
concave.

LESSON XXIII.
A LA.DY DIRD.

Ideas to be. deveiope~-hemispherical, jragiJe, join~e~.
1
Qualities. '
Parts.
It is animal.
The head.
natural.
eyes.
hemispherical.
feelers or pa1pi.
Tho
wing
cases are red.
horns, or antennre.
spotted,
· ·:
wings.
·
·
bright,
wing cases, or plytra,
hard,
thorax.

q

'

.

98

TIIIRD STEI'.-LESSON XXIV.

A FIR CONE.

Parts.
Qualities.
The legs.
The wing cases are brittle.
body.
opaque.
back.
stiff.
spots.
The outside is convex.
surface.
'fhc inside is concave.
claws.
O llc rn:lr:,; ill otr:1i µ- Jit,.

Qualities. . ·
The outside is irregular.
dull.
dingy brown.
uneven.
Tho insiLle is pearl y.
bright.
smooth.
slightly concave.
The mollusk is soft.
edible.
nutritious.
cold.
smooth.
slippery.
· I·

The olliL·r cun cd .
. I'

The wings are membranaceous.
pliable.
thin.
transparent.
fragile.
The body is oval.
black.
The legs arc j ointed.
short.

LESSON

bhck.

.•

XXV .

A FIR CONE.

LESSON XXIV.
AN OYST E TI.

Ideas to be developed-marine, p early, irregular.

Parts.
Qualities.
It is animal.,
The valves.
opaque.bingo.
marine.
outside.
natural.,
inside.
The val.vos are circular.
margin.
hard. ~'
impressions.
stiff.
mollusk.
pulverable.
scales or Iaminro.
The outside is rough.
scaly or laminated.

Ideas to be developetl- conical, tilecl or imbricatecl,

kceleil.

Qualities.

Parts.
The scales.
seeds. ·
top.
place of insertion.
fibres.
surface.
stalk

It is brown.
opaque.
hard.
vegetable.

•

natural~.

conical.
tiled or imbricated.
inflammable. ··.
odorous.
The scales are stiff. .
'
dull.
'·
The outside iS light brown. ··

. .

.... ....
')

' '

'

.

•

I

100

' . A NEEDLE.

THIRD STEP.-LESSON XXVI.
. I

If

:·

· . Qualities.
The outside is pointed at the top.
rough.
irregularly conical.
The inside of scales is chestnut color.
shaded:
keeled.

The vein!I.
midrib.
base.
stalk.

FUR,

Ideas to be developed-tulntlar, inanimate.

\

...

Parts.
The eye.
shank.
poUit._

I

I

!

./

I.
LESSON XXVII.
A LAUREL LEAF.

Parts.
The upper face.
under face.
edge or margin.
point or termination.

Qualities.
It is oval.
smooth.
pointed.
vegetable.

.·.
".

•\:

f2ualities.
It is odorous.
opaque.
·b itter.
stiff.

Parts.

LESSON XXVI.

Parts.
Qualities.
The skin.It is an animal substance.
hair.
It is hairy.
surface.
inanim:i.te.
points of hair. The hairs are flexible.
slender.
soft.
tubular.
straight. ·
The hairs a~e pointed. 1
The skin is stiff.
The color and other pecuiiarities to be decided by the
specimen· presented.

.\

102

'Made. of steel, which is a preparation of iron, having
been subJectccl to great extremes of heat and cold.

LESSON XXL""\:.
A PLANT AND A STONE.

To develop the ideas of o1·gans, organized, and in or-

ganizeil.
To give the class nu iclea of organized aml hwrganized
a P}ant :md a t
b
•
such as th ~ lls o~e may e shom1; nncl questions given 1
.
e 10 owrng :

Teacher.-If I put the t
.
them in a month h t
se w_o mto the earth, nncl >isit
' w a great chfference mi"'! 1t I
perceive in them ?
o
expect to
Gliildren.-The })lant wr·11 }iavc grown. th
.
have remained of th
.
' e stone will
e same size.
Teacher.-How
dicl the PI an t mcreasc
.
•
?
Ghildren.-It absorbecl m 01s
. t ure
Teacher.-By what means?
.
• roots and
Gliildren ·-Thi·o ug11 its
1eacher D' cl .
pores.
.i this nourish only th
Children •-No.
e roots ?

1"'eache1·.-Youare right· th
.
circulated through ti
' . e sap was produced which
IC plant by
those parts of vcgetabl
d
. means of vessels. Now
cs an ammal h' h
are called organs ? Vrh
. s w IC do something
.
,, at do amm I h
!t s ear with ? What
d o they smell with ? W
hat do the
·
y see with ? What do
t h ey taste with ? Wh
at then may
II
eyes, and mouths of . I
you ca the ears, noses
1
amma s?
Ghildren.-Organs.

103

A BELL.

THIRD STEP.-1,.ESSON XXIX.

Teacher.-N nmc some other orgrms of nnima.ls.
Ghildren._.'....Hancls, feet, heart, and veins.
Teacher.-N ame some of the organs of vegetables.
Ghildren.-Roots, stems, leaves, and pores.
1'eacher.-A bocly possessing organs is callctl organized.

N mno so mo orgm1izcil bodies.
•
Ghildren.-A tree, an insect.
Teacher.-Doclics that tlo not possess any orgrms nro
called inorganizecl. N mno some inorgauizcll boilics or
substrmocs.
GMldren.- A stone, water, sugar, 1ont1 1 nml sn.lt.
Tho teacher names rniscollm1oous snbstnnoos, nml the
children clccido whether they aro orgnnizCll 01· inorgnuiv.od.
She then calls upon the children ~o nnmc all t110 orgnuizctl
bodies they can think of, which arc written on. tho · bot:ml
in one column.
Another column .may bo made in tho snmc wn.y of inorganizecl substances.
.
'

Qualities of Stone.
It is hard .
in organized.
mineral.
natural.

, It is cold.
opaque.
solid. · ·
irregular in form, or n.mor...
' phous.

LESSON XXX.
A DELL.

Ideas to be developed in this lesson-sonorous and the

peculiar parts.
· Parts.
The barrel.

: .:.·.

.

.

.
Qualities.
It is metallic.

,,,

'. '

/'

...

,,,.,,'

i

104
'l'IIllUJ S'l'El'.-LESSON XXXI,

1

Parts.
The ears, cannon. ·
handle,
according
to th~ sort.
- clapper._
rim.
surface.
inside.
outside.

J

Different kinds of bolls.

A. WHEEL.

Qualities.
It is artificial.
1iard.
elastic.
sonorous.
cold.
1101low.
concave.
11eavy.
riiu circular.
clapper spherical.

House bells, pulled by wires passing from one part of a
house to another part where they are rung. C!iurcli bells,
· suspended at the upper part of the building, pulled by
ropes ;-when there are several bells of different tones
~he~ form a peal or chime ;-1\ hen one is rung slowly, it'
is said to be tolled. H and bells, swung by the hand-some
used in houses, some by milkmen, &c.
Cow bells, hung
on the neck of a cow.
1

Uses of Bells.-To give notice of different things-in
the house, of different people arriving, servants wantedin a church, the time of divine service is marked, deaths
and funerals announced l1y tolling, marriages and happy
events by a peal. The cow bell is used to tell where the
cow is. Horse bells to give warning to people on the
street of the approach of a sleigh.

LESSON

.xxxr.

.A WHEEL.

Ideas to be developed in this lesson-ci1·cula1· aiverg.
1
ing, and the peculim· parts.

105

Qualities.
Parts.
The rim is circular.*
The nave.
divided.
box.
wooden.
spokes. .
thick.
~rm of the axletree.
Tho tire is circular.
linchpin.
entire.
rim composed of folloes.
iron.
tire or band.
thin.
rivets.
The spokes are straight.
·
centre.
equal in length.
circumference.
wooden.
diverging from
the nave. ·.·
Tile relative position and proportion i of the . ~ifferent
•
' ·'. '
parts should form a part ·of the exercise
. . :i .
,·
The nave is in the centre; the spokes d1yerge from the
nave to the rim, and are all of equal_ length, if not, the rim
would not form a perfect circle; the tire is outside the rim,
and forms, of course, a larger circle than the rim which it .
encloses· the arm of the axle fits into the box; the felloes are
. t
parts of 'a circle, and are joined together, forming the nm.
Th~ children should also be led, as an additional exer- .
cise to see the use and adaptation of the different parts.
' Th: box to receive the arm of the axletree upon which the
• The children will probably say, round. They should be led to see
that this is a very indefinite term, whi.ch they apply to a ball as well as to
a shilling; their observation should be directed by questio~ to the ~er­
ception of how a sphere and a circle differ, and the term circular, given
and applied to the wheel before them, and to absent objects of a similar
shape.
t These parts are mentioned in 1 Kings, vii. 88.

' 5*

·:

.-

~- .

108

TllIRll S'IEP,-LESSON XXXlll.
,

,.

4

er ; the collision of flint and steel occasions sparks that wilt"}Jsct Ji re to any infl:unmablc material; bnt lucifer matches,
wl1ich a rc ti ppe tl "·ith a Yery comlrnstiblo substauce, am
now generally used to produce fire. Tho fuel that feeds~ .
fire is either coal, wood, or peat.
BJJ'ccts of firc.-Some substfrnec8, as coal, wooJ, &c., it
consumes, reducing them to ashes. Some, as butter,
metals, &c., it melts or changes from solids to liquids.
Somei as water, quichil n.:r, &c., it ch01nges into steam, or
vapor. Some. substances, as dough, clay, &c., it hardens.
It expands bodies, penetrating through their particles and
loosening theni. Some suLstances, as metals, it refines,
driving away impurities.

wes.-1. In domestic life. It warms our · houses and
gives light to ns when the natural light of day is removed.
It cooks our food,. thus enabling us to profit by tho animals
and vegetables which God has given us.
2. In manufactures. By fire, metals nre fi~ted for v:irious purposes. Glass, porcelain, brick making, indeed all
our manufactures, r equire the aicl of fire. It is aISo flre
that furnish es us with th e steam that e nables us to travel
with such rapidity by sea ancl land, and which lights our
streets and houses at night.
An emblem.*-Thcrc arc many instances in the Bible
of fire being used as an emblem. Thus God is spoken of ·
as a "consuming fire." His wrath, when kindled by sin,
destroys like fire. Our Saviour is comparccl to the refiner's
fire, purifying His people, purging them from the dross of
sin, as fire acts upon metals.
• An emblem is a picture which represents one thing to , the eye and
nnotber to the understnnding.

109.

AN ANCHOR.

'1
,'io4

LESSON

xxxrv.

A)i ANCIIOIL

Parts.
T he shank.
cross-Lar or stock.
anus.
flukes.
ring.

Qualities.
It is iron.
hcaYy.
hanl
colc1.

opaqnc.
metallic.
The shank is perpen<1icular to
the 1ca1
The beam is straight.
horizontal to the
shank.
si~aller at the 'e nds'.
sometimes -i ron. · •,_.
sometimes woode_n,._....~ .
The arms are curved. \ .
,
The flukes are pointed. ' ,
sharp.
"
The ring is circular. '

of anchor is called the sheet anchor, ·:· ..
The lQorgest kind
great danger or in h:avy
and is only used in tim~s of
gales.
'
f.
attach ed by a cable,
The anchor is an instrument o iron
. • h
,
1l ti1c
' rm«
. to
the bows of s1nps; w en
a
·
'
·
0
· 1 t down
which passes t urou,, ·
.
.
t'
. . the anc110r IS c
th latter arc to remam sta ion::>I)'
.
.
h.
e
. h
b . the stock mto sue
, or en.st into the water, and IS t . rown )
h rouncl
..
e of the flukes is sure to enter t e g
a position that on
l fi c1 for any strain
. 1 1 . th' keeps the vesse xe '
d t
ot the
Perpendicu ar Y • . IS 11
ld rather ten o ro
acting n early honzonta y won
.
.
lled castarm deeper in its moorings. This operation is ca

,\

110

THIRD STEP.-LESSON XXXY.

.
ing anchor, and tho ship is then said to ho riding at an.
'

chor ,," ,when the anchor is hc:we.d up, the expression used
is weighing anchor. vVhen the anchor finds good moorings
and take!! firm hold, the vessel is in safety • it cannot be
'
'
driven to and fro by tho storm, or dashed against rocks by
the hurricane.

------"'
'"'····~~
~~- -~"-7

'When the children clearly 1mtlcrstm1<l whnt nu anchor
i~, and the oflice it performs, they shoulcl be Ic<l to trace
the analogy between hope and :111 anchor. The former is
thrown out from us, and is fixed upon something, nncl if it
h:1s a firm grasp it "ill keep us stc:Hly ; 11·0 Rk1ll rem:1in unsliakeu, whatever mny assail, as long as the anehor of hope
retains its holJ. The ehilJren should be referred to Heb.
vi., where the anchor is used ns the cmhlr!m of hope, which
is <lcscribe(l ns having entered into that within the veil
that is, into the Holy of Holi(•s, the type of1Ieave11, where'
our great High Priest is for us entered; nnchorcd on Him,
the rock of our salvation, we shall be kept immovably fixed
amidst all the trials and temptations of lifo. \Vo often
speak of a person or thing being our sheet ancho~, which
,
means that on which we altogether dcpeml as our last
and· best .r esource.
)

LESSON XXXV.
Parts.

A DALANCE.

The lever, or beam.
pivot or fulcrum,
scales.
chains connecting the
scales with the beam.

Tlic qualities depend
npo:ri the kind of
balance used in the
lesson.

' A BALANCE; •N!~t·~.°!'\:\·

The balance is an instrument used to ascertaiii'th~·~:ex~1. ...
act weight of anything. It ·· i,s · most essential ih traCl.e:i ;1"k~
without such a help barter and exchange would be guess•
work, and dishonest dealings could not be easily detected.
When one scale perfectly balances the other, what is held
in carh i~ eqnnl in weight, and if in one seale standard
weights are placed, the substance in the other can be accu·
ratcly determined.
The children should endeavor to find ont why the
halanec is employed as the emblem of justice, nml why,
11·hcncHr j usti ce is r epresent ed a8 a person , she always
holds a pair of scales in her hand. T hey will be able t o
trn°cc the analogy between testing a subst.anec ns to its
weirrht in scales ancl tho exereisc of justice, which eonsists
"'
in impartially
woighiug conduct or opinions against a lawful standard, in onlcr to arrive at a j ust ancl right judgment. They will also nnderstancl the metaphor used to
set forth the eoncluct of Belshazzar : "Thou art weighe<l
in the balance, and art found wanting." His life an<l character were in one scale, God's holy law an~ requirements
in the other, and the former fell short-wa;oi altogether deficient.
At this stop some exercises, would be well introduced
011 the connection of different qualities. The children will
easily be led to discover that all absorbent objects arc po· ·
rous, that all brittle substances ar~ hard, that all adhesive
ones are tenacious, all sonorous ones are elastic; that' to be
malleable and ductile they must be tenacious, their particles
cohering; to be elastic, an object must be either extensible, flexible; or compressible.

112

THIRD STEP.-LESSON XXXV. ,

Children
may
alim with profit cxe1·c1·~e
'I .
. .
•
•
o • 1e1r concept! ve
powers m drawmg, out of the treasures of th eir
. memory,
.

examples. o~ objects in which any particular quality is found,
and• class1fymg them accordinCT
to the a·m
t .d egree m
.
b
1 eren
which they possess the quality. Thus objects may be re~embere<l, fnrnishing n, regular grarlation from the most
rn1penetrabie opacity to the clearest transp:ircncy; the
sam e may be clone with hard and soft- from ~oft as butter
to as hard as flint, &c.

';

· _1
!

FOURTH
l~TRODUCTORY

STEP.
REMARKS .

Trrn chief aim p ropost~ cl in t his Step is, to exercise the
children in composing, arr:rnging, and classifying objects,
and in tracing :111alogics; thus developing a higl1er faculty
than .that of simply observing their qualities. The complex operation of connecting t hings by their points of resemblance, ::mcl at the same time of distinguishing them
individually by their points of dissimilarity, prepares for
one of the high est exercises of our reason ; yet it may be
carried on in children at a much earlier pcriocl than is
usnally imllgined, if they arc trained to arrange their ideas.
\'{i th thi s vic11· the spices, liquids, an cl metals have been
chosen as forming .a conncctcL1 series of o1jects.'~' Tho
different woods, grains, &c., are good sn1j ccts for similar
instruction .
In the early lessons, tho perceptions simply exercised
the intuitive facnltics, which, being stimulated ancl directed, furnish the rniucl with ideas. At this point, the process
commences of regarding them, not simply, b ut in series and
relationship, and lessons arc given to cultiYatc the discernment of analogies between physical and moral or spiritual
"' A few lessons on Animals, _as also in Geography, have been added.

"
_.

_

ii,

Ii:

11

1:

1r:

:i
I,

I'"

"

.,

"

Ii

'!

- :

114:

FOURTH STEP.-LESSON J.

,

--

'~{ .~~:)-;-·'"·~·

e,. ~- . ,

· · ~ •. ""- ·~~~O;!". ~> .
"\ " !, .•. ,,~I'""
~
..

.

.

qualities. The information given should be reproduced by
the children on their slates or on paper.*

SPICES.
LESSON I.
PEPPER.

Qualities of Pepper.
It is dry.
vegetable. ·
dull.
foreign.f
sapid;
tropical production.
pungent,
wrinkled.
odorous.
spherical.
aromatic.
rough.
wholesome.
black.
stimulating.
preservative.

. It is hard.

"' The leading qualities of the objects arc still put down in connection
with each lesson, for the convenience of the teacher, if she finds it desirable
to use any of them. As fast. however, ns the children become sufficient.Ty
familiar with nny particular quality, nnd the term expressing it, it is better
not to continue to repeat it, but only call out those qualities that. awaken
new thoughts and require new terms, or that ni·e peculiarly clrnmcteri~tic
of the object. This rcm:uk applies to previous as well M succeeding lessons.

No gootl can result by tlic constant repetition of qualities nni! terms

already furniliat• to the children.

t

Tcacher.-If it comes from n foreign country, how do we get it p
Cltildren.-It comes in n Bhip.

Teacl1er.-This is called importing; nnd sending out of our own country is called exporting. What do we call this exchange of production p
Cltildren.-Trncle or commerce.

1 cacher.-.And what are the people called who carry it on?
C!tildrm.-Mercbants.

' 1

~·· NUTMEG. ·"'i.·~·;~· '1 ~ '-':..::q::t,~~¥< •.11

,

· The pepper plant is a creeping shrub, much reseip.bW,1~.
the vine, and is often called the pepper vine• ·· It is 'ge~eiil' ,
ally planted near some thorny bush, among the branches of
which it entwines itself like ivy. It produce~ berries in
clusters: if the fruit is intended for black pepper, it is not
allowed to ripen, but is collected while green, and rubbed \
by the hands or feet, till the seeds, several of which are I
contained in each berry, are separated. These are exposed
\
on mats to the rays of the sun during the day, and are col- .
lected at night in jars, to preserve them from the dew.
vVhen the berries are intended to be converted into white ·
pepper, they arc allowed to ripen, and they then become , , -.
red. They are rubbed in a basket, the pulp is removed by .'
washing, and the seeds, which ate whit~, are dried.
' .
I

,

I

LESSON
NUTMEG.

II.
I

'·

Qualities of Nutmeg.
·
It is foreign .
It is sapid.
tropical production.
hard.
pungent.
ovnl .
preservative.
ding-y brown.
pulverable.
aull.
ag~eeable to the ta~te. ·
opaque.
aromatic.
. dry.
odorous.
vegetable.
Surface nneven.
nntnrnl.
The nutmeg is the kernel of a fn~it which is the pro- .
duce of a tree resembling our cherry tree, both in size and
growth. It is found in the East Indies. The external
coyering of the fruit is · ll busk; this opens when ripe, and

,\ \

116

FOURTH STEP.-LESSON II.

kind or

displays a thin scarlet membrane, called mace; this being
carefully removed, there still remains a woody shell which
surrounds the nutmeg. · The nuts are first dried in the sun
and then placed on a frame of bamboos over a slow fire '
'
until the kernels, on being shaken, rattle in their shells.

specific term.
matic?
Ohildren.-Odorous.
Teacher.-Why is this a generic term ?
Ohildren.-Because it includes every variety of odors.
Teacher.-What kind ofterm is aromatic ?
OMldren.-A specific term.
Teacher. -"\Vhy ?
Ohildren.-Because it applies only to one particular
I I

REMARKS ON WORDS,

Teacher.-Wby is nutmeg said to be odorous?
Ohildren.-Because it has a smell.
Teacher.- Why aromatic?
O!iildren.-Because it has that pungent smell distin.
gnished by the name :1romatic.

Teacher.-Are all things that are aromatic also odorous?
O!iildren.-Y es.
Tcaclier.- Are all things tlrnt are odorous also aromatic?
Ghildren.-N o.
Teacher.- Is an 011ion odorous?
Ohildren.-Y es.
Teacher.- Are these smells alike?
CT1iMre11.-Xo.
T eac!1 cr.-\Yhiclt of these terms i11 dur1cs cyery kiwl of
smell?
.Ohildren.-Odorous.
Teacher.-If you were to put all odorous substances
into one class, and all aromatic into another, what would
you f'ny of the tn-o

~

ki n cl of smell.

Give examples of generic terms and qf a specific term
applicable to each of them.
Ohildr8n.-Odorous, fragrant ; colored, red; foreign,
Chinese prod 11ction.
The class should determine, in succeeding lessons, what
terms are g~neric and what specific.

f

l

LESSON III.

Qualities of Mace.
It is natural. · · ·" r ·· ::""'.;__.
It is pungent. .
inflammable.
agreeable to the tli.ste.
medicinal.
aromatic.
dry.
orange rca.
. dull. .
pulverable.
membranaceous. ·
opaque.
preservative.
thin.
imported.· .
fibrous.
1

rl:i~ ~rs?

Gltildren.-That the class containing all odorous objects
would be much the largest; it would include the aromatic
substances.

Te_a cher.-A term which includ es all the varieties of one

'I

I I-

-

•

1 • -:'

.

(18

. .. .

FOURTH STEP.-LESSON Ill.

' .
,,,,,,

It is sapid.
stimulating.

It is brittle.
foreign.
tropical.

..

LESSpN
IV. '
.._,
. CINNAMON. '. . . · " '

Mace is the covering between the shell of the nutmeg
and its external husk.
REM.ARKS

!.'
,1

"

brittle.
preservative.
aromatic.
pungent.
agreeable to the taste.
opaque.
hard. ·
sweet.

ON WORDS.

Teaclter.- Foreign." Should you call mace a foreign
production if you were in the place where it grows?
Ohililren.-N o. It is only foreign to the countries
where it does not grow.
Teacher.-Where would you call it pungent and aromatic?
Ohildren.-Everyw here.
Teaclier.-Can it be mace without being foreign?
Children.- Y es.
Teacher.-Can it be mace without being pungent and
aromatic?
Ohildren.-No.
Teacher.- 'Which t hen of these l]_nalitics belong to mace
as mace?
Cliildrcn.-I'uugcul am1 arom:iLic.
Those qualities which determine anything to be what it
is, are called essential.
Qualities which arc not essential are called accfrlental.
What qualities of mace arc essential ?
What qualities .of mace arc accidental ?
Why are pungent and aromatic said to be essential
qualities?
"Why is it that its hring forcigll is ~ai<l to be :<ccidental?
11

1·

l·
!..

I
r

r

·, -.
'-'-'·

.,..

Cinnamon is in the inner bark of the branches . of a
kind of laurel tree, growing . in :Ceylon .and M~labar:'., ·The
b ranches of three years olu ::ire selected as fornisbing the
b est cinnamon ; th e outside bark is scraped off; the branch·
es are then ripped up lengthways with a knife, and the inner bark is gradually loosened, till it can be entirely taken
off. Exposure to the sun causes it lo curl u 1;. The pi~ccs
of bark so curled are called q;ills, and the smaller ones are
iuserteu into the larger.

"

i '

J,ESSON

V.

GINGER.

__ Qualities of Ginger.
It is fibrous. ·
It is solid .
. knotty.
hard.
prcscrvati vc.

R:ip id.

'

·:\

.

~

..

·.

;,.~ .:;: . ::, ',;,.':'~ ~·,~:~.:i~it},;' ~~{;;~~:~kif

120

FOURTH STEP.-LESSON VI,

Qualities.
It is rough.
jagged.
vegetable.
tropical.
-foreign.
aromatic.
pungent.
dry.
dull.

Qualities.
It is light.
yellowish brown.
pulverable.
.
medicinal.
stimulating.
wholesome.
opaque.
inflammable.

Qualities. . . '-,_ --.,
It is stimulating. · /
inflammable.
sapid.
conservative.
1·'

• •

•

: ~ealiti~.
It is hard. :. ...'!

., . , . ,

1
; \__ :-., ""·
,~

..

~~;~~

.

-·

. ~~~·f:

·.:i,r

4'~

-·

i

LESSON VI.

LESSON VII.

ALLSPICE.

0

.

of

~\

· Ginge~ is the root of a plant resembling a i;eed, which
grows both in the East and West Indies. The root does
not strike t-o any considerable depth in the earth, but
spreads out far in every direction. When first dug. up, it
- is soft, and eaten by the Indians as a salad. If intended
for exportation, it is placed in bundles, aml dried in the sun.

Parts.
The skin. seeds.
partition of see d vessel.
point of insertion.

•

friable. ", . · . 7' ;
wrihkled.' ·-~ ,. '-\' ·;..,.

Allspice _or pimentQ is the dried berry of a ' species of ,_ _ •
.
I ,
'
myrtle, indigeno}IS in the West Indies j it is a most beauti· --i~ ~ ,
fol and fragrant hee, producing numerous bunches white ' _...;..,; ::
flowers, to which succeed th,e berries; these are gath~r~d' ~:':!~Ai~
by the hand and spread out in the sun to dry. In this ,.
operation they lose their former coforl nnd become brown.'
When the seeds rattle in tho shell, they arc known to be
sufficiently dry, and arc packed in bags fo1• expo;tntion;
The flavor of pimento is considerediI to unite.- ,..that'' of .tho
other spices; hence the name of allsp\ce.
'·

•j

'

1

Qualities.
It is aromatic• .
odorous.
pungent.
spherical.
brown.
speckled.
organized.
natural.
vegetable.
dry.
opaque.
tropical.

Pa,rts.
The calyx or cup.
tube.
leaflets of _cup. 1
point11 of leaflets.
bud.
I
edges.

dull.
'<

' 6
I.

!

:

t•

opaque.
,: . tropical.
\ _ imported. . ._ . "
' dull > :~~· ' ).; :.. i

l

'J')

i

FOUltTII STEI'.-LESSON Vil,

Qualitiea.
It is stimulating.
hard .
inflammable.
preservative.

-~

A GLOVE.

. ··..

Qualitiea.

123

.. ·

.,. \ . <·~;-~~~q~'"~:~~

.

Ghildren.-To a set of natural productidns- posses-siiig".'1~:..

q

The bucl is spherical.
The tube is long.
The leaflets are pointed.

certain ualiJ.ics.

', •..,

'

Teacher.- "\-Vhen a number of things are arranged together, each having similar qualities, what would you call
{.he collecLinn? \.Vhat woulL1 you call a nnmber of boys
who are placetl together because they uro nc:irly equal in
\ ,
knowledge?

(.)loves are the u11 exp nw]et1 flowur lrn(h and calyx of a
,. species of laurel· which g rows in tho West Indies. At a
certain season of tho year, the clorn tree prodncrs a prnfusion of flowers in clusters; they are gathered before the
flowe r opens, when tho four poiuts uf the calyx projl:ct,
and the petals are folcfor1 one over the other, formin.~ n bud
abont the size of a pea. After th ey are g athered, they arc
exposed for some time to the smoke of a wood fire, and
·then to the rays of tho snn .
At the conclusion of the lesson on spices, the children shoul~ be called upon to mention those qualities
- which they have founcl common to all; as aromatic, pungent, dry, tropical, stimulating, -vegetable. Then let some
other i;imilar substance be prescntecl to them, such as
mustard.
.Teacher.- Is this a spice?
Ohildren.-N o.
Teaclier.-Why not?
'Oliildren.-It has not the qualities of a spice.
Teacher.-If I showed.you a substance with which you
. were not previously acqnaintecl, ancl you found that it possessed the eBBential qualities of the spices you have exam·
ined, what would you consider it to be?
Oltildren.-A spice;
.Teacher.-To what then do you apply the term spice ?

Ohildren.-A class.
Tcacher.-What, then, would you call a ·collection of
suostanccs that po ssess the same (lll~!itics ?

· Ckiltlren.- A class.
Teacher.-What. may you call all substances which are
aromatic, pungent, tropical, &e.?
. , .. . \
Ohildreii.-A claaa.
Teach.er-And what is the name of that cb.s~? .
Ohildren.-Spice.
·~·~

Teacher.- What., then, does the term spice ~xpress? ·' _, :
· 011.i'.ldren.-A class of substances, possessing the qualities aromatic, pungent, &c.

Teacher.-Tell me all the substances
class.

/

Children.-Pepper,
I

allspice, cloves. _

I

.Teacher.-Are all thb
all respects ?

Ohildren.-No.

;

'

~·~.

'

. Teacher.-How can you tell on~ spice from a~othor
. Ghildi·en.-By each · having .some , qu,alitiei;i,:peculiar ;._to '-~_: . '~:~J,.

?; '

itself.

·

\ :' ,-;• . . ; -..

.

'• >.. ' , · ,. ·-. ·.."-..!•Ii
·.u1;;· :;
·.~

.f

Teacher."'7""N ame sqmething in each spice which distin- ·'·t'.'./'. .: ~·;".?~

guishes it.
I

I

,. I";, ..;,~ ,

··.~1

'~;.:tf

'

.i \

. · 1_ •_:;· ·

~.'°!~;/;:-:-\.::~ ~~~

124:

t"

FOURTII STEP.-LESSON VIII.

Oliildren.-Ginger is a root ; pepper is a seed; nutmeg
is a kernel; mace is the membranaceous covering of that
kernel ; cinnamon is a bark; pimento is a seed vessel; tho
clove is a c~p and flower bud.

.

•
If
'j

:,'

!

ON LIQUIDS.
LESSON VIII.
WATER.

Qualities of TVater.
It is fluid.
It is wholesome.
transparent.
tasteless.
cold.
clear.
in odorous.
colorless.
natural.
liquid.
solvent.
useful.
refreshing.
bright.
penetrating.
incompressible, except
cleansing.
by immense power.
cooling.
cflective.
fertilizing.
drinkable.
Some waters arc mc<licinal.
.Different kinds of Water.
Rain.
lvlcdiciml.
spring-.
hot ~rring.
stagnant.
sea, or salt.
river.
Different states of Water.
Fog.
Ice.
cloud.
snow.
hail.
·rapor.
dr1Y.
r ain.
steam.
mist.

~

r..

~. 'VATER. -'.... -.t~_·_- ~ -_{f .. ";_1
- .... '-'

. '
.
~>~),
' ~-·, Natural,,. Oollecti91J8 of•Wat~.
· .Oceans. · ··. . ·" "' · · ..;..... «.·'. :. ;:'Lakes.
ponils; . ' ,,,_;~· .
seas.
· ."'r 1\t!4"(i,..
sprm,gs.: . . .·, / ~ .•.
rivers.
I

•

:

I• ' \.'••t

'1,

...

•\ -~; ~r; ~ 't'.:t: '

./

Operations of TVater.-It purifies, evaporates, ". fre~~e.s; :·
quenches thirst, cools, finds its own level, penetrates, fer1tll· . ;.
izes, is a solvent, extinguishes fire, separates easily into p(),r,;~~.:: ~•
tions which assume a spherical form:
. :. '';:'/' ..
/,
. .Movement of• Water.
•
"'
• ..
- ....--t ·:~;<,(-~ ~-,
Teacher.-In what way do ocean11 and seas move ? ,r.:~~ · .
·1·z.1
I
J; . . , .... _.. : .
,.~}_: .. 1_~
.
.· , :{•"\.'.;. _7 , ~: ..,;~,,.
G.m u1·en.- n waves.
1
Teacher.-When .you are on the sea sbore~" what : di:ffer- :·.''!
ence do you observe in the waves during the cour_!!e of the
day ?
\
_, .,.· ..· ... · ..._.__
Children.-At one time they are coming in ; ~at-another-~-~·~
--~~­
going out.

Teaclier.-This is called the ebb and flow of the tide. · ··_··-.·-:m
.~.- :.What is the mo1cmcnt of a river?
- - . '.':'-'-~
Children.- It flows.
- ;...~;...:=;
· Teacher.-What eventually becomes of its wate~s?
Ghildren.-They are lost in some ocean or sea.
Teachcr.-"\Vhat is that which with us is always flowing
'T

on?
Chi!rlrl' n.-Onr life .

Teaeher.-To what does it conduct us?
Ohildren.-Tb eternity.
Teacher.-Of "·bat, then, is a nver a fit emblem or ·
reprc8cntntion ?
Ghilclrcn.-Of life.
,...
.,- .....

.-.-.

.f

. ._

.;.

126

FOURTH STE P.-LESSON IX.

Teacher.-Find some passages in the Bible where
river is used as an emblem of life.

~

Teaclier.-Y ou find the particles of water run about ;
will the particles of wood do the same ?
! • OMldren.-N o.
Teachcr--Wby will not the particles of wood flow
about?
/I Ohilclren.-Because they stick close together.
11
Teacher.-This is called cohering. When one substance
1•.
is joined to another it is said to adhere (or stick to) ; when
the particles of the same substance stick together, they are
said to coliere.
The particles of a liquid cohere very slightly, and are
t~erefore easily separated. The particles of a solid cohere
closely.

LESSON IX.
OIL.

Qualities of Oil.

It is fluid.
yellowish.
semi-transparent.
soft.
liquid.
penetrating.
emollieQ.t.
greasy.

It is light.
thick.
inflammable.
oleaginous.
r
Some oils are vegetable.
Some are animal.
When llad, it is rancid.
odorous.

The vegetable oil is expressed from olives, and is imported chiefly from Italy and the south of France.' . It is
also obtained from nuts and some other fruits, and from
seeds.

LESSON X. ·.
I .., .·
,,
BEER.

.

•

~ ...

1

- ..

··,.

'? t

"1.J,

·'
..-f'~§:~ ~~~ .. t>·1·

; Qualities
Beer.
·, .. ... , -.r;: ...i·'')}., ~~- ~;.
.
Io.r
~
it is' artificial.~~J-·rr•_.u,.,_.~•.J•'I
~ ;> -'I·::-~.:.:
It is liquid.
~ j
-.•i\,~- ~
. · odorQus:
fluid. ·
, .. r::·~·· ...
\r< : h
__ •. ,-,i-,,P.,;~~
1-~f . •~-r
orange color. '' · · ' -· .; ' ' semi-trimspate~ ~
wholesome. • ,.. \ .. ~· \
slightly into~ca(.. __
fermented.
· .· .
strengthening 'L..:-~~~ Y.
1

•

•

•

••. •

t

~ --~

• • ••

~ ~·11~~.::~~:.-~f ~~~~~
·'

Beer is composed of malt, hops, and water,"bo1led ~
gether. Hops are the blos;oms of ' a: creeping.:piant, culti
, vated in many portions of this comitry ·; ;the· p~ace .wh~i
the:y: grow is called a hop yard. .. The tub"<'.l~~~_hi?h[.the

m~lt is .~!:s.t s~~eped is ca~e~ a masli'Z1~g (ubj; t~~~ }V-~~cq
holds the . bee~":,wl!en . made, a. vat j - whe~ ~f.!-11,~~gJ~r~~,g~·
sumption, or sale, it is put into barrels. · :' · ~,- 1 ::,,~~\(~'r:'.::,1
1, Malt . is m~de <;>( barl.ey, ~y the follqwjng :-process:f·
quantity of barley is soak~d in water for tw~ or thr~~ qay~,;
the water.. being· afterward . dq1ined . off, tJ:i~ ;grain .. :h.e, ~
spontaneoul!ly, swells, pursts, becomes sweet, .an<J. f~r?J.~ Qt,
V egetables: during decomposition, undergo several d cgtces:~-­
of fermentation; the first (th at above described) is ~l.!ll.!!.Cf~§~

.t\

128

FOURTH STEP.-LESSON XI.

the . saccharine fermentation, from the sweetness it produces ; sacchar-itm being the Latin for sugar. In consequence of this decomposition, which is similar to that which
takes place in seed in the ground, the barley begins to
spi·out, but this vegetation is stopped by putting it into a
kiln, where it is well dried by gentle heat.
,,
,: ,'
LESSON XI.
.!! .

'··

It is acid.
orange-brown color.
'liquid . .
fluid.
yielding to the touch. · \ . ··
penetrating. .
· · 1,' '

,a

., ;./'

~.~i-"··

. FOREIGN WHITE WINE.

Qualiti~s

It is yellowish.
bt ight.
fluid.
liquid.
fermented.
spirituous.
intoxicating.
heating.

of W!iite Wine. •
It is artificial.
semi-transparent.
sapid. ·
medicinal.
stimulating.
clear.
strengthening.
yielding to the toucli. ·

! .

p i-·. opaque.

vegetable~

Wine is made from the g?ape, the fruit of the vine,
· ~hieh is cultivated in vineyards. The season of its gathrering is called the vintage. The grapes, when gathered,
are placed in a wine pi-ess, by which the juice is expressed; this juice undergoes a fermentation, and becomes
wine. . This is the second fermentation which vegetable
matter undergoes r it is called the vinous fermentation,
from its producing .wine ; vinum being the Latin word
for wine,

artificial.
li uid. .

"" ·~ ....,, q_ . . .
:

<, ,,, ~n~ .is made .:~f galls, sulphate of iron.; ~m~~f~-~I1:~'-'%.

Galls ·are · found ;upon th~ oak /; they: ar~ · ~c~w.iion~~).q!r
little. insect,• which
pierc!'.ls
the• .bark
of)he'
t..r;~.e,~~d;l~f
.i ~
' ·
t ....
•!
··"'-'
..:. '"" #~.
eggs in the .hol~ which it 4.l¥1·formed •.' :. ';['he -~<?ni.:~ess~lfi1y1
. the tree disphaf ge a portion .of ~heir co11t~~t~ ~;<t~if h~;p~n
ing, forms at first a defence for; .the eggs, _'.1nd,, su9s~q~~!1N:
1
food for th!'l~;caterpillars they! pr~duc~ ; .· th~se la~ter>1£.e ~
their way out of their confinement~ before they4'cha~g~·ln .·
.
.
.
• \
.l
. -. '
,,~ -r1 >f :"
the . P!lrf.ept in~ect\ . }~o~. <Tuisolve_~ ~r~s~p~~~i,<?·~, • •

i;

iJ,~ ,~j;i'. ~,::,~; ~;~fs:,\, ,'
' . I ........" '·_.'1!.f-

, ' , .· ·."-- {,,.,.

.}30

l•' OUlffII STEP.-LESSON XIV.

called sulphate' of iron j when this is applied to the acid
of the galls it becomes black, upon which quality the utility
of ink depends; A little gum is added, to cause .the ink to
adhere to the paper.
,.
'

LESSON XIV.
MILK.

ti

!'

Qualities of Milk.
It is white. ·
It is natural.
' fluid.
opaque.
liquid.
yielding to the touch.
' wholesome.
emollient.
sweet.
nutritious.
An animal substance.
vVhen fresh, it is warm.
Uses.-For animals to feed their young; for making
•
cheese and butter ; to drink.
· The milk of cows is that most generally used by man.
Invalids drink the milk of asses. In Tartary the milk of
mares is used; in Switzerland that of goats; in the northern '
countries that of reindeer; in ,Arabia that of camels. '

The teacher will find it a very improving and inter·
' esting exercise, to take two substances and compare ·them
't ogether-as water and milk-requiring the class to find
out in what respects they are both alike. They are ' both
fluid, liquid, cool, incompressible, penetrating, natural, &c.
The qualities by which they are distinguished from each
other should then be mentioned. The water is transparent, the milk is opaque; the water is colorle~s; the milk
_!:s ~bite; th1 water .is tasteless, the milk is sweet, &c.
Liquids possess qualities by which they are very clearly

('

•:

L

132

GENERAL OBBEBV.A.Tto:ilT:

FOUUTH BTEP.-0.N" METALS• .

. ,.\i,.

'..,;

'

. ,.

. < " . 'A~ ..

·~

..

;

..

}

\.,

; . 1,leflectors.,of Light.:..The l~st~e~gf ~ital8 :dept
. .
their power of reflecting . throwing b~ck' t~e{iig~t~~hi~
falls up~m them. · The ·light .from the · ~un, · o~::·any<· o.th~ ·
source, may; when it falls upon a. substance, pas~ thr_o11gij it~,
as is the case with glass-the body is then · terµied transpa~ ·
rent; or it may be absorbed by it, as is the case 1~ith~a. '..>·'~~,
dull black board, or with velvet-the substance is th~n said :_ to be opaque; or it may be .thrown back again, or reflectedrf ~:­
This power of refiectio~ is possessed by metals : to a· much.<~'
greater degree than by any other bodies; · therefore; :w.hen:':
it is wished to throw as much as possible of· the Jlght : of\~
flame in one particular direction, \a reflector.of metal·is e.I)l"
ployed, as in. carriage .lamps, lighthouses,·&c,;rf.".,f:',J.'i,j"'
'J".f'J:.f
. I
, , .,
.,: . •
Reflectors of Heat.-The '. he~t -which:tacc.ompanies.:,th0
.
• 1 . • . ·-·-·- - - - light of the ·sun,
qr.·that thrown\out.by·.
~fu'.~~o(aiC
•
...
, ·--.:::: r'>...,j
•11i
body, is reflected by polished metals in';p-reci~ely~h
e_:-·~ . _mEi
manner as light; therefore bright metallic surfaces are .u sed.:. -- ~
in reflecting-ovens, meat screens, &c. · ..When· metals -.aror.;;:: .=-==:s!!i
employed as reflectors of heat: or light, it is req~isit;tth~t,~.'~.
they should be brightly.polished; a~ it is only· when in that·~'
~oate' that they reflect well.- .,.. ,' i ' . ;' ..
..._ ~ .. ;: :..;...:/

or

ON METALS.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE METALS.
'I Occurrence.-The metals form a class of bodies belonging to the mineral kingdom. They are seldom found in a
pure or uncombined state, but are almost .always united to
various other substances. The compounds so formed have
not the distinguishing characters of metals, and th ey are
termed ores,-as lead ore, iron ore, &c. Some of the
metals are found in a pure state, when they are termed
native, as native gold, native mercury, &c., &c. In their
pure state metals are supposed to be simple substances, or
elements,-that is, not to be compounds, or mixtures of
other bodies. Iron, for example, is regarded as an ele·
ment, because it cannot be made by the union of other
substances, nor can ·any substance different from its~lf be

. '
...

i

>'

·'.
I

.

['.

0

•

\\'..:;i

obtained from it.
.JJ.istinguisliing Oharacters.-The metals ·are distinguished from all other bodies by p6ssessing the following
' characters :-They have (when the surface is clean and untarnished) a peculiar brightness, t ermed the metallic lustre;
they are good conductors of heat, so that, if heat is applied
to one part ~f a piece of metal, it is rapidly conveyed to
every portion ; and they are also conductors of electricity,
hence the employment of copper rods to convey the lightning (wh!-ch might otherwise destroy a building) safely into
the ground. Many compound mineral bodies that are not
metals also possess metallic lustre, but are not conductors

I

. ,

'~·

.

\

•

•

- Conductors o.f! I:le~t ...!...Tlie mr tals are better c~_nductor~f··:
of heat than any I/othei' solid,· bodies;
a circumstance
whicli{''!
I
. ..
.. < '. '
occasions several of .t he peculiarieffects produced by them._ ·;,
If the hand is placed upon a piec~
of metal somewhat •cool~~-r:f::.
.
I·
than itself, the nat~ral warmth:f is rapidly abstracte~:L and ·.
conveyed to all parts of the metal; · hence: metals' are 'fr
quentJy spoken of as cold S';Ibstances ;' if, on ,the contrari,
the hand -is.- placed. oU: a pie~e of metal::warmer, tha~\ t.!;i~(,'.
bo.dYr_ ~~)??p.arts -~ts he~t ,with ' 'equal..fa~tyi ;the ·:pci 'o '~ ;.,
\,~ ~· ./-~.·"'~·~=~·~:.>
. ',~· ~
··7'r .· " .1·~-·~~~1};: ;J·.,;;..r(?~ \. .

of heat or electricity.
1

I

'

'"{

~.~

.!. ~
11·

;

... I

. f~

/\

.~1 / -' I "·;, ·:A·,

... '

;.

---

~~- .,/.--~ \ ·:,~.;~

':~ 4:~· "~'( /!>it'~

.~<1·.

:·, _: ..

':'

, ~··;'Ii ;" ....J: ..

·.

1

l'l..

134

'. ·.·,

...

cooled having its temperature rapidly restored by the heat
from the surrounding parts; it follows that metals slightly
warmer than the hand feel hot, and will inflict more severe
,burns than non-conducting substances at a much higher
temperature.
Conductors of Electricity.-The power of conducting
:: electricity exists in metals to an infinitely greater degree
1. than in any other substances.
It is one of their properties
most important to man. The natural electricity of the
, thunder clouds is safely conveyed into the ground by a
. lightning conductor of copper, an~ the electricity artifici~lly
produced is conveyed instantaneously thousands of miles
by the wires of the electric telegraph, which, by causing
the points of two magnetic needles to be directed as required to either side, produces signs which stand for letters,
. and thus conveys messages immense distances in an infinitely short space of time.
Opacity.-The metals are more opaque than .other
bodies. Even when beaten into thin le:wes, they do not
allow light to pass through. Silver leaf, for example, only
Tii1f1000 part of an inch in thickness, is perfectly opaque.
' · The gold leaf of commerce, which is about 1501000 of an
inch in thickness, is transparent. On looking through it
against the light, all objects are readily seen, having the
same appearance as iflooked at through green glass.
Specific Gravity or Weiglit.-The weight of the metals
varies greatly; some of them are the heaviest bodies
known, while others are so light that they will float on
water. These latter, however, are not eommon, being only
known to experimental chemists. In the following list,

',h•.i:.·' .

O.:ENE:1fa.~'1.6B$1tiiVATt6N '"'
;:.t1 ~L ;i.yt·
1
· the.;·:pecifio':g1:i1titf' of' th~ ~more ~mpo{ld .
'. ' ·: " . ' .. :7 ..'.f<.f.
given:

FOURTH STEP,-ON MET.A.LS.

i . f.·

.

Platinum,
Gold,
Mercury,

, I

.• I

·

• i. '

.

•.

·, ;

' Lead, '
Silver,
Copper,

Iron (wrought),
Tin,
Zinc,
.Aluminum,

,

1

· ·· ·Haraness -The metals · vary very much'· in "b'a rdn ·
1
Some of the mo re · m:iconimonl ar~ · suffidently- soft · to··:"bl
moulded easily ~y .t he fing~rs: . Lead can be .scratched .b~ ,
the nail; tin, zinc, gold, and. silver may be cut with a' knif~'; .­
copper ' is harder,' and iro~ gr~atly ' ~u~passes "all comni;}tl ;~
1· · ·.- - · · · ::
meta.ls in this respect.'
'r' : )• / «~· ":\1,~~

!

f

..., •

"·'

i ' ')
~

'

10

Brittleness ..:..:...Some fe'w of the metals, as antimony' and
bismuth . are BO brittle tha~ they may be ·powdered; and
cast iro~ and cast zinc are r~adily broken~ i.i i ';:,a~ ~~ 1· ~r t~,
- Mall~ability;":-Others, on being ham.me~~<!_~· e~~,e.~d
.,

'

~'

•

f

-·...... ;., : . •

FOURTU STEP.-ON ME'l'.ALS.

GE~ERAL

into thin leaves. Gold possesses this property in the highest degree. It may be beaten into leaves so thin that,
altho~gh quite free from visible holes, sixty square inches
will not weigh one grain; and 300,000 of the leaves, · if
piled Oil each other, would not exceed an inch in thickness.

In addition to gold- silver, platinum, copper, zinc, and lead
furnish examples of malleable metals.
!! JJ~ctility.-The malleable metals are also ductile-that
is, they can be drawn out into w.i res. Gold is one of the
most ductile of the metals,-a single grain may be drawn
out · into a wire 550 fe et long. Silver, platinum, iron, copper, zinc, tin, and le:v1 are also ductile. The met hod
adopted for dr:iwing metals into wires is to form the metal
into a bar or cylinder: this is Jrawn by great force t1uough
a hole in a steel phte, somewhat small er than itself, and is
consequently lessened in size anc1 in creased in length by
the operation. It is then drawn through a still smaller
hole ; again through one still less, and so on, until the wire
is of the degree of fineness required. ·
Tenacity.- The strength of wires does not, as might be
imagined, correspond with the ductility of the metals of
which they are formed. Iron, when made into steel, is by
far the most tenacious metal; its wire is stronger than one
of equal size formed from any other metal, although, in
point of ductility, it is surpassed by gold, silver, and platinum. The tenacity of some of the metals greatly surpasses
that of all other substances. The following list shows the
number of tons which a rod one inch square is capable of ·
holding up before breaking:

OllSERV A.TIO.Nil.
·.

.. -~ . ,

.

•.

136

:."~

-·)

.-:;

.

> -:~ ···13'>;,
.' - . -',•-

... ' ..-·.1(~ i of n ton. ".. '

' Lend, about

I

.-J.

2 tons. · ·..; ,: ,. I
9 "
15 "

Tin,
Cast iron, nearly,
Copper,

Bar iron,
Steel,

25

"

159 ··u

I 1

.J.

'ff

J ,.
j I

-~

l•

.

,,

· Fusibility.-All the metals are eapable of being melted
or fused by heat, although they vary very much in their
degrees of fusibility. The heat that always exists in temperate climates is sufficient to melt one metal-mercury;
but in the colder regions of the earth, where the temperature is low, it assumes the solid form. Of the other common metals, tin, lead, and zinc melt below a red heat; copper, silver, and golcl r equire a strong red .. or white heat;
cast iron melts at a bright white heat; pure wrought iron
is one of the least fusible, and requires t he greatest degree
of h eat that can be· obtainetl from a smith's forge to
.. .,I

melt it.

Volatility.-Several of the metals :;ire volatile, rising .in
vapor when h eated. Mercury slowly evaporates .at all ~ein·
peratures above the natural heat of the human body, and
boils away rapidly below redness; .zinc als.o 12 volatile at a
: .
high red heat; the other common m~tals are fixed in the fire_
Ooinpounds of tlie Metals .....,,.The metals -'Jan be unite~ ':. ~
not only with eacl~ other, but with several of the nonmetallic ·elements, as sulphur, carbon, &c_. When the ,
metals are melted too-ether, the compounds are caHed · .'· ,
ALLOYS.
These posses: the cba~acters of IJjletals,· and a1·e ;.·~;;;\ ;)
of great use in the arts. The mo~t important alloys ·ar~~.')}-':
briµis, :(ormed of cppper and . ~inc; ·pewJ;er, ,of•tip,- ~op,per, ., ·~·
&e..~ Gennaq siiver, of nickel, copper, and zi~o_; ;sol~er,z.,.:i::':
.!··--::. . . .

'_1

..

:, .. 1·)!;.{ "i;~·~}l....

·ii'. ,c;~-+i4,,?''

~~ -"

,

(

138

FOURTH , STEP.-UETALS.
.

' ' 1...,
·~.

::, ,, 1·i ;. · GOLD,
.•••

'

;~"I

...

- ..

.'•

4.)(

•

..

't .

,·

•

\

·y
Ii...
••

••

•

of tin, lead, &c. When mercury is present, the name
amalgam is given to the compound; the most important
amalgam is one of tin, used for silvering looking g lasses.
It is one of tho most remarkable properties of alloys that
they generally melt more readily than either of the metals
· of which they are formed. The use of solder by plumb., ers and workers in tin, zinc, &c., mainly d epends upon its
. being more easily melted than tho metals which it is empfoyod to unite.

sent the specimens
•'iit
. to the ·class in tlieir severai
.
artificial states. The teacher should be ; particttl~H
ful to direct the attcntioi1 of the children to those quaiities
in the metal under consideration, upon which its uses depend, leading them to trace the adaptation of qualities to
certain uses.

The compounds of the metals with the non-metallic
substances arc very important. When the metals unite
with the oxygen of the air, compo unds are formed termed
rusts or oxides. Some metals have little disposition to
unite with oxygen-that is, to rust; hence they r emain
untarnish ed: as gold, silver, and mercury. Others, as
zinc and lead, form a thin layer of rust on the surface,
which protects the metal beneath from further change.
Others, as iron, rust or oxidize only in damp air.
Many of the metals unite with sulphur formiiw as
before observed, compounds called sulphurets,' or sulphates.
Tho comlllon ores of lc:ttl antl copper are sulphurets of
those metals. Silver, although it tlves 1wt rw;t in pure air,
unites quickly with any sulphur that may be present, either
from the escape of coal gas or from any decaying animal
substances, and beconws tarni , J1e(1 lJy tlic formation of a
thin layer of black sulphuret of silver.

Qualities of Gola.

""

Gene:ral C01i1!crsation on the 111etals.
REM.ARK.

· In giving the following lessons, it 1s desirable to pre-

~·

·.~

LESSON XV •
1

GOLD.

.It is a perfect metal.
malleable.* I.
ductile. 2.
tenacious. 3.
heavy. 4.
indestructible.

'

It is pliable.
compact.
yellow.
solid.
opaque.
brilliant. .

' .

• A solid piece of gold and .some leaf gold should be presented to th~'-,

class, and the extreme lightness nnd thinness of the leaf may be fe_~t.
Teac!1er.-;How was the gold made so thin?
Children.-It was beaten out.

'(

, .,
· '

T cachc1·.-With what, do you think?
Children.-With a hammer.
.7eacha.-All things that can be thus extended Ly beating nre called
malleable.. , Could glass be thus beaten out? Could chalk? Camphor?

What qualities prevent them from being malleable?

C!iildrcn.-Gb.ss is br ittle.

Chalk is cruml>ling.

.7eacher.-\Vhat qualities iu gold do )'ou tLink render it mallcaLlc?

Children. - Its being tenacious.
Teachc1·.-What other quality in gold depends upon its being
cious?
Child1·en.-It is ductile.
Teaclter:-:-Ductilo means capaLfo of being drawn out •

.

"

·.

-

140

FOURTH STEP.-METALS.

It is fusible.
incombustible, except
by electricity.
soft, . compared with
other metals.

It is reflective.
sonorous.
Not affected by any acid
but aqua regia.*

It is considered a perfect metal, because it does not
lose :my of its weight when fused, nor suffer any change.
Most metals become oxydated. t
When the children understand fully the different qualities, the teacher may mention to them the facts that prove
the extraordinary degree in which the peculiar qualities
exist in the met.al.
1. Malleable. A grain of gold, the size of a pin's head,
may be beaten out to cover a space of fifty square inches.
2. Du ctile. A grain of gold can be drawn out to cover
a wire of 352 feet in length ; a guinea can be drawn out
to reach nine miles aud a lrnlC
3. Tenacious. A wire one-tenth of an inch in diameter
will support 500 ponnds 1vitho11t breaking.
4. Heavy. It is nineteen times heavier than water of
the same bulk.

t
I

I.

I
l

'

Uses of Gold.

I

When alloyed

t with copper, gold is used as coin, and

I

I

I

I,

I

"' Aqua .regin (royal water) is n mixture of muriatic acid and nitric
ncid.

t Substances nre oxydat.ed when they nre co~bined with a certain
portion of oxygen.
t The ,combinations of metals with each other are called, in chemistry, alloys; but this term Is commonly employed to designate those substances that lessen .the value of any with which they are united.

·---;·-; : :

:rc~-a

. GOLD.

...

14\

':" <

\

"\ '
for
the
.
latter~
it
is
fitted
by
its
· -1
for .ornamental purposes ;
brilliancy and beauty, and also because it is not liable to
.__

\

tarnish .
The gold used in coinage, called standard gold, consists'
of a e-0mbination of about twenty-two parts of gold, and
two of copper.
Gold thread is made by covering siU( or silver with
gold beaten very thin.
Gildii1g is the art of covering the surface of a substance with gold ; this is effected by applying it in a state
of leaf, or liquid gold, to a surface covered by a cement.
Quicksilver unites with gold, communicating to it a
portion of its own fluidity ; it has from this circumstance
been used in gilding buttons-an ~±feet which ~s producecl
very rapidly by the following process: The metals arc ·
mixed together, and the . buttons immersed in. the . com-: ·
pound. They are then exposed to a great lieat; by which
the quicksilver is evaporated, and the gold is left upon the

r

,)

'·~·· -~

buttons.
The purple color used in painting porcelain -is obt~ined
from gold.
··
,
. '- . ,~ - .
Gold is beaten in~o leaves upon .a smooth block of ?Jar:_• ..
ble fitted
into a woolien
frame,
·about two feet square ; on ' ·/\~
., • .. '
I
.
three sicles there is 'a high ledge, and the front has a flap
···
of leather attached to it, which the workman uses as an
apron to preserve the fragments t;nat fa~l off. . There _are "~ ~-~ ;-:
three kinds of animal membrane used m the oper~.t.1?n· . -., ~~
For interlaying with the gold at .:first,
the smooth.~s~~.~n~:..
'';
.
.
.
( ..
closest v~llum is procured; and, when . the . gold, b~co~e.~ , -;;
1
thin, this is . exchanged for· much finer sk!n, mag~ ·<;>f. th,e__•
.
.
~,
; :i} ,'·<"' . • r
I

\

-

•

•

;.

142

l!'OURTH

..

:.

'<''

SILVER. ·-- -

STEl'.-~CETALS.

..

:I

.

'.

~

. :<\: ". ~; ,\;: '} :,'

in the vessel.

.·

Geographical and Geological Situation of Gold.
Gold is found principally in hot climates, eit~r natJve
or as an ore. A metal is called native when it occurs in
nature pure, and an ore when mixed with other substances.
Gold is found in mines, in Brazil, Peru, :Mexico, and California. Part of the western coast of Africa is called the Gold
•Coast, from the gold dust brought down by the natives to
trade with. A great rin;mtity of gold is obtainc(l in the
form of iinc c;a.ud, from Amc~·icau an•J l'.Jricau rivers; aml
in small quantities from the Danube, tli,.e Rhine; and the
Rhone. It is supposed to be carried down by the mountain torrents. The wandering tribes of gypsies employ
themselves in washing it ·from the beJs of Europcau rivers.
The Himalaya monntains in Asia are rich in gold. It sometimes occurs in t he Ycins whic.:h nm throu.rz:h mountains,
and sometimes in roundeu masses in soils that arc evidently the ruins of rocks. The mines which formerly
yielded the largest quantities of gold were those of Peru
and Lima; the principal in Europe are those of Iluugary
and Saltzburg. There have been discovered large qnantities
of gold in California and in Australia, which has caused a
comparative abundance of this metal. The mode of ex-

!"14( ' ·.;,,.

tracting gold from the ore is by reducing the whole to ~ - ,· ··
fine powder, ancl mixing it with quicksilver. The latter ·
',.' .
unites with every particle of gold, but, being incapable of
forming a combination with any but metallic substances, it
separates the gold from the earth with which it is intermixed. The quicksilver, wh~ch has absorbed th e gold, is
then evaporated by means of heat, leaving the pure metal

entrails of oxen }>repared for this purpose, and hence caJled
goldbeaters' skin: the whole is covered with parchment,
.t o prevent the hammer from injuring it. After the gold
has been reduced to a sufficient degree of thinness, it is
put between paper which has Leen well smoothed aml
rubbed with red bole, in order to prevent it adhel'ing to
the gold.
'

.

;

LESSON XVI.
SILVER.

Qualities of Siltier.
It is malleable. 1.
. ductile. 2.
t.enacious. 3 .
hca\'y.

4.

inucsLrucLiLlc.
fusible . .
soft.
fie.xibl,e.
n perfect metal.
'
opaqu.c.

;.

It isI white.
\ solid .
' compact.
natnral.
brilliant.
refiecti vc.
sweetly sonorous.
not affected by com. Ilion acids.

J. 11Ia11eablo. Silver can 110 retluced to a tlegree of .
thinness nearly equal ' to that of 'which gold is capable. · ·!. 'ir
2. Ductile. · IL can also be drawn out into the finest
wi_re.
·
' 1·
'·
3. Tenacious.
wire
one
tenth
of
an
rnch
in thick•
:, : :~\ '' '
.
.
ness will support 377 pounds '".ithout breaking. ' ' " .. ,,;.:,~_:'.·;:
4, Heavy. It is about .~,~le~e~' times heavier ' thari ~. ·:.
water. ··:·,<.,: .'. . :"~'·,,;;, .

A

~

·j

144

Uses of Silver.

is

Silver is used for coin, and
then. combined with copper, to render it harder and better adapted to receive a
fine and sharp impression on being cast. It does· not lose
its white color by its mixture with COJJpcr. The same
alloy is employed for ornamental purposes.
' Silver is much used as a casing to copper utensils, to
render them more pleasing to the sight, and also to prevent the formation of the poison extracted by acids from
copper. The most permanent plating is effected by taking two thin plates of silver and co1iper, the former in th~
proportion of one to twelve of the latter; a little powdered borax is placed between t11e two. metals to promote
their fusion; and then, after being exposed to a ·white
heat, they will be found firmly united. The substance is
passed between rollers till the whole is of the proper thickness for the intended manufacture.
Silver dissolved in aquafortis (nitric acid) yields cryst als, which, b eing afterward melted in crucibles, form what
is called lunar caustic. This preparation is of considerable
value in surgical operations, being employed to burn awl!y
diseased flesh, and also for consuming warts, wens, and
other excrescences of the skin. Indelible or permanent
ink, used for marking linen, is made by dissolving nitrate
of silver (lunar caustic) in water, and adding gum. The
yellow 'color employed in painting porcelain is obtained
from silver.

Geograpliical ancl Geological Situation of Silver.
Silver is found, both native and as an ore, in mines and

----~-- -

-

, ,· QUICKSILV~~-~'~:~:.:;~~~:~~~l ~~~

FOUiinr STE.l'.-MEI'ALS.

- ---

v.eins. ; South America is - the ·cq~iitrrtriqh~st~-'.sil~· +-·-"~-C·- mines. It is 'also "round in Saiony, ~;-Boh~ipi{;~No.r~Y:
Hungary, and England; .but the mines of> Meiic·o ~·~nd".
Peru furnish annually ten times more than :ill those ~f ·
Europe together. So poisonous are the exhalations fro~
the mines of Peru, that many thousands of Indians have
P&rished in them, and the cattle that , graze on the . ou~sig~ ;·
are affected by theit- malignant vapors. . This metal is also
found in several localities in our own country, the mo.s t
important of which are the vVashoe region (on the . bor·d ers of California and Nevada ~ferritory), Lake Superior,
Arizona, North Carolina, and froru the gold ·of California
and Colorado.
•

'

.I

~

The ores of silver arc very numerous, and various
methods are employed in diffe;ent countries to separate
this metal from its ore. In Mexico and Peru ' the mineral
is pounded, roasted, washed, and then mixed .with mercury .
in vessels filled with water, a mill being employed . for..:the ,~.,
purpose of more perfectly agitating the liqu_id. · This :,-.
causes the silver to unite with the mercury, and then,
being submitted to heat, the latter is evaporated . . The
pure metal is afte~ward melted and cast into ingots cir bars '
of 80 or~ 90 lbs. each.
'
~: 1·J.·
'

'

I

·- • 1

'

. -·I

LESSON XVII.
I

QtITcKSILVER, OR MERCURY:

.. '
.. .

~;;.::-S~!F.!) ,

.
,..

FOURTH STEP.-1>1EI'ALS.

146

It is dibtable by heat.
It is volatile when heated.
medicinal
white.
natural.
brilliant. 5.
mineral.
opaque.
least tenacious of all bodies.

l
II
"

'1

1. Weight.

Nearly fourteen times heavier than water.

1

. It is the heaviest known fluid.
•
2. Fluid. It al ways retains its ·fluidity in our temperature; but near the poles it congeals, and then is malleable, ductile, nm1 tenacious.
3. Colcl. It is the coldest of all fluids, and the hottest
when boiling.
· 4. It is capable of division, by the slightest effort, into

an indefinite number of particles, which are of a spherical
sl1apc.
G.

Tlw pernli:ir lirillia11cy of metals has gin:n rise to

the term metallic lustre.

· Uses of Quicksilver.
Qnick3ihcr pcnrtratcs anc1 softens other metals , losing
it::i own flnirlity, a1HI forming a kind of p:isLc called 1.m wlgam. This affinity or nttraction that it bas for other
metnfa makes it exceedingly useful in separating them
from substances with whi~h they arc found · combined;
they arc drawn from their ores ::inn unite. with the rnc1·cury, and the latter lJeing Yobtilized, the pure metal re·
mains. Quicksilver is easily affected by the atmosl)here,
and is on this account usea'"in thermometers and baroII)e·
ters. The Thermometer is an instrument constructed in

the following manner: A t~b!=l

9f glass, terminating in q.

QUICKSILVER. <

-~

::-{f!t~.;'.:_)~l

.
, ·.,
,
\
. : . ..~- .:i)~;;~!!~f;\~.s1'
hollow ball which contains mercury, is plunged :into boiling~~"''.'=-.- ,
water, which c:mses the mercury to expand arid rise to a
certain height. At this point, which is called boiling heat,
tbe tube is _broken off and hermetically sealed.;"' the_freezing point is then ascertained and marked, and the intervening space graduated. The thermometer, by marking the
expansion and contraction of the quicksilver, indicates
the ·increase and decrease of heat and cold in the atmos·
1Jhere.
To form the barometer, a glass tube, open at one end,
and filled. with quicksilver, is plunged with its open end
downward into a bowl containing some of the same fiu~d.
Part of the mercury iu the tube flows into the vessel, leaving a space to which the air cannot gain access. A vacuum .
being thus formed, the atmosphere '. acts upon the mercury
in the bowl; when heav y, causing it to rise in th e tube,
and when light (Lhe pre~sure being decreased), allowing it
to descend. The barometer, by . thus showing the weight
of the nir, indicates the probability of wet or dry weather.
For when the atrnosphcro is light, it no longer supports
the Yapor and clouds which float in it, and they cohse'
'
queritly descend toward tho earth ; bnt when the air· is

..

niore dense, they are borne up, and \ve have fine weather.
I
The elevation of mountains is also ascertained by means
of the barometer ; for ns·it is known that the r:irity of the
.. In order to seal.anything hermetic.ally, the neck ot' ,a glass tube is · } . ./'
heated im on the point of melting, and ~be~ with a pair of- h~t pincers ·; -1\\;
it is closely twisted together, by whlch~mcan~ the air is ex~luded; · ;·He·~~- i·'"'
'
.
.
· . ~~
,
'
.
, .
I .
·.,
.
__,
. '
.
•' ·.- · • ,-.~~.:,. .
. metically is deriv\\d ' from Hermes, the deity· of ncient mythology who;,;.. '.
'ifas thought to p~eside over the a~ts and sci~nc'es, particul~ly ch~em1stl;; .• s
0

•

-

• •

.-

•

";;~~<

• •

''

•

.i

t-'c ·'

1•

'

148

,;-,.,,••. \

FOURTH STEP.-METALS.

·· .,~~--:_. · ~·: ','. . :. _: -·149
:~,~--/:Yr
.~.i,~~;~,~:.·:~,~\ ~
• '-. ...

LEAD~ .•,,,.,,>,! -'.'>

I

I:

I!.I;
·1

Geograpliical and Geological Situation of Quicksilver.

!t
ii

Quicksilver is found in the native state, as globules, in
the cavities of mines; but it is lll OSt freq uently comlJin ed
with sulphur, fo rming th e rniu cr:tl c::tllcll Cinnab::tr, which
is of a reel color. It is found in con>i(l c1·ablc rp1::tntiti es in
some parts of California; the mines yielding 2, 000,000
lbs. avoirdupois annually.
The quicksilver mines of I dri:i, in Amtri::t, arc saifl to
yield annually 100 tons; those of Spain still more; but the
mines of P£ru are the richest.
The mines of Idria were accidentally discovered
about
.
three hundred years since. 'l'hat part of the country was

.

•· ,....,

c. -"1·

"\ · ,. . , . \!~"i:~ ~~( ::;~~~~;.'

., .
atmosphere increases in proportion to the ascent, th!J height
is easily calculated.
Quicksilver is also used for ·c oating mirrors. The process is effected in the following manner: a i;heet of tin foil ,
the size of the plate of glass is placed evenly on a smooth
block of stone ; over this is poured some quicksilver, which
is carefully spread upon it with a feather or rubber of linen.
Tin, in amalgamating with mercury; quickly forms an .oxide
of a black appearance; this being removed, more of the
fluid is poured upon it. The glass is then held horizontally, and carefully spread over the amalgam, sweeping before
it the superfluous mercury, and any more oxide that may
have formed. Weights are then placed upon the glass,
and after having remained several days, the mixture adheres firmly and forms the mirror.
Vermilion, used in coloring sealing wax, and the medi·
cine called calomel, are preparations of this methl.

•

.then much inhabited ·by coopers; '· one of the m~n,· when re~ .
tiring from work in the evening placed a new tub under
a dropping spring to try if it would hold water, and when
he came in the morning he found it so heavy that he could
scarcely move it. On examination he perceived a shining,
ponderous fluid at the bottom, which proved to be quick:
silver. When this circumstance was made known, a com-·
pany was formed to discover and work the mines from
whence the mercury had issued. In some parts of tho
mine it fl~ws in small springs, so that in six hours as much
ns thirty-six pounds have ~en collected ; m other parts it
is found diffused in small globules. '
LESSON XVIII.

•
I~

LEAD.

·l
j

i

,-, -i •

..,."

' \:i

Qualities of Lead.

.

is heavy. 1.
It is solid.
fusililc. 2.
sometimes amorphous.
bright wh en first
sometimes crystallized.
melted or cut.
opaque.
mall eable.
mineral.
dnctilc.
liable to tarnish. 4.
very soft. 3.
· inelastic.
· ])liabl e.
natural.
livid, bluish gray.
It make11 a gray streak ,on
easily calcined, that is.
paper.
reduced by heat to a
boils and evaporates at
crumbling substance.
great heat.
·
.

. . : <":·& ~~
· · ., ·:: ~
. · '~·
.•.

.

'·

1. Heavy.. . It is eleven times heavier than :water ;
ther heavier than silver.
·

I"
(
,.
._,,

;\
f. . .

.1

l-

150

FOURTH STEP.-METALS.

2. I~. melts at a much lower temperature than the other
metals.
·
3. It

is the softest of all metals;

4. l ,eatl is not much :dterc;<l by bc_:ing exp~sctl either to
air or water, though the brightness of its surface is soon
lost. Probably a thin stratum of oxide is formed on the
surface, which defends the rest of the metal from corrosion.

lTscs of Lead.
The calx '" of lead is the b:-isis of many colors, »·hich
. are obtained from it by different degrees of heat. Red
lead and white lead, so much used in l;aints, arc the calces
of lead. They are soluble in oil, arc very poisonous, and
oc~asion the ill health to which painters arc subject. The
oxide of lead also enters in to the composition of white
glass, rendering it clearer; it is also use<l in the glazin""
of common earthenware vessels. Any acid ~.'ill 0 xtr:1ct ~
poison from lead, and therefore th e nse of it should be
avoided in culinary operations. It is employed in glazing
pottery.
. It is also used for gutters and pipes of houses, and for
cisterns :mu reservoirs of water, because it does not rust
and is very durable.
'

·' LEAD.

•

into use. The persons who work it &re called plumbers.*
.The solder they use as a cement is au alloy of lead and tin,
in the proportion of two parts of the former to one of tho
latter.
Great quantities of lead arc consumed in making shot.
The metal for this purpose is alloyed with arsenic, to ren·
der it more hard and brittle, and capable of assuming a
perfectly spherical shape. Shot arc formed by dropping
the mcltecl alloy into w:tter from a consiLlcrablc height,
through an iro 1 ~ or copper fr:1m c, perforated with rouml
holes, which arc larger or smaller according to the required
size of th e shot. Mixed with antimony, lead is used for
printing types; and with tin and copper, it forms pewter.

Geological and G;ographic~l Sit?ta~ion of Lead.
The largest and perhaps most important lead mines in
the world are fonnd in England and Wales; It is sup·
po sed, from relic~ :tnd inscriptions found . in .these mi~es,
that they were worked by the Romans when m possession
of Great Britain.
The prmcipal mines in the United States are found in
Missouri, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Iowa. It has bee~ fo~nd
in several of the Atlantic Stat,es, but the mines, provmg

The great softness of leacl, and the ease with which it is
fused, arc the properties which have brought it so much

unprofitable, have mostly been abandon~d.
- ~- . ./ :·
. Lead · is plentiful in Scotla~d, Ireland, Spam, ·franc,e, .

• Calx is the dross formed on the surface of lead when fused. This
nam_e is npplied by chemists to those substances whi ch have been rc-

and Germany.
It is very doubtful whether it is ever found native; it
occurs frequently combined with sulphur, when it is called .

~uced by burning to n frhlble slate. The operation by which this effect
is produced is called calcination. It is more general no1v to term
metallic _bodies iv hen calci~ed, o:I:ides.

,·.;.

galena.

,

........

· . :'~

152

FOU~Tll STEP.-MJJ.'1'.ALS.

When the ore is brought out of the mines it is sorted
and washed, to free it from dirt and rubbish . i·t . th
.
'
IB , ~
spre~d ~ut, and the best pieces separated. After the ore
by p1ckmg and washing, has been sufficiently cleansed fro~
~xtraneous matter, it is roasted 'k in. a kind of kiln, to free
It from the sulphur usually combinecl with it. The next
process is to inix it with a quantity of coke, and submit it
to the smelting furnace. In this there are tap holes which
when
' 111
. a'
. tho lead is melted, are open ed, to
· allo'"
" i·t t o run

~uid state ~nto an iron vessel. The dross ·which floats on
skimmed off. and the mntnl . t I- .
l
.
'
" ··' is a .en out JY
Ja~Jes, and poured mto cast-iron moulds "·ith round endll.
It IS .then called pig lead, and is fit for use.
Its surface

IS

LESSON XIX.

,,Qualities ,of Co~;?~ ~c..,
.., It is malleable. ·.: ~ .:·, :· , .... :: It is hard.>·! r1
ductile.
unpleasantly odorous, Tf'z _
solid.
" ~ .~~·
compact.
medicinal.
opa<111e.
orange-brown color.
easily corroded.
I. Heavy.

Copper is eight times heavier than water.
2. Tenacious. A wire one tenth of an inch in thickness
will support two hundred and ninety-nine pourids and a
half without breaking.
. 3. It
th·~ most deeply sonorous of all metals.

~he

~melting is that by which tbe pure metal is separated from

earthy particles co·mbincd with it in the ore. This is done by throwmg the whole into n furna ce
d · .
.
.
, an nuxrng mth it substances that will
combme mth the earthy p t8 . tl
.
ar • ie metal, bcrng the heaviest, falls to tho
bottom and runs out b th
. .
•
Y · e proper opening 10 its pure metallic state.

. ~:.~

o< ':.v;;·;, tho mo•t •h•tic mot:!, noxt.;, irnn; ~.~.· ;~ ~ · ~
.-~·?•;·.

6. A grain d!ssolved 'in am9oni~ will give -a- perccptible~~::~:..· ­
color to 'l!lore than 500,0~0 tim~s its weight in water. ·- . i.r .. • ( / !· . .
• ....... ..,. ...._

r

!

The ·Uses of
• '

<

·-·

!'

• Roasting .is the process by which the volatile parts of nn ore nre

~
_-.• __;.q

4. It is more easily fused than iron, but less so than gold

.

evnpornted.

'j

is

COPPER.

Qualities of Copper.
It is heavy. 1.
It is mineral.
tenacious. 2.
sometimes crystallized.
very sonorous. 3.
sometimes amorphous.
fusible. 4.
lwilliant.
elastic. 5.
reflective.
capable of extreme divis·
sapid.
ibility. 6.
nauseous to the taste.

. -:1

•

- -

•

•,·11··•

.

-

Copper._,, · :.:' [.:.~ :,~~h:'':lli<;l,
,\

y '

I

~r

':• •.

0 . -....

•

f•' .

~

·A·~~ - ·, ..,.._.._:.._·•--~ ·- ~

-··

;r-

-

~:::

-

-~fr

·

o.

The uses o~ ; copper .· are . numero.u~ ~and c;.iI;npoi:tan~.
When rolled into sheets between Iron ' cylinders,'it is"used' ·-·~­
to cover the roofs of houses, especially arsenals and manu> ' :' · 'l'!.·~·~
factories, where there is li~bility to fire. The bottoms of
·ships are coppered in order to make tliem sail faster, and.: .
to prevent shell fish fr~m perfo~ating th~ W'~od. :~ Copper is ..•~{;:;. ,
much u~d for cooking utensils,'but great care is necessary, " . .··;:'ff''
for should any acid or even water be allowed to stand some
. :'.1
time in the vessels, a poison is extracted; but while boiliug
l
this evil does not arise. It is customary; in order to pre·
· .;;;::~
vent any danger, to line copper vessels with tin. · Copper ·
·. ::~~
is used in the manufactor ies of gunpowder, because it"does · ···
7*
"
. ,.i;~:~ .

>-:-'f,.tJI

154

FOUltTII STEP.-MEI'ALS.
4

I:
11.

not, like iron, givo out sparks by collision. Having no
effect upon the magnetic needle, copper is found to be the
best. material for the boxes and supports of this delicate
instrument. Plates of copper are sometimes engraved
with a sharp instrument called a bm·in ,; sometimes they
are corroded with aquafortis ; * in the latter case, tho copper is covered with wax, on which the design is sketched
with a pointed instrument, the aquafortis reaches the cop~
per just in those places ·where the wax has been removed
by the sketching, and eats into it. Verdigris is a rust of
copper, usually made from that metal by corroding it with
vinegar. There is a large manufactory at Montpelier, in
France, where verdigris is prepared in the following man·
nor : · Copper plates and the refose of grapes are placed
_alternately one npon another; the latter speedily corrode
the surface of the metal. The verdigris thus formed is
scraped off as it collects on the copper ; it is afterward
dried, and packed in casks or bags. It is chiefly employed
in dying, and is a most virulent poison. The alloys of copper are numerous and valuable. Brass is the most important; it is compounded of zinc and copper, in the proportion of three parts of the former to one of the latter. This
is a very beautiful and useful substance; it does not rust so
easily as copper; it is more ductile than either that metal
or fron, and is therefore used in tl1e construction of JiP-Usical
and mathematical instruments, and in clockwork. Sieves
and blinds are woven of brass wire of extreme fineness.
Brass is used both for purposes of ornament and usei.
Copper alloyed with tin forms bronze ; it is remarkable,
• Aquafortis (strong water) is nitric acid diluted with water.

~?rpp:~J;R, ·, .: ::;~~-1~·~~~

wh~~--these't~~~ met~i~,

~lte~ ~t~~e~e _~,~

. that
are
....
_ .
pound so produced is heavier than, the ,we1glit . ~fj th~ t_ .
metals taken separately. Bronze is very useful from its
being extremely bard, durable, and · sonorous ; it is made
into cannon balls, statues, &c. The rnetal of which cannon
are made is also an alloy of copper with tin. Bell metal
consists of three parts copper and one tin. Copper is the
principal. ingredient in German silver and Chinese gongs;
and in small proportion it is used to give hardness to silver
~oin

and plate.

Geograpliical and Geolor;ical Situation of Copper.

---o:.t~
. _1.::.:;;:::::;:

Copper is found . in Sweden, Saxon!, Great Britain,~-::=.~:;~
America, and Australia. The copper region of Lake Supe- ·~·Ii~
rior contains almost the only; mines -of this metal that are · i · ' - ~-"¥
profitably worked in the United States. The worn tools : ,- -~
found in immense numbers in i;ome of these mines, prove
--"
that they have been worked a~ remote period by an un·
known people. It was one of the metals earliest known; ·
the Bible mentions workers in brass before the Flood.
""'.
It is found in great variety of forms ; sometimes in
masses of pure metal, but more frequently combined with
other substances, particularly sulphur. The copper mines
of Anglesea are very productive ; they are situated on the
- top of a mountain, and form an enormous cavity more than
500 yards long, 100 broad, and 100 deep. The ore is obtained from the mine, either by pickaxes or by blasting the
~
-,;,
rock with gunpowder. It is then broken with a hammer
_ :~
into small pieces, an operation which chiefly employs women
-~
and children. After this, it is piled on a kiln, to the upper;·
'""
~--~~~-; . . ~

1
'

:

.
~

156

FOURT}1: STEP.-M.b'TALS.

IRON.

part of which flues are attached, that communicate with
sulphur chambers. 'l'he kiln is covered, and the fires lighted in different parts, that the ore may undergo the process
of roasting. The whole mass gradually kindles, and the
sulphur which is combined with the ore, being expelled in
fumes by th e heat, is couvcyetl through the flues to thesnlphnr chamber. This process occupies from three to ten
months, according to the size of the kilns. When the
operation is complete, or the ore is freed from the sulphur,
it is submitted to the smelting houses, where, by the intense heat it undergoes, the pure metal is forced off in a
fluid state.
.

4. The most tenacious of the metals. - A wire about :
one tenth of an inch in diameter will support 500 pounds;

LESSON XX.
IRON,

It is elastic. I.
ductile. 2.
heavy. 3.
tenacious. 4.
hard. · 5.
malleable.
liable to rust.
sonorous.
mineral.

Qualities of Iron.
It is fusible.
livid gray color.
solid.
susceptible of a high
polish.
cold.
sometimes amorphous.
sometimes crystallized.

•

I. In the state of steel, it is the most elastic of all

metals. 2. Iro~ is more ductile than gold; it may be drawn
into a wire as fine as human hair.
3. It is the lightest of the common metals, except tin;
between seven and eight times heavier than water.

without breaking.
•
5. Its hardness exceeds that of most other metals, and
this is increased by its being converted into steel.

~

:;

-.

Uses of Iron. -

.H

•

Iron is the most useful of all metals, and man very early
became acqnainted with its value. Moses speaks of fu r.
,,
naces of iron, and of the ores from which it was extracted.
By means of this metal th e earth bas been cultivated, _
houses and cities built, and without it few arts could be
praCtised. Iron is very abun dant in nature, but it is always
.. : .·,
found mixed with some other substance. It is then called
1/; ,-~
iron ore. Sometimes it -is :, combined with _clay, at -othc~; _,,:'.:.; _
times with lime, or with .. fli pt. ·qfi': o.rder::to.:~~:P:fa_t~'.)~~fi!-f.'t.;i.,,,
iron from its ore, intense· he~t--is required; '.feither!~lirfo;ir ·,
lime, or silex, remain stubborn in tl1e hott.~st'' fire_s,'but when~~·
m.ixed in proper proportions, the one assists in the fusion · ~---~:-:::~
of the other ; therefore the.re is al ways thrown into the fu r-.'.-~::. -d
nace with the iron ore · some earth· that will combine with :_- I'"':. '~
that in the iron ore. · The intense heat of the furnace i~ ··.-:'-~ ,.
kept up .by means of a continual supply of air, rushing into .~. -·
it from immense bellows, worked · by machinery. . The
_
lime, clay, or flint, unite and form'' a kind "of ·siag,·which
flo:i.ts on the surface. At the ·same time the · carbon, oi't'r.:~
pure charcoal of the fuel, '. aided .by the limestone; melt~:::'~f~
the iron, which, being heavier than the other substances, : :.:;:--.-Hi
falls to the bottom of the furnace, and remains there till ·~.:.,~
the workmen let it out by a hole made at the bottom of ,~ '-~~
.

__ _,_;__:_._:. .-

158

?,· j~~·~c ~<?~\'~,·~.::!~;~~{

FOURTH STEP.-METALS.

the furnace, and plugged with sand. · When the workman
judges that there is a sufficient quantity of the iron fused,
he displaces the plug with an iron roSf, and the melted iron
runs out like a stream of liquid fire, and is conveyed into
furrows made in sa~d, where it cools;. the pieces formed in
the principal furrows are called sows, those in the smaller
furrows branching from them, pigs. In this state it takes
the name of cast fron, and from the process it has undergone, it is become extremely hard, and having lost its ~ena­
city, it resists the hammer and the file, and is very brittle;
.it is of a dark gray or blackish color. It is used for the
backs of chimneys, grates, boilers, pipes, railroads, common
cannon balls, &c.
Cast iron contains a large proportion of carbon, and is
probably saturated with it. It is converted into steel by
taking away a portion of its carbon. It is converted into
wrought iron by removing the carbon, and as far as possible other impurities, as sulphur, phosphorus, &c. The value
of wrought iron for machin ery, and tools of all descriptions,
is very great. Steel is also much employed for ornamental
purposes, on account of· the elegant polish it is capable of
taking.
Plumbago, or black lea<l, which is employed in the manufacture of pencils, is an ore of iron, containing nine parts
of carbon to ono of the metal. The bronze color nscd in
porcelain pa.i nting is an oxide of iron. Meteoric stones,
which have been the subject of so much conjecture, and
which are sometimes believed to be ejected from volcanoes
in the moon, are native iron.
Iron is very valuable from the magnetic properties it

~th·~ ;~!~~~ ..

may acquire. By these -it enables
) o
.
\
across the ocean, the traveller to direct his cotlrse
safety in the pathless desert, and t~e -miner to guide his . ~·,~l'
researches after subterraneous treasures. The loadston.e,
or natural magnet, is an oxide of iron; it communicates
its power to bars of iron or steel when placed in contact
with them. The artificial magnet is now· always used, as
it possesses and retains all the properties of the loadstone.
The qualities which render it useful, are, its attracti.on for
iron, and its polarity, or the power by which it points to
the poles when freely suspended. One end invariably turns
to the north, and the other to 'the south, except when it

apprnaoh" tho pol"; th"' th; dfrootivo powoc ""'" al- . .. ~
t~gethe~, '~hich ~irc~mstance con.stitutes on.e of. t~~ ~~eat·-~· ..· ·~~ i~.·
difficulties m n!v1gatmg the Arctic Sea. "-- :: - :-'.
.,....,. ·""';: -: , . . ..

" ..

I

. \

.

•

..

t-:~~

-..

.

.

./

1."'o, .........---,,,- •• _

Sitita~ion

·~
-

1

Geographical'
of Iron. me.tals . ... .,t ·_ ".... . . . ·.
1 _-_ Iron is the most universally diffused of the
is found in every country, in greater or less quantities. -n
is very rarely met with in a native .state, but generaUy•aa an ,':-:l"'!.·'~
oxide, or in combination with sulphuric or carbonic acid.
/_;:;;;
. \~

..

_j,.' '.

- i

i

I
·j

LESSON . xxr. :
' .

• I

• ~

TIN.

Qualities of Tin.
It is very little elastic,
It is heavy. I.
pliable.
soft. Z.
malleable. 3.

•

•;

J

---~

160

FOUUTH STEI'.-MET.ALS.

Qualities of Tin.

...

It is ductile.
fusible.
·white.
opaque.
solid.
brilliant.

It is natural.
mineral.
reflective .
sonorous, makes a
crackling noise.
dilatable by heat.

1. It is seven times heavier than water; yet the light- ·
est of the ductile metals.
2. It is softer than silver, but harder than lead.
3. Tin may be beaten into sheets the one thousandth

part of an inch in thickness.

Uses of Tin.
Tin is chiefly employed in the manufacture of culinary
utensils; they are not, however, made of solid tin, but of
what is called tin plate, which is thus prepared : Thin iron _
plntes nre first well cle:msed, by washing tl1em in water and
ennd; they nre then dipped into melted tin, nnd nfterwnrd
steept)d in wnter neidul:ttcd with sulphuric ncicl. This process causes tho tin not only to co>cr tho surface of the iron
plate, 'but to penetrate it, so that the whole mass becomes
of a wl1itish color. Pins nre made of brnss wire, tinned.
W11cn the pin is formed, a nssel is filled with strnta
or layers of tin plntes between the brass pins; tho vessel is
then filled with wnter and some tartaric acicl, by means of
which the tin is dissolved; after five or six hours' boiling,
the pins are found uniformly tinned. It is the zinc of the
brass which has an affinity for the tin, and forms the uniori
which takes place. The pins are afterward polished ; they

. -. ,

''.. TIN.

~

·'·''' ,,.· ··

,,

:
.. .

'

.

" .

i· a·~
1· ~··..
.

-

,. '· ,:,

,

. • "·•1)\

· :, ::.:"
c

.~. 1~~

.~,

are thrown into a tub containing a qtiantity of bra~·, wh!,i~~;,1;'
is set in motion by the turning of a shaa in the centre;_;-}·:~.t
the friction which the pins thus uudergp renders. them per- ·
fectly bright. · The uses of tin for domestic purposes are.
very various, particularly when laid over other metals, as
in stirrups, buckles, &c. The oxide of tin is used in dyeing.
Tin foil is used for coating Leyden jars, for enclosing

'

'

sm~ll packages of tobacco and spices, and for cover.~.ng the ...
tops of champagne bottles, &c., to exclude the air. Large
'sheets are used for silvering looking glasses . .
Tin forms alloys with several oth_e r metals. These com- ... ,' · _ ,
pounds have l:ieen mentione~ b ~fore ;. as bell metal, pewter, ~··:
bronze Tin leaves amalgamated w1~h mercury, ar~ ·. used ,_

1

•

'

.

"-

' •. 'f'.""'.~,,~~f;'-t ., ~:"' ~

for silvering and platin~ .o,.~h;~-- m..~t~~~

.

.

·

:·

;

':it}W ~' '2:_

Geog;~;h~c~l ;Juati~~·::i !i~~:::~;~Ji~ :~
M

!-...:_•.,,

0

, ... i, ~-· ~ ·. -

~;_!"7"1

England , Germany' Chili, and Mexico," "' pro~uce.<:·.t~e
.. ~ 1largest quantities of this metal. The tin mi.hes, ?f,~~r:1'j!l~. -:;~;
were well known to the anCients; and the Phromcians .are. ~::· '.
'd to have traded with the Britons for it long before the
· 'J
Sal
.
birth of our Saviour. Native tin is never found, and 1ts.
ore is of less ~ommon occurrence t~an that of ~ron. .I t
"'occurs as an oxide, or mixed with ~ulph~r -and c?pper ;'o{
chiefly in veins running thro~gh grapite and o~~er ~oc~s. ~ ·•-~:,
· r- .'~
. 1ien it is taken from the mine, it is broken mto small
.

W

pieces, and streams of water are yas:e~ ~ver i~ to ~re_e ~t
from the earthy particles with winch it is mterm1xed ' It IS
then roasted and smelted, when the metal is po.nred out
· s the
into. quadrangular moulds o f stone, an d receive
name of block tin.

'

·>.'

........

162

•

FOURTH STEP.-META.LS.

LESSON
qoMP.ARISON

!I .

Its '!eight

xxrr.
OF

MET.A.Ls.

GOLD, n perfect metal, is the most precious.
· most compact.
heaviest.
Its weight is between nineteen and twenty times that
of water.
SILVER, a perfect metal, is next in value to gold
d.
·
' an
more u fi l 't
se u ; I s weight between ten and eleven times that
of water.
QUICKSILVER is fluid.
easily volatilized.
immalleable.
Its weight is between th1"1·t"en and .e
"
iourteen times that
of water.

•

ON META.LS

#

•..

l

. .n\ . , . i" ...

LESSON XXIII.
IN GENERAL. ·

l}::~J.;•.t,.;#i~e.~.t:

•
-

1

\- . :

~-

~-

';.\:·:,,;

Metals are simple elementary bodi~s, distin guiBh~d b; ' ,.
·being heavier than all other substances; by pi>s~ess~ng' ~- .·"
peculiar lustre, which is called t~e metallic l11:stre / .. by !El-:'-° ..
fleeting light and he.a t; by their being opaque, fusiblJ, mal·. · . ·.;
leablc, tenacious, ductile, and gedcrally eiastic.': U po~ ~hi~~: ..
last quality seems to depend
their
fitness ; for
. ( ·
- :-'") . .
,.. c_exciting
_, ......
sound, or sonorousness. :-' Metal f are :.capable.:of! u_nit~_ng
If
~
with each other in a state o' fusion: · th\s i.m~on i~.:calle4. a ;;.,
1
alloy. It is remai:kabie that by these c ombiriati6ns~i:het~la · •
•
'
1- , ~-'Yt
'.'l.... ~.. -undergo a considerable change in their properties,· !itJ.d nc- ?':\ .
\~
\~r"·
quire new ones not ~elonging to ' eithe~ of ihem'when pot ,_• ...
united. Thus 'the weight of the alloy, or the two. metals " . .'.
in combination, is sbmetimes very' different frou:i.-the w~ight- -~" ' .
of ·both the metals/ talcer{ separately ; an. alloy_.of silve.r with ..~):·
copper or tin, or obe of silver or kold .with le_ad, ~)lea!.ier4;'' ,: ~.:
1
· than the . Rame ~uantities ; of ·those metals ".uncombined; ~ ·, :
Their ductility and malleability ·a~e changed and generally, · ~ '.
impaired, the alloy becoming brittle. - This is, 'very ~em~rkr -<' .. :
ably,the case 'with gold and lead when united, the, Jat~er,L ~
of which, even in the trivial 'p roportion of hal(a ·grain 'tot~,
an ounce of gold, 'r:nders the i mass .quite "de~tit~te~''ot:~~·:
'
.., '
... \ .
._ ...#:.;
·.: ."~.::(,.·\-..' ~ . :,[:
.tenacity.
_..
. · · , ., · ">:· ., . ;r~f d _ • " · , ~ t.~

.

•

I

..1

-,

-

•

•

•

-

-

,..,

CoPPER is the most sonorous.
most elastic, except iron.
Its weight i s b et ween eight
·
and nine times that of
water.
InoN is.the most elastic.
most tenacious.
most useful.
most ductile.
Its weight is between seven d . h .
an eig t times that of
water.
LEAD

i~ the softest.
most easily fused.

..

•

•

'

':

''

_of

..... : ) "

.." ' '

,·~\1.~

'.>-':'!" '

.j

. J;

"'J

164

FOURTH STEP.-METALS.

The hardness of ~ctais' is varied by combination. Gold
being united 'with a small quantity of copper and silver
.h
.
,
'
wit. a mmute proportion of the same metal, acquire such
an mcrease of hardness, that these additions are always
made to ~~Id and silver which arc exposed to wear. By a
small add1t1on of gold, iron is said to gain 80 much hardness as to be even superior to steel for the fabrication of
cutting instrnments.

'f

Change of color is a common cfiiect of tho union of
metals w~th each other. Arsenic, for example, which resembles steel, and copper, which has a red color afford b
th.
.
,
y
eir umon a compound which has nearly the whiteness of
silver.

In order to ascertain how far the children nave retained

t~e knowledge acquired in these lessons, the following qnest10ns may be given to them to answer in writing :
QUESTIONS ON THE METALS.
GOLD.

1. What are the chief qualities of gold?

2. What is its weight ?
3. Give a proof of its ductility.

4.

tenacity.
5.
malleability.
6. Upon, what other quality does its malleability de·
pend?
'l. What qualities are directly op.l?osed to malleability?
8. What is an alloy ?
9. Why is gold alloyed for the purpose of coinage?

.·

. 14. What is an ore?
15. What is meant by a native metal?
16. In what countries is gold found?
17. What people employ themselves
from the sands of the European rivers? .
SILVER.

\ '

.

.

ii

~..,

-.

,-<r

What are the chief proportions of silv~r?
·'
2. What is its weight?
,~. ti ~··.'
3. What degree of tenacity.d?eidt possess?~J".;;!i, '• l:~:> '.
4. What are the chief uses of silver? · · ; . · · ·· ~ · •· · .. ·
5. Upon _what qualities do the uses of silver depend?,· ·
6. DescribE! the operation of plating.
7. What is lunar caustic? and what are_its..uses? :. :'
s.. Give the geographical location of silver.
.
_ •
9. Why are gol~ and silver ~alled perfect meta~?,(;- _ ..<~

i.

j

I
.

.

.

,. 1'

.
QUICKSILvER·

,

....- I

•

. . , · ~. ; ·~
,

, .

t ·, .

. ·'

..

'

:,·

·:

•

·1 ;.~i:f:. ~,:-~
, - :,,,· "f'.r ••,

-.

;,

·,,.,..-~ / "

.· .. ·. ,_. ··/· .'

What are the 'uses and ~ropetties ~f qufo~~vef-$);".l:· ·~
What is its weight? · . ; j
'I
·. . - '.,,, l_i
In wh~t respect is it remarkable as a liq~id. ? ,r , L \
What effect does heat produce upon it?
·"
Under what circumstances does a ch~nge .in its.qualities take place? ai:id what is the ch;mge?
·~
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

6. What is an amalgam?
/

166

.•

;IRON;

FOURTH STEP.-METALS.

'

'l. Mention the uses of quicksilver.

.·~

·"

~,

8. What are the properties that fit it for a barometer?
9. What for a thermometer?

IO. How is a barometer made ? and what is its use ?
11. How is a thermometer made? and what is its use?
12. What col?r is obtained from quicksilver?
13. Where is quicksilver found?

. 14. What oircumstanco led to the discovery of the mines
. of ldria?

'

....... ~- ..r·,

1.

'

-~

6. What is the danger incurred by employing copper
in kitchen utensils?
7. What are the alloys of copp~r?
8~ In what respect is brass preferable to copper?
9. Where is copper found? and in what state?
10. Describe the copper mines in Anglesea, ruid the
manner of extracting the metal from the ore .
IRON.

1. What are the remarkable qualities of lead?

I.

2. What is its ;veigbt?

2. What quality does it possess iµ a higl,ier degree

on lead?
4. What are the chief uses of lead ?
5. Why is it used for reservoirs of water?
6. How are shot made ?
'l. What is the use of the oxides of lead?
8. What are its alloys ?
9. In what state is lead found ?
10. What is. lead called when found united with sulphur?
11. Where is lead most abundant?
12. Describe the process of roasting and smelting.
COPPER.

1. What are the chief qualities of capper ?
2. What is its weight and what its degree of tenacity?
3. H?W is it proved to be capable of extreme divisi·
bility?
4. What are the uses of copper ?

·.

'
~·
~ . :.. '
5. What is verdigris? and how is it made ? ' .'-:: ·, ~· . ,;,

LEAD.

3. What are the different effects which heat prod~ces

.-

.: ':· ' 16~

What are the chief qualities of iron?
I

than any other metal ?
'
3. What is its weight and tenaO,:ty ?
4. What are the different states in which iron is ·used?
'.
5. How is cast iron prepared?
6. What are its qualities and 'uses?
'l. How is wrought iron prepared?
8. What are its qualities and uses?
9. How is steel prepared ?
10. What are its qualiti13s and uses?
11. Wh:J,t ·is meant by the temper of steel?
12. What is plumbago? and what · quality ' makes it
useful?
:
1
·"'
_,;....--;>

i

.

.

13. What is the. geographical ·aituatfon

with what is it found combined?_TIN,

;

1. What are the qualities .o f tin'? · · ·,
.

.

2. What ate the

.

u~es

of tin ? ·

\

!·
t.

\ . ,.

•

168

FOURTH STEP.-NATURAL HISTORY,

3.
4.
5.
6.

How is it prepared for use?
How are pins tinned?
What is block tin?
Where is tin found?

A BEE.

.

I

LESSON XXIV.
I

.A DEE.

For Cliildren from ten to twelve years old.
DESCRIPTION OF A. DEE.

I . Examination of the B ee.-The children should be
directed to examine a bee very minutely, and the following
description, as far as it can, should be drawn from them;
and what they cannot observe, they should be told.
The bee possesseg ; horny covering, which is harder
than the internal parts, thus serving as an external skele·
ton. . The body is divided into three distinct parts-head,
thorax, and body. The jaws are four in number-two up- ·
per ones, and two under ones; the under ones are length·
ened, and form, as it were, a sheath to the tongue. The
tongue is very long and slender, and admirably adapted
for clearing the honey out of the d eep nectaries of flowers,
and· also for curling up inside the mouth. Their attention
should then be directed to the fact, that there is a membranous bag folded under the tongue. They. should be
told that this bag is capable of being greatly distended,
and is used for receiving the honey before it is swallowed
and consigned to the honey bag. The bee has four wings---,
two upper ones and two under-the latter are much more
delicate than the former. It has six legs; on the broad

, 11~· '

..-,.=,

".°"r'".\

·.,_

l61{ ',·,: ·:. -

·,
. 7' ' .<j_~;~;i.{ :~>-~~'~,~.
surfaces of the hind,lccrs are two small cavities, which have' '\ ; t;):'.~t{
0
'
\ .
~ '. ._ .......
a covering or lid of hairs. The children should be told
- '\~:'.'i::
that these arc used for containing the bee ·bread, with · -' ·,r.\}.f''
which it 1feeds the young, and which it obtains and pre·
pares at the same time it is gathering honey, and that when
the honey also is safely clcpositecl in its appropriate place,
the bee, quite loaded, flies home. The children's attention
should then be directed to the eye ; but before speaking
of it they should be shown a piece of glass, of the shape .of
a double convex lens, be told its name, and that in the front
part of our eye there is a very small capsule, or bag, filled .
, with a tra.nsparcnt fluid, which is o~ , the samo shape-that
in passing through this the rays of light meet in a point,
or focus, which causes the reflections to be clear !lnd distinct. When the childi·en thoroughly understand this,
they should be told "that the eye of the bee ' is always imri1~vably fixed, which they might consider a great defect,
but that full compensation is made in the numerous lenses
with which it is filled, each, they will sec, acting as a single
eye, consequently the bee would not r eqnire to move its .
eye. The children sho,ulcl then be tolcl that th e bee was
not always in the same ' form in which they sco it, but that
it had undergone three changes ; that on its first appearance from tho egg it was sorricthing like an earth worm,
and was called the larva; in the second change it is called
a c~rysalis, when it is quite torpid; and in the third it is
the perfect insect or bee.
From knowledge previously :icquired, the children will
be able by this examination of the bee to state that it .is a , . . . ' .
true insect, an~ also to give the three pr~ofs: l~t. It con~. t;'., ~· >. ' ·

'1-;

8:
~

i ..

.

.....~

'· ;. .

~

'4(

'

170

FOURTU STEP.-NATURAL IIISTORY.

HONEY COMB.

sists of head, .thorax, and body, while some insects (im,
properly so called), such as the spider and scorpion, consist
only of head and body, the thorax being united with tho
head. 2d. It has six legs-whereas tho. so·callecl insects
have uever less than eight- such arc ·the spider and scorpion: 3d. The spider and scorpion, and all the so-called
insects, never undergo the changes for which the bee and
all true insects are remarkable.
After havin.g thus dwelt upon the particular group to
which the bee belongs, the children shonld be desired to
name the great class in which it is included, and also to
give the reasons why so placed; viz., tlie bee belongs to
the class "Articulata,'' 1.Jccause, 1st. It possesses what may
be considered an external skeleton in its lwrny coverino- ·
"''
2d. Its body is divided into ss:eral segments, or parts,
which are joined or articulated together.
IT. Habits of tlte B ec.-Tbey arc social insects, each
inili\·innal working f. ,r !1 1 1~ ,!.;.0 1J•l of :111; tl1cy arc rc•n1 rirkablo for their g reat i11<1n ~t ry and ca ref'1d11c>>, a11<1 li>r the
instinct they possess, as seen in the construction of their
habitations-a subject trhich should be taken up in a
separate lesson.
LESSON XXV.
HONEY

cmrn.

For O!iildren from eiglzt to twelve years old.
OONSTRUOTION OF oo~ms, ETC.

I . .&amination of the ·oomb.-Sevcral pieces of honey
comb sl1onld be presented to the children, On examining

"

.

..

IV. .Description of the O?nstruction of Combs and \ :. .
Oells.-After all this is quite clear to the children, the man. ·" ·•·
ner in which the combs and oeus ·are constructed should be ·"
described to them, stopping at intervals in orqer to quei:k ·.'
·,~

'·

··~·

'
the co~bs the children will discover that they are' chiefly '.-made of wax, but not· exclusively, being smeared over with
a gummy substance. They should be told that this is called
"propolis," and is obtained from the bark and buds of some
trees, and serves to strengthen the combs.
-IL Examination of Oells. - Classes of B ees.-The cells
sho~ld then be examined as to their size; tho children
will soon see that there are three varieties in their size.
They should then be told that there arc three distinctions
amonothe bees :-1st. There is the queen bee, who is the
0
most important personage, and the mother of all; who,
with the i:oyal larvre, occupies tho ltirgest cells, termed
"royal chambers." 2d. The male bees, who are a little
smaller in size ; the next sized cells contain larvro that will
produce these. 3d. There are the workers, or the female
bees, which are the smallest kind ; eggs that will produce
these are deposited in the smallest cells.
III. [-:,cs nf Od!s.-Tl w chil1l r0n sh onlrl then be .Jecl
Ly qnc s Lionin~ to tell the thrcn u se ~ of cells. By referring to what had just been dwelt upon, they see that the
first use was, to contain eggs. By asking what was done
with all the honey that was gathered, they will give the . !I·
. use, to se1·ve as storehouses for honey. By questioning
them as to what else the bee gathers from flowers, besides
honey, and what was done with it, they will see that the
cells also serve as receptacles for bee bread.

'.

172

FOURTH STEP.-NATURAJ, HISTORY.

'·

COVERING OF. DIRDS •

\

tion them, that all may follow ; thus, The wax makes its
appearance in the form of eight scales upon the bee previous to the making of a comb. A bee ascends to the top
of the hive, and attaches itself by the hind legs to the roof;
anothe1· follows, and by its bind iegs fastens itself to tl1e
first bee; a third follows the second, and so on, till a long
string is formed, the last bee of which also fastens itself
to the roof, so that a kind of festoon is produced; this
festoon is filled up by many more bees: several such festoons are made in each hive. In this state the bees remain
quite still, until the scales appear. A bee then separates
itself from the rest, and by its hin<l legs removes one of
the scales, which is carried to the mouth by the fore legs,
where it is masticated and mixed with a frothy liquid, by
which it becomes whiter and firm er ; it is then attached to
the roof of the hive: the remaining scales are treated in
precisely the same manner; and then the bee retires,
making way for another b ee. Thus they continue to work
until the whole block is formed. Before proceeding to
the construction of the cells, the children should be well
questioned c:in the preceding; as, How does the wax appear ?-In what way do the bees arrange themselves before commencing the combs ?-How is the festoon commenced ?-What is the next movement of the bees ?What process does the wax undergo beforo being attached
to the hive, .a nd what arc the benefits? &c., &c.
The manner of constructing the cells should then be
described, as follows :-As soon as sufficient of the comb
has been made to admit of the work of excavation, a bee
commences making a cell ; and as the comb increases in

."':\

' , .,.,...

~

:•

~

r .

size, the number of cells multiplies rapidly, more bees being i;:."~ ..;---.k ,
able to join in the. work.
· ,_:~·~;;·;·.;.i
V. Lessons of Instruction.-The children should ne:ct
,·',Ji•'
bo assisted to draw lessons of instruction from what bas
·' y;,.•· '
been noticed respecting the bee.
First, They afford )!B· a striking example of industry
and c~refulness-They do not lose one hour of the sum·
mer's sunshine, but are always busy gathering honey, and .
storinrr it up for the winter's use, when they cannot leave
0
•
their hives-From this we should learn never to idle away
Ou r time in youth but embrace every opportunity of lay'
ll
.
ing by stores of instruction, for .our comfort in old age,
when we are not capable of so doing. · ·
. ·'",.·. ··
Secondly The examination of this wonderful little .in; .
sect should also enlarge our ide~s respecting: the infiQ1te ··
wisdom and goodness of God, who giveth one of his ~
smallest creatures such powers as are not only necessary
to its own well-being, but can also contribute to the com- ·
fort of man ; showing that the very smallest, as well as tho ·
largest of God's wo~ks, demands our highest admiration •..
'

)

j

•

LESSON XXVI.

i
SKETCII OF A LESSON ON THE COVERING OF BIRDS, . AND ITS

..

ADAPTATION TO THEIR WANTS.

For G!iililren under twelve years of age.
In order that tho children should deter~ine what is · '. 1
necessary in the covering of birds, refer to their habits,
( motion, and the element in which they move i and from a

174

. . ."'"";"~·~:.r . .~:.-~:..~ ::~;..:·1-, _.;-.: ~r~· -

FOURTII STEP.-LESSON XXVI.

covERING

OF

BI~DS •

.. ,,';<....
w',

consideration of these, lead them to deduce the necessity
for great warmth ; by comparison of the blood of birds
with that ·of other animals, speak of the rapid changes of
temperature to which they are exposed in passing from one
country to another-in ascending and desccmding in the
atmosphere. (Instance Vultures.) The vulture descends
from the limit of perpetual snow to tropical plains in a few
moments. Also, call attention to their long and sustainecl
fliglrt-the energy they possess in consequence of · their
quick circulation, which is the cause of the warmth of their
bodies-:lUd. ho\v their covering prevents it from escaping.
Great strenr;tli combined with lightness.
The children led to see why the feathers should be
Rtrong, by reference to the organs of flight. Why light
and also smooth, by reference to the element throuo-h
I:>
.
wIuch the bird moves.
II. .Examination .of the stntcture of a f eatlier.-Chil·
dren name and describe the parts of a feather :-the qnill
01: barrel-the shaft-vane, or beard-the qualities of the
quill mentioned:

Liglitness.-Result of form-a hollow cylinder much
stronger than if the same quantity were made· in to a solid
cylinder. Should be illustrated to th~ children by comparing the weight borne by a hollow cylinder made of a piece
of paper, with the weight borne by the same piece of paper
made iutc1 a sol id cylinder.
Strenr;tli.- ComposeJ of two sets of fibres, one actinob
longitud inally, the other circularly-effect of this-cut n.
quill as when a pen is made, and show the children that the
latter set are scraped off, the former separated by the slit.

·!"~·-· 11~.

::;;~ ..'!~ ~7'i~•;.

.

The shaft examined and described\ . Lead ' ~:Q0;.!)~~!l~~
to see how the form adapts it to the shape of the body:4-\..< ~ ~,
.
speak of the manner of flight, and show the necessity ,of · · ·~·;···
the groove and curve beneath, in striking the air; and of
.
. the great strength above, necessary to i:csist the stroke.
Vane, or beard.-Examined-ofwhat composed.-;shape
of the b~rbs, and their position with respect to the shaft-=thei~ arrangement with respect to each other-why the flat
sides are turned toward each other, and edges upward and
downward-a large unruffled quill presented, and the children shown that the barbs are firmly held together-when
11
pulled asunder, they again unite on being smoothed-h10 .
is this? Mention with what each barb is provided-:--position, office, and use of barb lets-call attention .of children
to the beauty of this complicate~ arrangement, by supposing the beard formed of a single piece, or the barbs glued
together-the consequence in either case ?-an injury once
sustained could never be repaired by the bird-how the
bird restores any feathers unfitted for flight through the
violence of a storm, by contact with prey, or other
accident.
,1
(What has beeh said here refers chiefly to the feathers 1 "
of the wing and tail.)
· Children led to see how admirably the structure and
arrangement of the body feathers are adapted to secure the
warmth required for the bird.
The feathers of the LoJy cornpareJ. with those of the
wings, and the class led tq observe how each part of the
former is modified to suit a· different purpose. · Refer , to
the swan, to show the provisi-ons m~de when great warmth
~$

17G

177

;FOUU'fll STEP.-LESSON XXVJI.

HABITS AND WANTS OF BIRDS.

is r equired. Direct attention to what are called warm sub-

thls, by reference to the nature of 't,he animals on which

Hu11cL::0-Lll!..:y arc 11ua - cu iiu ud01~, :.mJ jJit;\1,;uL tlHJ <;.;t;ape

c> f l 1c:tl-l1 u11 fc·alltcr s df,·ctu:t1ly a<:c0w1.1li.oh tl1i:; fur tlic;

uirq.
Arrangement of feath ers in wings and tail-wind can
i;car cely. ru1lle Llie m.

R efer t o th e

good n r 0 ~

anrl

wi~flnm of G nrl

tifol ndaptatioh of strnctmo to

w ant~,

in th r

1w~n­

nncl <'fill fnr a RnitR-

l,lc text.

flight.
'r he edge of the o uLer foathor of the O\rl compared
\\ ith t l1 ~t of :1 ric-:con . or any other b ird , for t.he r urpose
of fho win~ ho•;v admirabl y they are modified to secure
noiseless flight.
II. Tho Kr~r.vrnn'En. -D i rect attent ion t o its locality

SKETCII OF A LE:330::i 0Ci' TIIE ,Ul_\T'L\ TIOCi'

or

FElTIIETI.3 TO

'fnll' JT AnTTR A1\fn W A 1\!'TR ""' n rnn«.

l 1or tJiilclren uncier twelve year s of A ,qe.
I. T1 11; 011· 1. --- Tf;J.ifs ,, ,iJ r,,,,J.- \:111 11 1l'

c l1il < lr 1·11 · ~

attention to th e habits and tood ot the owl.
1. H abits.-Nocturnal, passing the day m obscurity,
Lut ou approach of eveniug cu miug JUrLi1 iu oearci1 uf prey.

::.

they prey.
E xtent of w ings comparccl \1iLh the Lo c1y. C'hilc1rcn
led to see the provision made to prevent ' tardiness o~

l• ~JOrf. - J1icc,

and n\IH •r s111:di

~111i1 1 1:il o ,

'' i1i ,,Ji :irn

naturally very timid, and likely to be disturbed by the
least noise, therefore only to be approached with great
caution.
3. Adaptation of plwnage.-Refer to th e noise usually
made by birds in flyin g-how prevented in case of the
owl? Plumage of owl examined, and tbe children led to
see that the feath ers arc soft, loose, downy, yielding to
every breath of air.
TVtngs provided with quill feath ers, deficient in strength
and elasticity. Children led to deduce the necessity for

and food.
·
;
1. Locrdity.- Inhabits the margins of lakes and rivers . .
<> . }f'n~tl-Pr,,ys on small fish. The ~anrier of obtaininn- frH1tl cle5crihcd , :twl tl1c rl1ilr1rl'n lctl to ECe the k i11 1l ufpl~m;iy_·e ncces,;:i.ry to r esist the action of water d uring its
R1Hld (' 11 l'lnricc» ~'.

3. The kingfisher's plumage examined-adaptatiou of
bright hues and metallic lustre show,n.
4. Habits of owl compared with thu~e uf kiugil,,Ler, Lv
show the necessity of a diikrcut ],irnl uC covering. Wliat
would be the consequence bad the kingfisher feathers like
i
the owl?
III. The DuCK:-Children called upon . to say · all they ·
know of the liabits and food, where seen, &c• . ~
/1 ,'
Refer to the habits and food of duck-to the chilling
and softening effects of water-and then lead the children ·
to see the necessity for such covering as will res~t these
effects. Compare the qifferent effects of rain . on .the
feathers of a duck, and on 'those of 'a hen. '- .
The reason of this difference may be illustratea by ref. . ·
8*

..•
·_!

'·~

' ..

178

.

:FOURTH STEP.-LESSON XXVIII.

erence to the various ways in which oil is used where
resistance to the influence of water is desired. Examine
the plumage of a duck : use of thick, downy under-coatt? prevent the escape of heat from the body; smooth, polished outer feathers-to keep out wet; ·•
· Habits of duck :ind kingfisher contrasted, to show the
necessity of different modification of feathers.
IV. The OsTmcu.-Refer to the country where it is
found-its food and habits-show that flight is not necessary-refer to the heat of the country inhabited by the ostrich-the kind of protection needed; and lead the children
to see how the plurpage is fitted to afford this.
LESSON XXVIII.
SKETCH OF A LESSON ON TUE BEAKS OF BIRDS.

For Children fi·om eight to ten years of age.

I. Commence. by questioning the children as to the
organ by which birds obtain their food; how it differs from
our mouth, and how it is a substitute for teeth; ancl draw
from them all they may have observed as to the habits of
birds, supplying information where necessary, and leading
them to see that some birds, as the swallow, spend their
time chiefly on the wing, darting with short and rapid
flights in every direction; and some, as the dnek, spend
the greater part of their time in swimming ; others, as tho
heron, are seen standing generally in the soft mud in the
neighborhood of pools and lakes; some, as the hen, may
be seen constantly scratching up the ground ; and others
again, as the owl, stealthily flitting about at night.

. ON THE DEA.KS ·

. : ;.
Question as to how all these a~e~'ef1ploy~d~"~4'~~"'
them to see that the difference of habits arises from . the. 1:0
· different kinds of food that they require, and the different
elements in which they seek for it.
II. Present the beaks of the _several birds above mentioned~Children examine them, and trace their adaptation

to the wants of the bird.
. \
1st. That of the Swallow.-'rhin-soft-very wide at
the base, and coming quickl( to a point. Why soft; ?-In- ,
ferred from the nature of its food, insects captured while
on the wing. The necessity for the great width of the beak
in proportion 'to the size of the b.~rd, ma;y ah10 be infe.i::red
from the difficulty of securing the~e insects in the. air,'·:·".
2d. The .Duclc's.-Broad, flat, and spoon-shaped, havin~ - .
a fringe at the edge of each mand~ble. Use of the frin~e­
Serves as a strainer. The .reason 'of this shaped beak will
be seen by reference to its food~sm~ll fish and insects. ··
To the manner of obtaining them-dipping its head under ·
water and straining the mud through the serrated edges
of its beak, and retaining what is necessa~'Y· '
sd. The Snipe's.-Long and slender, serrated like tbe
duck's. · By reference to the ·rood and habits, lead the
children to see how this long and slender beak is fitted for
entering the soft muc;l; and ho"'.' admirably the serrated
edge is suited for. retaining the . insects contained }n the
mud.
,
4th. The Hen's.-Hard, strong, straight and blunt. · By ;
considering the habits of the hen, lead the children to see
the necessity for hardness and strength, from the frequency
with which it comes in contact with clay, stones, and other

I

:-

: "

180

...
ON THE MOLE.

FOUlrl'H STEl'.-LESSON XXlX.

. 181

. ,_... ...._,_,,
,..:;;." ::v
..;..
~·.

hard substances, also . the hardness of the food ;-the bird
could not well pick up any grains without a hard instrument. R ef.er to the force '".ith whieh it pecks, ancl slww
the necessity for bluntness-If sharp, would soon be worn
away, ancl enter the ground by the force of the blow.
5th. 1'/ie Owl's.-Sharp, strong,- ancl curved. The necessity for these qualities again i11ferred from the nature
of its food,-binls and other small animals; it requires the
sharpness and strength it possesses to destroy its prey and
tear it asunder.
Before concluding the lesson, require the children to
state 110w tlie beak of each bird mentio~ed is. suited to its
food, ancl then clr:iw from th 0m tl10 c0nrl11sion, that tl ic
oc:1ks of all Lirds arc wiled t o thei r liaLiLs nntl want 8
Flirrn·in~ the g<>cHlnl·c:s "C Gc)(l in thus p roYic1ing them with'
wlrnL ia Lest for them.

SKETCnr:s OP A TTSS 0';'

(l ';'

TTTE

MOLJ:.-TO

m: GffE'i 'I\)

CIJILDRE:f OF TEN \'.BAHS O~' AGE.

'No. I.-I11/ ,·n dci!

sin1 jJ;{

fu· th.; .7~ •t·1ufs

01 r 11 1rsr.

I: Animal dcscribed.- The liod!J i11 form cylindricalCompact, and strong in tbc fore }JarL. The .snout elongated, terminating in bone rather tl1:m griRtle. The eyes
smal'., an cl S'Unk in the for. No external ears, but a simple
openmg _c0ncealecl nndc1· the coyering. The skin tough,
and covered by an extremely close, fine, short fur-having
no ~eterminecl direction, but, like the nap of velvet, presentmg a smooth surface, incapable of being rufiled. The

limbs short-The ft·ont pair thick, .strong, and muscui~~,,-_:
ending in broad hands, spade-like ii shape, obliquely inclined so as to make the inner edges the lowest part-The
extremities of these organs, five fingers, scarcely distinct,
bnt fornished with hard, flat nails-The hind limbs small,

and tbc feet comparatively feeble.
IL IIabits described.-Thc mole subsists 9hiefly on
worms, and the Jarvrc of insects found in the greatest
abundance und er the surface of the earth, where the mole
has its habitation beneath those miniature bills so frequently
found in rich meadowEt, ancl cultivated fiekfa Its nest is
of a conical form, carefully lined with vegetable fibre, and
makes a most comfort:-ihlc nursery for its young, which are
rearect " ·ith extreme care and tcmlcrncss. L c:1ding to the·
11 cst arc always s0v<'r:1l snbte rrnncons galleries, furnishing

-~
'I
1,

1r

I
·1

roads of egress and ingn'""·
JTT. A r711;Jlntinn nf the Or,qani.: ation 1.:f the .Animal
to its 1I"hit.,.-Strnct me, 8m1 haliits or tlie mole carefully
Te('apitn1alt'•l.

l'.'rom the pecn1 iar construction of the front limbs, infr r .
that they o.rc essentially neces~nry in ndministcring to tho
'1~alltS of 1he animal. })[c:tllS the litt Je erc:ttllre Jtas or CXc:wating th o passages in which it:i food is to be fou~d.
J1as no other, am1 needs no other tlian those sp8dc-like
instruments the m1ilR, the c~tremities of whieh loosen the
soil, and render it capable of being collected in the hands;
from whence it is thrown to the sides, and a little behind
the animal. The nails, aid ed by the pointed long snout,
admirably adapted for working its way iri the earth, and
detecting worms, grubs, &c.-directed to these, by the

•

·~

_,

.l,1_

,f

182

ON THE MOLE.

FOUlq'll STEP.-LESSON XXX

183

. '·--i
j

!

acuto senses of smelling and bearing. Little power of
Yision required; little given. God makes nothing which
has not some distinct end to answer. The goodness of tho
Creator manifest Jn withholding an external ear ancl a fully
developed eye ;-if given, somces not of pleasure lmt of
pain, on account of their liability to iujury from the mould
in which tho animal is constantly employed.
Covering exactly suited to an animal destined to lead
a subterraneous life. Thick, short, and incapable of being
displaced, it does not impede the animal in its progressDoes not retnin the w0t r1m1 rnntl \-\Tell rni,-;ltt !lie P~~tlm­
_ist exclaim, "0 Lord, how manifold are Thy works, in wisdom hast Thou made them all.
LESSON XXX.

No. II.-The J.fethod of giving the Lesson on the Mole
is here D etailed at length, to show not only what is
Taught, but how it is Taught.

•

I. Structui·e clescribcd.--A specimen of the mole being
presented to the children, get them carefully to observe
and describe its principal organs, directing thei1· attention
by m·eans of questiOI]S, comparisons, &c.
Ask if they know any form which the body nearly re·
· sembles ?-Wha~ things having·the form of a cylinder are
said to be?-vVlmt then may be said of the body of the
mole?-" The body of the mole is cylindrical "-This
should be simultaneously. repeated and written by the
teacher on the black board.
•
Next, let the children compare thefur of the mole with ,

that of some animal in which the hairs are scattered anfl
stiff. Call npon them to state the difference, and if unac·
quainted with the term that expresses. the quality of the
mole's covering, tell them that, "when things are made
to lie closely together, and so as to occupy a smaller space
than they otherwise would, they are said to be compact,
or compactly arranged "-Let this be repeated more than
once if necessary.
Inquire whether they know any manufactured article
used in dress to which tho covering of the mole bears a
rcscmhhnce. The obvio11~ qnalitic~ of the for, such as
short, thick, fine, will be quickly seen; but probably not
one child will discover that, like the nap of velvet; it has·
no fixed direction, and is incapable of being ruffled, until
1
told to stroke the animal from the head to the tail, and
from the tail to the head, and a cat in the same way-Then
to state what they observe. Tbe--children should describe
the fur, and the teacher add to the account on the board,
"and covered by a _fine, short, compact fur, which lias no
particular direction, and cannot be ruffled."
Next ask, What animal has a head something like the
mole ?-When they had a lesson on the pig, what did
they say of its snout ?-How it terminated ?-Let them
feel the extremity of that organ in the mole, and then describe the head. "The head of the mole js small, tapering
into an elongated snout, which ends in bone rather than
gristle."-Tbis should be repeated simultaneously, and writ·
ten on the board.
Other parts of the head named and described by the children-The eyes very smal), and sunk in the f~. Should

•
•
. ,_,

I~

I'
,_

i

! ,.

··,.It-:
':'- ,

l'i

.

184

l'OURTH STEP.-LESSON XXX.

the children assert that the mole has no ears, tell them
that it has no external ears that can be seen, but that it
possesses the sense of hearing to a considerable degree.
Question-With what do they hear ?-Touch their cars-:Do they think they would hear were that flap removed?Not so well, certainly, but they would be far from deaf;
for they have an internal ear, and the mole has this also ;
the entrance to which they may discover if they look carefully. Add to the notes on the board, "The eyes are small,
nearly hidden by the fur; there is no outer ear, but a
simple opening, concealed under the covering."
Inquire if there is anything r emarkable about the limbs?
"They arc very short ; the front pair arc strong and muscular, terminating in broad liancls. Do the hands remind
. them of any tool usccl by gardeners, ditch crs, &c. ? Yes,
they arc spade-like ; when they compare the fingers of the
mole with their own, what difference clo they observe?
what have they at the ends of their fin gers? what has
the mole? D esire them to describe the front limbs, and
say what shall be written on the board. "The front limbs
of the mole are strong, muscular, :mcl terminate in large,
broad, spade-like hands, ending in five fingers, scarcely
divided, and furni shed with hard, fl at nails." By causing
the children to compare the position of the hands of tho
mole with that of their own, leacl them to observe tho
oblique, downwa;d, :md outward direction of the former.
D esire them to feel that portion of the body to which tho
limbs are attached, and contras', it with the fore parts of
a rabbit, that they may perceive not only that the arms are
strong, but that that part of the frame which supports thetn

ON THE

M~.~E·

.,

1

~}}~ >, _ • ·• ·F~

is so also. Question as ~o the difference observab~o _b_et";eii~~~::_:::~~~
foe front and hind limbs. The latter at\ s~all ari~ slender~ ." c:: •. ;;r;~.t
lying close to the body, the feet are furmshed with claws, 1
··
yet are feeble compared to the spade-like hands.
II. Habits described.-Inform the children that tho
mole cannot endure more than six hours' fast without ·great
exhaustion. That it subsists on worms and the grubs of
insects, found 1n the greatest abundance under the su~face
of the earth.
If the pupils are not acquainted with the interio!_ of .
mole hills represent to them on the board the galleries
'
ancl miniature bills made by the excavations of the little ·
miner. Speak of the lining of the nests ~f birds. Tell them ,,..
that the n~st of tho mole is lined with vegetable fibre,· and '·- '
made a most comfortable nursery for its young, which are

.

reared with extreme care and t~nderness. That leading
to the dormitory of the mole thery are always several subterranean passages, dug out by tho creature as m~ans of.
going in and coming out. Th~t he is a~ expert sw:mmer ;
appears to enjoy the water; and reqmres to drmk .frequently ; and that there is usually a colony of these httle
miners in possession of one common passage to the nearest
stream or ditch. ·
, III. Adaptation of the organs to the habits and locality
shown.-Lct the chiiaren, with the assistance of tho not:s
on the board and the occasional use of the ellipsis, recap1t'
· · an d habits of the
ulate the description
of the orgamzat10n
mole. Ask th em to what the first part of the lesson related and to what the second. Question them as to what
conn~etion there is between the organs, and the hapits and

186

l!'OUltTII STEP.-LESSON XXX,

· ON TUE MOLE.

',

locality of animals. Require examples of animals having
their organs exactly adapted to their mode of life. Question: What organ fits the monkey for its life amid trees ?
"\Vhat part of the bat is adapted for flight? ·what enables the hedgehog to burrow in the earth ? 'Vhat organ
do they observe varies most to meet the wants of animals?
Draw from them the general rule, that "God, who formed
animals, not only fixed the bonnl1s of their haLitation, and
gave them their peculiar propensities, but also caused that
the one should be fitted to the other." This is to be repeated. Question : Did they observe anything pecnliar in
the construction of the limbs of the mole? What then do
they expect to find? That th ey arc essentially necessary
in administering to its wants. ·where is its food found?
What means has it of getting at worms below the surface
of the earth? Have they over seen men making sewers? ,
"\Vl1at implements had they? Tho mol e ha~ ~imilar work
to do. \Yhat hafl it corresponding to a spaclc or t:lt0vcl?
Desire tho cliilt1ren to imitate with their o'rn hands tho
position of the h::mcls .of the mole, and say if they were to
throw anything from them, holding their hands in this po·
sition, in what direction with respect to their bodies it
would go? What would be the consequence if the mole
could only use its feet in throwing soil beliind it? Are tM
feet of animals over used in any other operation ? Think .
of the monkey, the cat, the parrot. But the mole does
not convey its food to its mouth by means of its hands ..
· "\Vh:lt other organ could it use? What senses in the mole
would they expect to find very acute? Does it need much
light in its underground work? "What sense would not as·

.

'

..

\

sist it in discovering it~ prey? What have they observed ·
when animals have not required a sense or organ? Remark: They see that God makes nothing - that has not
some distinct end to answer, some work to perform.
Question: Do th ey sec any reason why an external car
was not giYen to th e mole? If it had one, what must
? '\'hat
. nrnst
, Le the result of t.he di rt and dust
h nppen.
.
entering into the en,rs and eyes? Hence if bestowed they
would be sources not of plcasnre but of pain. \Vhat shall
we s:w of the Creator of this little min er ? Ile is indeed
kind ~s well \lS wise. "His tender mercies arc ornr all His
works." Question : If they were to thrust a hand into
some newly dug earth, how would it feel? \Vhat kind .o f
covering then woukl be the best for one living under
gronml? How is the fur of tho mole adapted to keep in
the heat of the body? What other aLhanUigo arises from
its fineness anrl thickness? In what direction docs a cat
like to 1Jo stroked? "\Vhat wonld be done by pressing the
liand the reyersc way? \Vhon to kl that sometimes moles
pass each other in their very narrow galleries, or in thei.r
passage to a reservoir of water, and that not unfrequently
a single mole can only just move with ease along a. newlyexcavated road, the children will readily see the suitability
of a covering incapable of being ruffied, and of a body
compact and cylindrical. What do they observe in all its
orgar.s? What said David respecting God's works? Let
us also say, " Lord, how manifold are thy works ; in wisdom hast Thou made them all."
The lesson to be recapitulated, and condensed into a
simple summary containing the principal ideas. To be

.,

,.

188

1''0UKl'H STE1'. -

189

FUR.

J, 1£SSON XXXI.

written at homo from memory, and brought the following
morning.*

:-

touch, but that as it does not allow th~\ warmth of tho
body to pass away, we say it is warm, and so of other
objects.

LESSON XXXI.

III. Uses to man.-1\fade into nrnifs, c.'lpes, cloaks, caps,
&c. The qualities which fit it for such uses-warmth, softness, and flexiLility .

Two Sketches of Lessons on Fur.
SK!c'TCI! J.

I. ~at it is, and liow fitted for the clothing of animals.-P1ctures, or stuffed specimens, snch as em he procur~c1, Lr~ugLt Lefore Lhe cliildrPn, th :1t thrr may li e L·J
to ueL<.:nmuu wliat 1ur is, and observe its g reat varictv and
beauty,
owing to the difference in the erllor. , Ieno-t. 11., an d
•
0

th~ckncss of the Iiairs. Use to the anim:-il. State tu tho
clu!Jren the chan~es which it nndergocs at diffcreut 1:>easons of the year ; in winter becoming thick, do1;e, and abundant, anJ in some the color chano-in
·
·
o
g· t o " ·Jutc
; m
summ er
part,ly shccl, and mnch more lo ose auc1 open.

The reason
for tl~cse changes-the modifications observable in the fur
of annuals
. inhabitiilg different climates
'
- tl·ie a aap t.a t"10n t o
the reqmrcments of the animals, manifesting the wisdom
and goodness of Goel.

II. Qualities.-Soft-formed of hairs, therefore said
to be hairy-the difference between the skin and the furtho 0ne soft and flexible, the other stifl and llOl1lcwhat

liarsh-in what way it is fitted fur the w:mtf! of the animals
of which it forms the coYcring- why we say it is warm? • ·
Lead them to observe that it is neither hot nor cold to the
~ It is the design .of this lesson thnt either the mole itself, or n stuffed ..
specnnen, should be presented to the class. If n picture is used the form
of the lesson must be changed somewhat to correspond.
,
. . }

SKETC H II,

I. Fur producing countries.-These pointed out on the ..
map. :-is I 1nd~mt Bay C nmp:iny ' A territory; H. 11k~ia11 America; Siberia, the most import:mt-tbc wild, dreary, and
desobte character of th ese conntrics-the animals inhabiting them alone rendering th em of any commc rchl import~
ance-refer especially to the Hudson Bay Company's territory; the extent :mc1 ch:uacter of their possessions; the
time anc1 manner of establishment ; the factories and their
situations. (All this described to the children.)
II. Hunting season and hunters.-Hunting seasonwhy at a particular time ? Question here as to the changes
necessary in clotuing on the approach of winter·; and lead
the children to see, that as this is the season wh en animals
require most warmth, so it is the season when fur is the
thickest; :hence the time when it is most valuable, and
- . l10nco also tho hunting season. Speak of hunters, and the
preparation for .hunting-qualities of a good bunter-cautious in. disturbing, dexteronr:i, anc1 fertile in invention, bolrl
and courageomi in attacking and securing-why are these
i1ualities esseut ial to a goo,1 lninte r?
III. Contrast Fu?:s of Arctic and Tropical Regions., Contrast the fur of animals found in northern latitudes with

..

L

•
'

.. ..

.

!.;

·-1
"
•

•..

~:

.T.•

pt

I·,

190

FOURTH STEP.-LESSON XXXI.

those met with in the tropics and warmer regions : in the
first it is rich, fine, close, silky, and warm ; in the second, · ·
aithough beautiful in appearance, yet thin and scattered,
neither adapted for warmth, comfort, nor general usecontrast northern and tropical climat<:s, to lead tbc cbildrcn
to sec the necessity for this tlifli~1-c11cc of coHriug-show
that the <liffercucc in fur of nort,J1ern and tropical cliuiates,
arises from the same cause as that which marks a difference
in the fur 'of the same animals at different scasons--a beau- .
tiful evidence of design in the seal-inhabiting the arctic
regions, great warmth necessary-under the skin of the
common seal a thick layer of fat; in the fur seal no such
layer found, but the animal is covered with a rich, curly, .
silky clown, among which is scattered long coarse hairthe uses to which this for is applied-the preparation it undergoes, and bC>auty of its appcar:rnce.
IV. Uses to man, and qualities which render it useful.
Enumeration of nsc3 to which fur is applied, and the children led to observe the qualities which render it so extensively useful. (The children are supposed to have been
previously matle acquainted with fur.)
V. Processes wliich Fm· undergoes to fit it for use.
1. The state in which the sk,ins are received by the
furrier.
2. Cleansing-use of saw-cl ust-cffcct~~tate of skindifference betw een the skin of arctic and tropical animals. manner in which it is softened :md made thinnei'-preparat ions for making it up into the articles required-laid in
the saw-dust-wl1y ?-effect-advauta~w taken of the pliability of the skin in this state .

•

THE

PIG.

191 ·

3. Dyeing-how the appearance of the darker furs is '· .
obtained in t his opcrntion-clifference between the dyeing
of the fur seal and beaver, and that of other arnmals-tho
simplicity of the first operation-tedium of the second, and
sk ill necessary for the performance.

LESSON XXXII.
TUE PIG.

I. Get the children to name the parts of the pig, and
give a description of each-as its head, small and tapering
-its ears, large and flat, hanging down on each side of its
head like two flaps-its eyes, small, round, and sleepy-look-.
ing-the snout, which connects the nostrils and the mouth,
is large and armed with strong teeth, and te1;minates in a
hrud, gristly snhstancc- tlic neck, short anr1 1 hick-tho
body, cylindrical, and coverod with long coarse hairs called
bristles-the legs, short and thin-the feet, cloven-tho
skin, coarse and thick.
II. The habits of the pig spoken of~as that it eats all
kinds of VC"'etable
and Ianimal substances,
even in a putrid
0
'
state; also, brun and , meal, and, indeed, anything that
comes in its way-its habits dirty and disgusting-it, is
fond of rolling itself about in the mud-why ?-to get rid .
of the vermin with whi~h it is infested-and spends all its
time in eating and sleeping-it never attacks other animals
but in self-defence-it seems to · know when a storm is approaching, for it runs toward its sty screaming violently,
and gathers all the straw into a heap to hide itself~the pig
is subject to a disease from its glutt~nous habits-it liv~a

~

' ~-

~-

-

l_

'- '\

~/

Y'·-

', -

102

~

.~ -"""" •
'___. _1

"

......

.~ -

.._'

-~',

' - ,.,,,.,,

" -- __ :

-

.
,/.

-\

'r
-~·

.?'-

(i{...... --

•

---,-e•

""'" ,

' -..- --..;...'

.

--- '·

(_......

t

,,,.

\, ----- -

,

l1Plp it. in llli'!Rt.i<':iiioll- it. j,

cn VPl'Pd

"'

·- - -

O~

~

(

·--- -

-- ./

.

--

Hl3

SOLUnILITY.

ON SOLUBILITY.
LESSON XXXIII.
REMARKS ,

Lessons 011 objects may be followed by instruction
on q1 -litief! with which the chilrlren arc famili ar. The
fo1lo~ng lesRon will explnin whnt is here recommended:

LESSON ON SOLUBILITY.
![

The teacher develops the ideas for which she afterward
gives terms, by means of Rimple experiments. First she
fills lwlf foll with water three glass tubes; she then adds

it coven>a with hnir '"' for, ii. en11ld nnt. roll ::diont·. in the

to one a pinch of Epsom salts, to anot lwr a fc1v grains of

rnnfl withrrnt collrrtin.'.:; 1~nch clirt on it ~ hor1y-also, that
its han1, thi,~ k Nkin 111ak1-~~ i;-. 0.lt 111Jsl. in sPJ P~ii• !(~ 1-'\ t-h'.l hlf"qy~

sng:ar, to the thirJ some powJereJ

it so nftrn rrcrin·!'-1°k whn m.1 rlr flw ri.<c:, oi;ir1 ] ,-~,1

Tm cli r'r.- I wish yon to rlcseribc th e chnngcs which
have taken place in the mixtures.
Pupils.-hL. The s;_ilLs auJ the sugar ham Jil;:ippcarccl.
2d. Melted in the water. / 3d. Dissolved in the water.
The marbl() remains the same.
I.
Teacher.-Right; the s,a lt and sugar have dissolved in
the water; the marble is not dissolved.. Do you know
what those substances aro termed that dissolve in water?
«.
.
Pupils.-Soluble.
Teaclier.-What are those termed which do not dissolve?
•:!

111 (]

ch il 1re11 to see awl a•lmire the wis<lom ::md goodness cf
Uod, in making all its parts so beautifully adapted to thei1·
various uses.
As the children are describing the parts, write the
name ancl description of each on tho boanl, that they may
bo aided when they cousiuci· t ho adaptation of tho parts to
the wa~ts of tho animal. Tho chiltlrcu should state this
afterward on their slates.
1

C!lcil fur

~

marLii~,

anJ shakes

IC\\- iu,J1ucnts.

.

PupU~.-lnsoluble .

9.

.. ,•.
~

'

.

., .....

'-

.-~

1

I. ,

P'.'\r~ .

with 'lifl' bri,tJ,., ~ wcn•

--

........
-

'"\

for 18 or 20 years, and is found in almost every country of
the world.
III. Question the children as to the adaptation of its
parts to its habits, &c., by comparing the one with the
which fbp nbout on a hot dny nml prrycnt the f1i ~~ from
getting into them and teasing th e animal-does not require
very strong sight-its small eyes arc sufficient for the cir- .
cnmRtancef! in whioh Gorl I m~ pl::tnNl it-::tlrn the long
flexible snout, ter minating inn. ring of g ri8t.1c, lit.ting it for
g~·ubbing in the rnu cl fo r it.~ tOocl, and rooting up YCgt..!LJ.·
bles ; were it furnished instead of this with a soft, fl eshy
mouth, the animal would not be able t o do this without
pain and inconven ience-I.he hnfo. Hlrnng k\'lli. which

I.•

- ---- - -- - --

.FOuRTJl i:>T.I;l'.-Lhb::W.N XXXII,

oth er, the chilil rcn rnaking tlw coJl1·l 11 i-io11s-thP lnr'!·"

,..

......_

\. - - -

\

-

-

194

FOURTH STEP,-LESSON XXXIIJ,

Teacher.-Tell me the names of several soluble bodies?
Pupils.-Sugar, Epsom salts, gum, salt.
Teacher.-Tell me some that are insoluble.
Pitpils.-Marble, stone, wood, tin, slate.
Teaclier.-What has become of the sugar that dis.
solved? Is it destroyed?
Pitpils.-N o; it is in the water?

Teaclier.-How do you know that it is in th~ water?
Pupils.-W e can taste sugar when it is dissolved fn our
tea, or in water.

Teacher.-W ould it be useful to give a particular name ·
to a liquid that has dissolved any substance, in order to
distinguish it from another that has not any substance dis·
solved in it?
Pi1pils.-Yes.
Tedclier.-Such liquids are called solutions; what,
therefore, is formed by the experiments made ?
Pupils.-A solution of Epsom salts in water, and another of sugar in water.
Teaclier.-Is there a solution of marble formed ?
Pupils.-N o; for the marble would not dissolve.
Teaclier.-Does the water, or the ·sugar, or both togethei·, form the solution?
Pupils.-Both together,
,. ,

Teacher.-A liquid \1scd to dissolve :i solid is termed -a
Bohlent. What can we say of water?
Pupils.-It is :i solvent of Epsom salts, sugar, &c.
~~..
Teacher takes two .equal portions of Epsom salts and · '.
places each in a tube, with equal quantities of; water. One · '.~!
is left undisturbed, while the other is heated in the flame . 'It·
I.•

- of a spirit lamp. .· The pupils-·'aro· reqt:tired to~ stat .. _. _,
. .
\
,
~v;- ,.1.•i: '/t4:"·'
result they observe.
·
\
•·
, ·
Pitpils.-The water that has been made hot has dis·
solved the salts very quickly, ancl also in greater quantity.
(The experiment should be made with the 'sugar also.) · .
Teaclier.-What would you say of the effects of hot
liquids oii soluble bodies?
Pupils.-Hot liquids dissolve substances more qui~k~y
.
I
and in greater quantities than cold ones.
, Teaclier.-This is generally, but not invariably, true.
There are some bodies upon which cold and hot water has
the same effect. Common salt is an example.
Teacher n;iakes another experidient; placing two equal
quantities ~f sugar in water, allowi?g o~e to remain undis·
turbed, :ind shaking or sti~ring the other._. ·Pupil,s .to. te~.. ,.. · , __ .. ,,.
··~
· '"
..,. :k~Ztl: ·
the result observed. ·· ' -\
· ,-.. ~... . .;.'.';·4-:r.-.,.~<t--4':"P'.~J.
._..,~ ·· .,
·- - ~/a"..
,....,.,..,.µ.;;
.' 1v~ 11,
Pupils.-The sugar in the shaken tube dissolves first. - '
· 'i!'·
/.
Teacher.-Try and explain why this is so.
Pupils.-When the tube is shaken, every part of the
solid is affected by the solvent which dissolves it ; but
when the sugar lies' at the bottom, the water at the top
does not help to dissolve it.
Teacher then places a large lump of·sugar in a spoon,
and puts it into a tumbler of water, holding it near the ·
top ; and then, placing the tumbler between the pupila and
the light, ·r equires them to say what they observe.
Pupils.-Little wavy lines fall from the spoon.
Teacher.-Can you tell what causes this? Consider
-what is hapyening to the sugar.
·Pupils.-It is dissolving.

FOURTH STEP.-LESSON XXXIII.

Teaclier.-Wlrn.t, then, is being formed?
Pupils.-A solution of sugar.
Teacher.- "What becomes of the solution, as it is
formed?
Pupils.-It is that which we see falling through the
water.
Teaclier.-Right; but why docs the solution sink in
the water?
Pupils.-It must be because it is heavier than water.
Teacher.-It. is so; every solution formed by a solid in
water is heavier than water. Knowing this, can you tell
me why men swim more easily in the sea than in fresh water, and even more easily still in the Dead Sea ?
Pupils.-Sea water is a solution of salt, and being
heavier than fresh water, a man would not so easily sink
in it.
Teacher next places a quantity nf enmmon ~~1t in a ·
tube, and pours over it about twice' its weight in water
~
'
shaking it for some time- then asks what has happened.
Pupils.-Part of the salt is dissolved, and part is leftthe water does not dissolve it an:
Teaclier.-Y ou are correct ; water will not dissolve
more than one-thii~d of its weight of salt ; and when it refuses to dissolve more, it is said to be saturated. What
kind of a solution is then formed ?
Pupils.-A saturated solution.
Teacher.-W ater, as we have seen, will dissolve more
of some bodies, as Epsom salts, when it is heated. If we
were to heat a cold solution of Epsom salts, what do you
think would happen ?
·
·

ON SOLUBILITY,

-. ..~-:~{~J

.: .

---; ,

196

.'

'.\:.;~,~~~·::·: ~ '.

Pupils.-It would then dissolve mbfe salts, show.ing '. \/
that it would not be saturated by the same quantity of salt
as it was when cold.
Teacher puts some powdered sealing wax into two
tubes, and pours into one cold water, into the other spirits,
and then shaking theip, asks the pupils to say what differ ..
.ence they observed in the two.
Pupils.-The sealing wax has dissolved in the spirits,
and not in the water.
Teacher.-:-Is sealing wax a soluble or insoluble body?
Pupils.-It is both ; solubl.e in spirits, insoluble in
1,
water.
Teacher.-What kind of liquid ii! a so_lvent to S.\:laling
wax, and other resinous bodies ?
Pupils,_-_Spirits. '
·.~
\
Teacher repeats the last experiment, substituting' gm~
for sealing wax.
,..
Pupils.-Thc gum, contrary to the sealing w,ax, dis,
solves in the water, but not iu the spirit; it is also soluble
and insoluble.
Teacher.-It is so; but when no , particular solvent .is
named, it is always understood to be water; bence, in 01'- ·
dinary language, gum is said to .be soluble; sealing wax
insoluble ; the solvent,. water, being understood. India
rubber is an example of a solid, insoluble in ,all ordinary .
1.·
liquids, but soluble in coal tar, napht~a; the solution thus
I
obtained is used for making waterproof (Macintosh) cloth·
\
ing, by employing it to cement together two thin layers of
cloth.
.

..:

y•,'

.

..... :...

i

•

The pupils then should be required to mention a!l._the

/1f

198

FOURTH STEP.-LESSON XXXlll,

new terms they have learnt, or any like them; as soluble,
insoluble, solve, solvent, solution, dissolve, dissolving, solubility, insolubility, saturnted.
Teaclier.-Do you observe a resemblance in these
words?

Pupils.-Ycs; they all, execpt satnrated, have solve or
solu in them.
~aclier.-The meaning of that root, as it is called (for
it is like the root of a plant, tho llart from which the other
parts spring), is to loose/ it comes from a Latin word
salvo, to loose-the v being changed into u / the ·word soluble then means, being able to be loosecl, or to have particles separated by the action of a liquid. What would in·
soluble mean?
Pupils.-Iii stands for not, therefore it means not
soluble.
Teacher.-! wish yon now to sum up the various parts
of the lesson, so as to connect the whole together.
Bodies that are capable of dissolving are called soluble,'
those not capable of doing so, insoluble. When we speak
of a body possessing solubility, we say it will dissolve. A
liquid that dissolves a solid is termed a solvent,. and a solu•
tion is a solid dissolved in a liquid. When the solution
will hold no more of the substance dissolved in it, we say
it is saturated.
· Tea~lier.-These terms are sometimes used metaphorically-that is, applied to what is of a different nature; try .
and rememLer some examples.
P upils.-To solve a question.
~acher.-Which means, to take it to pieces or un·

loose· it.
recollect?
Pupils.-Dissolution of partnership.
Teaclier.-What does this mean ?
Pupils.-'--Tbat it is ullloosened; the partners are no
longer united together.
m
her.-And what do we mean when we call death
a
.Lilac
,
\
dissolution?
Pupils.-That the body crumbles to pieces; its parts ..
arc all loosened or separated.

.....

Ii

I ,· i !~

ON ~HE SENSES.

·

.. ,..

LESSON XX.XIV.
•

\

.. \~~ /.-."

·

•

•

\,' ;'

,

•..

~-;

l;,~ilt••
' . ' ·:

·}:-- __. ~ :~

, ·.

·--:.'·.;•,/'

~ ~ / F•~ • ~. ,~ ~

,

·_

'1

~:

,,,t; · ·

;1liZ~.

The children having been already exermsed m deternnn· · . .::/j..-" -, ,
ing by which of the senses they discover the presence of . , '. '{_!::J~.
any quality, may be led to consider more fully the senses
,., ;
thems~lves. The first two lessons are drawn out for the use
of the teacher . the substance only of the others is given.
'
Teacher.-Do
you un d ers t an a. how you gained the. ,

I!';

knowledge of various qualities?.
·'
Cliildren.-By our senses. ·
·
.
Teaclier.-How do you know when a thing is red or

.'

blue?

Children.-By sight.
Teaclwr.-How, if you were blind, could you form a
correct idea of color? What other means is there of ,
gaining this knowledge?
Children.-N one.

f

i .

/

':

t'
,. ,

;o'

t

"
I

• ,·

200

Teacher.-Trne; and to ascertain this point, a blind
man was once questioned as to what notion he had of scarlet; he said he thought that it must be like the sound of a
trumpet. It is obvious that he had no correct idea of a
quality discoverable by the sight, and he could only coniparo it with one tliat he had acquired through the medium
of another sense. Can you tell me the reason why persons
born deaf cannot speak?
Ohildi-en.-They cannot imitate sounds, because they
·· never l1eard any.
.V:ache1-.-Since, then, deaf persons have no correct
ideas of sound, nor blind persons of color, how do we acquire our ideas of sound and color?
OMldrcn.-By the means of the senses of seeing and
hearing.
Teacher·.-How, then, do we suppose our minds become
stored with ideas ?
Ohildren.-By the exercise of our senses.¥=
Teacher.-Yes ; and if you had once had the idea of a
dog formed in your mind, by seeing such an animal, when
a dog is mentioned you can recall the idea, and fancy one
immediately, as if it were present; your mind will also
perform tho san10 operation when a quality is spoken of,
which you have previously seen in some object. Again,
if you sec a dog unlike :my you have observed before, you :,
compare it with the species with which you are acquainted,
and mark the difference between them. If I say that I
• It is probable I.bat children woul<l not nt once arrive nt this conclu-.

sion.

. ON THE SENSES~ \

FOUUTH STEP.-LESSON XXXIV.

The teacher must, in that case, lead them to it by ensy questions.

have some green paper, cannot you immediately conceive
the color of which I speak?
Ohildren.-Y es .
.V:acher.-Did you, then, exercise your sight?

Ohildren.-N o.
Teaclier.-How, then, could you have the idea of
green?

Ohildren.-W e remembered it.
Teacher.-By what means did you first obtain the idea?
• Ohildren.-By seeing something green.
.V:acher.-What power of the mind do you exercise .in
recalling an idea?
Ohildren.-Our memory.
/i

LESSON XX.XV.
FEELING

OR

TOUCII,

Teacher.-What part of your body . is the organ of
touch?

/

/ .

Ohildren.-It seems all over our body.
Teacher.-Tcll me some parts that do not possess the
. sense of feeling.
Ohildrcn.-Our hair, nails, and teeth.
Teacher.-And in other animals, what parts are found
destitute of sensation?
Ohildren.-The hoofs, horns, claws, feathers, wool, hair,
. &c.
Teacher.-What other word do we use to express the
presence of sensation?
Ohildren.-Sensibility.
9*

•,

202

FOURTH STEP.-LESSON XXXV •

.'.'leaclier.-What word would you use to express the
absence of sensation? What sy~able prefixed to a word
gives it a negative meaning ?
Cliildren.-In.
Teacher.-W ell, what word will express the absence of
sensation ?
'
Children.-Insensibility.
Teacher.-Tbe parts then that you 11ave named are
insensible, and, with the exception of these, the sense of
feeling exists everywhere throughout tho body ; but what
part of it is particularly adapted, by its form, to become
the organ of tho sense ?
Cliildren.-The hand.
Teaclier.--Tell mo what qualities we can discover in
objects by this sense?
Children.-Tbat they arc hard, soft, rough, smooth, ·
long, short, sharp, blunt, round, square, cylindrical, conical,
heavy, light, fluid, liquid, dry, wet, hot, cold, &c.
Teacher.-By what general term would you express
such qualities as round, square, conical, &c.?
Cliildren.-By shape.
Teacluw.-By what general term would you express .
· such qualities as large, small, &c. ?
Cldldrcn.-By size.
leacher.-By what general term would you express "
such qualities as rough, smooth, &c. ?
O!iildren.-By kind of surface. ·
leaclier.-By what general term would you express
such qualities as hard, soft., flnid, tenacious, &c.?
Cltildrcn.-lly kin(l nf rnbstanee.

Teacher.-N ow arrange the qualities which you dis·
cover by your feeling under five general heads, i. e., . shape,
size, kind of surface, kind of substance, weight.
The children having performed thi~ exercise, the . teach·
er may mention the following facts.
Teacher.-The quickness and accuracy of the sense of ·
feeling is, we. find, much increased by exercise, as is e~em·
plified in blind persons, the defect of whose sight is frequently compensated, in a great measure, by an exquisite
sensitiveness of touch. Bats also appear to possess this
sense in a remarkable degree. They have been obs.erved,
even after loss of sight, and with . their ears and ·nostrils
stopped, to fly tl~rough intric~te windings and . passages,
without striking against the walls, and also to avoid lines
and cords placed in their way. The expanded membrane
that serves them for wings is probably the seat of this deli·
cate sense of feeling, which so admirably fits them for their
nocturnal and dark abodes. The palpi, or feelers of in·
sects, possess the same quality very acutely, and this en·
ables them to explore the surface of bodies in search of
food, and warns them also of the approach of danger.
The class should be required, at the conclusion of the
lesson, to draw up some account of this sense, mentioning
where it resides, what qualities fall within its cognizance,
and to recapitulate any incidental information received
during the lesson.

204

FOURTH STEP.-LESSON XXXVI.
'

LESSON XXXVI.

.

"'

\

I

' ·)

LESSON XXXVIL

SIG1JT.

HEARING.

r
\

The eyes are the organs of sight, and are beautifully
adapted for the office they have to perform. They arc so
constructed as to allow us to see. things nea1·,1aa1s.
o. t
d"
t_ancc; to oonfine ourselves to the inspection of one ob- .
Ject, or t.o take in at once a large sphere of vision. The
part of the eye which admits the light may b e expan d ed
or contracted, according as the rays are more or l
rf I
·
ess powe u . This fact is remarkably exemplified in the eyes of
th: ~at and of the owl. Indeed notl1ing affords a more
stnkm()' proof of ti k" 1
.
• ""
lC
me providence of God than the
beautiful ~daptation of the eyes of animals to their peculiar
k
modes of life; those of moles fishes ai1d b1"rds
. ·
' ·
•
, are remar .
able illustrations of this fact.*

~f all the senses, that of sight is in most frequent and

c_ontmua~ exercise. It fills the mind with the greatest va.
ncty of ideas, which it gathers not only from the objects
of nature and of art, but from the writings of the wise and
good of all ages.
The qualities we discover by this sense are .
. transpa·
rent, semi-transparent, translucent opaq·ue o-]"
.•
b · h
'
'
, b immenn()'
rig t, dark, sparkling, dull; and the various mod'fi t" ""'
of color size
d h
. .
.
i 1ca wns
'
.'.an s ape. Many may be ascertained either
by touch or sight ; as those of size, form, kind of surface
and substance.
'

* The teacher sh~uld here fully explain to the class the .
t
referred to and give oth
. .. •
c1rcums .ances
'
er &m1 1ar mstanccs.

l·1~;.:. · . !,,~r ,· ~;~·¥:"
• ~~ t •r~!t/1 · 1 '

•

1~;;.

The ears are the organs of this sense. In many ani·l .•:. ' ~
mals the ear has externally the form of a trumpet, and ·ia ·
well adapted for gathering sound and bringing it to a
focus; in man it contains many convolutions and ch~nnels,
which receive the vibrations of air in every direction, and
, convey them to the part called the drum, which is ~he
actual seat of this sense.
The formation of the ears of animals is beautifnlly accommodated to their peculiar habits of life. In beasts of
prey the trumpet part is inclined forw1u<l, easily to catch
the sound of those they are pursuing. But animals whose
chief means of protection is flight, have these organs
turned backward, that they may' be readily apprised_of the'
approach of their enemies.
The ears are the medium through which all sensations
of sound reach the mind; without them, we should be deprived of the advantages of verbal instruction, the pleasures of conversation, and the charms of music.
The motion or' the parts of a body, or the collision of •
one body against :another, occasions a vibration · in the air,
which is similar to the effect produced on water when a
stone is thrown into it. Circle succeeds circle, till the
' .
power of motion is exhausted; and just as any light substance within the influence of these undulations is agitated
by them, so, when our ear is within reach of these vibrations of air, th~o sensation of sound is produced.* The
\',

• This account may appear, at first sight, nbove the comprehension

·,

or ,

.'

206

FOU!tTH STEP.-LESSON

~~ .. ,:r~·:._ ··':·/!:~·; . ..~~ ~~· ;i.~ -~~~.

xxxvur.
ON THE SENSES.,"

chirping note of the cricket is occasioned s· l
. im~ y by tho
constant friction of a little m b .
When t
.
. em rnne agamst its wings.
wo bodies are rubbed or struck togeth .
.
m most
b b
ci, we may
cases e a le to determine by th
d
.
th
t
'
e soun s emitted
. e na uro of the substances brought into contact Ver '
~
y
. different sounds arc occasioned by the colli .
from that which wood gives out . and th
s10dn o metals
fro 1 11
b
'
e Eoun produced
m 10 ow odics is very unlike that resulf fi·
.
ones Th
.
mg 1om solid
.
ere are var10us kinds of sounds . as I 'JI ,
.
b arsh loud soft b
'
s in ' neep '
g ra t mg,
.
.
.
'
'
' armomous, sweet. Animal
p10duce different sounds. The c t
s
th li
a mews, the dog barks
~ on roars, tlie ass brays, the cow lows ti I
'
neighs the
k
' ie 10rse
'
roo caws, the goose cackles tl
k
the fly buzzes, tho bee hums
l\f '
'k ie coc crows,
·
·
an spoa s Ia h
shouts, groans, whistles sin"'s
' ug s, cnos,
'

b.

LESSON

xxxvrn.

SMELL.

The noso is the organ of this sense .
lined 'th
' its cavities are
w1 a thin membrane supplied with
.
ed w ·th
· ·
net ves conuect1 a prmc1pal one, which is essential to the
.
.
of smell.
pe1 cept10n
Th By means of this sense we derive all our ideas of od
or.
ough not so import~nt to man as the th
it add
h
o er senses yet
s muc to his pleasure . and to
.
'
·
''
many mumals it is
essential a·
,
' u·ectmg them in search of ti . ~ d
.
1e1r 100 • The
chiklrcn · a cl
h
.
,
ass, owever, wluch had gone thr u l h
cises, was found fully cop bl f d
o g I t c preceding exera e o un crstanding it.

.

;;
\

~-.:i:; ·, ' ~};!''~i:~?-~'7
. ' '"i·,

,_ .

f

~ ..

scent of dogs is peculiarly fine, and on. this account'.th!ly1.;t°';' ..
are employed in the chase.
- :f,. · . ,~
Odor is produqed by exceedingly small particles called
effiuvia, which escape from odorous bodies; these diffuse
themselves in tho atmosphere, and whenever they reach
the olfactory nerves they occasion the sensation of smell.
Heat promotes the escape of these particles, which are of
a volatile nature ; hence, when the sun shines brightly, the
fi?wers are more fragrant.

LESSON
XXXIX.
.
I
TASTE.

......
,.,.c..,·

The mouth is the organ of taste. The skin within the
mouth is finer and more delicate than that of the rest. . of
the body, it is suJ?plied with a grea.t number of blood ·ves·
i:rels, and covered with innumerable papillre. Sapid bodies,
however, before they excite the sensa~ion of taste, require
to be moistened by the saliva. In graminivorous animals
the papillre are defended from the action of the stiff bristles
of grass and corn by' a strong skin, which being perfor!J-ted,
allows the dissolved juice to reach' the seat of taste. The
principal qualities discoverable by the taste are bitter,
sweet, acid, pungent, acrid, luscious. There are many
others, which derive their names from the substances in
which they exist: as salt, spicy, &c.
Many animals have some one of the senses in great
perfection, but in none are they all found in tho same degree as in man.

~l

,··:

'

GLASS.

2Q9
~

which it is manufactured, may be bro'ugbt before the class,:·
and likewise pictures of the machinery employed in the
manufacture.
Many of the lessons in this Step will contain too much
matter to be presented at one time to the pupils, and must

FIFTH
INTRODUCTORY

STEP.
REMARKS.

The following lessons may be advantageously used as a ·
first exercise in composition. The object should be present·
ed to the children, and they should continue, as before, to
make their own observations upon it. Questions should
then be addressed to them, calculated to elicit their
knowledge of its natural history, manufacture, or compo~
sition : and further particulars should afterward be com·
municated by the teacher, to render thci1· information more
complete. After having rearranged and repeated the matter ~o obtained, the teacher should examine the class, and
require a \vritten account. Children from ten to fourteen
years of age may derive great improvement from this exer·
cise in composition. It will stimulate their attention, fur·
nish a test of their having well understood the lesson, and
lead them .to arrange and express their ideas with clearness
and facility. Artificial substances should be exhibited, both
in their raw and manufactured state. Thus, in the lesson on
flax, the plant itself, the fibres when separated from the
stem, the thread when spun, and the various articles into

therefore be divided.
The information given is exclusively for the use of the
teacher, as reference in the preparation of lessons.
Many of the lessons have been taken, with some modi- •
fications, from "Information on Common Objects." Much
aid has also been derived in thei1· preparation from the
" NOW American Cyclopredia,'' and, in a fow instances,
passages have been literally incorporated. This is a ~vork .
which teachers would do well to consult where accessible. ··
The following sketches, three on glass, and three on
silk, are given as specimens of the way succeeding lessons.·
·"·'

may be treated.
LESSON I.
I. Different lcinds of Glass comparea.-Bring together
several pieces of different kinds of glass, and ask the chil·
dren to name each-as, crown glass, plate glass, sheet glass,
flirit glass, bottle glass. These pieces should be examined '
by the children, that they may point out the difference./
They should name the various t1ses to which they have ·
seen glass applied, and the particular use of each kind ; as;·
for windows, mirrors, drinking glasses, decanters, orna-:
ments, bottles, watch glasses, &c.
Qualities of Glass.-The class should be called on to
name the qualities in glass which render it useful ; as trans- ·

210

FIFTH STEP.-LESSON I.

parency, hardness, durability, not being affected by weather
or acids, &c.
Glass conti-asted ioitli substances usecl in f01·mer times. ·
Othei· substances possessing the same qualities, but in a
less degree, should be shown the class, named, and a con·
trnst drawn, for the pltrpose of proving the superiority of
glass over these substances. Thus, horn has not the same
degree of transparency; parchment is not so durable ;
•mica does not admit the light so freely; and none of the
three have the same bright, cheerful, beautiful appear. anee that glass has.
II. Various substances used in tlie mamifacture.....;..The
various substances .used in the manufacture of gfass should
then be produced and named-as, sand, an alkali (as pearl·
ash), nitre, oxide of lead, oxide ofmang:.inese, oxide of ar·
senic, lim e, &c.; and the children should be lecl to see that
each ingredient imparts a particular quality to glass.
Pearlasb, which is much usecl in flint glass, imparts much
clearness. Oxide of lead is used to cause it to vitrify at a
much lower temperature than it otherwise would; to in·
crease the density, and to impart tenacity.
III. Origin and liist01·y of tlie maniifacture.-Information should be given to the children with respect to the
progress of the manufacture, and of its supposed origin.
They should be told of the glass beads and imitations of
precious gems found in Egypt with mummies more than
3,000 years old, and of hieroglyphics tliat must be as old
as the sojourn of the I sraelites in Egypt; the relics found
in the ruins of Nineveh, and . other facts which seem to
point to the ancient inhabitants of that country as the first

:

I

manufacturers of glass; the many fine •specimens' of glas~~in:
urns and vases which arc seen even at the present· day, and "
which show to what an extent the manufacture was carried.
They should be told of the introduction . of glass making
into Europe-first into Italy, finally into England ; fron:i
thence into the United States by deserters from the British
army in the time of the Revolution; but that glass was
used very much in England long before.the art of making
it, was known to the English; for even as far ba,ck as the ,,
time of the Druids, we find glass beads and amulets worn,
which were procured in barter w~th Syrians, who came to
1
Great Britain for tin.
11
Recapitulation.-After receiving this information, which
should be thoroughly worked into the children's ~ds as
the .teacher proceeds, they should reprod.ucc t~e matter' o~
their slates.
·· . " , .'c
LESSON Ii. - ·

·1
I. Glass house and tools used.-In this lesson the children should (after rec~pitulating the last lesson) give a de·
may have seen, and
scription of any giassI house which they
.
also of the different tools used by those who work in glass.
If they have not seen one, a small model or. picture may be
shown, representing the different parts. They should describe the conical shaped building-the ·furnace in .the cen~
1
tre, with the working holes at the sides-:-the pots, which
are made of the finest clay-their position and number~
tools used. by the glass blower, as iron tube, shears, punt· .
ing rod, tongs, &c. They sJ?.ould then be asked as to how
tb,e men on the premises are . generally employed; soµie iu.

212

FIFTH S'l'EP,-LESSON II.

glass blowing; others in attending to the furnace, carrying
coals, and others watching the pots, &c.
II. Processes gone through in the manufacture of Glass.
The children, having noticed how the workmen were em·
ployed, will be prepared to learn the different processes
gone through in the manufacture of glass. As a difference
exists ih tho making of e~ch kind, the children may be led
to speak of window glass only, as they are better acquainted with that than with the others, and more frequently see
how that particular kind is used. They should firs~ be told
that window glass is that which is generally used for window panes ; and should say what qualities window glass requires that are not of so much importance in other kinds;
as hardness, transparency, and durability; and they should
then be led to see that in order to give the glass these
qualities, a slight difference must be made both in the
qualit.y and quantity of the ingredients used. The children
should be told that such substances as lead, or metallic ox·
ides, make glass soft and plastic ; and they will at once see
that very little of these must be us~d in makincr
window
b
glass, in which greater hardness is requisite. They i;hould
be told of the different processes gone through-first, the
preparation of the sand by water, for the purpose of re~
moving any impurities-next, the making of frit, and what
frit is-the process of melting it down aftei· having kept
it for some time. The metal in a liquid state should be
spoken of-the time allowed to pass before skimming the
metal. The children should be told that broken glass is
very useful at this stage of the manufacture. The glass
thus used is known by the name of cnllet, and is thrown in

••

" .. -.

•

I

\

':

~

•,;.H4'

. ' : 1t.:.

·, •,

LESSON ill.

•

... ..

1

, -"i>,/1i( "
1

l .
'';

'·(6 l ..

' . ' ~,:·'-" ·~

'j-:;:.)

I. On Stained Glass.-Several pieces 1of glass of differ• :-, : :'.·
cnt colors should be brought before th1J child~en. ·, They." ' '\ · ;~~·
should examine and describe them, and ascertam whether \
': , ··ff
the colors are merely e~ternal, or ·whether·they are such as
" ·:~1.
cannot be removed without destroying \the glass."•;: They
should be asked where they had seen glass of di:trer~nt ~­
'eol~rs ?-If they had seen figures represented on glas~ . ~y ·,
means of colors-and where? They should be led to ~ame ._'· "t- •• . ,
tho kind of buil\].ings in which colored glass is gen~rally : · ·\ '. ,;,,_:;
seen; such as churches, or ecclesiastical edifices of any -· ·
kind. particularly in those 1where the object is to make "ah ·
impo:iug appearance. · Many churches and cathe~rrils hav_e .· .:
1
• • ' " '-~·
very fine windows of stained glass.
II. The teacher under this head will describe the prd, ccss of glass staining, dwelling on the following points :-2
The pattern, or drawing of the figures to be represented,
which is first made. The mode of placing this behind the
glass for the purpose of painting the pattern, the mate·
rials being prepared beforehand. A· description should be
given of the muffi.e, or iron box, 'in which the glass is .

214

\

!IFTII STEP.-LESSON IV.

. - 215 .
\

burned. The care necessary on the part of the glass stain- ·,'';.
ers should be noticed. The fusing of the glass and its ab" .
sorption of coloring-the time allowccl in the furnace-the
removal of the loose particles of paint. The class should
be told that tl10 color is proclucccl by fusing gold, silver,
and copper with the glass; and that gold is used in producing rose color nnd rnby; copper in producing blue,
green, and lemon; and silver and lead in producing yellow
and orange ; they will easily sec what colors in glass bring
the most money, which are most expensive.

-'

II. Description of the' Silk Worm.-Insect ' and ·· its
habits described. Show the children that the silk worm is
erroneously termed a worm. Why? It is really a kind
of caterpillar, and passes through all the changes which in·
sects undergo.
- Changes wliich the insect unrlergoes.-Many of the
children have, perhaps, tried to rear a silk worm, and will
thcr~forc know that it is hatched from an egg, in size like
a mustard seed; and is, when first hatched, small, and of
a dark color; in a few days it becomes gray, then tinged
with the color of its food; it attains its full size in about
eight weeks, and it bas during this period changed its
skin four or five times. Children to determine why this is
necessary-its ·continually increasing' size. The insect re·
mains in a quiet state before doing tbi:" ; refrains from eat·
ing ; then bursts the old skin near the head, arhl w.orks its

LESSON IV.
SKETCHES OF A SERIES OF LESSONS ON SILK A...1'D ITS
MANUFACTURE.

Foi· an Advanced Class of Chilrlren.

way out.
Length, when full grown, from two and a half to three
inches. ·what does it then do? I3egii1s to spin. Tell the
children that it selects a corner in which to spin, then
moves its head from side to -side, and fixes the thread at
different points, so .as completely to enclose itself-co~~
tinues to spin for about five days-during this time it has
become much shorter-changes its skin, and takes the form
of a chrysalis, enclosed in a dark brown c:ise, and is in a
torpid state-remains in this state two or three weeksthen changes into the moth or perfect insect. The children
will, perhaps, wonder bow the moth can escape from the
cocoon in which it is so completely enclosed. Tell them
that the little creature does this by softening a portion "of .

INTRODUOTION AND NATURAL llISTORY OF TUE SILK WORM.

I. Object cxaminerl.-A piece of silk is given to the
children, 'which they ca1~cfully examine, aucl are then called
upon to describe its appearance j as, smooth, soft, glossynext, they discover and name the qualities upon which its
use and beauty depend, viz. : its strength, which is great,
considering the fineness of the fibres of which it is composed-its lightness-lustre-capability of taking the finest
dyes-it resists fire better than cotton fabrics do-is beautifully soft to the touch, and extremely pliable, so that it
can be arranged in folds.
[NOTE.-Specimens of the insect m all its sta.,.cs should be shown to
.
"
the children, and constantly referred to in the course of the lesson.]
~·'

.,,

216

SILK.

FIFTH STEP.-LESSON IV.

the cocoon with a fluid which it has the power of forming.
It is now, as they will see from the specimen, a moth of a
pale cream color, covered with fine down, and furnished
with small, comb-like feelers. After a short time it lays its
eggs, firmly cementing them to the substance on which
they are deposited; and the object of its existence being
thus accomplished, it shortly dies. Children should draw a
comparison between the animal in its different stages, as to
appearance,. organs, and habits.
III. F oo d.- On wl1at. d ocs th e silk 1rorm fcc· a? Tho
leaves of th o 11111l bo rry t r ee. C' hilt1re n "·ill ]; now, t hat as
this tre e is not an cYCrgrcc11, the lca \·cs c:in only Le vrocureJ at certain seasons of the year.

Has this anything

to do with the hatching of the eggs? Y cs; they must
only 110 h atch ed 111 t h ose seasons when t he lc:wcs can b e
obtained?
.llfeans used to prevent the eggs frorn liatcMng at a
wrong season.-Sometimes the eggs are sent from one
country to another. How are they prevented from hatching on the journey ? They are first carefully dried ; placed
in glass vials, closely sealed, to exclude the air and , moisture, and then immersed in earthen pots filled with cold
water, which is constantly changed. ·why? To keep it
cool. Why should so much pains he taken to exclude the·
nir from the egg, and to prevent their becoming warm?
Because the eggs of the silk worm, like those of the
chicken, and other animals with which the children are
acquainted, are hatched by heat.
Manner of hatching tlie eggs.-The children might
then be told the different means used to hatch the eggs.

211

That in some countries the peasants fold them in small
.. paper packets, and keep them in their bosoms until the
,warmth prepares them for hatching; in others, that the
warmth . of the sun is employed ; but that the plan most
generally adopted is to hatch them by placing them in
rooms artificially heated.

IV. Countries of ·the Sil!c lVorm.-A warm climate is ·
necessary to the well-being of the silk worm. Children
name and point out on the map some wartn countries, as
France, Ital:·, In rlin , Clii na , &e. Tl 1e\· miccht then Le t old
. "'
t hat t h e silk \rorm is re~1 red in nearly :ill the southern count ries in E llrop e: t o a Ycry g re a t exten t in I mlia uu cl China.
That iL was origiually a native of China, from whence articles manufactured of silk were exported ' in early ages to
d iffc n· nt p :1 rts of Asia :i 1111 E1Jropr'; arnl th:1 t tl1 c ra\\' material furnished employment to manufacturers in Persia, Tyre,
and other countries. That in the United States many' ef.
·forts have been made to introduce its manufacture, but
with very limited success.
How introduced into Eui·ope.-The silk worm was introduced into Europe .A. D. 552, by two Persian m~nks,
who were missionaries, and had travelled as far as China
where they viewed with great curiosity the dress of the' ·
Chinese, and carefully watched the manufacture. On leaving China they 'vent to Constantinople, and entrusted the
Emperor Justinian with their secret ; he encouraged them
by promising them a reward if they succeeded in introducing "the manufacture into Europe. They returned to
Chin~, with much difficulty obtained a ·quantity of eggs
1
cunnmgly ~oncealeq them i(l a hollow cane, broug4~ the~

1

. \ ".

218

FIFTII STEP.-LESSON V.

to Constantinople, hatched them, tended the insects with
great cate, and instructed the Romans in the art of manu·
facturing silk. The children will thus see that the silk
manufacture in Europe had a very small beginning-a
caneful of eggs being the means of establishing the manufacture, and of furnishing the Europeans with a luxury,
for which large sums had hitherto been exacted from them
by their Oriental neighbors.
This ancl the following lessons sliould be reproduced by
the children in writing.
LESSON

V.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SILK MANUFACTURE.

I. JJ~ff"erent proce.~ses in the maniifacture.-How is the
silk obtained from the cocoon? \Vhat is the first process
in the manufacture? The destruction of the chrysalis.. ·
How ·is this accomplished ? By placing it in a heated
oven. What is next done? The rough, outer floss,
which is comparatively useless, is r emoved, and the co-·
coons are thro.wn into a vessel of hot water placed over a
fire. Why? To loosen the thread. The whole is now
stirred with a little broom, which catches the loose · ends
of the threads.. Several of these threads taken together
. are wound upon a reel. Why take several together ? Because the fibres are so fine that one taken alone would not
be strong enough, it would quickly break. The silk wound
off is next tied up into hanks ready for the manufactqrer,
and is known b;r the name of "raw silk."

..

.

'

II. Vai·ious operations which the raw silk undergoes.- , ·

. ' '
Briefly describe the ·various proc(lsses which the raw ~ilk : - ~ .:·
passes through, as winding, spinning, twisting, cleaning, : :''. :' .', -.- ~·
weaving, and dyeing; all of which, except the last, are
_
knpwn under the general term "silk throwing." . . . ... · · .·, ./·: '~
Winding.-In this operation each hank of silk is ;e:.X:.; . _' _;; ~· · ~
tended upon a six-sided reel (swift). -:Arnumber of swifts .'· . . /-' .,.
are arranged side by side, upon an axis, bn:eithe~: side of;a . ~,::;-1: ,,' • · ~.':
frame. Above t~e swifts are the bo~~ins, similarly- ~r;
./" ~~: ~
ranged, one bobbm for each swift. The -.bobbins connect·
ed with the swifts by the ends of the hanks of ~ilk are
1
now set in motion, causing the swifts to turn round and
wind the silk. The machine requires constant' attention-1
Why? For the purpose of joining the ends bi:oJcen i~
. winding, putting on the hanks, and exchanging . the bob·
:
· j · · t .:•. ,',. .•
bin.s.
Spinning.-The silk fs now sorted accordi~g ; to ~!..El; ·
.,qualities and fineness. The ne.xt process 1s that · ~f spin~ingi.' ··· ·;~ri.: •.
or twisting each thread, which is done i~ a mili, where it · : ~
acquirei that form cal.led." singles." How is this effected? . .
:\f~
The long thread of s~k is unwqund from the bobbins on .. .. '~to a long roller, and in its passage· from one to the other
-4 _1..;.' l \.. .
becomes. twisted. How can this be? I, The bobbins :are. 1/f' ·);
fixed upright, and the roller is placed horizontally above
'them ; .thi.S circumstance alone is sufficient to twist
shit'
1'

1

>

_

~

I

.

I
11

!

.\

1

J.
ii":·'.
I
' .

•

~

~

•

1

I

<

•

l

I

,"

~

'

'

ithe '

-~, i~;i~~

.,
220

FIFfH STEP.-LESSON

.v.

while passing from one to the other. Two or more of
these singles. arc now twisted slightly together in the manner above described ; the next operation is to spin these
combined'threads into a firm, thick threall, which is performed in the same manner as the former spinning.
Cleaning.-One process only remains before the silk is
fit for the weaver, viz., the cleaning . How is this performed ? The silk is boiled for four hours in a large
quantity of water, into which a good deal of soap has been
thrown. Why does the silk require cleaning? Because it
still retains the gum, with which the insect covers it, which
if not re1110YcLl, rc11<1crs the :;ilk 11:11,.;h to the tollch, :rnd
unfit to receive the dye. By cleaning, however, the silk
becomes soft and glossy. It is now sent to the loom,
where it is woven into ' 'arious fabrics. In a long piece of
woven silk the long tl;reads are called · the "warp," and
the cross threads the " weft," or " woof." Th ese words,
and any others new to the children which may occur in the
1L•sso 11 , slllllll,1 li c \H il l en llj>(in th e 1io :lrcl , :rn r1 th e hc:lds of
the lesson also, as it greatly assists the children in afterward reproducing it on their own slates. Before concluding the subject of weaving, the teacher might show the
children the great care and patience necessary on the part
of the weaver, in consequence of the fineness of his work ;
a piece of silk 20 inches in width, often requiring 8,000
threads, all of which must be arranged with the greatest

221

SILK.

I

No; it is still of a bright yellow color. But white silk is
sometimes wanted-how is this obtained? The silk must
be "bleached," malle white, and then it is fit alsn for the
dyer, who, by mc:ms of his colors, can make the silk of
any shade he pleases.
LESSON VI.
SKETCH III.-BRIEF DESCRIPTI<?N OF TIIE VARIOUS FABRICS
COMPOSED O:f SILK.

, [NoTE.-Thc requirc<l specimens shoul<l be procure<l, nod shown to
the cliildrcn .J

regularity.

I. Articles rnade of Silk named.-Children furnish the
list. Velvet- silks, plain and brocaded-Persian-damask
-ribbon-satin-sarsnet, and crape;- The value of silk
inferred from the number of articles manufactured from it,
and the great difference in their texture.
II. .Description of the Fabrics.- Velvet-One of the
in ost h •:-rn tif1il pr<J(l uc tions of th e silk luum now n1:rn11 fa ctnred. In addition to the wa rp and woof, a soft shag or
pile is produced by inserting short pieces of silk thread,
doubled, under the woof; these stand up in so large a
number and so compactly as to conceal the interlacings of
the warp and woof. The children will see, from examining·
a piece of velvet, that it is this silky pile which imparts to
velvet its softness and beauty.
Brocade.-Brocaded silks are those adorned with flow· ·

.Dyeing.-Can the children think of any process which
the silk has yet to undergo before it is fit for sale ? Of
what color is it now? Did tbe cleaning alter the color?'

ers or other figures of silk.
Gauze.-A material in which the smallest quantity of
silk is employed for a given size of woven fabric. H~w can

·,
'

.. .

z"·;.: ::. ~·:,);. :
l ,

•;

'.'i..'i:,-..:•~.1."·~y~

,;} ;

f ·::

222

FIFTH STEP.-LESS ON VI,

this be done ? If the gauze were woven in the usual way,
the threads b eing so fine, it woulcl be very weak. How is
this prevented ? The threads arc made to crnss and over.

REY.ARKS.

223

THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.

loop each other, (something like the threads of a net,) and

REMARKS.

th ns the matorial acquires the requisite strength. The
children to discover this intertwining of the threads by
carefully examining a piece of gauze.
·

The nature of the objects which we derive from the
vegetable kingdom, and their utility to man, depend so

Bombazine, Poplin, anclLustre.-Examinccl, :i 11 tl fonnfl
to be substances eomposetl of a n1ixt11re of silk :incl wnrstea, the tn·o latter containing lllllcli more f'i lk than the
former.

Satin .-A twilled silk, 01ri11g i ts p0cnlinr ln strc to the
nu1uber of tlircatls of warp p:1ssc d 01·1:1· hy the woof' hcrorc
it p:-isses 1111([, I' 011(~ of tl1t' lll. \\"l1e11 (:1kc11 011t or tli 0 loorn,
it presents a sl igliL degree nl' ront.d !JJ css or Jl n~sinf's~ . How
is this rc1u u n~ tl r Tli t' ,.J, il,Jr, 11 c:111:ill1• •ll l1,11r tlit·ir :i p r <> n s
louk :t(Le r tlii:y lt:1n: lJt~<'lt 11·:1, iit•d a11.J <i1·i<'d . . \i-" tlir·i· fit,
to wear? 1'i o; they iook rongh. H ow do they f~el?
Very stiff and uncomfortable. How can this roughness be
removed? They must be ironed to make them smooth.
· Then how do they think satin can be made so nice and
smooth? J L!St in the same manner, it is passed between
. heated iron rollers, which smooth <lown the surface, and
give to it that beautiful lustre p eculiar to satin.

much on the structure and living action of the plants,
that some introdnetory account of the latter seems clcsiralJle.

The most impnrt:int part s of a plant :ire: tl1c root,
stem, branches, lc:n·es, lrnl1 s, flo,,·ers, frnit, and seeds.
The root is that pnrt of a plant \d1ieh grows uncl cr
gro un d; it Rcn·0s the purpose of fixing the plant firml y
am1 of :ibsorlJing moist urc for its support; it is usually
more or lc~s fi brous, and the absorption of moistmc takco
rhC'<' :ilmoct ('11\in·ly nt t11 c; \'('!"." c :dl' l' IJ1itics or poi nts of
thr' filirco.

In some plants the root often serves as a storehouse of
nourishment for their growth during the following year.
This is the case in those plants which, like the carrot and
parsnip, instead of flowering in the first yea1· of th eir
growth, produce and store up nourishment for the second
year, when they bring f<;>rth flowers and seeds. Plants
growing in this manner are t ermed biennials, and the nutrimeflt stored up during the first year in their large fleshy
roots is often used for food by men and animals. · .
The stem or trunk of a ~rec consists of three distinct .
parts; in the centre is a light, soft, cellular substance,
termed the pith.; which in some plants, as the elder, is sufficiently large to be readily examined; its use appears, ~o, b~ .

224

L------"-

""'~"

REMARKS.

FIFTH STEP.-VEGETAllLE KINGDOJII.

to convey the sap upward to th e leaves when the plant is
very young, and before oth er ch:inn cls arc forrncll for its
~Rcent; ri s the ph11t incrr1srs in nc,·r'. t11r' ]'ith h'r ' n•nr"s rlr_i-,
l."i n1 111:\i"('ill iy or Jl(l fortlt0r ll"i l', nnd lll:l_r ],, .. l"l'll l()\"('11 witl1ou!; injury to the li fe o f the tree.
The piLh is su rrounded hy tlll' woorl, 1d 1ich consist8 nf
to1wh
,--. ' strnn"
,-., filJI"<''
'
' ' fi1·111l1·
.. ~ 111 1"1 t l.·(1 t ( ·1_'..!,·(' tl } I. ·' i·' Sf) : t ') f () I..() l'l l l :1
.su]iu sulistaiH·.c ; tli(';:e !iur<>~ nre :-irr1n n-r;j ,oi ,k ] , 1. <j,],,
.__,
~
'
'

i·unning in the direction of the stem

01'

trnnk : 1h n· r:-insr>

wh:it is tcnnct1 l.i1l' .~ rain nC t11c wn"rl, :111<1 :1rr· 1·1i t .1 rr n,y
:i 11il'cc nC 11· 0 1"l i.~ cut against tlie grain, a11tl to rn
from each other when it is split witli the grain.
wli en

. RYc1·:- rnmm l'r a fr,.,)1

'['l:ll!lit.r

or

1\"Uucl is fornH·d

round tl1at prniou ~ lr l:""-lciL i11g; ead1 season's growth is
tJH'rcf;,,.,,
"f"1'< 'C" ~ ;+ ) .
. j .
~•- ._ ~ "" ' " .. J1v ,,I'·v11· C)·j·lll L[ er, 111c
osmg the wood
previ0nsly frwmrcl, :-inrl the :1p11car:111cc iL exliiliit<i wh<'IJ
0

t he tree is cut across is, of course, circular, the whole
mass of wood being formed of a series of such circles
each the result of one year's growth ; ·it follows that by'
counting them we may ascertain the age of the tree ; the
first year's wood is next the pi th, that formed the second
year is outside that of the first year, and so on ; a fresh
circle being deposited each year external to those pre·
viously formed.
·
.

If a single circle is examined, it will b e found th!'l.t the
vessels are larger and more open in that part which is
nearest the centre of the tree ; this arises from the fact
that this is formed in tl;e spring, wh en growth is more
rapid, and the leaves require a larger quantity of sap; in
some woods, tho great difference between the inner and

·~ \ ~· 1.

outer part of each circle, renders the rings very distinct, "'
as in oak, ash, and elm ; in others, as beech and mahog·
:rnv, the tcxtnrr is mnch more 1111iform ; in the wooc1 of
the !ir tribe, t ltc nore;i arc fillc d 1rith rcs111ous malt er, rendering tho circles ycry cvirlcnt .
The ol<1cst wood in a tre e is towarll the ce ntre of tlrn
trnnk; th; .~ is tcrnll'<l the hcnrt 11·oor1; tl1 c youngest and
softcst i~ at the ont ide, :rntl i" c:i.lli>tl the "' ~P wnod , hec:1.11se it is through it that the sap rises to supply the
lc:ivrs ; the s:-tp wr><)([ is gr:-irfo:-tli y con1·crtct1 into 11e:ut
0

>vooJ as it grows older, the pores ancl interstices being

:filled up and darkened in color by th e thickened juices,
>r hi ch dcscc11d from tltc kans t11rongh the lia ck, alHl
reach the o!Jer circles by means of a series of pas~agcs ~
p:issing iu w::nJ from the Lark Lo the pilh. These mcclull:u y pns,:1g c;i or r ays (t.crnu' <1 11y c:-tqwntcrs the Rih·cr
. grain, from their giving a glistening appearance to the
woo\! when it is cut parallel to them) are· large and readily
observed in oak or beech, while in fir wood they are small,
numerous, and not easily distinguished. For purposes re·
_quiring strength and dnrability only the heart wood is
employed; timber tre~s should be felled at mature age,
when the heart wood is well formed, and before any decay
has commenced ; the best season for felling is winter,:
when the sap is present in very small · quantities ; after
having been felled, they should _be seasoned by an · e~o-.
sure to dry air for at least two years, otherwise the wood
will warp and split when used; well-seasoned timber · employed' in dry situations is extremely durable ; if wholly
sunk in water, the durability is much lessened, and, when , ..
10*

i-

FI FTH STEr.-

REMARKS. ~.\

VEGETAnLE KINGDO.l\I.

2.27
\

exposed t o alternate moisture autl llro ught, all timLer decays rapidly.
I n its p ower of r esist ing prc ~surc, t i mb er

11i:1v

h r rc-

Jeayes on th e top of t h e trunk. Of this kind of growth
the vari om; palm t.rePR nr e w 01l known examples.
Le:i,·es arc t ht~ fia t, green , cxpamlecl Lod rcs growing on

gar ,Jeu :is i11co n1p n's.,ibl e i11 t h e di rec t ion of its fi hr~cs ; lrnt

the Lr: rncl1cs.

to the ;--..rr1·. t1'1
pre;;,;cd a t ri o lit a1wle;;
•J
.1
,

\l' li ich is sometimes nett ed, as in mos t of the or,Jinary leaves

0

•

.::i

t)1n
..
, .... cci"t
,., l ' ('l

]·'
1. . l
\.l [l (..;;i;, StlCl

E :wh l l' at' cirnsis \ 9 l' f a fr:unc\\'ork of Ycins,

as fir, sltri11k c.u 11 sidn: il iiy; in. rc~ i ,tin'!,' a forc e l'll !li iw i ll

of this eo t1 ntry, :1IH1 Wllll'lillll'S j>Crkctly parallcJ, :1s in Olli'

01 1 1 1 o~itc airecti11nr..:, tirnlJ cr 1)()~ _;(' ,- .;_;:; r_-~ ('TJ,1: · 1n ~~ 1 1~ -.;f n·11r rfh .

gr:1ssr'4 :rn 11 gr:1ins, and i11 ·all the tre es uf the palm triiJc;

~am of o a k

b ctweC' n the vein~ i~ th P p n lp, h:wing nnmeromi nir cavilieR

'

! Ilg

o r Jir nno inrh F'}ll:trc

llIJ\l':lrd of Jil't.:

(O US ;

hcin.~ c:i pablc

~-:>

of

suµ i~rt~

ill bea ri ng :l Cl'OSS o<( r:1i 11 , tJw

p:issing through iL in eYC ry di r ection; the \\ho le is coYercd

uif:

fo rcHt k ill ds vary co nsi d erab ly, so mf', ri s Ji 1·, &e. , lwin ""

with a sk in , exte n di ng

rn nch wc:ikc nc 11 hy tlH· trn rlc ncy of tl1c auuual cir cles t~
separate from each other.

011 th e u1Hk r ~11rf:1 cc l1ci11g l'i l'rccll \ritlt irnrnmcr:1l>l e

O\'Cl'

lrnth surfaces of t he lea f: 1.hat

breathing pores.
T h e action of t he differen t r arts in the liviug vegetablo
may be thus brietiy described. , T he root s, by their cxlrt.:ine l!'-'i n l ~ , :10:.:<)rh frn rn" thr · soil w:itc r conta ining cer-

• T Le useA of the wood t o the tree :iro t o give firmness
anJ sLrcJJg Ll 1 to t he ste m, and to serve as a channel for the
n ~eent of thr f' ::tp tr1 t110 l ra,·1·s :111•1 floi\'crs .

t ain 1niue ral au t.1. u Lhel' r:s ub.::sLaIH;eo; dJi.ci

..:l..rutuid Llw wuvJ is Lliu Lark.

This also is formci! in
circles, but they arc so pressed together by th e growth of
the wood beneath that they cannot readily be counted.
The bark vari es mu ch in ch::t r:ictr r in rliffcr cnt t rees, Leii.w
•
0
sometuu es fibrou s, as in th e bass tree, so much employed by
gard eners and nurserymen; leath ery, ::ts in the bark of the
birch, of which boxes and canoes arc made ; or corky, as in
the cork tree of Spain and P ortugal.

In the trees of tropical climates th e arrange.m ent of
the woody matter in the stems is very dissimilar to that
• ~ccurring in the trees of temperate countries ; there is, as
it were, a mixture of pith and woody fibres together and
no trace of circles can be observed. Such trees are ~asily
recognized by their appearance, as they are almost inva- .. .
riably destitute of branches, bearing merely a tuft oflarge · :,

,.,

Ilbe .S

t hrough .t he

sap wood, and is conveyed by the bran ch es into the leaves i
there it is exposed freely to the action of the sun and air,
~ nn ~ h rg C' p0rti on of t he water e~capes h y evnpor ation '.
th e r emainder i ~, by t he iniln oncc of th e air entering.
• thro~1gh the breathing pores, converted into the nourish· ·
ment r equired for the support of tho plant and for the
formation of its peculiar products and secretions.
Such portion of the sap as is not required for the
growth of the flowers and fruit descends .b y th~ ba1:k, and,
passing inward by the medullary rays, is stored up in the
heart wood, or, as.in the case of biennials dui"ing th~ir first
year's growth, descends to .the fleshy root, ther~ to ,be
stored up as nutriment for use during the next season, as
in the case of the carrot and parsnip. ·

j~

•.

,
r•

228

FIFTH STEP.-VEGETABLE KING DOM,

,,

CORK;

229 .

'....

'"

When any peculiar substance . of a medicinal or other
marked clrnractcr is produced by a plant, it is obvious that
we may, in many cases, be so guided by a knowledge of
these facts, as to obtain it in the greatest quantity. Thus,
when the sap is first absorbed by the roots, it is thin and
watery, not possessing any dcci<.Jcd })ropcrti cs. Th e s:ui1e
remark applies to it as it exists in the sap wood, but in its
altered state in the leaves it })Ossesses marked and decided
})roperties; 11ence leaves are frequently employed for medicinal or other purposes, as in the case of tea, and of the
sweet 11erbs used in cookery; as the altered sap descends
by the bark, that part becomes charged with the peculiar
substances which the plant has tl1e power of forming; and
thus bark is very frequ ently employed in the arts, and
also in medicine. Oak and other barks used in tanning,
and cinnamon employed as a spice, may be taken as examples.

flower is termed the corolla ; this also consists

'\" ·:>

or'seveinl >. ~ .

I f-like parts, which are termed petal s.
.
. small
ea The corolla surrounds t 1le s tam ens ' which
me
. t"
of an
s mg
. bl e in number, cons1
bodies, exceedingly vana
enl~r
ed head
g
el onga t e d S talk. or filament crowned by an
O

r anther.

·

i·

the
d
d
1 rotecting them U ntil t hey have arrive
young sec s, anc P
.
·t f the flower· it
.
. tl
ost rn1portant pa1 o
at matun ty, is lC m .
.
as the apple and en. l 't t d bemg m some, •
is various Y BI ua c '
.
. .
the cherry,
cumber, b e1ow the flower ' and m othe1s, as
·
as its name imp ies,
T he seed vessel, containmg,

Should the wood itself be required for the sake of any
substances contained in it, the heart wood filled with the
alte red sap is mucl1 more valuable than the sap wood ..

.
l
· cs &c .· us plants-as grams, pn se., spic ,
.
,. f. d and other purSeeds o vano
l
d usc of by man lOr oo
are large Y ma e
d
. mall space a quantity
'
1
tain 8tore \l l} 111 8 •
poses ; as t iey con
.'
,. . ,the st·1pport of the young
matter l OI
· ·
of very nutnt10us
•
. rth before it has
.
h first starres
of g1 o" '
0
plant durmg t C.
bt · its own nourish·
.
form ed roots and }caves, soastoo am
. ment from the earth and air.

The root, also, as in the case of jalap, rhubarb, cl1icory, •
&c., &c., is often charged wi th the peculiar principles of the
plant producing it..

OBJECTS DERIVED F•ROM TTIE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.

within it.

f

Bark and Ste1!1-s.

The flowers consist. of Reveral part.fl, e::rnl1 1fo:t.irwt. in its
structure and use; the outer part, usually green in color,
which encloses aU the others in the flower bud, is termed
the calyx or flower cup; it usually consists of several 1eaflike parts more or less united at the edges; these are
termed sepals.

LES S ON

VI I.

•conK.
'

Tlie more highly-colored and ornamental part of the

/,

::un~santly

•

•

C k . the bark of a small everNatural History.in Spain, Portugal, the
green oak which grows
f Africa. When the tree is
south of France, and north o d
circular cut is made
from fifteen to twenty years' ?l ' a

230

'. \'
231
,. "'.:_ ._.-.

CANES.

FIFTH STEP.-LESSON VII.

-

around the trnnk immediately below the branches, and another at the surface of the ground; several perpendicular
incisions arc then made from one to the other, and the
cork removed by inserting a blunt instrnment undcrne;.i.th
it, care being taken not to injure the inner bark, which
would cause the death of the tree. The operation is per·
formed in July or August, and is repeated every eight or
ten years during the whole life of the tree, usually about
150 years.
The cork, when removed, is slightly charred
scorched; this improves it by closing the ]JOres, and
.ables it more easily to be flattened by pressure, at
same time giving it the dark color and burnt odor
which it is distinguished.

or
enthe
Ly

Uses.-Tho qualities that render cork so V:1hrnhle are:
its lightness, its being cornprPsoible, elasti<', aml impcnious
to lil1u id:'I; its liglit.11C'ss n~ 11dern it Y alu : tl;lr~ ill e n n ~ t t'ttr·t ing
lifc'lJ11 :1 ts, <'ork j :wkcts, illl:1I.-; f;,r li,Jii1 1g ll(' ts, and nt lier p nrposcs; its being compressible', C'l:1st ic, and impcnions, rcn<l<>r9 it fittN1 for (']no;in:; t'10 mn11th~ 0 f h <> Ulr·", :1~, '.\ l:ca
firmly forced in, its elasticity causes it to press so closely
against all parts of the month as to prevent the contents
from escaping, or the air from gaiuiug access.
Cork is also occasionally used in thin layers to form the
inner soles of shoes ancl hoots ; it is cut into the required
shape :fur the var~us purposes• for w liich it is used by
means of broad knives, which reqnire constant sharpening.
Bungs for casks are so cut that their flat sides correspond
to the two sides of the co:·k, while bottle corks are cut in
the opposite direction; the latter are consequently mnch

'•. ,

-:·: . , ·.-·':

direction of thetr length, und afford , a,
less porous in the
more secure fastening.

LESSON VIII.
C.A.NES.

.

Canes or rattans, are the long,
Natural History.'
'Id . tl
.
f palm which grows w1 m ic
1 der stems of a species o
1 d
s,. en t of the East I ncl'ics, the
. Malay. peninsula, and t JC a ·
k LI . for the extraor·
iores .s
.1 d
tl c plants arc rcmar a e
jacent is an s; 1
•
1. h occasionally reach
.
1 th of then· steimi, w 11c
.
dmary eng ·
b dantly furnished with
f et . they are a nn ,
ortcd 011
several hun d re d e '
kle"
by
means of which they are supp
.
hoo lme1 pnc ..,
the tops of the highest trees.
.
d str.ipped of their
The stems arc cut by the natives, an 1 b b . g pulled
d tbeni like a sheat i, y em
leaves, which s.nrrom~
. l
arc then dried in the
.
· cut 1ll a tree ' t icy
tl iron.,o-11 ,a not<'h
·. rl n i in bnndlL'S for export:<t 101!.
sun, aml tic
1
. l .l ,fl\" () f t ()\ \" 11 woo<l
y fihrro,
. t
·' ' .
[,'$!'s.-C,111cs consh c l ' •
"
.
f he
..
. f o icn tubes to allow the ascent o t
with fl nun1hc1 o
1.,.
1 tl e rrreat evaporation
. '
ffi . ~ n \ r~ p irl1t\ t0 Fnpp y 1 ~
&ap 111Ll1 ;:; U L•""
.
•
tl c ontsidc they are
1'
from the leaves; on i
that takes P ace
.
t' er of extreme hard·
d 'th transparent flmty coa m,,,
covere w1 a .
~·1 . tl c direction of their length,
. ·nes split reau1 y m 1
t
nesg , ca ·
.
ttice work of the sea s
] f formrno- the open 1a
and :ire uscc or
o
,.
h" b they are well
(\ · i!ar purposes, 1or w ic
.
of chmrs, an . Slffi
.
CT t , rrth of the fibres, and
t ughncss an
s 1 en_,
adapted b Y t.1ie 0
Those arc es·
.•
f the external covermg.
the hardness o
.
1 . color very loner, thin,
•
h best which are pa e m
'
"'
. teemed t e .
.
b d without cracking the
and . sufficiently flexible to
en
glazing.

232

FIFTH STEP,-LESSON IX.

In addition to th
. .
ese uses, the })!ant yields ..n n e d'bl
fi1 Ult nnd I
I e
'"
w icn cut ncros
fl
sap takes place fro~ th:' a lowfoflwholesomc, refreshing
enc o t ie stem . th
shoots also furnish when
e youug
,
'
'
coo1cec1 a pleasa t
d d .
article of food.
'
' n au
chcate
Within the last few vears
I
J
, canes 1ave been
h
1argely imported ti
,.
muc more
1:111 iormerlj'
d b
' an t ey are now emPio y ed fio1. coarse basket work wh'
I .
violence ; for this their . .
ic I is exposed to great
able. Th 1 .
. g1eat strength renders them valu.
e ar ge baskets used b
other trades ,. h
y grocers, bakern, and
' ior eavy good
.
made of unsplit canes.
s, ai e now also frequently

LESSON !X.
ClIAUCOAJ,.

Prepa1·ation.-Tbe term c

•
oal, or cole, was originally
applied to wo . .
burned
hod od1 any substance used for fu el; hence lialf
or c arre wood received 1't
Cha·t coaI is
·
s name of charcoal.
prepared b
t .
.
d
,
y se tmg fire to a heap of sm II
Woo ' almost entirely c . 1 ·
a
when the whole is i"'niteodve1l·ec. with a fayer of earth, and
.
"'
c osmcr the ope ·
b
I.
air has been allowed t
"'
nrngs Y w 11ch
the wood .
. . o enter, the fire is thus put out and
is made fro11enmlamsdm a charred state. The best charcoal
iar wood.
Properties.-Wood h
.
.
c arcoal is a light black
0
1
::~ ; :!o~ving d~~tin~tly the annual rings and strnct~:: :;
reduced t rom w ich it was formed; it is brittle and easily
o a coarse powder th
II
.
.
' e sma particles of which it
is composed bei
d·
• ng excee mgly hard . . It is perfectly un.

0

1

changeable in air, insoluble in water
acids, and also infusible in the fire.

is so bad a conductor of heat,
in the fingers within a quarter of an inch of the red hot
.i
part.
Uses.-Charcoal is remarkably distinguished by its
power of absorbing gases to the extent of many times it~
bulk; hence it is frequently employed to remove any un·
pleasant odors arising from putrefying .animal substances,
which it does by absorbing them. The' chief use of char•
coal is as fuel; it is much m~re largely employed 'for thi~
·purpose in cities than in the country; it is also 'extensively ,.
.
.
I
,
used in the manufacture of gunpowder, that prepared from '
I
.
the black alder being usually selected. Its power of· ab<
sorbing odor leads to its use iii correcting the smell 'of
. ", ·~,(~:~
tainted meat; and it is som<:itimes spread upon over-ct:owd- · ' ·,
~•.,~ ~
1
ed churchyards with the same view. Powdered peat char- 'f
coal is also used in. some European countries to absorb the
' smell of offensive manures previous to their being spread
upon the soil; and wat er is frequently purified by filtering
tbrongh a layer of powdered charcoal. It is also used for
· polishing bard substances; for making crayons, and in med·
icine. Animal charcoal, which is prepared by heating
bones to redness in close iron vef\sels, is largely used in t'!rn
sugar refineries, as when syrup made from raw or brown
sugar is filtered through a layer of it, the coloring matter
is absorbed by the ch;ucnal, and the syrup becomes color·
less. (See Sugar.)
" .' ·

1.1· ·'

"·'

234

-

FIFTII STEP.-LESSON IX:.

t·

'•

~..;1

~~ .

grains contain a very large proportion ·!'( s_~~~clji~J~~e

GRAIN AND PULSE.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

.Description.-The plants yielding grain are annuals;

•

the whole plant, including the root, dying when the seed is
ripe; theit· stems, which are t ermed straw or culm, are
hollow, and divided into lengths by partitions across the
interior, 'c orresponding with knots or swellings on the outside-; this structure is evidently intended to strengthen the
hollow stalk; this stem is covered externally with a siliceous or flinty varnish, which gives a peculiar harshness to
the straw. The leaves arise from the knots, alternately on.
opposite sides of the stem; each leaf has a b1;oad, fiat stalk
which is rolled around the stem, so as to form a sheath:
split up on one side ; the blades of the leaves are Ioiig, and
tapering to a point; their veins run straight, and parallel
with each other, from the base to the point, not branching
out and reuniting, as is common with most leaves; the last
leaf of the stalk forms a sheath, which is securely and
closely rolled around the young heads or ears of grain. .
The blossoms of the grain vfants are formecl of small
scales, which are at first green, but become yellow when
ripe; they enclose a one-seeded fruit t ermed a grain; the
blossoms are usually arraugecl in close 11eacls, termecl ears
o'. spikes ; grains and grasses belong to the same tribe of
plants, differing only in respect to size; the seeds of all
grasses might be used for food if they were large enough
to answer the purpose, as no grass plant, except the common darnel, is unwholesome when in a healthy state. The

~

,,r:;.

Starcli), a cons.iderable quantity of a very \:trengt~efi~g ~'.r~~··
food known as gluten, a variable amount of oil or fat, an~ ' .'' . _
small quantities of sugar, gum, fib re, an d other substances; ' '.. '
The native country of the common grains is un.kno~~-; .. ,
with the exception of barley, which is indigenous Ill s1;tly
and the interior of Asia, they arc not found anywhere l~ a
have been m-.
wild state; but are probabl y grasses wh'ch
l
creased in size and value ~y cultivation; when allowed to
and cease to bear
seed
grow w1'Id , they
· soon decrenerate
o
.
sufficiently large to be available for the ~ood of man'. .

!
LESSON X.
DARLEY

.A.ND

MALT.

"·',....~,··""

;:

,.,.;~·

.•
i
' ( ' ,,
\ .. '"• ~1,"•t•r. 1 ~1,.."
!
~ 1',._,hi .. .'?t,#" . •l'
I

:I

,

'-'

1
\

·l. ·

' ~"' \1-.t~~~ ..l

· t·
Bar·ley next to wheat, is. on~ of the most. · .~ 1 • ,.. ·• • '1
O'ult iva
ion.· '
.
:.... · . "•. j{~
import~nt grains cultivated in this coun~ry. L1k·e· most of
. .. ~ 't ,
th~ grains, its native country is unknown, and; .1f allowed
1' ·
to grow wild, it rapidly degenerates.
Two distinct kinds are cultivated-winter barley and
spring barley.
·
. .
. Barley is a very hardy grain, capable of res1stmg both .
heat and drought, and may therefore be more profitably
grown upon poorer soils than wheat; it comes quickly to matur~ty, and ripens perfectly in shqrt northern . summers,
which are not long enough to admit the ripening of wheat;
it is the latest sown· ancl the. earliest reaped of all our sum. ; m
· w·arm count1·1'es two harvests of barley are
mer grams
reaped each year-one from the winter, the se~ond from
the spring sown. This fact explains the passage m Exodus

236
FIFTH ST.EP.-LESSON X.
•'(

ix, 31, where the pla"'uc of I ·1 .
:,"
aud the b ·I
"'
. im Is mentioned :-«Th --fl ~· a1 cy were smitten for I
e ax
ea1· . ,, " but ti
I
'
t te barley was in ti , .'
'
ie w ieat and tl1 - 1.
ie .
ti
e ye were n 0 t
·
·
icy were not grown up." TJ .
smitten, for
March; tho first crop of L ·I
IIS pbgue l1appened in
1 .·
a1 cy was, there[; .
.
Jal mg been sown tl
. .
o1 e, nearly npc
IC p1 CVIOU S ant.1111111.
.
I n tl11s conntrv bn, ·l - ·
. , ' cy is usually su wn f·
.

"

.
o f Apnl to th e midcll - . -.
tom tho middlo
c of l\Iay, althouO'h th
,
,
somewl1at in different I
1· •
b
c tune varies
oca 1tm•, and is
_
h and, or with tl1c 1 '11'
su11ll lirnadcast by
l ll lllg maclnnc.
It l 11-- .
seasons; if thrrc · .
_
l 11 cs J,cst m drr
1-~ m11c/1 r:1111 1' t1 ··.
•
VC!T 1 - t
ll CVllil'S <11,J·l •
•
I c oc:1so11s c :icli "l" __
_
'-' ' ;., a11r -l 111

o ,1111
wliolc is rcuden;d w0rth/c-3s,
·
· ' :i-, JI~

\\ J 11 o11 r

t .

JU tl1c

o11

c:1r,

a11tl the

i11111lies,
gronn•1t1nrinn·11" t ,.. ,..
remain~ in thn
,
''-'
,, t " \ .i .~1 >11, :11Jd i ~ u.suall
. .
rh n rp1.111ti1 _,- ,,f J,;11 ·1,., , .. ,-.. ·,. - 1
.Y S01\-n Ill Or·t nhr1-.
. .c nt· hnd . •
on nn fffpr·:·;,..,. 0 fr, 11 t •. _,· 1 ·." 'l" ' '-'ll UH 'au ,1c1
10
l<'.:1< ·lt

ll:llllc

- .ll \1 C I1 ! \---/ 1,. n t . 1 / .
,
..
J .. ·-' - •
.'. - "
i11ly-f11·1· h11·,J11 -h.

r

!!l':tin

~...

.......

o.;.t1

·~ · \·

-RYE.' .

~ ~: ~~'.:1i:

. _-:::_ . •;ti!J~:rg

I ~ Small

:~this
>

root, as it would if planted in moist earth
~h~c.k
growth,' the barley is spread out to dry 0~1 · flo~rs;'·~~

;1i;'

afterward heated in a kiln ; the color of the malt varies
with the heat at which it is dried; the darker kinds are
used for brewing porter, and the lighter for ' ale. Afte1:
having been kiln dried, the root is broken off by stirring
the . malt with spades, and, when separated by silting,
form s the substance known as malt dust or malt culm,
whi ch is mccl fur Dheqi fl'c<1in g, :mil sometimes rm manure.

f ' tJ'1 "

~,

1
vJJg

,

happen to all

Sl'l'cls

(lnring ge r mination; th e starch matter

the taste of malt is s"·eet, and it is the sugar which, dissolved by boilin g water, r.hanges d urin g formentation into
the spiriLuvus 11art of Lh e !Jeer.
Harl ey do cs not fo rm a p:ihtalil(' bn':l<l when gro1tn<l

0r bc:i11l

sometimes usccl for food, espcc i:il ly by inY alids, i11 the fo rm

,·

.-

'''

.t

J1,1s

n-1\-('ll

;-..

-

-, .

ll"

l!'llJFi

·

: ..,, 1
1l:.tlu e 1y,

--

t

~i

f•J)( ·

()f

:ii111

f

_I lllld1< 1 Ill L JIC• I IJ
-

n i11 ·

di\

i-.;i r1

·

1·,u

1· 1

one-thirtl .
.
. _jj ~ u. olie iu ch,
' It l1rn; ,, rec+np cl , l .
· •L ' 1 1:n tlirt'I' b:nlvy
co rns pl:ic<'d en l 1
' " c 11 .J rwil- ,
·
7 r,. 1 .~ --T'
' " <m e• 111cl1 in Jcr 1,, t Ii. '
. . - 11e g r c,1t It '<"• ,,f' l " ·I . .
.

) .. l r ' ~\
1-..: 1 n 111 : 1 l.-c•
l
. .
. llla.i. t, J; n
·- I 1110' sp1nts Tl I .
,
perform ed h
. "'. .
·
rn ma tmg of bnrley
y stccpm[T it in w:-it c
•.
soft an<I swollen . it . 1"'
, r n11t1! it lws become
' , JS Lion taken ont
1 JI
:-inJ rclllai11 in hc111q f, . J
.
. 1n< :i o11-cd t.o drnin,
.
o1 a Jo11t iort.y· l
t ime each [Train l
.
!Ours, durinrr wliich
c
iegms to gr - , .
.
.-.
o1~ o1 gernunatc
- 1·mg out
, , sen(

JJl'P\1·i11,
' ·· ~s

18

L __ . _

ot-;et '

-

.

and di~fj]"

i

is convcrtc<l into sngar, which is capal1lc of being clissoh-e d

donlily ro11ir1l J •
•
"' ic ,s l~Ji1 1 of a i::;r:ii11 is
•
. ., 1!•111g 1•ri1 11 tcd ·1 [ il 1c
1
.
grooyr 011 1111 " ,·1
.
'
' 1·111 \ :111tl t l1rr1• jq a
1
•
' ' " ; 1ron1 it .Y t r,/" 1 ~ir l .
·
· '

111 ( II r1 '.')i IJJ " . ! J '

!j

Dnring malling, l;arky umlcrgocs the ch:111ges that

iuto flour, as iL j,; coM;-;c, dry, aml apt Lu l; c;come i->ullr. It i8

which is J, r<>kcn n f)' .

•

.

in th e juire9 of the growing plant and nourid1ing it ; hence

'TI'"i11f,,1 · lx1rl ,·1-

·' '

.-

of i'l':lrl b :1rlcy; this is formc<1 l>y grinding off tlw
husks in mills :1(bpt('1l fur t h:i t pnrpo.c;c.
Jt is

ll.'<'<1 ;i,;

on tcr

foorl fur l "rnlt ry, :rn 1l , \\ lwn g rn1111<1 into

rncil, fur fattening 11ig~, tur ke y~, :uu1 <>fh('r :u1i111: tk

1-hrlc y straw is of con siderable ya]nc as foddL'l' for
cattl e anr1 hor."·~.

LESSON XI.
JlYE.

Cultivation.-Rye is a grain capable of growing on
lighter and poorer soils, and in colder latitudes than tho

.

~
•

,,..,'),.:~

>.I·

·.·

: !

i

t

.· •.. -239 •.

238

· OATS;

FIFTH STEP.-LESSON XI,

other varieties of grain. It is, therefore, the prevailing }'·.
grain in a portion of Siberia, the North American Russian ,J"
possessions, the northern part of the New England States,
and the north of Europe. It requires less care in the preparation of the ground, and a less a1i1onnt of manure than
is given to either wheat or barley; but the value of the
produce is proportionably small. Rye is usually sown in
the autumn after a crop of wheat, although the nature of
t he previ ous crop is not of g reat imp ortan ce. It is supposed t o ljo a nat il'o of tho desert co m1 tr ic2 ro nm1 the
C:-ispirm Sea.
r~,cs . -nyc

is c11lli 1·atL'd for sen•r:il lfr,tinct purposes.

T he r ip e g r:iin , g ro11111l in l o m eal,' is l:ug l~ l y u sed hy t h o

poo rer cl:1;:s of ]'C'<l]>i<c in J:1 1s.,i:1, :rnr1 otl11·r p:1rts of tho
Cnnt.incn t , fnr 1n:1Li1 1'..!· :1 <«1:11·s1\ li":1n· Li11d of lirc:1rl , "liich
i .-. : Yf· r} ·

d :1r k

in

<'· ·l c11"

:·1 11 l l '-! J] 1:ti ;d:tli ]1._

ripe 1train iR formm1t.f'd. nnrl
fru111 tiw Ji,1 11 id .

l~_l l'

fl.

rli~tillP.-1

Jr 1

lL 1lh 11d t lu:

i::pirit. oht.ninPfl

str :111· f,q·m.; tl1 u lH'sL rn:ilcri:1l tor

thatching, and is much used for making straw piait for
hats and bonnets.
In this country, rye is not largely used for food, and but
a limited amount of it is raised.
It is only on the poorer and rnorc barren soils that it is
cultivated for the sake of tho grain ; but in some situations
near poultry yards a bolt of it is sown around fields of
other grains, to protect them from fowls, as they do
not relish rye as food. One circumstance that renders rye less desirable as food for man, is the occasional occurrence of a disease in the grain, rendering it
extremely unwholesome; in _this affect.ion, the grains en-

·~· f~·~ --:.f/,'\•.c,.t.~,

1

hat · like ··tbe - .
. _,:•.
. . bl and become somew
.
. ,c:\
. ·.·large very cons1de1a y,
. . d rye or ·· er~
. ..
k. hence the name spur re
'
.
'.~ curved spur of a coc .' .
d .rain a very useful med1rom tlns disease g
goto f rye. F
.
..
cine (secalo cornutum) is oxtiactcu.
LESSON XII.
OATS.

.

T he nat ivc country o f oa t,~ is not k nown
.
'
Th e plant flourish es 1ll
, l1cn-rco of ccrt :1inty.
.

Cultruatwn.,yjth an)

"'
. 1 • any other grain , and is
·l imatcs and se asons t.un
'
.
.· Q
colder c
1 . . l ' 1 in l1i«h .mnnnt:unons co11nti1c.,
r
hrrq•]\·
en
lll a C<
·"'
•
l'f
t 11orc1ore · "' · • ,
S ·,
In ari iicarance it ul - ,
'
1 N 01. \"\)' and ' wel1cn.
.
,
.
as ScoLla11L'
' · '
.
t1 e ilo\i·ers bcmcr ar. 1 f
1 the other "r:uns.
l
"'
"'
frrs striking Y ron
,
h'm«~ with the open
. I .. li1\\\cl11'" , r;n t 11:11 (' ;\ C1l . -~·
. l
.,\,\, ·i• i-r:i n<'<·!llcnt
r:in;_'. <' <1 in '"-" l'
.
wh1 c, 1
\''
(">i
1
I
n
1
~ t' , ]-·' ·-:l : i 1)\\ -:t r i111 l..
,
•
1<:1\'l "l .I I l. ' "
f . >\, \,O lLtC " l" :l\I\.
'rrcYC'nt'l thP ncceSS 0 \\ '-'
. o \ . . . )"lilt r\'. ~\ll·h fl S t1JC"
. .
] · ' lU '\"l\ ll\ \. . llo l ' '
'
:"<' H'r:i\ y :u i <' llCS :tl"l' "

' • •

white, rod, l..llack, &c.
A .
,.,l ay beinrr scattered
.
. in pn1 or -'-' ,
o
Oats are usually so" n
f f·
fnnr. to six bushels
d

t t,he r aLc o

i nm

broadcast by han ' a :
is from thirty to fifty
eracre produce
an• acre, an d tile av °
d' gly wholesome and, . at
an cxcee m
. l
f food. when kiln
'
.
. nutritious artic e o
the same time, very
. 1 tl y form the food of .
d into coarse mea ' ie
f Scotland and the
dried and gronn
'
·tion of the peop1e o
h . the form of oaten
a very large propor
north of England, being used bot m
bushels.

f

Uses.-Oats orm

d of the husks they are
cakes and porridge.
When the seeds are deprive
.·. . ,

i

~l

'~1 I

;' .!,

I

240

FIFT ll

STEl'.-LESSO~

X I II.

calletl oat grits, :mJ form :1 yery p:-iht:ible :-in11 1111tritions
food for the sick . Exc<' pt in tl 1i s form, it is lrnt littlt\ HSeJ
for food in the U 11it•.''1 S tal t·<.
The g reat co11s11 111pt i(l 11 ol' (l:tfs, lio'n'Y<'r, is as foo<l for
horses; for this vurpose they are cm1,Juycd lwth wliole and
ground; they are also used for feeding geese, ducks, and
ot her poultry, &c.
The ripe str:iw of the o:-it

1s

rr ganktl :-is rntJre 1111tri-

tiou s tl wn any other, and is prl'l(:rrctl as f\."l dn for cattle; and the chaff or llllsk nf t lie .t.::r:1i11 i,; of'tcn 11scd for
st u fling mattresses among the Scotch pc::isa!ltry, ::is it is

soft, cbstic, and incxpcnsirc.

LESSO :,r XIII.
mh: .

Cultivalion.-The nati n: COlllltry or ri ce is 11 !1(1o ubtc dly Asi:1 , in the \\' :ll'llll'r p:-irts "f >l'h icli it is t'\'Pll wn,· fnnnrl
growing wild, and the seeds collected for food; from Asia
it has been carried by man, and spread over the warmer
and more marshy parts of Europe, America, and Africa ;
its introduction into America has taken place within ihe
last one hundred and fifty years.
Tho groat peculiarity in the cultivation of rice is the
quantity 9f moistmc it requires. In this country, for ex•
ample, it is sowrt in the spring, in rows or trenches eighteen
inches apart, and the ground is flooded with water for several days; when the plants are four inches high, the flooding is repeated, and continued for a fortnight ; and again
a third time, shortly before the grain ripens, the fields are

inannc r 111
· 1 . l very rn1:c1t t l1 l'• s«mc
.. •
•
11
.
cnsc extent m
' .•
•1 c: ni11 am1 to , :rn irnHt .
.
ltah Lom1i:u, ly, an . , 1 · '
ll
11Lries tl1c best nee
,'
. ., ·l
In :t cuu
Irn1ia, China, ;ind Ce: on.
1' thro1wh which tho
~,i- a!llpY irrounc ~
o
f l
fie1<1s arc the 1ow • ,
- o .
.
, the ·waters o t 10
. other situat101b
. .
lar"c riYcrs run; rn
.
. .. , an<1 uscu for 1rr1,..,
. , . , ol\cctc cl m rcscn on.'
.

g row .

.

\'ice i:; cu\l!\':1\.C '

small Etrcarns .t1 c c
·
the
gatmg
- groun tls.

_ 1s o nr common grains ; in
.
..
.
rnuch cxccct
In fcrt1\tty nee
.
· l v l 1ush c1s cac11, arn
f th11t )' to SIX
Il1cfo1 two.• crops a yc:n, of n :lCl'e 111. I~oml1 an1y, tl_1.rce
·t1in:wv
1wor1ncc o a .
.
t I C 01
' •

1
bushels of seecl arc 5own to

:111

is fifty bushels.
f rough rice, that is,
. 'U in the gt:tte o
.
It is often sh1ppc
·1y protected from
' t is thns more eas1 .
•
with the hulls ou, :lS J
• t' on is completed lil
.
tation. Its preparn L
-:i .
damage m transpor
b •h in this country ~ 1
mills made for this purpose, o,
Europe.
ken of by name
.
. Rice, although not spo
to the sacred histo-.
.
b
been well known
.
Scriptures, must ave
.
. ltivation is alludecl to
.
. "t is probable that its cu
n ans, 1 •
.
..
·
d Isaiah xxxn, 20 ·
mlj
Eccles .. x1, 1 ' an
. '
b. f foou of a greater nu .
Uses.-Rice forms the c ie
. ~· ,,::_,;·
11
.•

242

FIFTH STEP.-LESSON XIV.

. of ~ ersons than any oth er substance; the people of India,<~
Churn, and part of Am erica, liv e chi clly upon it; with a
mixture of spices termed curry, it fo rms almost the entire
,, . food of whole races of men in India; and it is es timated
.. that it supports upward of one hundred millions of people.
. As a diet it is light, wholesome, and readi ly digested;
ut, from consisting almost entirely of starch, it is not so
nutritious as the other grains; it is used with more ad vant age mi a partial article of foor1 than nlo11c; in the latler
case tlie quantity nc ce::;sarily call'll is vc1T laq:~e.
In foclia a species of stro11g sp irit t cr;ncd .arrack is distilled from fe rm ented r ice, :mll th e stra1v is also used for
making plait for Lo1rnel s. J,:irge quantities of rice arc uset1
in Englam1 in the 111:m11l:1ctnrl' of starch.

l~nL\

'i ('Ol:'i OI: ~l.\IZI·:.

Cultfratio11, d:c. -Tl 10 11:11 j,·e pla c l~ of m:iizr' is unrlouhtcdly .Amc ri c:i, \l"h rrc it \\·as 1;11111<! g rcmi 11;; linlh 11 ilrl :i nrl
cultivated by the Spalli6h di6eovernrti vf t!JC ~ ew vv orlcl.
In, app car::mec the Indian co rn differs much from other
grains; the stalk is strong, j ointed, and reedy, growing
-· romtilcYcn t o t en fo<et in l1cic;lil, :uHl r'r>'d ·:r11 ,-,itli l·1o:1d
. alternate leaves; the t op of the stem bears a Lunch of
· barren flowers, termed tl.i e tassel; and lower d own arc the
,e ars, generally about three in number, each enclosed in a
eath formed of several tl;in leaves ; the ears consist of 3
p~thy, cylindrical stem, called the cob, on which are closely
arranged the rows of seeds ; from each seed proceeds a

='

INDIAN CORN OR MAIZE.

: ,,.,,_~:-·: ·
long Bl.lky filament ' which issues from the sheath at:the'' -·¥~M.it,...
of the ear ; after a tim e both the t assel of barren flowers, '
.
which forms a fertilizing powder necessary fo r the protec·
tion of the grain, and the silken filaments which receive it

r

,

as it falls, dry np and drop off.
The color of Indian corn varies from a rich golcfli yel·
_J
low, or even white, to a deep red chocolate color.
· The cultivation of maize is very simp~. The_grains'are
planted in rows a1)out three foet apart, care being taken
that the season is so far ad,-anced that the young plants
shall not be destroyed by the frost . Tl.ie return varies
greatly, accorcling to 1b~ quantity of manure used, .::md the
nature of the ground, but it is always very great, _m some
inslanc0s ev en several hnm1recl folt1.
"
UScs.-Tndi:m corn forms tho staple article of foocl in
many p:nts of the Uuitcd St:itc~, aml among all classes of
persons in J\foxil:O ; i11 Afric:i, ~wltcru iL !iris l >ecn intro·
c1nccr1 :inr1 is hrgcly cnltiv:-tted, it is saill to be as mueh
used

:is rice.
lu th osr' w:irni co11nl ril'S

11

l1 crc it grows to perfect ion,

it, is the moRt proii.La1le graiu that can be cultintccl, its

produce ueiug so much greater th:.i.u thnt of any other
grain; it forms, in consequence, a cheap, and, at the ~ame
time, l'Xcccc1i ngl y 1;·]w1csomc article o'. die t , It. con:ams a
larger proportion of fat· or oil th an any o~her gram,. and
\. ·
is therefore, possessed of remarkable fattemng properties. , ,' . .;
' From consisting in great part of starch, Indian corn ':.C""~ -~~-.
flour is . not well adapted for · making bread, unless mixed .:;:; . :-:with wheat flour; it is most frequently 'Used in the form of
thick porridge, puddings, and cakes.
• h·f

;f

I\
t

'·

,_

•

•• FIFTII

!{

.

..:_.-

S.TEP.-LESSON XV

.

WHEAT.

Corn is used extensively in the Uni
.
manufacture of ~tnrch . Tl1 c hi", ..
ted States Ill the
.,_.
, , 1(' / · . · ....L ,I lll:u111Ll cL rn·i co·' arc at
.
0 S\\Ccro
J.{ l
0
., en l\i1·c, J,,,u" I .1 l
' 1. • · " .uu
mer plnce more tlnn 200,000 Lu sii uh""of::;.anL . . .;\t the .for.
starch annually wh' h .
.
co111 me made mto
laundftss
'
w is used both in cooking and by the
~-i . .. .

.

. ..

LESSON XV.
IVl!TCAT.

C11ltil•r1tio11 cf:c -Th 0
t'
n:i !\"c con ntrJ· of ]
·
k nown with any' d 0·rr.1
f
·.
w 10nt JS not
·
ee o ccrtnrnty. it 1
.
0

so changed by cultivation that i~ .
'I
ias . m. fact been
state; in Euro1)e where 't J
b JS un mown Ill its natural
1 ias eeu loner lt'
.
'
vaneties exist tl
.
"" cu JVatecl, many
.
'
ie most important b . rr
h
.
summer, and the w' t
.
eu1t, t e sprmg or
Ill er o1 lammas wh t
S .
so termed from its b .
'
ea ·
prmg wheat,
emg sown at that s
J
slend·er head tha th
.
.
cason, ms a more
n
e Wlllter kmd. 't · 1
bearded· the . · .
.
' J JS a so awned or
'
gr am itself is smaller and th
J J
more delicate
d I
'
e w 10 e plant
au
ess productive . it is th . "
cultivated.
'
'
e1 owrc, less
. vVi.nter wheat is a vioO"OJ'OUS t>.nc1
d
"
l1anly plant. TJ
is est1tuto of any awn or beard T
. .
ie car
exist, which arc disti
. h I. •
wo d1strnct kini!s of it
,
nguJs cc by tho na
d
wheat. Tl1e latter .
' mes ro and white
.
'
Is more delicate · ·
..
.
better smted to lighte.
In Its g1owtl1, and is
1
1
.
l :me $ than the r a
·r .
· for producinO' fine fl
e · t JS preferred
o
our and cons
. rates. Tlie red whe· t ' .h
cquent 1y sells at higher
' 1 ' on t e cont · .
· J
ter adapted to th
Id
.
ia1y, Is iardy, and bet~
.
e co ' strong clay ·1
·nT·
is sown in the . t
. soi s. n mter wheat
au umn, usually in September or Octob '
e~,

...-,.-·
..... ,
tbe young plants standing during,..
th uir scctls the foll011·i11g autumn; .
The sowing ici either bro:ulcast
with th e drill or sowing macLi11 c ; tho latter causes a much
more advantageous arrangement of tl~ ·f!e~d in fi@gtqws.
vVhoat ti'.llm·s freely; that is, ea<·h seerl produces several
stalks, the usual number b ei1w about five or six.

·• The procluce of wheat is, ~n the aveti~~abfiit'twenty­
six bushel.5 an ac re ; Lut iii' a'liitric~~\\~j;~re~ri~~e i; ~bmi·
dant and :igricnltmc carried to a high state of pe rfectio n,
much larger quantities ::ire o1Jtaincc1; forty Lushc.l~~o tho
., aqi:er. are not unfrequcnt. From the Unitecl States and
Canada large quantities of flour arc annually exported to
Europe.
Wheat is subject to a

~J

.

_

. _.

.. .

'

ais~~sc.,c:illofs~tw...ni_ay

.tr_.~

be fl:escribed as a sort of black mildew, affecting the 1:ipen· .:.,?~';-:. .
h~ grain. A few disease51. gra~ns will contaminate a large , . . ~- .
quantity of seed, :ind the pl'itii~o.c1uced•"from · such seed :~ ·'.'?t_ •• f- ·
will be affected ; forturi?ttely this~diseasc may be-a!most en- ·~· ".<;~t::;C:
tircly clcstroyca, even 'vhcn largely present jn seed "Wheat, ;
\-: .. - ~;~-·
.
. I
by steeping it in various solutions, as, for example, strong -·• :· .. " .. ·.
brine, or, what is still more effectual, a solution of -sulphate ·/?J;/~,/c
.,_ ...
··-;.:~!

of copper, or blue vitriol i or a weak solution of arsenic.
Uses.-Whcat furnishes, when gronncl, one of the most
nutritious ancl valuable of all kinds of flour; in temperate
countries, where the poverty of the inhabitants docs not
preclude its use, it forms the chief article of food. From
the tough character of the dough (obtained by mixing
wheat flour with water) it forms 11 more spongy, and,
therefore, lighter kind of bread than any other flour.

~

~

246

FIFTH STEP.-I,ESSO~ XTI.
BEA.NS.

'~)~;

.\

". The plant is an annual, from two to four feet in height ; ,. ,"-·
the leaves arc divided into leaflets; and the flowers, which '
are of that kind termed butterfly-shaped, are white, with a

. SSON XVI.
PULSE.

.
The term pulse
·
. · rn npp 11c 1 to tl1c 'era, of 11 h t
bliuo- mor' . · 1 ~ . •
.
. . .
ll s rcscmb
c o 1 c._s 111 their strndnre tl
ti . .
.
10 common l'l'::t .
IC) :110 c11nrnctcr1ze11 IJ. Jii,,J I.
,.,
'
1l . ',
} .-, I·' <'1 \' ln 1•c 11:m r111r11:u11011(a[
O\\ cis, tho corolJa consi .~t i11a 1('
, , I-· . ·
.
.
,.
•r·." • , .• ·
o < pd.I .~ \I li1ch ilrc: llT C"ld 'lI'
m 10 rm ancl wh' l ·
,.., '
'
..1.c i , lll SOlllo ~pccic .,, :1 ~ t hr f'\\'rr•l
"
rnuel1 rcse111L!o a lmtt ertl. I .
.
, pc.i, so
butt 0 ·fl. l
y , t l::tt ihey li:n· r hcc·n 1cnncc1
1 J-s 1apcd or par ·1·
the' fl , . ;
>1 wnnceous, a term which is applied
o~ c1s o the whole group.
Tlie npenecl soed vessel is ·also Yer '
. .
.
phnts It
·
'
3 J~ecnlinr m these
. . . - eons1slf; of two hnlve' or v I .
extern nil '
cl
.
·'
n 'c .. , nsnnlly convex
.
J a~.,.. c.011c::t\'c mtcrnalh-. these
npe
d cl' I
· '
Repiiriitc when
isc osc a row of seeds attached
' au
.
to each valve:
S nc ]i seed vess 1
e s ai o popul::trly t
d
known to b t .
crmo pods, :incl are
o arnsts as legumes . 1
.. .,
1 plnnts LcnnngL·~
them are frequent] , t . ~
' ien_ce tic
} mmer1 l0gtm1rn o11s 1il:1 11t '
fo tl .
country pens :1111! lw :1 11 s f ..
.
..
i1s
leguminous seeds.
. o1.11 t lic most ireq11e11tly nsc cl

black spo t on the centre of e:1ch 1ving, :rn c1 exceeding]

It should be remcmbcrr 1 ti t JI
< i:i · :i leg uminon s ,,ee]s aro
.
'
no t w 1iolcsornc · th
,.
'
osc o t 1w .Lah11rn11m tree fo. ' often give rise t
.·
.
' c t example,
o scuons Illness wl1 en eaten hy eLildrcn.

from day t o day.
Uscs.- Bo:ms constitute a nry hearty food, ..,:nd tho

1

<

to

Q

fra g rant ; each

flO\\' Ct'

is Sl1 CCCeuec1 by a broacl thick "i)Oµ

smo oth cxtcrn:illy :rn<l woolly internally, containing

~eve

SCC<b.

Beans reqnirc a hcnvy clay mil, nllll :-ire planted i1t)1ills ..
or sown in drills, either \rith a hoc or with a ~!ling ma- . ·
chine. The crops are ready to Le gathered in .the 'a nturr;Jll"
The formation ancl growth of a benn may Le ~.a_ily exam-·
ined if it is soaked in water for a few hours. It wil! lio •·
found to consist of a thick outer skin or covering, inclosing
two parts, joined together by a srnall cur ved, tloubly pointed portion; the two halves arc the seed lobes, or leaves;
these contain tho nourishment for the young plant, anc1,
rising above the surface of the g round, form its firs ~
lcaYes; the connecting parts consist of the yo ung ~m
and roo.t;; the u ses of tlw <lifforc nt parls

lllilY

b e readily

ascertain ed by moistening a fow beans and examining them'

better sort arc much used for the tahlc.

They arc exten-

sively nsecl for rations in the army, and as ship stores.
In Eurrlanu they are employed as food for hanl-"·orking

I,ESSON XVII.

0

•

"

horseR, for which p urpose they arc usually cr11sh ccl and
11EAXS ,

mixed with cut hay, straw, bran, oats, or other food; they

Natural Ilistoni-13,

. h
..,.
c:ins am t.he proc111ce of 'L pl~nt
W }uc orio'inall
fi
'
~
a
• y came rorn tho East L11t -] . I .
tensively 011 Jti .
He t Is now ex.
'
"
' a tee1 rn all the temperate parts of the world.

c

•are also usecl in fattening pigs, but are rcgardedo.as ...
the flesh hard and tough; bean meal is also sometiines, . . .
mixed with tho flour of new wheat for making bread.

!
I'

..

FIFTU STEP
.-LESSON

xnu.

l<Ol~EIGN

,.

LESSON XVIII.

CURlUNTS. .
,_,._
-~-·:~i;~;~:~

produced many varieties of this v~etaole f lsom .
, '
markable for ripening earlier than others; · some for' their
"·f.
peculiar form, size, or color. The common field 'pea~ r~-·
. quires a rich, strong soil, but the garden varieties succeed ", __
better on dry, light lands.
u.~es.-The garden pea is highly valued for the. table~ '
when gathered in its green state, and when ripe, dried, and .
separated from the, skins, we obtain from them the well
known split peas, and pea flour, so much used for m:tking
puddings and soup. In this fo1:m they furnish an exceed. ingly nutritious and wholesome, but, to some persons, not
always an easily digested article of food.
The common pea is largely used in feeding pigs ;
gl'Own as an agri cultural crop, being sown either broadcast
or in drills; in either case. it spreads o~er the ground,~tid!>~~~-.#i·~~Lttl
for the purpose of support a few beans arc sometimes .
·:wp 'Yit!J, it. The dry haulm or straw of the pea is ve11y
, ·valuable as food for horses and cattl e.
-~~
.· ·'
'

PEAS.

~atural
History.-Tbe plant . ld'
· ·
' yie rn()' the

·
com
native of the south of Euro )e
.o.
.
mon PC!a
in all t emperate climat
I . I , ~ut it is now cultivated
es.
t is a clunbe · 'tJ
. .
. • "di v1qe<\,lca ves ti
.
i, w1 l com ponnd
•-. .. ' ie mam stalks of whi l
~,. ~last P•of leailet>i d fi .
. c.1 .p roceed beyond
- . 'ls, by me.ans of ' 1'· ~n 1 o1 m th e spirally twisted ten~~· •ther o!At.,,~~ F · v i'.c l t lC plant clings for sn1)1)ort to
>:c;;..~
"'~·
Jew circu
t
"
~ ., the d~ign
Wisd orn of tllllS .Canoes show mo_re evidently
1
•
·
e l'eator t!Ja th
mstances of com1)ensat '
A .
n e numb erless
·
" wn.
uun als f.01· ·
the l)Ossession of .
" '
instance, clonicd
some one sense arc
by the "Teat }Jedi "t· .
' .
compensated for it
o
ec Iun of anoth . I . 1
Wants more perfect] , . . , . CI' w He l answers their
.
J' o1, as m the Jirc t
-destitute of th
sen case, a J)l :mt
...
e power to raise . t 1
the'°'!i·ound and e "
I
I s eaves and flowers from
'
xpose t iem to th
. .I .
sun and · . ·
e gema mfln cnces of th e
•
au, is compensated fo r i ts weak
,
vance which enables it to borr
, vess by~ contri- .
other plants.
ow the needful support

rod

:• T

<

F ruits and Seeds.
. . .
forming that kind
.
.
o 1ve d1ssun1lar petals,
. .•
of flower termed butterfl - I
apil1onaceous, which is onl fi
.
y s iaped, or
"' tribe. Each flow . . fi y ound m the plants of the pea
er is ollowecl by a d I .
. .
when ripe into two
.
po , w uch d1v1d"es
seeds, or peas. E I pa1ts, b~th of which bear a row of
~
.
ac 1 pea consists of
',_-o..h!R'f'globular se 11 b
an outer skin, inclos. -~ he b
I
cc o cs, connected together as in
.
ean, t re description of whi 1
applicable to the
.·
cl may be referred to ·as
.• .
va11ous parts of the pea. Cultivation has
'l'li otlo11·crs of the pea cousist

--"-:---:-

·-- ~·:------~--

f fi .

X:(X .

LESS 0 N

FOREIGN CURRANTS.

The foreign, or dried currants, are a species of small ·
raisins or grapes, which chiefly gtow iu the Grecian Islands. :, ·
.
They were formerly very abundant in the Isthmtir!of Corinth, and were called from thence Corinthians ; this term ·,
has been corrupted into currants, probably from their resemblance to the English fruit of that ·name. These little :
11 * ' ,.,, ·"'
.,,,~':Ji.:',
~-

·'

,

~

250
FIFTII STEl'.-LESSON XX.

grapes have no s~ones, and are of a reddish
they are extremely d r . .
black color;
h
.
.
e icious wLen fresh
harvest commenc . A
gat erecl. The
es In ugust, and as so
are gathered th
on as the grapes
ey am spread to dry on ii
for the purpose by st . .
h
a oor, prepared
·
ampmg t e earth
qmte hard. This
floor is formed "th
. . '.
. .
WI a g entle nsmg m the middl
e, that tho
ram, m case any sh Id f: II
ou a. ' may flow off l
an c not injure the
fruit. When suffi . . I d
laid
.
. cient y ry, the currants are cleaned
d
. . up m magazmes, where the are .
' an
gether that wl1en n
1 . y
so closely pressed to.
•
•
'
.. SllJJ[J Y Is needed it 18
· d
. ·
Iron mstrument.
.
'
ng out w1th an
•

• They are packed in lar()'e
1"on, .."nd
tr odd en d own by the natb'es.o casks for e•po1·tat.
..,.

LESSON XX.
TIIE COCOANUT.

_The tree which produces . this fr . .
. .i
.
. which is fouud i·n B.1 ·1
mt IS a kind of nalin
'
az1 Ceylo
cl
t< ·
,
Indies; its trunk r
b' l
n, an throughout the Ea1 t
esem es a state!
l
th ummit with
..
y co umn, crowned at
.
nauow leaves, fourteen
. Ieng h, and only three ir1 b1. d h
. or fifteen feet in
ti ·
ea t ; amidst th
b
·
rmt. The external
.· d of the co
• un
. ese, . angs the
smooth, and approaches at .
coanut Is thin, brown,
closes an extremely fib . nanbgular form. Tl1is covering en1 ous su . stance of
"d
n~ss, ·Which immed· t I
'
' consI erable thickia e Y surrounds th
e nut ; the latter has
a thicktand hard sh ll . h
e ' wit three l1ol
t
es a the base, each
closed by n black m b .
.
cm ianc. The kcr I l , .
an mch in thickn
Jin
nc ' w uch Is about
ess,
es the shell a d
l
refreshing liquid. The
n enc oses a sweet,
i
cocoanut tree affords the Indians "'
'

,

RAISINS.

food, clothing, and

oil. By making incisions in the flower-buds at tho top of
the tree, the sap flows out, and is esteemed an agreeable
and cooling drink ; it is sold in the bazaars under the n:yne
of toddy. If allowed to stand a few hours it ferments, becomes extremely intoxicating, and is called palm wine. By
soaking the fibrous trunk in water it is made . soft, and can
be manufactured into sail cloth, or twisted into cordage of
any description, which surpasses in durability that formed
of hemp. The woody shells are very h~rd, an.d .s usceptiblt · "
of a h!gh polish; they are used foi; cups, ladles, and, other ,
domestic utensils. The trunk of the tree furnishes either · "'
beams or rafters for habitations, br is made i~to '_ boats...'.
The leaves platted together form an excellent thatch; they
are also used for umbrellas, mats, and various other useful..
articles.

LESSON XXI.
RAISINS.

Natui-al History:-Rais\ns, or dried · grape.s, are the .~.
produce of the vine-a plant which, although now cultiva~ ·· '' .
ted in all the war~ parts of the globe, was orig~lly a n
tive of the south of .Asia, from whence it has been~
into Europe, .Africa, and .America. The early cultivatio
of this plant is mentioned in Genesis ix, 20 ; and the la
size of tho fruit produced in the genial,climate of Pales
is as remarkable now as in the time of Moses. •

..

...

-'~

·,·-

...

·, ,;..; ... '·~·

/'
.-

252

FIFTH STE

P.-LESSON XXII,

In this count . I
.
iy tie fhut of tbe .
a sufficient de,.,.1;eo of
r. . . vrne does not n.nive n.t
d ,. .
"'
per ect1on fo Illa!- . .
a nition of sw"ar. !lo ... tJ.
'c •nnc, 1ritl1nut 1lie
o
'
l IS
IC W;1r111[)1 (Jf
enongli to dry r:1i~ins . . '
tl1c ·"1111 pon-c•rflll
U
. ' 11 c arc-, tlicrdor
1
0 1cr co1111t ri cs for
c, ( ('j>cnt1c11t u ,011
. •
0 Ill snppli-.
1·
In- V·,i I cncia,
· from whence· onr .
the raisins arc pre1Ja red b ,. . g1 eat snpply is obtained
. t
y cuppm rr thr: b
l
'
m o a hot lye mad
f
"'
. uuc ics of rrra1)es
o
o woo<l ashes ·1
.
o
t hen exposed on r..
' o1' and lune. t11cy .
ll am cs of bas] t
'
a1 o
teen days, to be d1·· d b
• ce ·Work for fourteen or fif..
IC
Y tho J1 t f
.llfnscatcl raisi
.
.
ea o tl1e s1m.
d"
llS a1 C dnecl on th
_.
.
... ippcd; lien co tl1e cliffe.1 t
. o 'mos 111tl1out being
,,,.
en, appcarn.
euect of the 1 • •
" • nee and ibYor. TL
.
.) e is .to soften the sl"
. e
It less tourrh but it
1
'lII of tho fruit, r endorin<>
. .
"' '
somo1r iat iniuros tl fl
o
ra1s1ns arc employ d . .
" . ie . avor. Valencia
uncooJ,·ed.
e Ill pastry, the 1\Iuscatels
for oatin"
b
Sultaua raisins
n"1th out seeds A arc .a smaller variety fro111 S myrnn,
all ti
. ."
pocu 1iar milcloiv lrns
ie vanet1 es f I
attacked nlmost
•.
, o t lO grapevine duri
a1s; the quantity of . . .
ng the last few
I a1sms lias b
l
Ice correspondin,.,.ly . .
eon essened, and the
o
lll creased.
LESSON
.

...

XXII.

.F IGS .

N!tural IIistory -F·
· ·
·
10-s nre
d
or1ginal1y a native of ti o •
pro need on a small tree
d
ic southwest f A .
'
e , extensively in all tl
, . o . s1a, but now culti.
le co untri es f ti_
e; In 110i,.,.ht it sr.11
o . "e south of Eu.
e 1 - "'
. com roaches b
ars arge, deeplv-lobocl 1 ,
a ove twenty feet, and
.
•
caves, very rough on the
upper ·

253

surface, and downy beneath; it is not furnished with any
visiLlc flowers, tho fruit arising from the stem in tho form
of smn.11 pear-shapcll lrntls, which arc pi erced at tho brger
end with a small hole; these buds enlarge in size· until
they become ripe, still retaining their original · shape.
Each one contnins a cavity, lined with nnmerous small,
scale-like bodies; these are tho flow ers enclosed within tho
fruit. Tho structure cannot be seen in tho dried fig, the
cavity having been closed np by pressure, and tho internal
flowers ripened into tho seeds. In its unripe state, tho fig
abounds with a bitter milky juice-this, as it ripens, be·
comes changed into sugar.
One of the most r emarkable circumstances connected
with the fig is tho fact of its bearing two 1 or even three,
crops of fruit during the year; this peculiarity, and the
extreme value of it as an article of food, are alluded to
frequently in the Olcl Testament,-" I found Israel like
grapes in tho wilderness; I saw your fathers as the first.
ripe in the fig tree at her first time."-(Hosea ix, 10).
The first crop is formed on the old wood, ancl is ripe in
May and Jnne; the second grows on woocl of the same
year, and is ripe in September; and in very warm climates, as Greece and Egypt, a third crop is produced,
which ripens after the leaves are shed, thus sµpplying the
inhabitants with fresh fruit during the greater part of the
year.
Those intended for exportation are not gather.eel until
perfectly ripe; they are dried on frames, which are placed
in the sun by clay, and under cover at night; in very wet
seasons they are partially driecl by stoves; when quite dry,

.

"

'

I,'

254

~,U[I'B,OB.
",...... ,

nFTll STEP.-LESSON XXIII.

.

exportatio~.

they arc pack cd m
. boxes and b l
Most of the figs used i -ti . •
as rnts for
·
n 11s country and G
l3
imported from Turkey.
rcat ritain are

'I'

, >;<._:. ,;'f, "t255 . ·
, ' , ~'..;;"::; . ' ·.:iJ!•
,

>I ' !!.:

'

Properties.-Campbor il a · solid, 'seµll·transp11.fi ·:

withoutJ:~?e

stance, so tough tbat it cannot be powdered
addition of a fe'v drops of spirit or oil ; it ' posses~es'1'a.
strong aromatic and very peculiar odor; i.t is very sparing- <'(•..r •"";\q.·
ly solllblc in water, to which, however, it imparts its pecu'•
liar odor and bitter taste ; in spirit it dissolves readily, tbe
camphor separating in the solid form when the solution is
poured into water. Camphor is also soluble in oil. In
large doses it acts as a poison, producing convulsions, stu·
~

Uses.-Figs are av
..
of diet; in many parts o~ryt/1uEtnt10us and valuable article
.
1c 1 ast they for
·1
port10n of bread ti
I. f .
m, wit l a small
, ' ic c uc food of th . I .
when abundant ar
.
.
c m 1ab1tants, and
.
e even given m small
..
unals, as corn is . tl .
quunt1t1es to anm us country Th
ture is a larger
.
.
e sycamore of Scripspecies of fig the fr1 't f
o'Ccasionally eaten.
'
m o which is also
Vegetable S ecretions.
LESSON

XXIII.

CAMPHOR.

. Natiwal History1 a'"l
"'' p reparatio
C
smaU quantities in many pla t b . n.~ amphor exists in
n s, ut IS cluefi 0 bt ·
. of Cl·
Y
amed from
.a species of laurel t.rec, a native
Is now cultivated in most f ·!
una and Japan, which
o. t ie warm IJart f I
t I IC great supply is obtamc
. d from the I, l s o t le world '.
and carried in Ch'
.
sand of Formosa
. '
mese JUUks to Canton rh
markets are supplied.
' " ence foreign
CamJJhor is obt amecl
.
by heat'
.
cl f I.
mg m a still the leaves
branches, :mcl '
.
voo o t IC tree cut
.
'
berng volatile it i··
•
up mto small piecea.
,
ises m vapor. ti. .
'
form in a cold part of the a . '. ns is collected in a solid
merce is in a d' 't
pp::natus. The camphor of comd .
.
u y, granular state
second distillation Tl
• ' au IS punfied by a
.
·
ie art of refi · ·
mng it was long monop·
l1zed by the Ven f
.
e ians, and afterward b th
now, however pract' d .
y e Dutch. It is
'
ise m the United States.

I

por, and death.
It melts at a moderate heat, and at the same time passes off rapidly in vapor; if brouglit into actual contact with
a flame, it takes
fire readily, burning
with a large flame
and
'
'
,

obno'.'i~us.

much smoke.
Uses.-The strong odor of \ camphor is
t? .,
insects and moths; it is, therefo1~~' employed to·· prote~~ ·
cabinets of natural history and clothes ; when taken as a
medicine, its first effect is that of a stimulant, but its action ,
afterward becomes depressing ; its strong odor has given
rise to the idea that it is capable of preventing infection,
and it is frequently carried about the body with this view ;
it has not, however, the slightest power of destroying infection, and, from its depressing effects, its action is deci- ·
dedly injurious.
Dissolved in spirit, it forms a valuable application to
unbroken
also to burns or scalds when the

chilbla~~~and
'

,,,,.

1l'

.i

t,

.
. ~·'-.·~-·-~...:...4,~

:. :~~=-~:~.: :·~:!~}.~~-

2_56

-

FIFTH STEP.-LESSON

.

LESSON

- -~

XXIV.

When pure, gum arab' .
.
but the commoner kind: I~ is transparent -and colorless
glassy lustre, is perfe 1 a.1 e generally yellow. It has ' •
taste I .
ct y rnodorous at l 1
• a
, i c ias an insipid
. .
t chssolves readily .
0
s1ve solution ' whicl 1 b ecomes
m water, formin<Y
a thick a dh e·
o b een made
some time.
sour after havin"'
T

,

Uses.-Gmn
the f oim
. . o f mncil
cc mcnt
,.wr smallinarti
· mnch used :rn a
I
age rn
&
.
c es, as for fa t .
. c. ; it is afoo cmplovecl t .
s enrng labels to glass
mg
.
ex enstvelv in ti
'
crapes and other fabrics aucl . .
ie art.fl, foi· Rt.i-ffenP:ipcr "'lrhirh Jrn~ lie cu "
'
m the manufacture of ink
becom a .
lllllllll'\1 on ()]\ (' , j l
.
.
. o ry, is readily attach d
_·
c, :-im1 allowcL1 to
e to .any object by 1n01skn•
Img with the ton gnc or otherw'

-~

c

;~.~

~

INDIAN RUBBER, OR CAOUTCUOUC·

Natural IIistory.-Indian rnbbcr is produced by several trees, natives of the warmer parts of South America
and the East Indies ; it is obtained, during the rainy sea-

.. II

. ' f .I

.\

son, bY. making deep incisions in the bark, when a thick,
creamy juice, of a yellowish white color, flows out, capable·
of being mixed with water ; this remains unchanged if kept
_in closely corked bottles, but dries slowly on exposure to
the In
air.South America the natives spread the juice, as it is
obtained from the tree, on moulds of clay, applying one
layer as
as tliat previously put on is dry; the drying
is hastened l1y placing the moulds over a wood fire, the
smoke of ·which colors tl1e Jnc1ian rubber. These moulds
are sometimes in the form of a shoe, am1 sometimes of a

~oon

broken and the pieces withllrawn, leaving tl \c Indian rub·
ber in the form of the mould; from the East Indies it is

(

-~

'

.';

so as to proc1nee the Jcsir cc1 thiclmess, the clay mO'lllds arc

~

>; ,;. - .,

\

""'"""''~· ..,.· :I'!~
.

bottle.
When a suilieieut nuin11 cr of co:-tts have been applied,

argcly employed for i
ISe; m this manner gum is
tion
of sugar being usually
1 ostage stamps
and
.
..
.
envelopes, a por·
cement to b
mixed with it to
..
"'
0 more rapidly
by
the
.
ployed. Th e gum usually . so1Lened
1
m01sture cm·
coarse p urposes is te1:med B "t'
empI oyed fio1· th'is and otbei'
.
•
.
11 is 1 gum, or Dext "
. .'
.. •
.
ime, bemg

~-

';' --~· • ·"·;":

LESSON XXV.

ARAilIC.

n the hottest seasons of the
from the bark in a thicl· I
.
year the gum oozes out
sure to the air i
. ~ nuc1lage, which hardens
on expob
' n a similar ma
y the plum and cherry trees ' nne~ to. the gum produced
0
greater extent•
of this clunatc ' but t a much

.

.

a pale brown color1 and becomes soluble in cold· water • ..,,

Natural History ·-G mu arnb' ·
ral kinds of acacia trc
. • ic is the }Jroduce of seve·
Afr'
es, natives of ti
ica
and
the
East
I
1·
ie sandy deserts
I
nc 1es.
of _,_

~-

.

roaao by b>king ot>rch jn a moa'IP'' hea;.unti\'J'
4

GUM

_. ..

...

INDIAN RUBBER. · '

xxrv.

usually importcll in the form of balls or irregular pieces.
Properties.-Indian rubber is a soft, pliable, and highly
elastic substance, tough, and difficult to be cut; its elas·
ti.city varies, being much lessened by cold and increased by
a moderate beat; when suddenly stretched it becomes

'
:

· 1
'

258
FIFTH STEP.-LESSON XXV,
;~r

rrltlm-:tn experiment r n
.
Q;'l l ' Y in.ci7 Ly cxtcu~ling a th1·n
thong suddenly betwcc; tl:c
.
placed in cold wate1· 1'01· s
lips ; if stretched and
'
ome tim 1"t 1
tile p
1
.
c,
oses its contrac.
.
ower, w iich, 11owcver it r
bciug warmed.
'
cga11J s imrnctli:itdy on
'

l1 Hlian rnl>Lcr i.s in'rJlulilc 111
J
c" ll or lint \\" 'tl" 1• J (· .
,
, ' ' Jll . JS
.
.
.~
11 ,., .!lid ], (' ( 'fl lll \' .~ hJiii l" · ] ' l ' l
.
IL is also in so lul J. · . . .
·
'1 1•1 · .1 < h('.' tl·c ;
.
J c lll ~ptnls or \\'t''.l]· • .·
.
1 1. l
rcalldy, with the aid f J
•
, ' . Ut ~, n1L d1.c;~oh·cs
o 1cat, rn pure ct! . . . .
80

259

INDIAN ' RUBBER. -

•

.1
['t CllCu
by ]011 0- ]inili "

P.entine, and coal nap! tl
·
. .
iei, sp1nts of tur. •
l rn, r em::un10..,. 1111 ·I
1
0
. 1iqmds
.
. .
c l:tngec when a .
evapoiate; it is partly dissolved
.
,
ie
clammy aud glutinotI&
by oil, bccomin"
o
F re sh I)· e t
1
.
11 " c can wr fa ccs of I ]'
Ill i:in n1Lh cr, readily
adhere, if pressed toactl . .
b
· lCI, O ! tlit7 llla)' I
.
tbat wl1ich has b
d"
. JC mutecl by using
· een Jssolved j 11
l
h eated to a deg.
.
.
n~p ith.'.1. or turpentine.
'ee lat 1rn r li! <rh er tha L T
'
melts, but it is altered . "t "'
. u o1 mg water, it
lll l S J}l' OjJCrtJ '
1 l
come soli<l on
.
. ·
cs, :me t ocs not be·
coolmg; if brouaht . .
o
rnto contact with a
flame, it immediate! t l
Y aces fire bu . ·
.
flame, and givinO' out n d
'
llllllg with a white
o
•• ense smok
I
odor. In Guiana where tl1e .
e anc a very p ec uliar
t1 ees
· ,.,
used for torches; . '
. •abound ' I't is
irequently

P1·e""a
r ra t'ion.-Indian rubb
·
being placed in an iro
.
er .1s formed into blocks by
which passes an ironn chy:nder, 1med with spikes, through
s a,~, also armed 'ti
.
made to turn round ra id! . , :
w1 l spikes, and
rubber is torn into sin pl! .y' by tlus operntion the Indian
a pieces wl · l J
together, unite into a .,.
' . . lie i, w wn firmly pressed
, ttnllorm solid blo k
b
cut up into thin sheets . ti
c ' capa le of being
or ircacls . thi .
·'
sis accomplished by
means of wet k ·
mves, moved by m h.
ac lllery; threads of

such a degree of fineness are
weigh only one pQund.
Uscs.-Tho elasticity, flexibility, ancl impervious nature ·
of tliis wlJst:rnce re rnlcr it of great use in the arts; the
natives of the co1111tr ies where it is proc111ce tl make waterproof ~trlil'll'S l,y ~prea1lin g the fresh j11 ice on cloth rmcl
ollicr s11bs ta11ces; in this country it, i~ so used l>y being
di ssolvcc1 in n:iphth:1 or turpentine, aml t hen spreacl upon
cloth, or applied between two thin fabrics, which arc
pressed together by rollers. The dissolved Indian rubber
is also used :is a cement in bin ding books, and for other
p11rposcs.

·when dissolvcJ ,,.ith shellac it forms a valuable co·
mcnt, termed marine glue, used in ship-building.
Advantage is taken of the property of Indian rubber of
becoming inelastic when cold, in weaving elastic bandages,
&c. The threads employed for this purpose arc s~retched
to seven or eight times their original length, and wound on
rollers; they arc then kept extencled in the cold for two or
three weeks, by whi.ch time they entirely lose their elasticity; in this state they arc woven readily, and when
passed over a hot roller the Indian rubber resumes its
elasticity; these fabrics are employed for many purpos_es,
as , glove bands, brace ends, surgical bandage):!, &c., &c.
The use of Indian rubber in removing black iead pen.cil marks from paper is well known; its name is derived
fr9m its being so employed. It is also used, either ~lone
or in combination, in the manufacture of boots, shoes,
travelling bags, life preservers, &c.
V ulcanizcd Indian rub bcr is usually prepared by adding

·..,·. -

I.

'

I
1 ' '....
I

·"

...·.-·

I

~60

:

~IFTll STEP.-LESSON XXVI.

s:!1!ui~~ntity of sulph~r to the rubber as it

is prepared r..'.
' when the article required is finished it . J
.
ed ; the sulphur and heat
.
' is ieat,
the Indian rubber b
effect a very important change;
ecomes much more elastic than befor
and possesses the.great advantage of not beino- st'ffi d be,
cold, nor softened bv tho he;it f J ·1·
o
' en. e
y
.
"
'
0
lO J 111rr W'J(e.,
also its
aJJ , .- .
.~
· 1 , 1't Jose~
• icst ' eness to so great a dcrrre .! . . .
.
0
made t
·
e t iat it ca1Jnot be
o unite, and the \\"t "Lc 1·1
' . 1 CCl'S :1 re c'
' . . J
vnluelc8s. The r , 11 1. 1 " .
unp.n attve y
.
.
. ,
c
!l r .rni1.c·i.1 Illd1:111 ri1 l•L1cr
m a s1m I
i::; JlH' pn re11
: . I ar rnnn11cr, a co11111<11111d (•f oJJl1>liur ·111J 'lltlin
b erng empJoye 1 Tl
,
·
· · 10nv
l.
IC permanently flexible a d
I .
ch aracter of vulcanized I d.
n e ast1c
.
n rnn rubber ]1as led t 't
tensive use for gas tubes chsti .
.
o I .s exLo}·" V:
'
·.· e b.mtb, Eprrngs
&c., &c. Bv the
1 rt·
~ ,
., < e.,
.
"
at C!J IOn of ma•rne,ia t . l
.
her it
..
"' • . o 1 u ca11ized rubacqun es thnt dc,,.rr f J. · 1
.
l
.~ e o
i ,11' nc.' s wluch acb11ts it
t ie manufacture of knifo l
1!
to
fanc b
. i;in( cs, comb.', canes, buttons,
' y oxes, and mauy other :uticles.

GU1TA PERCHA.

Natura! JTist nn; rt 1 p . .
.
the product of a t:ii.l t. 111
. i 'l~<1rul ion.-G utta
percha is
>
•
,
ice, ::t nat1\'0 of tli, l\I I
snb ::tnd the ]"
. .
.
e ~ a :1y:rn I cum'
ac.1.iccnt 1 ~l:tnd~ wliirl 1 11 ·J 11 11 .
.
'
udcs ::t milky · ·., 1
'
11 uuudcd, cx. ·'
.JllIC<' ian11~111ng on <'Xposurc to the •1ir
It
was formerly procured b the na .
.
<
•
mo<Je, by cuttincr , . hy
, t1ves m a most wasteful· ~;.~¥_. .
,,,oonntetrces
an d co ll ecting the th. ·k- -d
.
ene sap from between the bark an l
le
ping 11as lately been introdu 1 T (. the woo.d; but tap.
kneaded into. sha J
eel .
his sap, as It hardens, is .
pc ess masses; these, when imported into

\
·' . . t'"'"r··
,
country, are prepared .for use by ' being' .c.u t fnt,
shreds, cleaned by washing, and caused to ·unite ~by ~
warmth and pressure. Each tree yields from twenty to '
thirty pounds.
Prope1·ties.-In its prepared state, gutta percha is a
tol!gh, strong, flexible substance, somewhat resembling
leather; it is lighter than water, of a brown color, tasteless, and having a peculiar odor; it. is qnitc insoluble in
wator; spirit, anrl. weak acids, bnt is clissoh-ed by ether,
spirits of tllrpcntine, ancl coal n:1phtha. It is softeuc<l by
a degree of warmth much less than that of boiling water,
but greater than that of the human body; it then becomes
a plastic mass, capable of .being readily moulded into any
required shape; it is inflammable, burning with a white
flame ancl much smoke; it is quite impervious to water,
even in thin layers, and is not a conductor of heat or
elcctricit y.
uscs.-Tlie uses to which this su1slancc h:1s lJec;1 applied depend chiefly on its toughness, insolubility, and the
ease with which it may be made to assume any form. Dy
pressure in moulds it is mat1c into tray8, cups, boU.lcs, picture frames, inkstands, &c., &c.; flattened between rollers,
it forms banc1s, tracos, shoe soles, thin '\\·ntcrproof sheeting,
&c.; ail'l it i~ :1lso formed into pipes for com·eying water,
which, from their toughness, resist great pressure; and for
speaking tubes, for which purpose it is peculiarly adapted,
as it possesses in this form an extraordinary power of con·
ducting sound. From its extreme strength it is also well
fitted for forming substances submitted to rough · usage;
., .
ever, th' . ·• . ~ant~ge of. being readily
!.

,,,~""'

........,r

262

ll'IFI'H STEP.-LESSON XXVII.

altered in shape by a degree of heat less than that of boiling water.
. One of its most useful applications depends upon its bemg a non-conductor of electricity; hence it is employed to
cover the wires of the submarine electric telegraph ..
I

LESSON XXVII.

seous, bitter; oily flesh, which
stone.
The oil is obtained from the fruit by crushing 'it '. ~P\
der rollers into a paste, which is then enclosed in bags and.\Ji
subjected to the action of a screw press. That which flow~)t; '
first is regarded as the best; after that has been remov~?t'.,
hot water is added to the mass, and an additional qua~.t~ty "'
.
..
obtained.
· :' '. :;;,;.
Properties and Uses.-Olive oil is a~ insipid, inodorous; ~·
pale, yellow, oily liquid, not liable to tti'tn ~rncid, and ~ery ,_..
inflammable· at a temperature several degrees abovl!,... the ' ·.. ;
•'
•
•
~ I . _•· ~-...·t"l~-.. "~.-.- ', ~~~"":-~~
freezing porn
t of water 1t
becomes sohd.
, , ,;,_,_,:_,-._ ;:
'

OILS.

Fixed or greasy oils are abundantly formed by various
vegetables, and are of extreme value to man as food for
rigbtmg,
·
'
soap and candle making, and many
other 'purposes.
Oils are seldom, if ever, stored up in the leaves or
bark, but arc usually found in the seed-vessel or seeds·
. h
'
~n t e latter, oils answer tho twofold purpose of nourish.
mg t.Jie young plant during its early growth and of
affording a supply of food to man and animals. '
The quantity of oil in various seeds is very great. Tlic
kernel of the hazel nut contains 60 per cent. ; walnut 50;
almond, 46 ; poppy seed, 50 ; rape, 30 ; hemp, 25 ; flax,
22. Many of these seeds when dry, as the almond, take
fire and burn readily when placed in the flame of a canclle.
The most commonly used vegetable oils are olive, linseed, palm, and c:istor oils.

Olive Oil. Natural IIistory.-The olive is a small
evergreen tree, common in the south of Europe, Barbary,
and the Levant; it has lance-shaped grayish-green leaves,
~nd white fl?wers; the latt~r . are followed by a fruit the

Sl~::~d shapefbf

a _,.d am-

pu.rple

c•%,"~ r;'

.

,na ··,

~

\

~

In the south .o f Europe and Syria, of 1vhich com:i~ri~s,,:~!'. ·~~7-­
the olive is a native~thc oil has ·been in us~ from the: ear- /.-:.'::.:.::
Jiest periods of which we have any record; ·.:both : fo1:< food ~~~-:,,.,"f~
(1 Ir 1ngs xvii 12) and burninO' in lamps (Exod. xpii; 2Q) t'i>.-).
\..
'
'
o
I
,, _, ..... -·
at the present time it may be regarded as the cream , an~..;i,~~r
butter of Spain and Italy, and so much is it valued, tha~ ·\·;~
the tree is chosen as the emblem of peace and ' plenty. ' ,.; >:_
In our own country olive oil is used in the preparation L}_
of food, though to a much ,more limited extent than "in ,~,,..
Europe; tho common kind~·. are ·1argely e~ployed .in t~~.~·~' ,
:» · 1 ",' "_ :\t~woollen manufacture, and sohle kinds of soap.
Linseed Oil. Natural I-Iistory.-The - description of
; ''I • ·
the plant yi.elding flax and linseed will be found under
the head of Textile Fabrics· !>the seeds, when separate~,
are crushed aff'd pressed in mill!. when they yield neE-rly
.,one fourth of'*tlfeir weight b f oil ; this,. of ~11 vegetable oils,
.' is one of the chelpest and most useful. It possesses tho
property of drying when exposecl in thin layers to the

264
FIFTH STEl'.-LESSON •

"

.

xxvu.

action of the

.
•
air; hence its
.
paint and varnish for 'vl . I . use in the preparation of
f:
'
llC l purpos th
atty, non-drying oil, as that f e : employment of a
swer: I .
o the olive , . ld
.
t is· also employed i 1 .
' ~ ou not anquanff
fc
p utty, and for various P . n aio-e
.o
I ies or maldng
lllposes
in
th
.
;
.
w1101esome but it 1
e a1 ts; It is not un.
'
rns a nauseous and
1
h. 1
w Ic l renders it unfit fo th fi
'
unp easant taste
"
r e ood of man
'
Tlio orushed
mass that 1.
.
, .
th ·z ·
'
emams after tl
e o1 is termed oilcake
d .
ie extraction of
c ttl
' au is much us d fc
a e. The ~kins of th
d
.
e or fattening
'J .. .
e see s contain a 1
.
muci agmous or gUinmy
t
' arge qnautity of
"J
ma
ter
·
th·
.
,
b o1 ing water is po . d
'
is is c1issolved wl1en
lll e
upon the seed
•
1
so ution termed r
d
.
s, and forms the
.
msee tea . grou d .
seeds furnish linseed meal
' b
n mto powder the
:6or poultices, &c.
' a su stance used medicinally
The manufacture of this ·z l
ta t b
oi ias becom
n ranch of industry in ti .
e a very imporus
country . tl
p urpose being large! .
.
' le seed for this
Indies.
y imported from the British East

•

Palm Oil Tl ·
·:- us substance which . .
temperate climates is obt . ;ti
ism a solid form in
:.unec1 ro1u the ti .
f
'
o palm, found upon the 'V t
rmt of a species
W
es ern coa t f
.
est Indies, and some parts f
. s o Africa, in the
ported mostly to Enrrland 'vlo S~uth America. It is exf: t
•
b
.
'
iere it is ble h d
1
ac e and manu.
ac uretl iuto candl'
cs ant fine soaps.
Oastor Oil-I
'
.
. s expressed from tl1
.
.
011 plant, and is chiefly used
d" . e seeds of the castor
used for burning in F '· me rcmally. It is also much
countries
..,
. iancc, Italy, aud'"" som
I
·
•
~
e ot1er
Volatile oils
""
•
are very distinct in ti.
·ueir character from

OILS. ·', ~- • \

.

.

;i·- .

' ri-. ·1-·r· ... ~ ~~;'~~'... t. ·. . !~~ !-~~
..

those t11at aro. fixed and greasy. - They -1u~\ ~J-~,~l!~·
in tho flowers, but also in the other p~:r~s ot~\E!r~a~p
tables. By boiling the substances containing thein 'Vith: . ::...
water, the oil is volatilized, and, passing over· with 'the ~· ~~" ~.
steam, ~ay be collected and preserved for ~se.· ·By this.;.· ..."'-:.,fl.,,
process of distillation, most of the volatile oils are ·col·' - /.).~~
lected ; some, however, as the volntile oil of lemon pe~I; . ' , " · , ·
. ~ .~.. ·r.'~ ,;-.(;:/
are obtained by pressure. Many volatile oils are used. as ,-, :
1
flavoring ingredients, as the oil of lemon; or as perfume$, ,\1 ; "!"' ,:r?i__
'
' •.,. 1 ..
as those of bergamot, lavender, rosemary, . &c., &c. Th.e .. ·. ·;t.j
mo.s t valuable volatile oil is that obtained from turpentind. · · ·-. _;}...•' •
The substance known as turpentine i~ a soft · solid, ~.om· . ·. .- ,; '', . ~ '. •
posed of a mixture of resih and voiat;ile oil, obtained by .· ) _•r,~~./
wounding different trees of _the fir tribe, when ·,it :.exudea
;'~\L~,., v
and is collected.
· : .• 'f ~'( "~ '
'~
' The oil, or spirits of turpentine, is Iobtained by ·d~til~
~·,.
ling it in an ordin;iry co1iper still, wherj the oil distils ove~; ·< ·-:,;;' ~~
· and the resin remains behind. The distilled I flui4 is color~ . .;..., ;; ::, >·
less, very· limpid, and possesses a peculiar and powerful ..
:·.';. "
· ;i~ 1
smell. It is much lighter than wat!Jr, its specific gravity
being about 875. From its volatile character, it is largely.
employed in common paint, as it flies ' off in vapor when
exposed to the air, leaving the drying linseed. oil and
white lead, of which the substance of the paint is chiefly
compose d.
..,.. ~.-:
. "'l1 ' •~·.~'"' ·' \•
It is very inflammable, burning with a large flame and 1 ·:·;,.. {i
much smoke ; purifie_d by a second
it is k11:own
as camphene, and wns formerly much used in lamps of a .· \ '·.. ~
peculiar construction, but latterly its use has been
.
1 oilknown as k eros(i!Qe,.
I
I '.it i
superse d edb y t h e nuneta
., :
· ••.., ,

?«·

~J

'f

:t )
•_1(

di~tillati~n,

•

'•

t~;' "~

entir~ly ~\ /~ '·~

.

12

. .

I

266

FIFTII STEP.-LESSON XXVIII.

SUGAR.

. LESSON

XXVIII.

SUGAR.

Natural History.-Sngar is the produce of. a plant1
called the sngar cane, which has been cultivated from vc.ry
remote times by the Chinese. It is now. extensively O'rown
•
b
m both the East and "\Vest Indies, Brazil, the United
States, &c. The root of the sugar cane is jointed, ~olid,
and perennial; sending up severar smooth, jointed, nn·branchcd stems, which rise to a height of from six to
tweh-.e. feet, and which are fill ed with a pithy substance,
contammg a very sweet juice. The leaves, whi ch are
about three inch es broad, and from three to four feet in
length, spring siugly from the joints, sheathing or wrapping round the stem for some distance, like the leaves of
gr:i <s< •s . T he top of the stem is furnislrnJ. wiLh a loo>:e
lmn<lle of small downy tlowcrs, of a pale lilac color 1 criyirw
to the plant an exceedingly elegant appearance ; "'thes:
blossoms are, however, rarely seen in the vv e~t forlie~, fl~
the canes are cut down before the time of flowering.
.
The sugar cane is cnltivated by planting the top joints
when the cane is cut, each cutting producing several stems.
The planting does not require to be r enewed :mnnally, as
fresh canes spring from the roots for Rome years in succession. During growth, the canes are sometimes destroyed by numerous_small insects that live on the juice;
they are also subject to the depredations of monkeys,
rats, &c.
When the" canes are ripe, which is usually in :March,

>,\

.~26(

.
.
they are cut, divided into convenient lengths, 'a nd carried
to the mill, where they are crushed, and the juioo expressed by passing them betireen large iron rollers. The
juice is immediately boiled, with the addition of a small
quantity of lime, to promote the separation of the impuri·
ties, which rise to. the surface in the form of a scum, and
are skimmed off. The clear liquor is then rapidly boiled,
until it becomes sufficiently thick to form solid grains on
cooling. The sugar in this state is termed raw or moist
sngar, and is packed in casks for exportation ; these casks
are pierced with holes, through which the molasses, or un.

I

crystallized portions of the sugar drain away.
It is estimated that about one lrnndred canes yield five
gallons of the best juice, and that these produce about five
pounds of sugar. The fuel generally used in boiling is
the crushec1 cane itself, previous1y dried by exposure to

I ,,.

the suu.

Sugar i!'l also obtained from other plants : in Rom e por·
tions of the United States it is obtained from the sweet
maple, anJ. in FratlCe large quantities are prepared from
beet root.
Raw sugar is converted into loaf or lump sugar by a
prncess termed refining. The raw sugar is dissolved in
warm water, with the addition of a little lime, and the
litp1or filtered through thick folds of cloth ; by this means
it is freed from many impurit~s, and rendered transparent;
although it remains colored. The next stage is the discoloration of the sytup, which is effected by filtering it
through layers of animal charooal, or bone black, formed
by heating bones to redness, in close iron vessels. _ The

I•

·/

\

-:t· I

.. .,;_

I

'/ I

•

268

FIFTH STEP.-LESSON XXVIII.

COFFEE·

colorless syrup 13
· pumped mto
.
covered b ·1 .
are called, vacuum pans. here it i, I
o1 eis, or, as they
and the air and varJor : ~
f
~
ieated by steam pipes;
d
i 1smg rom it are
away b,r
an air pump, the effect of which is tl t
d .
, . rn rn syrup boils at·
a very moderate heat
.
.
, an is not discolor d b b
\Vhcn
sufficiently
e
Y
urnmg
.
concentrated by I . t tl
.
. iea , ie syrup is placed
m moulds, where it ii .
or ms, on coolnw a s 0 rd
1
ular sugar. this· • '(j
"" '
mass of gran'
is pun ied by pourin"'
11
clear syrup on the to
'I. I
. o a sma qmmJity of
1
.
.
p, " 1w 1, flowrng thr
it any portions of
. I
oug i, carries with
sugar t iat have I t
l.
.
io crysta lized. Tho
substance know11 as t. l
' r cac c cons t f 1
. portions of surrar whi I . l r: t~ s o tie uncrystallizablo
1
o
CI ::tie Cit Ill th
1'ffi
of m::mufacture.
c { crcnt processes

. against each otber in tbe . dark giving out .!\ beauUfut·pall
light.
'·
Uses.-Sugar fornis an cxceeding1y wbo1esome :irtic1e
of food. It is remarked that during the harvest time the
negroes engaged in the work, and even the horses and
cattle feeding on the refuse become in good condition,
although their bbor is at tJ.~at period much incr'eascd. It
is the basis of all our confectionery, and an important e1e·
ment in many table de1icacics. It is a1so much used in

t~umpe

Loaf sugar is a granular white solid
ber of small hard tra
, formed of a num, . ,
nsparent crystals 8 I' I I
together \VI
.
·
' ig it Y adherin()'
.
rnn pure, it is free fr
""
sweet taste. It is s I 11 .
om smell, and has a
·
0 u J e m water f,
greater or less degree of th' I,
a syrup of
ft
IC ,ncss, accordmO' t
tl
I y of sugar dissolved.
\V , 1.
o o . 1C qu:m• JI •
ea' solut1ons of
ma y if any other vcrret•tbl
1.
.
sugar, espe"' ' e sn Jstanccs ar
apt to ferment when ti
.
• e present, arc
'
ie sugar is co . t 1 .
he spirit of fermented r
~ . ' lH el ec mto spirit..
1quors it may be b
T
cases, depends on tl
. '
•·
o served, in all
1 c qnant1t.y of SUIT .
•
substances of whicl tl
oar contamed in the
l
iey are formed
Loaf suga• r is
· reachly
. melted b ·
coming reddish b
,
.
y a modernte heat,
ro" n ; if the heat . .
brown, soluble slightly b'tt
• is increased, a dark
'
i er substa
·
used for coloring
. .
nee is produced, much
soups, sp1nts &
d
caramel or b
•
. ' c_, un er the name of
'
rowmn"'
Refine l
example of a ph
h"''
( sngar furnishes a good
osp orescent subst ance; two pieces
·
rubbed

orn~1ng

he-

.~

. -,

preserving fruits, meats (particu1nrly hams), and fish.
.The quantity of raw sugar illlportecl into England 1s
above 0,000,000 cwt. yearly ; about 300,000 cwt. of refined
sugar is a1so imported. This amount sbows a consumption
of upward of thirty pounds per head to each person in ·
Great Britain annually, a consumption greater than that
of any country in the world, except the United. States. In
France the annnal consumption is on1y four pounds per
head ; in Russia and Germany still less.
LESSON

xxrx.

COFFEE·

Coffee is the seed of a plant growing rrincipa1ly in

Arabia and the 'Vest Indies; it reaches the height of 16
or 18 feet; the flower i;csemblcs jcssarnine, and the leaves
arc evergreen ; the fruit when ripe is like the cherry ; it
contains two cel1s, and each ceU has a single hemispherical
seed. "\Vhcn ripe , it is eith er gathcre<l by the hnncl, or
shaken from the trees, and placed on mats for the .sun to
clry the pulpy sulJstance which surrounds the seed. Tho

270

·, TEA.. ~.

FIFTH STEP.-LESSON XXX.

husk is broken by heavy rollers, and afterward removed
by winnowing. In order to prepare the coffee for a bever- ·
age, it must be roasted till it becomes of a dark brown
color, and extremely odorous ; after which it is ground
and either infused or boiled in water. It is remarkabl;
for its very stimulating property, and is used not only as
a beverage, but as a ll'\edicins. Its discovery is said to
have been occasioned by the following circumstance.
Some goats, who browsed upon this plant, were observed
by the goat herd to be exceedingly wakeful, and often to
caper ab~ut.in the night; the prior of a neighboring monastery, w1shmg to keep his monks awake at their matins
tried if .the coffee would produce the same effect upo~
them as it was observed to do upon the goats; the success
of his experiment led to the appreciation of its value. ·

LESSON XXX.
TE.A.

Natural Hist01·y, elk -Tea is tho produce of a small
evergreen shrub, a native of China; J apan, and some parts
of India. The leaves are lance shaped, toothed like a saw,
or serrated at the edges, of a bright deep-green color when
fresh, thofr length varying from two to five inches. 'fho
flowers, which are white, with numerous yellow stamens
clo~ely resemble those of the camellia japonica-a plant t~
which the tea shrub itself has a very considerable resemblance. Each flower is succeeded by dry fruit, containing
three seeds.
Tho first crop of tea is not collected until the plants;

. : :i> •., -"'. ·~ \ , \$,• '[,1~ ' .

~ ·;. t·~,.-t ..<~·1 '. ·.
'

.,. "'·. ~··~

!

'

.~ ...~r 1..:t+

~ ~"
.;-r

which are raised from seeds, are th~ee years. <?1d ~;.af\e~ t~';, ·
nge the leaves are gathered several times'' durihg~t,lt~ '.. ·
course of the year, the · young ones alone being plucked~;: ~ · ·
· as soon as collected they are put into shallow baskets; ··
partly dried by the sun and air, and afterward over a char· ·
coal stove; during the process they are rubbed between
the hands, so as to roll them up, and are constantly stirre~~,\·
to prevent scorching.
_
There· are two kinds of tea imported into this country'
-"-black and green. The black tea is prepared by placing . _
the leaves in a heap after they are gathered, which pro· ·
duces a slight . degree of heat, sufficient to darken the
leaves; whereas the green tea is dried and rolled ,~?lme- ·
diately after having been gathered. '.fhe . inferi~r : kin,~ '.":
are prepared by coloring the leaves wit'!i Prussian blue.·
The Chinese tea-makers employed by the East India Com·
pany in Assam make both green and black tea iudiS<;rimi~ ~· . . .
·
I· · · .., = _. -.
nately from the same tree's.
<11·-' .'-·•·
The transportation of tea' from the tea districts to the · i :•:·:,.:?
shippin" ports is much of it performed by men, .who carry{". 1,'··-:fJ
.";}.t:._fl
the·chests' slung one at I~ach end of a bamboo, which. 1·rests
: •, .. • -,-\
'
•• ·'
~ , "'
t:)

,

.·.·~

I

across the shoulder.
. - ', , ·,
The consumption of tea in Great Britain is about 65 • 11
millions of pounds :mhually, being about two pounds
for~ \1 ~ t.L ~·;'ft\ "
•
each person·' in tho United States the
quantity
consqmed·
. \\;\i~.t
--~ ;•, ,J
'
is at the rate of about one pound for each person " ~n·'-, .. ",.~;.
nually; on the continent of Europe coffee is employed . · 1 • • ~-~
to a much greater extent than tea; and in the German .: '. ,·
States the annual consumption is only half an . Ol\_Dce p~r'. : :·. t

i.,

.·t

head annually.

272

FIFTH STEP.-LESSON

xxxr.

Uses.-The mode in which tea is used as a beve.r age
requires no explanation. Its precise action
ti
.
on 1& system
IS not thorouo-hly understood. it .
I' I I
.
.
"' .
.
'
is s ig it y astrmgent, and
contams a volatile oil, which l1as a peculiar effect on ti
~ervous system, occasioning, when taken in large quan:i~
trns, watchfu.lness . and sleeplessness; on the other hand
when taken m moderation, it l1as a soothino- effect
'
the c1rcu
· Iation
· ; tea also contains
"'
on
a peculia1· substance,
termed tlwin, which is. supposed t
.
o assist ·considerably in
the nutrition of the system.
LESSON

xxxr.

IIOPS.

.. N_atural IRstory.-Tbe plant producing hops is found
wild m the Eastern States, on the banks of tl1e .. I. . . .
cl .l\I'
.
1.• 1ss1ss1pp1
an
isso1m, and in the temperate 1)arts of E
l ·
nrope. It is
cu t1vated extensively in N cw Eno-land Ne y ·k
d
Ohi
.
o
,
w 01 , an
o. . The English have carried its cultivation to great
perfection; in the county of K ent a.Jone
from 25,000 to
• 30,000. acres are ·occupied by hop plantations. It has a
perennial root, and a coarse harsh t . .
. . .
. 1
' '
> wmmg, annual stem ·
h
'
w ic l grows to a great 1 ti b .
hear
. '
eng 1, earing large, opposite,
t.shaped, or lobed leaves toothed 1·1
.
' '
He a saw at the
margm, nnd extremely rough. The barren flowers are
small, greenish, and very m11n· ero11s. T
he fertile flowers
grow o~ distinct plants, and consist of green scales, ar- .
ranged m cone-shaped ] d
h
iea s, eac scale enclosinrr a small
seed. vessel with a .sinde seed, and sevcr·al
o
I
~
grains of a
ye. low powder, in which .the Litter flavor
of the hop
chiefly resides.

SAGO. ·,.

ren ones are seldom allowed to grow.
the bops are dried in kilns, termed oast houses, and packed
.in large bags for the convenience of carriage. This pack'- ·
,.,
ing is frequently done by machinery, and the pat~cels are.', __.., <(.,"
ma.de so compact . that they may be cut into blocks .with · · _' '... ,
a knife, and kept for years in 1 a dry situatio~. ' The - -·
expense of cultivation is very great, and ~he crop. is ex.
ceedingly uncertain both in qualitf and quantity, the latter·"~::·· ,
varying from two to twenty'hundred-weigbt i;in acre; from.; • ten to fourteen is regarded ~ a ·favo~able return ; · w~.r,m ~ea·/:/'
sons, with little rain, are most pro~uctive: !l:;,~~..,.~,;;f;::_.~-i
< :•
Uses.-Hops possess a peculiar, bitter ·.ta:ite, and'~ ~ { J "l,.,;,
strong odor ; they are valuable from their st~engthening· ;· ·~ ;..,'
properties, and are also cultivated for their use in making .:·· ·. '.,2~
beer and yeast, to which they impart their afomatic flavor; •
enabling them also to be kept a considerable time without.. ~. .. '
'turning sour. They are used in medicine, both in decoc- ;i· ·~x..;
.tions 'and in poultices. The fibres of the vine are strong •;~·:· ·,
and flexible, and 1~re sometimes woven into coarse clo~h, • ;- '\
wbic4 serves for sacks in whfoh to carry the - hops ,to ·I
.
I
.
market. ·
.i

,_·:

LESSON XX.XII.

.

;'

i:l,, ..t 1-:· :r ~""'. .
} <' ..
; · .· ?~'.;";.:i . •r

.. • . t

SAGO.

·.

·. · .

0

'.

Sago is the pith of the sago palm, a tree in~geJ;lo~ · tp: .;_;·
Japan, and the dry rocky mountains of Malabar: · ·".>

t2•

274

FIFTH STEP.-LHSSON XXXII.

STARCH. ,, '-

It is lmrdly possible to imagine a plant more graceful
in its foliage, or more beautiful when in fruit, tlian this
species of palm. The foliation, whi ch slightly resemLles
that of the fern, i~ placed on the stem in the manner of
the feathers of a shuttlecock, forming a gigantic basket of
the most graceful appearance ; at the bottom of this is the
salmon-colored flower, resembling, both in shape and texture, ih!J Llossom of the cockscomb, but of a pale buff
color, inclining to bron·n. The frnit is a drnpc, thnt i.', a
nut surrounded by a pulJ;ly substance, as a plum. The
growth of this plant at 1irst is slow; it appears for some
time a shrnb thickly set with pricldes ; as it increases in
h eight, it loses its thorns. vVhcn the tree lias r eached its
maturity, a whitish powder transpires through the pores
of the leaves, and adh eres to their extremities. On this
intimation of the trees being filled with pi~h, the Malays
cut them down near their roots, and divide them into several -sections, which are split into quarters. The bark is
woody'. and about an inch in thickness; iti the centre of
the stem is a fat or gummy pith, which forms the sago.
This pithy substance, being scooped out, is diluted in pure
water, and strained through a bag of fine cloth, which separates the glutinous from the farinaceous matter. This
latter having lost part of its moisture by evaporation, is
passed through sieves, by which process it become granulated, and being received into eartl1en vessels, it dries and
hardens into little globules. Sago is extremely nutritious
and wholesome, and forms an excellent light diet for
invalids.

LESSON XXXIII.
STA.RCII,

IIistoi·y ana Properties.-Starch is a vegetable product for~ed in very large quantity by many plants, and
in various parts of their structure; constituting a
reservoir of foocl to be used in the future growth of the
l - t . It is· found abundantly in seccls, as in wheat,. rice,
pan
chestnuts, &c., &c. ; in stems, as in tho sago palm; m underground tubers and roots, as the potato, arrowroot,
&c.,&c.
Starch is in soluble in cold water, and remains unchanged until it is required fo1· the growth of. tBe plant
for whose use it was stored up; it then alters its -characte; becoming converted into sugar, which being soluble, ,is
av~ilable for the nourishment of the growing plant. Tho
results of this change are familiar in the conversion of bar- ·
Jey into ~alt, and in the sweetness of a potato ,that has
begun to grow.
Starch is prepared in England chiefly from wheat and
rice flour ; in America, from I'?-dian corn and potatoes; and
in France from horse chestnuts. Its preparation on a small
scale may be shown by tying a small quantity of flour in a .
piece of muslin, and work.i ng it with the fingers in a vessel
of water until all the starch has passed through, leaving
the gluten of the flour ; on allowing the water to remain
at rest the starch so obtained settles at the bottom of the

stor~d

vessel. '
As thus obtained, starch is

..,.

(;

..

~

~
-~

-.>-=~··:-~~·
.~
--

276
FIFTU STEP,-LEsSON XX:.uv.
SEALING WAX.

brilliant white
t
b
appearance, }Jerfectly insoluble
cold
er, ut soluble in boiling water formi
I 'ml
wasolution wb · h ·
'
ng a t nc c gummy
'
IC is much used by l
d
manufac.ture of
.
aun resscs, and in the
many textile fabi"
r
stiffening.
· ICs, ior the purpose of
Starch may also be rendered solubl
.
substance called d t .·
.. .
c by a d1y heat i the
the glazed .· . ex nne, ~r Bnt1sb gum (which is used in
p11nt works), is made b
.
ovens to d .
Y ex1iosmg starch in
a eg1 ce of heat rather above that
.
pomt of water.
of the boiling
In addition to these uses starch .
.
gredient in almost II
'
JS an important ina our vegetable food, and in a nearly
Jmre state is used in the form of arro . t
COrll Starch S:lCTO n d ·t ,
WI OO > potato Starch,
, • o , ... n
ap1oca.

Miscellaneous Substances· not usccl as

LESSON

+-.

.3

J OOtb,

xxxrv.

Ii'AF.Ens.

Manufacture.- 1Vafers arc
.
which is mixed with
t •
made fi om wheaten flour,
.
wa er so as to i(
t ·
orm a t 1un smooth
}Jastc · this
·I
' .
pas e is pressed by the
thin polished iro
l t
. . wo1 <men between two
n p a es, so Jomecl together as to fc
when closed, a pair of " wafc . t
orm,
· •
• Cl
Oil O'S • n tJ
J
quite touch each other bu
. o ,
ie p ates do not
thick as the wafe .
'.
t ai. e separated by a space as
1s a1 e reqmred · 1
d
' w len used they are
slightly wanned arid
closed, and lrnld for a ~rease , filled with the flour paste,
I
' ew moments over
a c mrcoal fire;
t.h e heat sets the past
e, anc1 on Sl'paratinCT
ti
.
a
ic t ongs, a thm

'

'\'~~·;·; -· '

· . 277 ~ -·
\

sheet of polished dry brittle wafer falls out. Several ' of'/ \ .
these arc piled up, and by means of a punch are cut ' into ' '··
small circular wafers of the size required. J\Iade with
flour only, tho wafers are white, but they arc frequently
colored by mixing various substances with the paste, as
lamp black, gamboge, indigo, vermilion, and reel lead;
· most of those substances are poisonous, especially th.e last
two, and injurious effects have in consequence often fol.
lowed their use in large numbers. Transparent wafers are
made of fine glne or isinglass, and some fancy wafers are
cut from gilt or silvered paper, gummed on tho lower sur·
face, and generally embossed.
Uses.-The use of wafers for fastening papers and letters depends on their becoming soft and adhesive when
moistened; if in this state they are placed between two
pieces of paper, and the latter pressed together, the wafer.
adheres to both, and when dry unites them firm.ly.

LESSON XXXV.
SEALING WAX.

Jlfaniifacturo.-Sealiog wax is prepared by melting together a resinous substance termed shellac (which is found
encrusting certain trees in the East Indies), ~nd about ono ·
quarter of its weight of Venice turpentine, a thick clammy
substance, obtained by wounding the larch tree; to these
ingredients are added, for red wax, the pigment vermilion,
and, for black, lamp black; these substances are well
mixed, and rolled into cylindrical rods on a hot smooth
marble slab ; these rods are cut into sticks of the proper

278

• FIFTH STEI'.-LESSON l:XXVI.

length; polished by exposure for a few moments to a char.
coal fire; and marked by a stamp \rith th e maker's name;
0
Yal ~lil'k.~ :ire fonueJ Ly casLiug Lhc wax: iuto moulds of
the desired shape.
Inferior kinds of wax, such as that usod for covering
the corks of bottles, arc made from common resin :md red
lead, Q.r other coarse coloring material.

Properties and Uses.-Scaling wax is a liard easily
fusible. substance, capable of catching fire when pl~ccd in
t~o flame of a candle, and of burning steadily; the heat
given out by the blazing portion melts another part, which
falls down in drops in a fused and ndhcsive state, capable
of adhering very firmly to paper, or any other porous substances; it will not, however, unite to the polished face of
a inctal or sto ne seal. ln its meltcJ state, scaling ·wax is
sufficiently plastic to receive any impression stamped upon
it ; this it retains as it becomes solid. It is therefore muchuse<l by seal engraycrs in obtaining fine proof irnpres., ions.
The orJinary r esins <lo uot answer for scaling wax, be·
cause they a.re so fusibl e as to melt in the flame before
they are sufficiently heatecl to take fire.
LESSON XXXVI.
PAPER.

Paper is made from a great variety of materials as
linen, cotton, worn out India bagging, wood, bark, str:w,
hay, and thistles, according to the kind required. The
Chin ese are supposed to have been the first manufacturers
of linen paper. It was not, how~ver, till the 13th or 14th

PAPER.' .

J

'i"'

·~

century that the art became known to European nations. .
It i~ made of linen rngR, first carefully picked and sorted
according to their qualiLy; Lhey aro then reduced to a
pulp by a ma.chino which consists of a solid cylindrical
piece of wood, into which are fastened plates of steel
gronnil very Rharp ; this is fixed in a trough, into which
the rags are put with a sufficient quantity of water. At
the bottom of tho trough is a. plate with steel bai;A, also
ground sharp. Tho engine being turned round with considerable velocity, and the rags passing through the two
sets of iron plates, are torn to pbccs, and in the course of
four hours arc reclnced to a pnlp. The motion of the engine causes the water in the trough to circulate, and by
that means constantly returns the stuff to the engine. The
trourrh
is fo<l. with clear water at one em1, while the dirty
0
1
water is carried off at the other through a hole defended
with wire grating to prevent the escape of the pulp. From
thi~ , whi ch is call ed the 1rashi11g cn,r7inc, th e pulp passes in
a sLatc of purity anJ whitc!l eSS to :mother eng ine, similarly
constructed, and called the beating engine. The only difference between this operation and the former is, that tho
velocity is increased, and that it is no longer necessary
to introduc!') fresh water, the pulp having been already
cleansed from its impurities. From hence it passes into
a large vat connected with boilers, and the heat they
produce gives the pulp a degree of consistency; it is ;
afterward conveyed into smaller vessels, in each of which
is a wheel called an agitator, which prevents it from sink·
in()'
to the bottom. Into these vessels a workman ·dips a
0
Jllouldt a kind of sieve, the size of the paper to · be mad~,

•

I

~;

"

..

280

NUTGALLS. . .

281:

FIFTII STEP.-LESSON XXXVI.

and about an ind1 deep; the 'bottom is formed of fine . .
brass wires, through which the superfluous water passes;
The skill of the workman consists in taking up just so
much pulp as .is necessary to form the paper of a }Jroper
thickness. Another workman is stationed to receive from
the first the mould, out of which he turns the sheet upon
a felt or woollen cloth ; another woollen cloth is placed
upon it, ready to receive the next sheet. Thus they pro·
ceed, placing alternately paper and felt, till they have made
six . quires of pa1~er. This is then wheeled to the press,
where great force is applied, and the water is squeezed
from it. After this the paper is separated from the felt ;
one sheet is laid upon another, and it undergoes a second
pressure. This operation is rcpc:1.tctl Ji rn or six times,
and the sheets are separated from one another between
each application of the screw-press. They are afterward
hung up to dry in rooms where the re is a cnrrcnt of fresh
air. In this state the paper is absorbent, like blotting pa·
per; to fit it for writing it is sized. Size is made of vellum* shavings, boiled in water, w~th sulphate of zinc and
· alum finely pounded. After the paper is sized, it is again
pressed fonr or five time~, and hung up to dry as before.
It is then told into qnires, :rncl ~cnt to the stationer, n-ho
prepares it for sale.
The most ancient kincl of paper was made from tho
papyrus, a species of reed growing on the banks of tho
Nile, from whence our name paper. Leaves also were employed at a very early period for the purpose of preserving
and transmitting the opinions and experience of mankind;
• Vellum is the prepared skin of young calves.

d · l' (folium bei.ncr the tLaiin
hence originated the wor . Jo iof 1 fas applie~ to a book.
d. l the meanm" o ca '
for leaf), an a so
. h"' f 1 aves generally the inner
b k succeeded t at o e.
,
The nse of ar
.
ll d by the Romans libei·,
tree.
it
was
ca
c
.
bark of t 11e 11me
'
.
b 1 and we have
f Ziber to a oo '•
and they gave the ~ame ~
ollcction of books. For
d the term library ior a c
adopte
.
.
1·
bstance was rolled up,
.
f carrying t ns su
tbc convemcncc o .
'.
l
lumen from which is
, . l . f.
was denonunatec vo
'
and m t llS ?rm
Our Saxon ancestors emclearly derived our v olume.
11 d it boc, a name
o cd the bark of the beech, and ca e
l
P ~
transferred to our b?olc. It is probable
wlnch we have
.
the first substances upon
that the skins of animals were
which characters were written.
LESSON

\

..

·.
'\

xxxvn.

NUTGALLS.

. ..
N tO":lllS are olJtaincd from a small,.
Natural lfistory.-~ u 0 <
. .Jl tbe countries of
1· t grows abundant1y m a
k
shrubby oa , t ia
'
tt ·
a greater heig11t
.
.
The plant seldom a am 8
.
fl
. nd acorns, which
Asia Mmor.
It bears leaves, owei s, a
than six feet.
·eat degree from those of our
ll fl , wliich
do not differ in any very gi
r 'I
n11trra1ls arc cansed hy a sma
)'
0
h ts to de posit its egg;
'
native oaks. 1 ic
J f the youn<' s 00 ··
pie rces the bar ( 0
"'
r
· . the gall· when
.
JI' " takes place, ionumg
,
around this a swe mo
fi d
the substance of the
.
b d the grub cc son
the egg is hate e '
t'
it is ehnno-ed into a
o
f
ds it. after a ime
gall that surroun
'
.
1 le throuo-b the side o
o
.
d by gnawrng a io
perfect rnsect, an • .
the nutgall, m:i.kcs its escape. h d They are most valuNutgalls are gathered by an .

282

FIFI'U STEP.-LJl:sSON XXXVIl.
#

ablo when arrived at their full .
d
size, an before th
.
pierced by the fly; in this state ti
ey are
as obtained · ·
iey are termed blue galls·
lll commerce they . .
.
. .
,
a1c near1y spherical var '
mg m size from a large pea to a 1
'
Yd
.
. ·. ' argc nut; the best arc f
~ cop olive color, and arc covered with tubercular .. o
t10n1', heavy, brittle, with au almost 11' t fi
. . p1 OJCC•
br k
th
m y racturc . wlien
o en, ey exhibit the remains of the grnb
cl '
freqncntl}' ti
r . .
, an not nnic pcr1cct rnscct is found enclosed Th .
.
from whic11 th ·
ose
•
e msccts 1i ::ffe escaped are 1igl1t . .
not so be
d
e1 In color,
avy, an ' as before observed of less l
are k
·
'
va ue. They
nown m commerce as white g~ ll•.
I'ropcrtics m l( z vTr.»CS.-1.,
,,
uirralls ri.1 . d
an extren J
·
"'' · ' e rno orous, and of
.
1e y nauseo us, a~tri1Jgent )Jitter tast
Tl
much used in the
1·
'
, c.
iey arc
manu acture of writincr ir J·
h
produce a black color wlien mixed 'tl "' i ,, as t ey
1
iron · th
.
WI
preparations of
'
cy a1c also largely employed in dyein 'Jk
and other substances of " bl k
l
g s1 , cloth,
·
'
" ac co or · 0
arc used i'n m e d'1cme.
.
' ccas1ona11·Y they

INSECn'S, ·

THE ANIMAL

KINGDOM.

I NSECTS .

General Observations on Insects.
The animals irhich Ldollg to this large ancl important
class receive their name from the Latin worcl insectus, cut
into; :is they ha\·c in gene ral the appearance of Lcing cut
into th ree parts-the bcacl, the chest, nnd the abdomen .
They arc also distinguished by passing through a very re·
markable series of changes Lefore they arrive at their per·
feet state. The bodies of insects, in every stage, · are
destitute of any internal framework of bones, being sup. ported by the skin, which is frequently su~ciently firm to
be capable of giving a fixed Ahape to the body, ancl of
forming the joints to the limbs.
In their perfect or mature state the head is covered
with several distinct pieces of horny skin, and usually furnished with two movable organs, termed from their use
f eelers; below these is the mouth, which opens perpendicularly. The eyes of insects generally are compound,
each eye, though apparently single, consisting of a large
number of eyes united together; in some species, however,
the eyes arc simple, and few in number.
The chest supports the wings, which are either two in
number, as in the house fly; or four, as in the butterfly.
In some classes the upper wings arc not used for flight,
but form a horny covering for the protection of tho two

284

FIFTII STEP.-TUE ANUfAL KINGDOM.

lower wings, which are thin and dclicat-e ; this occurs in
the lady bird, the cockchafer, &c. 'fhe difference in the
construction of the 'vings is very considerable, :md furnishes the means whereby this large class of animals (of
which naturalists have reckoned more than 100,000 distinct kinds) can be arranged into several smaller divisions
or orders; to the chest also are attacherl the legs, which in
all trne insects arc six in number. Insects do not breathe
through their mouths, or by means of lnngs, but the air
passes through pores in their sides, and is then conveyed
by very stnall tubes over the whole body.
The changes through which insects pass are very singular; they are hatched from eggs, which are usually laid in
great numbers, and deposited with remarkable instinct in
the immediate neighborhood of such food as will be suitable to the yon.ng. From th ese eggs proceed larva;, or, as.
they arn more commonly called, grubs, maggots, or caterpillars, which are at birth very small in size; they, however, usually grow with great rapidity, eating voraciously;
a silkworm, for example, attains in thirty days many thousand times its original weight.
During their continuance m this state, their rapid
growth rcn<lcrs it necessary that the skin should be several times cast off, to permit the grent increase of size that
takes place.
Arrived at its full size, the larva changes into a pupa,
or chrysalis, in which state it is enclosed in a horny skin, is
destitute of limbs, and without the power of moving.
After remnining in this state for some time, the animal
bursts its enclosure and appears as the perfect insect; in

BEESWAX. - .

,.

\~~~,<~{\.'.%~!~~ ·'.J~;}~:~

.this stage its life is usually.short; it ~ays eggs _fo~ t~,e ._I!~~~t<-:·\:..~Y~< .
duction of another gcnerat10n, and dies. In some msects,;, _· •..':"!". .~·· ·
·the whole of the stages <lescribed a·rc not passed througli; .· -. " .. _
or· are not distinctly marked. This is the case with the
common cockroach, or house beetle, and many others.
. Though individually of small size and comparative insignificance, yet insects, from their vast numbers and great
voracity, are of the utmost importance in the economy of
nature. In numerous cases they act as natural scavengers,
removing with great rapidity all kinds of decaying animal
and vegetable matters; and many are useful directly to
man , furnishincr
:::. him with food, medicine,
. dyes, &c.

INSEOTS, AND SUBSTANCES DERIVED FROM THEM.

LESSON

xxxvni.

BEESWAX.•

Preparation and Uses.-Beeswax, the formation of
which has been alrea<ly described, is prepared ·for use by
melting the comb in boiling water, the honey. having been
previously extracted ; in this state it is yellow, anrl has a
peculiar smell. Yellow wax is freed from impurities by
melting, when the heavier particles sink to the botto1n, and
the light~r rise to the top, and are removed by skimming.
When purified, it is used for making ointments, cements,
&c. ; it melts quickly under the heat of boiling wat?r, and
becomes soft at the temperature of the human body.
When warm, it is sufficiently soft to take the. impression
of any object, which it retains when cold and hard; for

...
·. ,I .

'" ,

·.•
.

..,

.

":;'"'

-~:·

...

28G

FIFTH STEP.-LESSON

xxxvnr.

this purpose wax is much used by dentists, &c. Beeswax i
is whitened by the process of bl~aching; it is first formed ,\ · ~
into thin ribands or shavings, which are laid upon canvns
in a bleaching ground, where, by the action of the sun,
they become colorless, and are cast into small flat cakes. ,
In this state wax is used for making artificial flowers and ·,,
fruit, for waxing sewing thread, and for making candles.
Tho manufacture of wax candles uilfors fr om the mode
adopted in making any other kind. Common caudlcs arc
made by repeatedly dipping the wicks into the melted tal·
low until th ey are of sufiicient size for use ; and the name
of dips is given them from t he manner in which they are
made. The candles called moulds are made by pouring
the melted tallow into pewter moulds in which the wick
has been previously stretchcu. If wax were to be treated
in this way, it would not come ont readily from the mould;
therefore, in forming candles of this substance, the wicks
are hung on a hoop su'spenued over a pan of melted wax;
the workman pours over each wick a quantity of wax,
which adheres to it; bnt :rn the c::indle would h e larger at
the bottom from the running down of the melted wax, the
wick is unbooked and hung .1p again bottom upward, "
when wax is again poured over it, and it becomes of a
more uniform shape. It is then taken from the hoop, laid
on a moist slab, and rolled with a smooth board until it is
of the proper shape ; the required length is $iven it by
cutting off the rough end.

GRASSIIOPPER.

'·

.......

LESSON XXXIX.
GRASSHOPPER.

Natural I:listory.-Grasshoppers arc well known in·
sects, remarkable for possessing in an almost equal degree
the powers of flying and leaping. The body is thin, long, .
and flattened at the sides; the legs are si~ in number, tho
hindeDones being much larger than the others, and longer
than the body. Each hinu leg consists of three distinct
parts-the thigh, the shank, aml the foot ; t.hcsc legs are
not usetl in walki ng, but arc only employed in leaping.
When the animal wishes to leap, it draws the feet of the
hind legs close to that part of the thigh that joins the
body, the joint uniting the thigh and shank being bent to
· a very sharp angle, high above the hnck of the insect;
the various joints of tho leg are then s11ddenly and powerfully straightened, and the foot forcibly striking tho
ground, the animal is propelled high into the air.
The wings of the perfect insect are thin nnd memhra·
nous; when at rest they ." rn not observed, as they are
folded up in a fan-like forn{ under narrow wing-cases . .
· The chirping noise made by the insect is caused by
the rubbing of the thighs of the hind legs against the
horny wing covers. The appetite of these insects is vora·
cious; they feed entirely on vegetable substances.
The eggs of the female are d eposited in the ground,
and the young batched from them resemble the old C)D~S ; in appearance ; but they are not furnished . with ' e'.t?er
wings or wing-covers, consequently they are unabl~_· :~ ~

..

~\

..

.,

.

·""

.

j'

;

'

"'

288

FIFTH STEP.-SIIELLS.

SHELLS.

or chirp. After some time these parts grow, and
young one is changed into the perfect insect.
SHELLS.

289

·the dashing of the waves on the shore, or to the torrents
of rapid rivers, arc often of almost impenetrable hardness,
as in the pcri winkle ; others, like the common snail, not
exposed to violence, are thin and light, so that they may
be readily borne by the inhabitant ; every shell ofi'er strik\ing proofs of design and fitness in its adaptation to the ani·

..

General Observations on Sliells.
The substances known as shells arc the natural cover·
ings of certain animals, which are distinguished by the •
absence of any internal framework or skeleton; by having
cold and colorless blood; by their senses b 2ing usually
but slightly developed; and by tl1eir being soft, fleshy,
and cold to the touch; animals of this kind are termed
.mollnscous, from two Latin words signifying soft flesh; · ··
some of them, as the common slug, arc destitute of any
shelly covering.
The number of distinct sliells which have been de·
scribed is upward of fifteen thousand.
Shells consist chiefly of chalk or carbonate of lime,
which is cemented into a mass by animal matter; the in,
ner surface of each is lined by a part of the sk in of the
animal, which has the power of secreti1;g or forming the
substance of the shell; and, as the animal grows, is con·
stantly enlarging it, by adding:
new shell at the edcres,
or · ,
._.
b
around the mouth of the open ing; this skin has also tho.
}Jower of repairing any injury that may have
forming new shell at tile injured p::trt.
Shells are interesting to us, not only on account
their beauty and durability, but also from the evident in· .
stances of design they afford, and from the creative wisdo~
displayed in their formation; those which are expose~ t~ .
I

'

~al's station and

habits.
Shells, and their inhabitants, are of direct use to man
' in numerous instances ; the animals in many cases furnish
" very nutritious articles of food. Shells arc often burned
· for the sake of the lime they yield; others are employed
in an unburned state as valuable manure; and some kinds
are used as a substitute for gravel in garden and ·park
walks. To the natives of savage countries they are espe·
cially valuable; the sharp edges of broken pieces being
used as substitutes for knives, and for forming arrow and
spear heads ; they arc also formed into fish hooks, and used
as vessels for holding liquids. Over a large extent of
Africa a small shell, the money cowry, passes instead of
money, being taken in exchange for goods and labor in the
same manner as coins are in civilized countries; the va'l.ue,
however, of each shell is very small, a string of forty being
not worth more than from one cent to four cents. About
1,000 tons of money cowries arc annually imported into
England from India, being employed by English traders in
' the purchase of goods from the natives on the west coast
of Africa.
In China, a thin, semi-transparent shell is used as a substitute for glass in glazing windows in the junks, and for
lanterns.

13

...
290

FIFfII STEP.-SUELLS.

Vast numbers of several distinct species of foreign
shells are used in the manufacture of cameos for brooches
and other ornaments. These arc formed from uuivalve
shells, which consist of several byers of dif.I'crcnt colors.
The engraver c uts away tl10 outer layers, so producin g the
pattern or design required. Cameos :ire cLicOy m:t<le in
Paris, where upwanl of 100,000 shells arc usc<1 annnnlly.
A large proporliou of tho cameos mtll1e in F rance are sent.
to Euglau<l, auJ are mouute<l as brooches at Birminrrham
b
'
mul then exported to America and the colonies. In 1 S5G
there were imported into England unmounted cameos of
the declared value of G,G83l.
Shells, for the convenience of arrangement, are ar- .•
ranged into throe groups-those formed of one piece, or· ·
valve, are termed univalves, as the snail, whelk, &c. ; those
formed of two valves, united by a hinge, are termed bivalves, as the oyster, mussel, &c. ; and those formed of
several pieces arc termed multivalves; the latter, however,
arc riot so abundant as the first two divisions.
UNIVALVE SnELLS. - A univalve shell is usually formed
of several hollow whorls, which arc coilccl round so as to
form the spire, the largest and last formed bcinrr
te1;med
0
the body whorl j the entrance into the shell is termed the · ·
moiltli, its two sides the lips j where the spi re ends is
termed the point, or top of the shell; its opposite extremity the base j many shells, as that of the whelk, have a
'projection at the bottom of the mouth ; this is called a
beak j it frequently contains a canal, into which the trunk
of the living animal is received. When an animal inhabiting a univalve shell is full grown, the body whorl nncl

SN.AIL. ·

'"· '

'

.·".

:;; mouth are often much altered in form, and frequently so
much enlarged as entirely to overspread and conceal the
spire and other parts,-this happens in the cowrie~, the
spotted and striped varieties of which are frequently seen
ornamenting our sitting rooms.
The animals inhabiting uni,·alve shells arc much more
complicatCLl in their formation than those of the uivalves;
they have a. distinct head, 'vhich is generally furnished
with organs termed foclers ; they also possess the sense of
,; . • sicrht,
and are furnished with a broad fleshy foot on which
0
· "•

~

.. :. 291

they crawl.

1.
I

I

"

I',\

I

L

• j'i
ii

LESSON XL.
SN.AIL.

'.
Natural History.-Snails, of which many distinct kinds
are found in this ancl other countries, are univalves, of a
conical form, with a large swelling body whorl, a smooth
surface destitute of spires or projections, and a roundish
mouth without a beak ; the shell is thin and light ; at the
same time it is possessed of considerable strength ; the
animals are furnished with four feelers, the two upper are
the longer, and carry at their ends two eyes, which app,ear
· like dark spots; the means by which these feelers are pro·
truded and drawn in at the will of the animal are particularly interesting· each feeler may be compared to the
.
'
~
finger of a glove, the inside of which has a string sewn to
the tip ; the effect of pulling the string woul~e to turn
in the finger of the glove, beginning at the extremity;
precisely this contrivance exists in the feeler of the snail,

I

:I ~l,
)I I'

1

1

1 1
1'

i
I

,\

<l
I

I

292

FIFTH STEP.-LESSON XL.

which, however, possesses what does not exist in the glove,
-a series of circubr rings like fibres surrounding it at
every part, by the contraction of which, in their proper
or'der, the feeler is again turned out or protruded. The ,
eggs of the snail are brge for the size of the animal ; they
arc white, and resemble berries in appearance; they arc
. deposited in June.

•

Its food consists entirely of vegetable substances; during winter, or the extreme drought of summer, or at any
time when their natural .food is not to be obtained, they
close the mouth or opening of the shell with a thin lid of
hardened slime, and become torpid ; if put into a box they
will fix themselves to the sides and remain in· a dormant
state for years, reviving, however, immediately if moistened. By this beneficent contrivance these animals are
not only enabled to abstain from food during winter, but
when extreme dryness in summer has parched up the
yegetables on which they live, they have the power of becoming dormant, whilst the same refreshing shower that
restores the green herbage, calls back to life those animals
whose food it forms.
Various kinds of snails have been used as food ; a large
species, with a shell of a whitish color, with brown bands, ·
was eaten by the Romans, and is now used for food in
many parts of Europe. The common garden snail has
bee~ used sometimes in soup pr~pared for consumptives.'
Snails form the favorite food of many birds, especially
those of t!vjthrush kind, and they are aiso eaten by other ,
animals.
·

LIMPEI',

LESSON XLI.
LIJIIPET.

Natiwal Histoi·y.-Tbe shell of tho limpet is remarkable for iti> form, being conical without and concave within, and destitute of the spirally twisted whorls that are
usually found in univalve shells. The animal is furnished
with a pair of feelers, with eyes, and a hard, firm mouth,
having a long tongue covered with minute hooks for rasp·
ing down the sea-weed~ on which it feeds; ,it has a broad
fleshy foot, with which it fixes itself immovably to rocks .
and stones when left uncovered by the tide "; this it effects
by drawing up the foot in such a manner as' to form a vacuum in the interior, when the weight of the air and water
firmly presses down the shell, on the same principle that
one may attach a key to his tongue. This simple contrivance, and the conical form of the shell, enable it to withstand the violence of the waves that dash against the
rocks; and thus this little animal from within its stony
castle bids defiance to the storm, ·and magnifies the good:
ness of Him who made it.
· ' In Scotland the li~pet is frequently used for food, and
the liquid obtained by boilin~ it is, when mixed with oatmeal, much esteemed.

LESSON XLII.
PERIWINKLE.

/ •

Natural Hist_onJ.-The shell of the periwinkle,

..

'

a~,

294

FIFTH STEP.-LESSON

:nm.

though apparently resembling that of the snail, differs in ' ·
several importaut particul ars, as might be expected from ,;.
the fact that one animal inhaLits the land, while the other
is exposed to the violen ce of the waves ~n the sea-shore .
the shell of the snail is thin, lig ht, and delicate; tliat of'
tho periwinkle exceedi ngly thick and of un common
strength, so that it will frequently support the weig ht of ....,'
a person standing on it without being crushed ; in form',~
the shell is more pointed than that of the common garden
. SnaiJ,-it _consists of fi\•e or six rounded whorls, the body.
whorl bemg larger than all the others; attached to tho'
animal is a h orny lid, with wliich it is able to close tho
opening of the shell when it r etreats within it. The animals inhabiti1~g th:se shells differ also very considerably,
-:one breathmg arr by means of lungs, ,vhile the rcspirat10n of the other resembles that carried on by the gills of
a fi sh.
The periwinkle is very extensively used for food by the
po~rcr c'.as~es of London, b eing eaten after having been
boiled; it 1s collected in enormous quantities from the
rocks and stones, when they arc left bare by the ebbing
of the tide.
LESSON XLIII.
WHELK.

Natui·al History.-Thc shell of this animal is formed
of seven or eight rounded whorls marked with raised ··
stripes, and is of a dingy white or brownish color. the
' at
mouth of the shell is oval, with a short beak and a canal

205

WHELK.

i' "" :

f

spire is much more elongated than in the
The animal is not a vegetable feeder, but subsists on
the inhabitants of other shells, especially on muscles; it is
enabled to obtain its food by means of a short trunk or
proboscis, furnished at the extremity with a number of
very small tecth,-with these it bores through the shells
of its prey, and extracts the softer parts. The destructive
""'. powers of a kind of whelk proved very annoyii1g to the
. · builders and lirrht-house
keepers of the Bell Rock light·
~
b
1
\
house,
on
the
coast
of
Scotland;
they had obtained a num, .. .
ber of a large kind of muscle, and endeavored to plant a
colony of them on the rock, for use as food and for bait;
the muscles were soon observed to open their shells and
die in great numbers ; and it was ascertained that the rock
whelk, with its proboscis, bored small holes in the shells,
and sucked out the finer parts of the body of the muscle,
which, of course, perished; it was remarked that the whelk
always bored the thinn est part of the muscle . shell, and
that the hole was b eautifully smooth and circular. As the
muscles were of great importance to the men, they endeavored to d estroy their enemies ; but these were so numerous that all their efforts were in vain, and in three years
the muscles were all extirpated.
Whelks furnish but indifferent food for man, as they
are hard and indigestible; they are, however, liked by
some persons, and are constantly sold in the streets of
London and other places ; by fishermen they are largely
employed as bait.
.
··
,.
'

i

. I

I'

I

I

·-

296

FIFTH STEP.-LESSON XLIV.

MUSCLE.

LESSON XLIV.

LESSON XLV.

SIIELLS OF TWO PIECES, OR IlIVALVES.

MUSCLE,

The two pieces, or valves, of which th~se shells
formed, are united, at the part called the h ·
. .
.
.
mge,
elastw ligament, which keeps the shell open; bnt the ani- .
ma!, Ly means of one or more strong muscles, or white
fibrous contractile bands, which arc attached inside tho ·,
valve,., and pass from one to the other, can close them at .
pleasure. At the liinge are often small prominences; : .i
these. are called teeth, and the points of the valves over \;
the hmge arc callec1 beaks.
Tho animals inhabiting these shells differ much from
those of the univalves ; they have no distinct bead, and "
consequently do not possess either eyes or feelers; their
mouth is merely a small aperture, destitute of teeth; they
breathe by means of gills ; these gills in the oyster are the
p~rts familiarly known as the bcard,-when examined by a
mwroscope, they are found to be covered with minute
bodies called cilia, in shape like 1iairs, which, by their
constant motion, cause currents in the water that carry ·
food to the month of the animal.
Some of these animals are furnished with feet by ~
which they crawl; others, like tho muscle, anchor t~em- '.~. '. .
selves by a cable of small fibres, while a third set, as the l
oyster, cement themselves to rocks, and are incapable of
moving from place to place.
I

207

Natural History.-The shell of the muscle consISts of
': two valves of equal size, and similar oval shape, pointed at
" the beaks ; their color is brown externally, but when freed
from the outer layer, and polished, of a beautiful deep blue,
the inside pearly white, but bluish towardi> the edges. The
animals have tho power of moving from place to place by
·' means of a tongue-shaped foot, which they push out of the
~ shell to some distance, and withdraw again; when they
.· wish to move, they place the shell erect on its edge, and
' stretch out the foot,-this, being sticky, adh.e-res to the
ground, and, ,\rhen shortened, pulls the shell · forward; in
this way the muscle moves along until it finds a convenient
place of residence, when it forms a btindle of fine silky
' threads, one encl of which it fastens to the rock, while the
other is attached to the animal; thus it remains securely
anchored.
Muscles are found on the coast of England in immense
' .:, numbers, in beds which are uncovered at low water; wo.!' .men and children tear them away with iron hooks from the
, rocks and stones to which they are attached, and sell them
f'· as they are thus collected ; but in France they are fattened
as oysters are in this country.
The muscle is largely used for food, being eaten either
plainly boiled or pickled ; it is a rich, and, when in season,
not an unwholesome food ; in the summer, however, it is
apt to disagree with many persons; this was long thought
13'*

. '·

208

BONES.

FIFTH STEl'.-J,lcSSON XLVI.

to be owing to a small crab, which is often found in the ..~··• .
shell with tho muscle, but there seems no good reason for
this supposition; the muscle is much used by fishermen as
a bait for cod, haddock, &c. Th(} shells arc also much
employed for holding the gold paint used by artists.
LESSON

XLVI.

ll!OTUER-OF-PEARL.

Description.-1\fother-of-pearl is the hard, semi-trans·
parent, brilliant, iridescent substance which forms the internal layer of several kinds of shells ; the interior of tho
common oyster shell is of this chal"acter, but the motherof-pearl used in the arts is much more variegated with a
play of color, and the larger shells of the tropical seas
alone have this substance of suffici ent thickness to be useful; the chief supply 'of the mother-of-pearl oyster shell
comes from the coasts of Ceylon, the Persian Gulf, and
parts of Australia.
The play of colors in mother-of-pearl depends on its pecu· · i.'
liar structure ; it is so formed that it possesses even ,\,hen ·
'
<
polished, a series of fine grooves running over the surface; ·:
these reflect the light in su?h a manner as to produce the ~
various hues seen on the surface; the furrows arc too small ·to be distinguished by the naked eye, but may be seen with .
tho aid of a microscope; an impression of them may be '
taken with very fine black sealing ·wax, which will then ·...
possess, to a considerable extent, a similar appearance.
Uses to Man.-Immenso quantities of mother-of-pearl
are used in the manufacture of small articles, such as but).

.<::.;..·: __"-:.,. ."'. "::',(

,.,.

\

I

~,

'

_;'*·209
:·... ·.:
\

.

1. f

• tons, knife handles, salt spoons, &c.; ,&c., and it' is . mu?~
· employed in inlaying dark woods, with which its varied
surface forms a beautiful and striking contrast.
Recently, the dark varieties of the shell have come into
demand; these were formerly regarded as valueless, and
were rejected. It is stated that whole wagon loads lie
buried under some of the streets of Birmingham, where it
was thrown as waste, while it is now worth from 15l. to
. 20l. per ton.
Some idea may be formed of the extensive tise of this
material from the fact that England imported in 1857
nearly 35,000 cwt., the estimated valuo being 57,819l.
Of this quantity, about one-fourth was re-exported to

other countries, the remainder being retained for . home
consumption.

MISCELLANEOUS

OBJECTS.

LESSON XLVII.
BONES.

Naturnl History.-The bodies of all the higher classes
of animals are supported by an internal framework of
bones, termed the skeleton; these bones, to resist without
injury the various forces to which they are exposed in the
living body, must be able to bear compression, extensfon,
and twisting, without either bending or breaking; for that
purpose they are formed. of two materials-one an ear~hy
substance, which is chiefly phosphate of lime, to give solidity and hardness ; the other an animal substan<!e, resem-

·-

300

JcJ P TU STEP.-Ll£SS ON

XLnr.
BONES. ·

bling glue or gelatine, to impart toughness; if a bone is
slightly burnt in the fire, the gelatine is charred, and it
b ee.om-es bh ck; \Yhrn c·x110.o:c,1 t• 1 a n·,] Ji,·:it iu tlw open
air for a longer time, t.Jrn nnim'.l ] m:ittc·r is ent irely lrnrnt
aw~y, '.ln r1 th e 11 l1itt~ c:1111 1.1· j•l1<•<11li :1I(; nf' liuw alouo r emain1' ; t.lJj R l"Ch1 ins th r: f,,rnl or tJ1c l>uttl', Jrnt, i...; l'.\CCct!i n•:;ly- hr it t I•-., f1 ·<'l!t t liL' ck.ol rttc Li,,11 vi' the gelatine; Ly
f'O '.!ki ng '.! bone i ll diluleJ ac;id for a conside rable time the
.
'
earthy matter may 11e rem oved, Jc:rring Llie gelaLiue in the
form of a fl exible g ristle. The compMition of bon e may ·
he f'tntcd g euc rally asOrgan ic mall<' <". d1idl_I' ('.chli:ie,
Phosph ate of lim e,
Cnrbonotc of li me (chalk),

Other mine ral materials,

J\J parts.

50
8
2

C(

"

The uses of th e framework of bones to the animal may
be arranged under three divisions :- 1st, by tl1 eir hardness
and firmn ess they give support and a fi~ecl shape t o the
body. 2d, th ey enclose and protect cl elicate and important
organs from extern al injury,-thns, th e bones of t he skull
protect the brain, those of t he chest the h eart and lungs.
3d, they give firmn ess to the limbs, and at t he joints, wh ere
they are connected together, admit of motion ; those parts
of the bones that rub over each oth er during the movements of the limbs, are covered with a very smooth gristle
or cartilage, and are moistened by an unctuous fluid.

As the same quantity of mate'rial makes a stronger
column when arranged in the form of a hollow tube than .

801

as a solid cylinder, the long bon es of the limbs are · formed
bei n ~, in terre.strial animals,
filled with an oily fluid, which hardens, when cold , into
marro1'·, -anrl in hirrl~, with air ; tl1i~, whrn heatcr1 liy
th e warmth of 1h e ani mal, h as a ten<lency to render it.
into h oll o w tnhes, th e c:wity

/jrrJit
rr.
0

Uses to J!frtn . -Roncs arc a Ycry import::rnt :uticle of
comm erce. After having ·b een boiled to ex tract t he
' . grease' which is used in soap and cm1dle making, t he
l:uger Linus, t ermed sh:wk bones, of 11hich 2,000,000 are
used annually at Sh eflielcl, are employed for kuifo han dles,
to oth :t ml nai l brush es, combs, pape r kn i1·es, spoons; tho
sm aller fo r b uttons, and. a variety of small artides ; t h e
shavings and sawdust fo rmed in making these articles are
used either as manure or for size-making. H eated in closed
iron Ycssc18, lrnnes tnrn bbck ; in this state they are
t ermed anim al charcoal, or bone black, an article much
used in clarifying sugar.
Orie g reat use of b ones, is as manure, especially in ,
En.g land ; for this purpose they are collected f~·om every
part of the island, and even from · the Contm:nt,. and
crush ed, eith er coarsely, or into a fine powder; m either
state .the farm er scatters them over his land, or sows a
quantity with his seed. When acted upon by oil of vit·
riol or sulphuric acid, they furnish a valuable manure,
kn;wn under the name of snperphosphate of lime.
The earthy matter of bones contains a large portion
of phosphorus, which, when extracted by chemical processes, is used extensively for the manufaetµre of match~s.
About 70,000 tons of bone are annually ioiported.' i~to

. .....
-Y-

1

·"

l

302

FIFTII STEP.-LESSON XLVIII.

England ; about one third of this large quantity comes
from the cattle feeding plains of South America, and about
one fifth from Russia.

LESSON XLVIII.
FEATHERS.

Natural Hist01·y.-Feathers are the substances
form the clothing or natural covering of birds. The :Jrnbits and movements of th ese animals arc so peculiar as
to require in their Clothing a very unusual combination of "
qualities ; it must be a bad conductor of beat, so as to .,., '
prevent the escape of the natural warmth of the animal 't '
under all circumst:rnces, whether in the water or in the' . ~
cold upper regions of the air, or in winter. It is neces-· ·,
~ary also that it should be exceedingly light, for, if heavy, ": '
it wonlcl render flight impracticable ; a striking example ·
of the extreme lightness of a bird's plumage is afforded by ·~
the fact, that all the feathers of the common owl (a bird
very alrnndantly clothed) weigh ouly one ounoe and a half·
this lightness must, nevertheless, in the feathers of th~
wings, he combined with great sLre1iirtb as these parts are '.
•
b
'
,
forcibly struck against .the .air, in the act of flying. The •
whole covering must be flexible, to permit the vari~d · ,
movements of the animal, and sufficiently smooth to offer·
the least possible r esistance to the rapid }Jassage of the •
bird through the air ; and, lastly, the entire covering must,
in many instances, be waterproof.
'~'
On examination we shall find that these

FEATHERS.

:303

opposite qualities of warmth, lightness, strength, flexibility,
smoothness, and the power of resisting the entrance · of
water, are combined in the covering of birds in a manner
which most strongly proclaims the wisdom and b eneficence
of the Creator, who bas declared that without Him "not
even a sparrow falleth to the ground." A feather consists
of three parts-a quill or barrel, a shaft, and a vane or
beard; the quill is that part of the fcath~r by which it is
attached to the boc1y of the birc1 ; it is formed of a horny
substance, of a hard ancl elastic natnrc, remarkably strong
and light; this lightness is given by its b eing formed in the
shape of a hollow cylinder, which is filled with air; it is
hollow for the ir.ime reason that the bones are hollow, that
is, to ensure strength withthe least possible weight. That
the quill may also possess strength in every direction, it is
form ed of two sets of fibres, (though, from their being <..
transparent, this is not readily seen) ; one set runs in the
direction of the length of the quill ; it is this set that is
torn apart (not across) when a quill is split to make a pen;
the other fibres are circular, and run round the former,
binding them together ; if this circular set is not scraped
off b efore making a pen, the slit is j agged, in consequ ence
of their b eing torn across.
The membranous substance found within the quill is
the dried remains of the blood vessels by which the feather
was nourished during its growth.
The shaft of the feather is four sided; it is largest near
the quill, and gradually lessens in size to the end j it is
slightly bent, to adapt it.to the shape of the bird, covered
with a · horny substah~e like that of the quill, but . not so

301

FIFTH STEP.-LESSON XLVIII.

FEATHERS.

thick, and filled with a light elastic substance resembling
pith.
The vane or beard of the feather is composed of a number of flat barbs or pieces, which grow from the sides of
the shaft ; these arc placed with their flat sides toward
each other, their edges being turned upward and down·
ward ; this method of placing them is the strongest that
could be adopted, as it is these edges that strike the air
during flight.
In an unrufiled feather the barbs or pieces of the vane
arc united together, and cannot easily be parted; it is evi·:
dent, however, that they do not adhere by any adhesive
matter, or the feather would feel clammy ;· if these barbs
are rufilecl, they reunite when the feather is smoothed from
the quill toward the end. Tb is reunion is effected by the -~ "
following beautiful contrivance :-Every barb has a row of ·r ':
very minute hooks on each side; those on the siclc nearest
the quill tuni their points upward, those on the other side
downward; these all hook in one another, and hold the
barbs together ; when the feather is milled by any force, ...
these elastic hooks arc stretched apart without being bro- { 1
ken, and so exquisitely perfect is their adaptation to each .
other, that on being brought together, either by smoothing the feather upward between the thumb and finger, or i
by the bird preening them with its bill, they reunite' ; th~- ..
exquisite contrivance enables the bird to keep the vanes of ;the feathers, particularly those of the wings ·and tail, _in the
best possible condition for resisting the ai.r in flight. That (
part of the van~ nearest the quill is often formed of softer i,
barbs 'Yithout hooks; this downy portion, when the feather . ·

rr '

\

...

'·

305'

is in its natural situation, is next the skin of the bird, and
serves to keep the body warm. Many birds are, in addi•
tion, furnished with down growing from the skin, so as to
form a warm under clothing, the delicate and elastic fila·
ments of which are not hooked together like the barbs
of feathers, but remain separate. Down is most abundant under the feathers of swimming birds, where it is requisite to prevent the water from abstracting the heat of
their b~dies; and it is much more abundant on the under
surface of .the body than elsewhere. The down of these
layer of feathers protect- ;
birds is never wet, the close oily
.
, ing it from the water. Some water birds, as the goose, .
pluck the down from their breasts to line their nests.
Feathers are often modified so as to suit the wants of
the particular species of bird. Thus birds of prey, as
·'. hawks and eagles, have hard, fi~m feathers, extremely ,
strong and elastic. Owls have soft, down~ feathers, so
that they fly silently at night, and ·surprise their prey. · 'In
the ostrich, and other birds that do not fly, tiie bat·bs are · not joined by h~oks, but are loose and flowing. Swimming
birds have their feathers close and oily, to prevent the en·
trance of water.
Uses to M~n.-The coverings of birds are of great use '
.to man, and form articles of commerce, up.det the names
of quills, feathers, and down.
Quills are chiefly used for the manufacture of writing
. pern~, and are generally obtained from wings . of geese,
which, at stated times, are partially deprived of their quills
and feathers. The quills, when pulled from the animals,
are sorted according to their size and quality; the smallest

I

,(•

I

• .,. ,

;

,I

. r-1· .
J• '.
''· '( ,~

306

•. .GLUE• •.. ' ·

FIFTH STEP.-LESSON XLIX,

are sold under the name of pinions. Before they are soldh ,
for use, quills are sometimes stained yellow. In 1855,./
nearly twenty-seven millions of foreign swan and goose . ~
qnills were imported into England, valued at about
30,000l.

. Featlw1·s are used in this country for stuffing heels, boh.
stcrs, and pillows, &c. The most valued aro obtained from "
g eese, the inferior kinds from ducks, fowls, and other pou1.,,.
try. Ornamental and colored feathers, as those of~he os~ -.
tricb, bird of paradise tails, the domestic cock, &c., &c.,·~
are much employed in personal decoration.
Down is used in two states, either removeJ from the )· ,
skin of the animal for stuffing pillows, quilts, and other,( ;
substances, or attached to the skin for making tippets, &c., ; •
in the same manner as fur.
LESSON XLIX.
GLUE.

Manufacture ana Uses.-Glue
the animal substance known as gelatine.
by carpenters, and in the various arts, as a strong c~ment. ".'
The best is obtained from the skins of animalA, the small ·
cuttings rejected by the currier being generally employed; ;"
an inferior kind is made from the sinews and hoofs of»;·
horses and other animals.
.. '
These materials are first well steeped in lime water/.
which assists in removing any grease; they are then boiledt,
in water until all the soluble parts are dissolved; the iai.' 1
purities that rise to the surface are skimmed off; the liquor

·t-.;1 :,

'
..~

·-i"

. /~

.

30.'f. '· '·· ' ~J " ,
~-~
. ... ... ;.\ .:·~ ·. .; .._- ,,...,:~
d

...

:~~is then strained, to separate the undissolved piec~s rof:e~iri1 ·~.--~-,~- ':.~~' #
' and again boiled down until it becomes on cooling a · very · · ·
firm, hard j.elly. This jelly is cut into thin, flat, square
pieces, which are dried upon coarse netting.
The
depressions left by the network are visible on the dried
· glue. ·
·; . : vVhen of a good quality, glue is of a rich brown color,
:'~ semi-transparent, and without spots or clouds in its inte;: · rior; it.should be perfectly soluble in hot water, not leav"'; ing any.sediment. The sohttion of glue in water is, when
" cold, a j elly-like mass, which varies in: firmness according to
,·· the quantity of glue dissolved; even•when made very firm
..:~ ·it readily melts with heat, and in this state is used as a
'. cement, being applied while hot to the substances which it
' is wished to unite ; they are _pressed together, and as the
; .. glue becomes firm on cooling, remain cemented, althou.g h
~' it is not till after some days (when the glue has become
'
perfectly dry) that the joint is very firm.
The use of glue depends on its being readily soluble in
,
ho't" water, its adhesiveness when dissolved, and upon its
/ becoming hard as it cools and di·ics. Its tenacity when .
~
·' used as a cement is very great; frequently the wood work
!'." joined by it will break at some other place, and not at that
f. at which it is cemented. From its solubility in water, gluo
1

:

'

·. is useless in damp situations.

·
To prevent the glue from being burnt in heating, it is
.."' dissolved in a glue-pot, consisting of two vessels, one placed
.; within the other. The outer one, which is _much the larger,
·is partly filled with water, while in the inner one the glue
to _o e dissolved is placed. By this arrangement the glue

' ·'

l

308

HORN, - ,.

Flli'l'll STEP.-LESSON L.
•

cannot be overheated as long as any water remains m
outer vessel.
'fhc workmen using glue arc chi etly joiners and cabinet ·
makers; a weak solution, t ermed size, which is usually oh- '
tain ecl by boiling clown th e clippings of parchm ent, glove
leath er, &c., is mixed with whitewash, to prevent its b eing ·
readily rubbed off wlicn dry.
I singlass, so much used fo r n1aking jellies, &c., &<:.., is a ·
purer kind of glue obtained from the nir-blaclders orI sounds:' ,
of the sturgeon, and several kinds of fish ; a variety of glue • :
obtained from the skins of animals is sold nuder the name •
of gelatine, and used for the same purpose.

LESSON L.
IIOR N.

.' ;. ·"

.Desc1·iption.-The substance known as horn is obtamcd 1 ~

from many ruminating animals, as the ox, the goat, the . "
sheep, and the antelope ; the term horn is often applied to '. f.
the antlers of animals of the stag or deer tribe, but e1-ro- ' · ·
neously, as they consist, not of horn, but of solid bone, are > •
generally branched, and are shed annually, while true horns • '
are permanent. The horns of the ox, &c., are of a conical ,
form, and generally somewhat curved ; they have n bony ',.
core in the centre, which takes its rise from th e bone of the > •·
forehead ; this core is supplied with nerves, and also with' ~ ...
vessels, by which nourishment is conveyed to the horny .•)
portion that surrounds it like a sheath.
,
The outside horn, like the nails of the fingers, is quite ,\ ~
insensible; the tip may be cut off without giving pain ; if,

. ·-.;- •··

.

.

·.1

.
~ . . :~~"'!.. ,_"".;~ -.
:.~: ~09 (~ .-.··1,, ·"

''~'? ~ ::.. "' ~",.{;~. "':::, . :-;,~

however; the bony core is injured, it bleeds freely;·and· ~ho '/:'·' ~- ·.:· '_

'.%

-~~ animal suffers pain. The chief difference b etween born and ·.-· '.. :;·_,}·t
"'., bone arises from the form er being destitute of earthy mat. semi.
. t ransparency..
,~·,, ter; h ence. its
. The horns used in the arts aro obtained from various
. animals of the ox tribe, and are imported in large numbers
. ;· from Russia, the Cape of Good Hope, South America, &c.
Prep aration and Uses.-Horns are prepared by first
· soaking them in water for five or six weeks;. this loosens
. ::the core and permits its r emoval; the solid part of the
horn, n ear the tip, is then cut off, and used in making
l' knife handles, buttons, &c. ; the remainder is softened by
.~- boiling water and exposure to heat ; in this state it is pre· .
•. pared for use by being split up with a knife, and pressed
-~- flat between hot iron plates. If required ill thin sheets, it
. ; is split into layers, smoothed by scraping, and afterward
I
·: polished .
. , When prepared for combs, the horn is pressed, and made
. 1.into the required shape by. a saw and rasps.
If a very ·
· large piece of horn is required for a comb, or any o_ther
article, two pieces are joined together by heating the edges
until they are quite soft, and keeping them pressed togeth·
~r firmly' until cofct.
Drinking cups are formed by moulding the hollow part
of the horn (softened by heat) into a regular shape-it is "
then polished. A deep groove is afterward cut or turned ' ·
near the bottom ; the cup is again softened by heat, and a
. ~at piece of horn, of the proper size, forced in~o .the
•·1 groove. .The horn contracts as it cools, and the-joint is
J perfectly water-tight.

.

...
:::

/ ·

) 1:

'

310

FIFTH STEP.-LESSON LI.

Horns were anciently nsecl in making the
struments so called, ancl the nam e still remains; hence we ·,
have the bugle horn, &c., though they arc now made of ·;,
brass and other materials.

IVORY,

.

a gentle heat, by which its elasticity is much in• " creased. The short hai1· of the mane is also used for
:
. 'I stuffing horse collars, and other inferior work. Much of
used in manufactu.res is imported from South

The waste from buJfalo and ox horns is of some value,
being either used as manure, or in the manufacture or'
Prussian blue.
The hoofs of the ox consist of a material similar to that '
forming the horn, and they are extensively employed for: ·
making buttons and ladies' side combs. At one comb ·
manufactory near Aberdeen, iu Scotland, eighty tons of ·.
hoofs are stated to he usecl for the latter purpqse.

LESSON

LI.

llORSE HAIR.

.Description.-Thc horse hair used in the arts is in gen•
eral obtained from the tail and ma·1c of horses.
The long hair of the tail is woven into a kind
coarse cloth for sieves, also into a fabric for covering
chairs, sofas, &c. ; in the latter case the horse hair runs in ·
• or hemp in tho ,
one direction only, and threads of flax
other, sufficiently firm and strong to give great strength
to the whole. The long hairs are aii i used to form fishing '
lines, violin bows, &c.
The shorter hair is usually curly; it is generally sold'
in commerce twisted into cords, which are afterward
picked open, and the hair used for stuffing mattresses;
chairs, sofas, &c. To fit it for this purpose it is baked·

' ... 311

LESSON LIT.
IVORY.

Natural Histo1·y.-Ivory is the hard, bony substance
'.':· forming the tusks of several animal>', as the elephant, hip~' popotamus, walrus, and spermaceti whale. The chief and
· . best supply of elephant ivory comes from Africa. Large
quantities are obtained also from immense collections of
. bones and tusks of extinct species of mammoths and ele·
' pha~ts, which arc found in the banks of the northern riv! ers of Siberia. Some of these tusks were ten feet long,
and weighed 186 lbs. each. The tusks found in Africa
': occasionally weigh from fifty to seventy pounds, but do
: "!. not average quite twenty pounds each. At the low esti,:
mate of 30l. per cwt, the total value of tho ivory imported
T.
·" into England, is nearly 300,000l. yearly, and above 20,000
! . elephants arc annually slaughtered to yield this supply.
• ·:· Elephant ivory is a white, translucent substance, mainly
. -·;, composed of the s:X< e materials as bone, possessing a very
·;, . fine, close texture, in which may be observed a diamond) ' shaped network, caused by curved lines interlacing each
l other with great regularity and beauty; and giving rise to
·-.1 a pattern resembling the engine turning of a watch, exj tremely hard, yet slightly compressible by gre~t force, and
~

'

;·i

I

I
•.

,I.

312

•

FIFTH STEP.-LESSON LIII.

elastic. Cut into thin layers it has a greater
transparency than paper of the same thickness.
Uses to Man.-The semi-transparency and 'whiteness
of ivory, together with its fine, even surface, render it the
best known substance for the ground work of small delicate
paintings, such as miniatures ; it is also employed by the
turner for various articles, as well on account of its beauty ·
and hardness, as from its being less liable to crack than·
bone. 'The keys of pianofortes, knifo handles, .chess men, '
surgical and mathematical instruments, .and toys are made,-,_
from it. The ancients esteemed it highly as a material fol". ~«
sculpture, and it is still used by the carver for
figures and ornamental devices.
LESSON LIU.
LEATHER.

Manufactui·e and Uses.-Leather is a substance uni~
versally used among civilized, and very generally among
barbarous nations; it is made from the skins of animals; ' which are tanned or prepared with some substance having .
tho power of converting the perishable skin, that. decays .
readily when wet or moist, into a lasting and comparatively
imperishable leather. Several tanning substance~ are em• .
ployed, according to the kind of leather required; that for., ·
the soles :mcl upper leathers of shoes, for harness, and sim· .. _
lar purposes, is tanned with the aid of oak bark. The .
11ides or skins, either fresh, as received from the butcher, ,
or salted, as they are brought from abroad, arc first scraped:
to remove any pieces of flesh or fat that may remain at ." ·

LEATHER.

;-\,

' ' 31~

· tacbed to the inside, and are then soaked in a mixture ·'of'
·: lime and water, by which means the hair is loosened, and
: can be · readily scraped off. Thus cleansed from the hair
·. and flesh, they are again soaked for some days in an acid
--, liquid, made by putting barley or rye flour into water and
' letting it remain till it hecomes sour, or by adding a f!mall
•quantity of oil of vitriol; this acid solution has the effect
.,;. of opening the pores of the skin, so that the tan can after_:: ward penetrate more readily. The hide is then placed in
.. the tan-pit with oak bark and water; first in a weak, and
-'. afterward in a strong solution. The process of manufactu' ring skin into leather is a very slow one; to make strong
and well-tanned leather the hides should remain in the pits
• from six to twelve, or even eighteen months ; if taken out
' too ~oon, the middle of the skin is · riot well tanned. The
'. hides when removed are dried, and finally passed between
rollers, to give them a smooth surface and render them
·;firm.
:· " By these processes the skin is m!ch altered in its prop~ erties ; when taken from the animal it is soft and moist;
, and, when dry, brittle, and liable to crack; it is also very
-._ perishable, and putrefies rapidly if kept wet ; these qualities
render untanned skins of little use. Leather, on the con·
trary, is flexible and soft, whether _wet or dry ; it is also, if
properly prepared, waterproof and lasting; at the same
time it is light, and sufficiently strong to withstand _much
wear when made into shoes, harness, &c.
There is a mode of tanning by steam, called the " hot
' process," by which the leather is produced more rapidly
and cheaply, but it is of very inferior quality.
14

'

314

FIFTH STEP,-LESSON LIII.

The leather required for the upper parta of boots and ·
. w}10, b y paring
.
shoes is prepared by the curner,
anc1 rub- /~-..
bing, renders it thinner, more flexible, softer, antl capable
of taking a polish; at the same time he blackens it with
lampblack, and oil 01· tallow. The skins used for upper
leathers are calf, and the thinner skins of cows and horses;
while the thicker skins, and those of oxen, &c., are used for
the soles. These skins are imported mostly from South
America and Calcutta.
The numerous kinds of leather, required for different ·'
purposes, are made by slight variations in the process.
Morocco leather, for example, is prepared from goat
skins, which are mainly impdrtecl from Switzerland · a~d
Mexico. The fl esh and hair are scraped off as before described; each skin i~ then sewed up in the form of a bag,
which is filled with water and a vegetable substance termed
sumach ; this substance, like the oak bark, ii;; astringent,
and has the effect of tanning these skins in a few hours ;
they are then dyed, a1'\:l rubbed with a grooved ball, in
order to give them the ribbed appearance which distiri·
guishes morocco leather ; imitation, or inferior morocco, is
manufactured from sheep skins. Morocco leather is soft
and very flexible, while its grooved appearance renders it .
ornamental. It is frequently used for covering books aud
chairs, lining carriages, &c.
A very strong leather is made from seal skins, and is
used for the tops of riding and 1nmting boots. In Louisiana the manufacture of leather from alligator skins was
commenced some years since, and more recently a new .
source of leather has been found in the skin of the white

.

~

.,:.

It is tanned with alum, and, to render it as soft
and yieiding as possible, eggs and flour are used · during .
the process.
J.· "''
Wash, or chamois leather, is prepared by cleansing .the , ·· " ·:~ ""
skins with lime ; they are then drie1d; after'll'.ard, they ,are . :',:~: ;
beaten with heavy hammers, while kept wet with oil ; ''" i;.·
again hung up to dry, and again be~ten with the addi~i~n -,, :
of fresh oil; this operation is many times .repeate'd; -lastly;
the surplus oil is removed by soaking the skin in ·wat,er
1
containing pearlash; it is ultimately dried; and it is.then ·fit
for use. Being very soft, wash leather is much ·' employ~d
I
for polishing metal articles ; and from its warmth and
softness, it is made into under waistcoats, &c. ; it •do~s
not resist the wet, and is, therefore, unfit for outer
clothing.
·.: -,: . ·
Sheep skins are split by a muchine so as to form ·a
cheap kind of leather termed skiver, which is large)y used
for pocketbooks, hat linings, common bookbinding, and
similar purposes. At the present •tiine the skins of the
·: · . · larger animals are split; the outer side being employed as 1
'.~ a substitute f~r morocco leather, and the inner for inferior ' \
purposes.
"f

I

't. ·'·"

•• ·",,\ (

.
316

·•·

FIFTH STEP.-LESSON LIV.

'>. ·.:;a1i :~~:·.'

SOAP, \,·'

.

~~

~··\~ ,,,~. >:~~~ ~~·~~,r
When scented and cast in small cakes; it is ' sol.~ _a( f:~.~-

.

1.

LESSON LIV.
SOAP.

Haniifactiwe.-All the various hard soaps are prepared
from different kinds of fat or oil, and tho alkali, soda. It •
is necessary, however, that the common soda should be
rendered much more caustic than it is in its usual state;
this is done by boiling it with fresh burnt lime, which, acting chemically on the soda, greatly increases its caustic
powers. The soda thus prepared and dissolved in water 1
forms what is termed the lye or ley of the soap boiler.
\Vhitc hard soap is manufactured in the followin(J' manncr :-Into an iron vessel, hcatecl by steam, a large"' quan·
tity of fatty material is placed; into this a quantity of thelcy is poured. The mixture is boiled for some time and
'
frequently stirred, during which time the tallow unites with
the soda of the Icy, anc1 forms a viscid liquid ; a strong so·
lution of salt is then added, which causes the immediate
separation of the water and the Jey ; this is pumped away;
and a stronger ley being added, the operations are repeated _until the wh.ole of the grease is converted into soap.
It is now subnutted to another process called "fitting,"•
which consists in boiling it in weak ley or water until the
impurities settle to the bottom. The contents of the boiler
a1:e then left to cool and settle for two or three days. In
order to harden the soap it is removed from the boiler and ,
poured into large pans; when cold it becomes ii solid mass, ' '~·
which is cut up by wires into bars.
·· ; '. '3!

.

I

•

.

.

•

·

'

•

.~

' ·-~\~6-,.t;0~~~-:

, Wmdsor soap.
- . : ·."; .'
Yellow soap is made in the same way, with the addition. · 1'~
•
'
'1<
of a portion of resin, which gives the peculiar smell and '"'
bitter taste by which it is distinguished, but it adds to its
solubility, and to its power of forming a lather in wat:r. ·•
Fancy or toilet soaps are prepared from a great vanety
of materials, as palm, olive, castor, and spermaceti oils,
mutton tallow, and lard. The well known Castile soap is
made with olive oil and soda, while the Windsor soap re'
quires mutton tallow.
Soaps are colored by mixing mineral paints in~o the
melted mass, as vermilion f?r pink, ochres for ~he brown,
&c.
• \
..... ,
._,.

In marbling fancy soaps, the paint is mixed with olive . ·
oil or soap, and a small portion, taken up 9n a palette knife;:
is moved about in the mClted mass.
All the various soaps are soluble in water, forming :
semi-transparent solutions ; when moist or dissolved, soap i
has a peculiar feeling, distinguished by the term soapy.
The great use of soap depends upon its solubility, · and
upon its .power of rendering grease and dirt soluble in
water, without exerting any corrosive action; a weak sp·
Iution of caustic alkali would act more powerfully in
cleansing, but at the same time it would, like the washing powders in general use, destroy or materially injure .
the linen and other fabrics with which it might ~e
brought in contact.
Soap is sometimes found as a natural product. In Cal- ·
. ifornia a small shrub grows abundantly which is generally

•

318

FIFTH STEP.-LESSON LY.

TORTOisE SHELL.
'

used for soap, and is even preferred to the artificial variety. ,.;,;
The bulbous root of this plant is dug up, stripped of its
lmsks, and rubbed upon the clothes ii1 the water. Several
other plants have been found in various parts of the ,~orld · .,
which serve the same purpose.
:

•

LESSON LV.
SPONGE,

Natural History.-Sponges are animal substances · ,
1
'
· vanous
·
which are found in marine and fresl 1 ,vntei·s
..
in
.~
~arts . of the world. The two principal varieties met with ~,
m commerce are known as Turkey and \Vest I '·
ti ! .
£
.
.
nman, 1e , .. ~
. ormer coming from the ]fed1terranean, the latter, which , ¥is much coarser, from the Bahamas Banks and coast of :
Florida. The inhabitants of the Greek I slands, from '.. _·
whence the best sponges are obtained, are trained to dive· . :,:
for sponge from their childhood ;-to quicke~ their de·
scent th ey use a large heavy stone, which is attached to · .
the boat by a rope; they seldom remain under water 80 .'' •'
long as two minutes at one time. Some of the coarser , .
kinds of sponge are obtained by dredging the bottom of "·
tl~e ocean. Sponge is a ve1·y light, soft, compressible, _..
!11~hly elastic material; on examination with a microscope '
it is found to consist almost entirely of horny elastic fibres
w I'
ncIl arc so arranged as to form an infinite number of' '.t
small tubes that open on the outer. surface of the sponge; , •
and communicate internally with larger tubes formed in :, "
the same manner.
.
· " '

D~ring the life of the animal these tubes arc lined wit~·

l,

,. :o:'<>lLA,.'r.,\.:.

~

·~

~-

•

q

a soft gelatinous flesh. · The animal · has ~~~ p9~~t~?r 8a~
ing strong currents of water to flow out of the larger' a · e
tures, its place being supplied by what passes in through' ~~
the smaller pores ; this action is always going on, a~~
while the water is so passing, the requisite food is with· ·: ·c
drawn for the support or the animal. When removed'.·:
1
from the water this soft flesh draiflS away; ' the · elastid;
. ; .. . ·•r-·
fibrous framework or sponge remaining. · In some var!e~·
ties the fibres of the sponge are flinty in their texture'; ' '
such are, of course,' useless ip an economical point of view:.'"\.
Uses.-The use of spoJge as a material for washing,' · ,' "
'
&c., depends on its porosity ,and elasticity; the first quality '
.
enables it to absorb water with great ·rapidity. This ' is.. , :.,q~,_
•

>

,~

'<

,.,, J

~c,

~

•

.~

.. ;,·

0

.

.

'

Ii

I•

•

readily forced out by pressure, and on being removed, th~ . ...-~~f~ :~
elasticity of the fibres causes the sponge to resume its ' ; ·/~ ".}.
former ·size, the tubes bei~g again ready to rece~ve' ai.,,. . ' ' : .. };'
liquid with which they may be placed in Jontact.
'

LESSON

LVI.

TORTOISE SHELL.
(•

Natural History ....:....The . tortoise shell of commerce .is
chiefly obtained from the back shell of two species of sea
tortoises or turtles, a native of the seas of t'be torriq zone;
the best being furnished by the hawksbill turtle. •As in
the other :mimals of the order to which they belong, theso .
turtles arc enclosed in a bony case formed underneath by ,
the expanded breastbone, and on the back by the flatten~d
ribs and spine ; on the latter bony arch grow the scales of

t

f'"
f"
!
I

r
I

320

FIFTH STRP .-

tortoise shell.

·:beauty, it is usually cut into the req uirell patterns hy d rills

Five large scales, or "pbtes,'' as

.termed, arc t aken from the centre ot' c:tclt shell, :tml four .
from each side; there arc also twcnt.y-fivc i;mall ones at ·
the edge.

321

WHALEBONE.

LE,<:SON J ,VT ,

These pltttcs a rc thick in proportion to the size

, and sa\YS, am1 n ot moulcled like horn .
"',
In rn:tkiiig com b s, in order to economize the she ll , two
.arc often formed ont of one piece; the teeth of one being

and age of the animal, ancl overlap one :mother to a great

' cnt on t. o f tli c ,_
sii::tces
• · between those of the other.

exte nt .

· 't

Tito

! S l\SC-

s c:tk~

· laying arnl orn:1111r·111 in':!; t: il1 l<'~, c:1bi1H't.s , &c. : for _tlti8 pnr-

:tre n ' 11w1·cll

it OHT a 1irC' ; this ]'l'Oc cs•: loosc11s t ltcrn, :1 11d tlic'Y aro
c::isily sepa r:tt cll by :t knife. 'J'iie 1:1l11 c of till· rn11gh :;hell
is very con si derable, tlte l H)st Lcing "·ortlt ahou t thrc~

gume:is a

}J(lllll(1.

and ni. lier ,.,11<-.ll

Ji~i1 ,

Desidcs

1·0 1. coiii1)s
Jiox~s
&c., tortoise shell is used for in,
·'
· ·
'

re

·.
,,,pose. ·.
l t l 'i

'benc::i tl 1,
.·.

• gl\'eS

ti le

t ·l l I I " tl I 1'11 ..slir•<•1s 'l!1l1 :t lirilr] it metal JS ]'hec <l
·1 ·1 ·11 shin i1w
thron"h
t he sc1111-tr:-insp:-i1-c11t sh ell,
\I 1 < , ·
cc ·
.- ,
('I I

>

•

'

•

· · '.

'

·t' ·le .•1 YNV
o rnamental a ppearance.
•
'

fll IC

is fh:1p1cntl.1· ii,_jurcd l >.\" barnacles "
wJ,j, . ji !ix d1"111,"lv1·~ In 1!1e t urtle

LESSO~

!.\'IL

while afo·c.
Mam~f'rr.r,t1t?"f'. n.nd l!.<P.~. -To1toisc

8hell is mnnnfactur
\diicli it closely'
lt is fir st softl'u eJ by Loilrng ia isalt :rnJ wa·

Ill a simihr lll:11111cT 1P ho rn,
resembles.

:t sub ~t:1ncc

1Vat1md Jlisto ry.-Th<) s111isl:mce lt•r mcd \1·h:tlchonc is

:rnll of uniform tltil·Lnt·ss h1· s1·1 :J['rn~ :m<l fi lin g; :ind if .

m to im1•l.r, oLtai nerl from tl1c
not , res 1· 1s n:-i nit• i11 '1""'"l1t
·
1 1Jll 1,, 1·1,· "'t•
1 ' .· rms a sttl1stit \\tl) fm· \l•clh in
· bones oft 11e a111111:1,
:the Grcl'nl:lll1l ·wli:ik, ~11111 s0111e otl 1<" r :0:1" ·cics tl 1at nearly

hrger pieces :ire rc1111irf'1 1 th:111 ":rn l ><• <>l>t:1 i;l('rl from sin· ·"'
gk phtcs, t>1·0 o r m1,,.,. :in· u 11it,.rl 1o_c:;dlwl'.

. rescrnl1lc it.
T he pl:tl<'s, nr l >l:1<1 c1 s o[ \Yh:tlr·liniw,

ter, arnl t l1 c11 l'n ''"c"l Jl:tt un til<.,,-

, il

to lie join e11 :ire sl111''"1 otl' tu tl1e 1list:1JJ('l' of al!lln L a quarter of :in in ch fr"m 1lir' r"l:c• '.
as

t"

overl:ip rn1<' :u10( 11,·r,

er ll y :t!l i r 1i 11 c.L:nqi, t i

h oiJing

Wfli!'I' ;•

l'.y l i1 i,_.

l

:rnrl , :dtrr li C' inr~ pno<oc r1 togeth:

\\ - J i n!.~
lll\':tllS

flt(' \ ; \l"l f l 1 ; .~

Jl l "i

t'.1"()

; ! ]"(\

rircrs

.. tl 1c' ,'1·111·
. nc1.oss
. .

,<(' ( '11 .
11 r 1t

; 11c.:f;

tlicy

nro .~-,.

collcctccl and pincrcl in 1110.t:o.i mo11ld_,, rind I · ~' w :i rmlh
1•n·"11 1·" :ll'" 1;1nw·d 11 11n :::1y

l

••

I

,

.

: --,

'1

the

pNf(.C'11y 1111it <' rl lli:il 111<' _j,, i1d c:nrn ol ],"
:lll!1 Jl' )\ \ · 1l 1
.1]' ,,j·

:ire nsll;ill y

\1· l1iclt

. abont 1111 ''<) ltnwlrl''l in n\\111l JC'l' in c•:tclt silk, :nc arrangc<l
._ 1· tl IL, 1, - wr ·1-1, 1· "' '<'1lj'l'i1w the 11s11al situ·
.- · alollrr t 1.l l ' ;-: ·1
11 ( ';-, I)
11
0
· ,, L'11cr :1111.11
" ..11,.
]'htc
•tion of t.1H' tcct. 11 111
• -. J<'..·1,·l1
·
··· · is f1:1t., :rn<1
11 j t
•1
1
. they arc r:u1gc<l \1· i1h thcsl1 I :1L ,c, "' 1"11;1, .. . " {' :: cit (~I t 1\1_ '1'

c l!ul. 111:1y l>c1

As h c:it darkens the tortoise sh ell, ancl

<1caire

Thl'
- , '"1.rc
· " s rire formc<l o f

C•

>:ir,.;e,

lu o.sc1

filircs , ;in<l :ire tiiriil ·<l to\\ :nrl ti\('. i11c'i •l<' ,,[· 1\w JlW\lth, sn
.
.
' f t . ';,,.,,. t 1,.. ln \\' <' r
.:_that t11c \Yl \~ il n tng('\hc r l ur11L ~t ~·1 r (. n ~: i:, .. ... i,
.
f 1 · 1 · - , • c" ,·rt1 into 1l1c hnllow nf the large am1
.: part o w 11c 1 1s 1 ' ' '- 1
·
-. poon-sb::qJe ll lo\r c r j:i1i·.
- This apparatus is the only means 1-rhich the wlwle pos-

14*

. \t

. ~{ ;i t
~

;.; i •

COl t.\L.

;32 2

FlFTII RTEP .-1. l':!'!' O'I' LYll .

it is employed in the place of bristles for making
sesscs of securing its food; for althoug h this
attains the immense leng th of from Hft.y-fi ve to
1; .• 1, :\lid ~I ,:c, i1tl1 ,, [' tli i11 .1 "I ' 1;>1.t y ic'•L 11·i1li
e( [II:dl!lw
.
"' t.lnt
. ()> I'

l \1' 0

coarr;r. brooms and brushes; it is also used in large quantit ie:-: !~)J' th ! • ~! r<'I r·!•.r r.~ u l' 111n l1r 1·l!:t:" :1r1 1l 1·:1t :t .,JJ~; lite \\·1ii le r
:1

wcighi

]1111 ILl l·Cl Ir oxc11,
.
.
1·l' t'I l s ('Jl(ll'C
. ly
!L

Oil'

t ltc srna ll pul py :u1i1u :ds l.li:r t il 1.>:1t. in " rn111t lr<s nrn ltitudct
111 ~'t"ll'l' to ~<' c1 1 r c these; _
1L s wims \\·iLh CO ll Ri1l<:ralilc r apidit y, its month hci11g open·i".
the: \l"tLc:r
·
n ts·Iie;;
' lll
· a L ti 1c: 1·ore pa rt , wh e re t hc·rc a m n •

'.11 t li c: \\' :Jt c r c•f t lif' A r,·t i<' ;;e:1~.

pieces, c ut i11 lo t liin s t rips, :t r<' ~ ornvtinH'S pl:1llccl into b on-

n ets, :111il , ai'Lcr li:i1i 11 g lJeC ll (ly1·ll, into :u ti licial flowers; it
i ~ :il ~0 (' lll [' l11y<' il l" r st a.1·" , lir n ~lws, wlt il' l1a11,lk•s, c:mcs,

ancl t h e 111 aa11fa ct m e
arc c!llpluy c1l :t s

:t

or

h:tir clo tl1 .

T h e waste sh av ings

stuiliH!.:;' 1 :~:tLl' r i:tl for 11phul stcrcrs, t he

p lates of wh:il c bonc, and p:1 ;;~cR o u t a t th e si1l c8, a

refu se goi 11 g to th e fa rmers fo r m a1.1me.
A b rgc riu a nt ity o f a rti ftc i:tl ,1-hal cl>on e is n o w used fo r

hriving b een st r:1in cd thr o llgh

umbr ellas a ml parasols.

tli c

\\ ltalc uonc, whi ch :ill01rs t he 1r:1 tc r

t rJ

l'ri11gc• o r filter
c."c:·1p c, but re

tli e fo od .
Th e lengt h of U1c: ula1lcs y:i.ri cs c.nn Rid c r:i.bly with _
size of th e :rnimals, and th e: part of the j:iw from .w
th ey ar c taken; t.h c longes t are u sually abo ut

teo~

ele ve n feet, and th e quantity obtained fr om. a full

I t is m ad e fr om th e in ne r p orti on

of th e co 1111n on c:tn c, \\·hi ch is steamed, :md th e n irnpr eg·
nated \\'ith a ilui1l containin g Hli clla c ; t his renders it as
• · elastic as \rhalclion c.

LESSON

LVIII.

CORAL.

whal e is about o ne ton.
The surfaces of t h e bl::tcl es arc formc cl of a firm;
p~ct, ~brons substance, wl1ich can be readily split

bi

Corals arc the secr etions macle by one of t h e lowest
cJass of :mimals, called polypi, inh abiting the clet!l.J ; they

d1rcct1011 of its length; t his substan ce is t o u...,h,
. ancl capable of r cccivi n "' a hi crh polish
"
v e r y c I astic,
;•
1
.
b
"'
'
co o r van es from black to a dusky gray or white. .

som etimes assLlmc t h e form s of branches of t h e most beau·

twee n t h e two s urfaces or sides of th ese blarlcs th°"

but all arc pcrforatctl with pores more or less minute,

of coarse, fibrons matcri :d, and , as before

which a rc t h e. h ab itatio ns of the litt le ar chitects.
Among the . various phenomena of the natural world,

~a. y.c r

!iL&~,

ms1tlc edge arnl lo wer encl of each bla<1c form ''•
fibrou s fri1w c
•'

"' .

Us.cs.- '\Vhal clio11c is prcp:wcd Ly b oiling it
lw urs m water; this rend ers it f.:o ft, and moro ro
o n cooling , it hP-<:: omcs harder a nd d arkc>r thnn

botl

u ses g r eatly depend on its extreme dasticity;

tiful appea ra n ce ; so m et im es t h ey resembl e beads strun g in
a n ecklace, w hile oth e rs present a more consolidated mass;

th er e arc perhaps none m ore calculated to excite astonish·
rncnt and adm irat ion than the vast coral r eefs that rise up
•from t h e deep, aml at t imes even constitute islands.

They

are produced from a calcar eous m atter which exudes from

324

FIFTH STEP.-LESSON LVIII.

WAX CANDLES.

the coral polyp, and hardening, forms at once its babi
tion ancl its maus?leum. This creature is of the class - ·
0
zoophytc;o, the lowest grade of rmi111:d Jifr, the link b
tween the :mima\ ::t1Hl th e ,-egct able h11gdom.

only und er W::tter, so th::tt the cor:il reefa n 0Ycr rise abo;,4f

the

:·etnrnin~ waters .wash

t~cle of acti 1·e J1fo

its sides, :i. rnoct int c1"csting sp

is Jircscntccl, connt.lc5s rnyriarls of

·

co111.n\c11ced nL tlic sides, and otl1<'r ]':'rts ri~c in eii
cess10u, till they r e:ich the same heig ht, ancl form a

lo;

surface aL the top, with steep precipitous sides.

In t

manner, ancl by such insignificant agent~, atom depositGcl .
upon atom, th.e solid rock is at length produced; upon •
the sea '1epos1ts sand, mud, ancl d ecaye d sc::twced. th

prep~re for mosses and lichens, which in theit· tnrn p~od .
a sot! for more ]Jerfcct vegetation; till at last tho j
thus formed becomes a fit residence for man.
As these rncks are constructed beneath the

•

'

~ells. For the method s of obtaining the 1rax, sec the lcs-

hite insect, 1rhich deposits it upon the trees on which it

tlic1~

•
Ill

y bees in their l1oclics, ::incl of '1hid1 they construct their

eeds.

J · J
tl' I.'! it

the_ sea'. they present no beacon to warn the
then· ex1atencc, ancl thus render nav1·g~t·
.

Wax candles arc rnannfactnrccl from two kinds of "·ax
animal and vegetable. Beeswax is a sulJstancc secrctcll

The in sect w::tx of China is the product of a small

when the polyp"
no lo11gcr cx1ioscrl t" llw \\"asliin<y of fl<" ~<·:1; !hr. work '
,QTOw 111

"\YAX CA:c!DLES.

vii

nous sha.1Jes an<l colo rs protrncle thPm schcs
fices, and the whole edifice S"-ems t ecmmg
·
animation.
'l'lic coral ceases to

LESSON LIX.

They wo~

th e level of tlie sea ; and 'rhen th e tide retire~, the roe
appears dry, compact, rn!!g e(l, mHl prrfor:i1·e rl . hnt wb 1

325

Of the Vl'f!:Ct:Lhle waxcR, the Japanese, the palm wax of
'. Tew Gra11:id:1, arnl the myrtle 'r:tx: of the U11itc <l

. re the princip;.I.

atalc~,

Of these the myrtle or barberry wax is

·used most extensively, and is becoming an important artile of commerce.
Th e J ::tp:mcsc ::tnc1 myrtle 1vax arc obtained from berries,
· d the palm wax from bark.
)Yax cam1les are gcnerall y mac1c by pouring the rncltccl

wax over the wicJrn, :rncl rolling them, during the process

~nd at its close, between two marble slabs, in order to give
!hem shape.

Moulds of glass cncasecl in gutta percha

are sometimes used.

mariner
LESSON LX.

" IOU 111

which they abonncl exceedingly dangerous.

SHELLAC.

Shellac is a substance produced by a little insect called
,coccus lacca, aml is deposited on the small branches of tho
Indian fig tree, for the protection of its eggs.

It dis-

32G

l'll"Tll

8TRl'.-l.m~~ON

J.XJ .

327

charges the gum from its own Lrnly, nncl

founu in t he churn besides butter; it is call ccl buttmnilk,

<.;ells, in each of which is ph cl'(l nn egg.

"rhcu t.h!=
arc hatcl1e1l the yc11111g grnb pierces through the~ n ,-.fl,
1mbst:mcr. whid1 cnclosctl it, nncl flies nwny; and tho _
tcrial pro,-itle<l fo r n littl e i11~e1· t'e wcll·bciog be4~YI
valuabl e nrt iclc of' comm e rce.• Tho lno I. flnL eold

.

nncl '"hen fresh is co nsiclcrecl by man y a refreshing drink.
This is very carcfnlly separated from the butter by "work' ing" it eith er by hancl er a wooden ladle; in dairies where
large quantities arc maclc, a machine is usccl fo r pressing
" the buttermilk from the butter. The butter prepared for
' win ter sto re is salted, ancl packed in b arrels anc1 tubs.
1

purifi ecl nncl formetl into thin •hoote or

caket,1' Ja _

Th e place where the milk is kept is called a dairy, and

shellac. Its color vanes from orange

to -~~--

tbt,· 61118ldil

great care is taken to keep it free from oclors of every

Dcforo

.

clescri ption.

LESSON LXII.
CH EESE.

Cheese is prepared from milk which is coagufatccl or
curcllcd, by mixin g it with a liquor callccl rennet; the curd

LESSON LXJ.

t hus fo rm eel is a whi te, soliLl substance;
rated from the 1oliey

m;·rTEn.

Butter is prepared
milk has b een allowed to stand n few hounJ, a t
s ubstance, c:illeil crcom , ri ~es lo tho 1111rfaco.
skimnH' tl o il~ nntl by l1Pi11g 1Jriskly n~ilntodt It
)n to Lutte r.

Th e in sl rnnH'nt hy which thle/ c)

01·

then pressed and clrictl

this is sepa-

watery particles o f the milk, and
La rge ancl rich ch eeses often r e-

quire to b e b ouncl with strong lin en cloth to prevent their
bursting in t he drying process. Rennet is made by steep·
iqg the inner m cmL r:mc of a young calf's stomach in water. ·This is salte <l, dried, a nd k ept for some time b efore
usin cr.

A color is som etim es g ive n t o ch eese hy saffron, or

"'
by a substance call ed annato, which is the seed vessel of a

shrub rrrowinO' in t he \ Vest Indies . The latte r ingredient
b
"'
is so often aclultcrntecl with reel lcacl, which is poisonous,
that its use is generally abandoned.
nnd experience, resulting in dieco~cry.

328

FIFTH STEP.-LF.SSON LXJll,

TEXTIJ,1£

og

WOVEN FAlllUCS.

32!)

rabbit's fur nsecl in this mnnnfactnre is principally importecl
from the German SLales ol' Europ~"

LESSON J,XIII.
l'El.T.

1•1··

n. .

Felt is tho 1:mhst:rnce of which lints nre mndc. composed of hairR; tho~o of the rnbbit aro cble6jf1iiia.
by hatters. Th e operation of fdti11g dcponch Upoll '&
culiar construction in nil h11ir11, which, howonr. . mlQC~~
and even they may nppcar, hnvo in roalilT •&Wot.
texture on the 1mrface. The scnlcll nro IO pllOIC1 - i i ..•llll!llW!I
yield to the finger, if drawn nlo11g tho hair &om

uMt

trary direction.

beaten or pressed togct.her, begin to rnovo in tho di
'
'
. of the root, and arc di~po sc <l to ca tch hold nnd iwiH '
each other, and thus· to cohere and form n continuoua
which is called felt. It is in co 11~ eq 11 cncc of this t4*MM•
to felt that wooll en cloths in cr ca~o in density, and. "
in tlimcnsions by being washell ; anti also thnt tluit,
ravel out when cut.
· r

TEXTILE OR WOVEN FABRICS, AND THEIR
MATERIALS.

Introcluction.-Thc materials for our clothing arc derived both from the animal and th e vegetable kingdoms;
as, however, the processes these materials undergo in the
oourse of manufacture are very similar, it has been thought ·
.llesirable to describe them under one head, and to give, at
\he same time, a short account of spinning and weaving.
· The process of spinning consists in twisting the loose
fibres of cotton, flax, wool, or other fibrous material, into
threads fit for the use of the weaver, and is one of the
reatest antiquity; it is alluded to by Moses in Exodus
xv, 25, and was not then spoken of as a new art. Origially, it was performed with a distaff and spindle, the forer being a stick about a yard in length, with a knob or
j
largement near one encl; the flax or other substance to
spun (having been previously combed so as to lay the
bres parallel) was loosely twisted around it; thus charged,
e distaff was heltl under the left arm, and some of the
&bres were pulled out by the right hand, and twisted into
'thread; this thre:-icl was wound upon the spindle, a rod
f wood about a foot in length, having a notch at one encl,
which the thread could be sccnrecl ; to th!s spindl e, a
'ecc of metal or stone was attached, to increase its weight
d enable the spinner to k eep it twirling round as it hung
' m the thread, while a fresh supply of fibres was pulled

330

FIFTll 8TEI'.-1'L:.'tT1LK FADBICS.

out from the distnff; when n snOioiont longth of
spnn to permit the 8pindlo to rcncb tho grollll~
was r emoY e<l from the notch, wound on lbo , apl~llj
I
ened by b eing ngni11 RccnroLl to tho notob, IDC\ ,
This prooca or 1plonlDa

COTTON.

331
iI '

were probably made in the times of the
If we examine any piece of plain woven m aterial, as
calico, silk, or canvas, we fiud a number of parallel threads
unning th e whole len gth of Lh c piece of cloth; these form
i

,,11

tho warp, and those which pass across them at right angles
m the directi on of the width of the cloth, form the weft,
~he

threaus of th ese pass alternately over and und er those
of the warp; in r eality, there is but one thread of weft,

which is donule<l ba ck at the ec1ge of the cloth, and returns, passing over those threads it p:i.ssed um1er before,
ancl unc1 er those which it previously passec1 over; the
rrangement of the threads b eing similar t o that which is
produced in darning, wh en that operation is performecl to
fill up th e vacant space in a worn stocking.
· The h and loom is still used occasionally, but is r apidly
kiving place to larger instruments worked by steam power,
in which all the vari ous processes in weaving arc performed
by mean s of machinery. The larger machines arc known
by the name of power looms.

LESSON LXIV.
COTI'ON.

This extr emely valuable substance, wnich is now r aised
n such al.nmdan ce as to furni sh the cheapest and most cx.tcnsivel y use d_clothing , is produced in the seed vessels of
the cotton plant, of which there arc many vari eties; some
lire herbaceous annual plants, growing from eig hteen to
twenty-four inches high; oth ers, shrubs, about the size of

i

! 1'. i
'

+

' ~ 1111'1' j I j'I;, ~ , ,. - ,.
,, "I I H

'f

< I

I ,

1:, ! , , I

!','

332

COTION .

•

our c11rr:mt

''

333

about one eighth of an inch apart ; by the
e of this box is a r oller, carrying a number of circular
:ws, with curved t eeth, which proj ect through the wires
the box. On the roller being made to revolve, the
th of the saws drag the •cotton throug h the wires, the
, ds remaining behind ; after being thus separated, the
tton is powerfully compressed into bags, and is ready
· ,transport to Yarious manufactnring countries.
Tbe spinning and weaving of cotton into calicoes and
er fabrics are now almost entirely accornplishecl by
. ans of machinery, moved either by steam or water
wc1". The fibres of the cotton arc first separated from
h other, and cleared from dust, by means of a contrive called a will ow, a machine formed of rollers, in which
·n spikes arc fixed ; these arc made to turn round rapidly,
the fibres arc thus scparntccl, and then laid parallel
. the carding machine, in which they are passed between
o brushes (or cards, as they are termed) made with iron
o; thns prepared, they arc transferrcu to the machines,
'ch spin th em into yarn, or thread, fit for the use of
weaver. The stro ng :rnd firm material known as sewcotton consists of several yarns twisted together.
In order that the cotton manufacture may be snccessy carried on in any particul ar distri ct, it is essential, first,
t it shot1kl be situated where fuel is cheap, if steam
wer is used, or on rapidly descending strc:1ms, if
machinery is driven by water power; second, that it
uld be as near as possible the countl'y from whence
cotton is principally brought; third, that there should
of communication with seaports and other

I

i, :.:

1

or

!

'Jf
' ;I ii1 ,r::.1.
l

)I l'.t

1·

'i 1'I l:ii
' ,1 1 I ;i · I!
1

ll 1· II1i

1

·.,I;1!I'

'I

I

!

;: .~

1

a more rnpi<l process la nowaclOJj-~gl
in a box, 0110 sitlo
whlah \,~tilrtliill

Iu ~

111: ·,

Ii' :I,
.. p
,,. ;" 11'
I

1':
!

:

!11!
1:'

·11,

I

l;

'·ti!

I

I

I

;.

I I· i~
r.

334

FJ,A.X.

FIFTH STEP.-LESSON LXY,
,- ,

parts of the co untry.

•

•

·2-- -

t

.....

1s cnllivated ns well for the sak e of its

l hcso several cond1t1ons · at'Ck-

fol1illec1 in nctual localiti es of the colton mnnufnctur
Englund, the L:u1cashiro nrnl Cheshire, nncl iu Scot
the western portion of th e cc ntrnl con! fields nrc it.a
Eng luml oh tn im1 h er g re:-tl est find c:irli est Bnpply
from America; nn<l tho coal liol11R on which
mnmtfact11rc1l nro to tho wcat of llritain,

335

or

tho cot.&OG

ds, which arc the well lrnown " linsce<l" of commerce,
,for the valuable fibr es y icldc<l by the ste m ; when the
ter nrc t h e principal objects of cnltivation, the plants nrc
wn thickly, so ns to cnnsc th e stems of t h e crowded
ts to run

11p

hig h;

0 11

the cont rary, when the seeds nrc

uired, t h e pbnts arc so wn less t hickl y, ancl allowed to
ain a longer tim e in t he gro un<l b efore th ey nr o gath-

LESSON LXV. ' ·:

d.

When ripe, the leaves of the plan t fall off anc1 th e

' ms turn yellow; the flax is then pnl!CLl by ha nd, carc}'LAX.

.iy dried

in the sun, and either stacked under cover, or

The fibre of the flax: plnnt hns been cmptorecl 11;
tcrial for clothing from ve ry remote times; ii waa g

)rived of its seeds nt once by pulling the tops of the
ms through a coarse iron comb, fix ed perpendicularly in

mon use a mong the Egyptians. In Gen. xii,''•,,,..
t hat P lrnrauh arrayed .T usr ph in \·cstnrcs of lino linoa:
p r cscntat:iomi of flax, and of its different stnges of

,block of w ood ; the seed vessels, being too large to pass
ough the teeth of the comb, arc torn off.
·.The seeds of the fl ax plant t h us obtain ed nrc extremely
uablc to man ; t h ey arc known, as before observed , un-

fa etnrc nho1111Cl :u11011gst tho p:1int.i11gs on tbo
tomb~, niHl tho nl'ious Rpcr- im r 11s

of mummf cloth

ox:imincll ha,·c L1•c11 forn1 ccl P11tiroly of thi11ublt11M. .
It is procln cc ll extcnsinly ln Hus11i:i, tho Uoltei
:m~l lrclnml , bnt th e b est fl:ix i:i tho world ia foUDcl.•
l::i.nd ::incl B elgium.
lin en sh eeti ngs, shirtin g~ , l1 n1Hlkerchicfs1 t4ble

thc 11:i111 c of linscccl , and, 'rhcn pressed , yield n. very
ul oil.
The stems of the flax, fr eed fr om th e sce1ls, undergo a
pro c~sscs to prcpnre t h em for tho use of t h e
ver; th ey arc first steeped in shall ow p ools of water

'es of

'l partiall y r otted, to cn.nsc the fibres of t h e b:nk (the
y p:irt used in w c:ivi11 g ) to scp:irn.tc readily fr om cnch
er; they arc then usually exposed to the action of the
nncl air by spreading t h em out 0 11 t h e g rass for abo nt a
night; tho central w oolly portion of t he stem, which
been r ender ed brittle by steeping , is then r emoved by
instrument termed a brake, the simplest form of which
· ts of a long slit in a block of wood, with a wooden

l .
~.

;

ia

336

IIEJl[P,

FIFTll STEP.-LESSON LXVI,

flt~ laid '. ~·

sword fitting loosely into it; :i. buncllc of
is
the slit and forced into it by the sword; the brittle, Vi,
part of the stern is broken by the bending to which i~
thns sul1jcctcd. The brake in general consists of throe,
more swords fitted into one handle ; these pass into a
responding nnmbcr of slits, :i.ml break the stem with
rapidity; the broken woody portions arc readily sc
from the tough uninjured fibres either by beating
short stafl~ or by rubbing out with the haufl.
' I t.
To rnndcr the flax fit for the purposes of tho spi .
1
is next hatchelled, a process necessary to lay tho fib
allel, ancl separate those which, from their shortn
not usecl. Th e hatchcl may be compared to a
form ed of sharply pointed ne edles instead of bristl~ f,
fixed on a low stand, with the points upward; tiho
man, taking a bundle of flax in his hand, throws it
the hatchcl, and dr::m ing it tow::tnl himself thro

,is now extensively cultivatccl in most parts of the worlcl;
t he stem is simple or nubrnuchcd, and rises to a height
·of about five or six feet, h ea ring numerous leaves, c::tch
• divided into a number of n:i.rrow pointed leaflets, deeply
.notched at the m::trgin; the whole plant is covered with
which give it a peculiar harshness to the
The fl owers arc of two kinds, b::trren ancl fertile; these
on di stinct plants, ancl :ire green :ind inconspicuous ;
the plant bearing the barren or male flowers is of quicker
.growth than that which b ears the female or fertile, and
'ses several inches higher ; by this means the fertilizing
powder that it produces is more readily scattered over the
~rtile plants ; the flowers of the latter plants arc succeeded by the small seed-like fruits enclosed in the green cup
f the flower; these arc collcctcrl :ind sold under the name
~row

1,r hemp sc~d;

thi~ seed, when c~·nshecl in ::t. p1.·css, yields :t
narge quantity of 011, much used lD the preparation of var' hes, and occasionally employed in the formation of some
kinds of soap .

.

machinery.
After hatchellin g, the flax is fit for tho uso ot
nor; nn:i.rly all the flax now 11sca in tl1is co11ntr7JI
machines, the spinning wheel Leing rarely seen.

LESSON LXVT.
TIE~IP.

The plant yielding the hemp of commorot
the native cotmtry of which was probabl1 ~

33'7

Hemp seed, being extremely nutritious, is much sought
er. by birds, and frequently given to those k ept in conAnemcnt. The plant, when grown in tropi c::tl climates,
ssesses :i. peculiar narcotic power, :i.ml an extract of the
ves, when swallowed or smoked, produces intoxication ;
.is employed for this pnrposc by the inhabitants of some
,rts of the East, to whom the use of wine is forbidden by
e Mohammedan religion.
~
Hemp is chiefly cultivated for the sake of its fibres,
~ch are very tough and flexible, ancl p::trticularly adapt15

, I

I
I

i i~
'ij '
1

'11

!;
I

b'
>

l h;

: l: i

I! ,,rf

;;, :'·
j;:

I

!ii:

I

~ ~

\

Ii!

It l.

:138

FIFTH STEP.-LESSON LXVI.

SJLK,

r t . of co:i.rnc stroll"' fabrics, BU .
eel fo1· the m:mtll:tC
111 c
. . ,
o
•
t
·1 ·1 0 'l1 sacking as \r cll as for makmg
canvas, sat c " ' '·
'
·
l fi th
•
.. LI cs
. .' the q11n11t1ty usm or0
cordage,
i·opcs, nml c,.1
1Ur 1-.oscs is extreme 1y 1argc ., from 20 ' ooo
, to
. 30,00 •
Ia.re :l.111111:1.lly CX. [l Ol·t Cl1 from B.nssia to E11ghsh nntl Am

can markets alone.
.
.
. 11 l 1c111p .'" <·11'icily woven mto • co:\l'so sheeting,
Rngln;

," Hemp is largely used for the formation of string, cordage, &c., the fibres being twisted so as to unite firmly together. This process was formerly performed by hand;
the spinner took a bundle of hatchelled hemp and wrapped
it around his waist ; lie then drew out a few fibres, and
twisting them together, fastened them to a hook, wl1ich
•

into tho cloth called h11ckaback, of wl11ch conrso tow~la •

made.
.
.
Hemp is most profilnuly cult1rnlc1l m
the coarseness :i.11tl strength of tho fibro11 dopcoJlog QD,
.req
l t l1e richn ess of tho mnnuro. Wbon rold•
mno1111 t an C
for the USC of the weaver, it is, Jiko flu, IOWn b
the stems arc i11 co11 scqurncc crowded, and ~
than when tho plllD\I
t 1icy arc a l ~· o less
· co'HSc
·
II 11'9 IO'P~~
clrills at a greater distance :ipart. T_bo. fu ..gt'(>WQ
. . 11 cl u11 by the ro ots, thor;c bc:mng bnrron .t1o
me pu c
·
l ft 11omo 11'.
. ·1 . ti 0 fertile ones aro c
being first sc 1cctec ' '
.
. 1'\· ubbcd out.
.
their seccls wlnch arc I cue 1 y r.
later to npcn
'
1 to
A ftcr the plants arc gathcrcu, t 10 •
t l ie l 1::m d · ·"
·
. . I • fl ·lcls to lie l e~ as m1111urej
roots arc cut oil 111 t ic w '
.
• ·th
. uu11<11 cs,. ate
. tlbc erl m wnter'
stemf< ticc1 up Ill
. .
•
·the woody
'
the hbrcs u1- ~.
and useless parts, am1 leaves
•
•
• ",
in wl11ch
t 1icy c.m
uc more r eadily sep:ualcd. Thli
. 1 . - tc1·mc<l rotLi1w, rencl ers tho water po
COSS W 1llC I 18
"'
i l,,
.
. .
ffcn sivc odor. '\Vhcn t w ,
·md occas1011s a ' Cly 0
•
• 1 t cl the hemp i:i cl riccl, anc1 the " ·oorly portion,

~; ~a~chclling,

is r emoYcd, as described un.dor t.he
f
r
this
't is ready to be spun rnto y
of fl ax; a to
weaving.

330

as twirled ronncl with great rapidity by a large wheel
generally turned by a boy; the spinner walked backward
from the hook, aucl as he did so the twisting yarn drew
ut additional 1ibrcs from the bundle round 11is waist,
hilo with his hand lie regulated tho number of these
&brcs, and caused the yarn to b e of .u nifo rm size; the yarns
JO maclc were again twisted into strands; three of these
itrands form a r ope, and three ropes united make a cable.
orsc power was employed in twisting the ropes and cales. Steam machinery now performs all these operations,
om the hatchclling of the hemp to the twisth1g of the
ope or cable.

LESSON LXVII.
SILK.

of raw silk, and the amount, have been

~cribcd under the head of the si lkworm moth, and it
mains only to trace its furth er progress into spun silk,
aptcd for the use of . the weaver and the sempstress.
e hanks of raw silk, having been washed in warm water,
wound upon bobbins or reels; this is· accomplished by
. ,winding machine, the effect produced by this machinery
ing the same as when a skein of thread is held on the
!

·I

340

FIFTH STF.l'.-LESSON LXVII.

341

WOOL.
• A

outstretched hni°1ds of one person nnd wound on n ~t
anoth er. Tlic silk i~ then twisted, or thrown, na i
tcnne(l, so ns t o i111itc Rcvcrnl filaments together lofA) ;

Silk fabrics aro manufactmcd mostly in England,
France, Italy, and China.

sing le yarn, aml for the stouter thrcnds aovornl 1AJDI
again twislcu together, or do11bled; tho tondonot~ _
filaments to untwist nil.er Leing Lwi.tod ls OOUD."'rlCI•
by cxposuro to etcnm, which glvoe tho: Uar.-dl>:a,.

LESSON LXVIII.
WOOL.

The clothing manufrictnred from wool is particulnrly
adapted to cold countries ; not that it communicates
warmth, but, . being a 11 011-concluctor of heat, it prevents
that of our bodies from escaping . \ Vool is the liairy covering of sheep, which has a p eculiar folti ng property; it is
taken from the living anim al in th e s11111111cr season, by an
operation call ed sheep slieariug, and in t hat state is call ed
the fle ece. The wool of the Spanish sheep is particularly
fin e ; the fl ocks in that coun try arc oft<;n very large, containin g as many as a t housand sheep.

t hrc::i.cls alone nrc see n, nml n rirh, unbroken .
wbloht ~ .•
.is prollncccl. Vch'ct, th o Roft pilo
if1 fo rn1 ccl J1y Wl':t \'ill .~ ~h u rt )nops o( 11ilk lDtO
th efic loops, whi ch Rl:tml nt ri ght nuglot lOi
the weft :111ll th e warp, nrc nflerwnnl CU~ ·, '
in strnm cnt., :-tlHl th e cut ernl!I of tho silk ltAmclLllll
th e pile givo riso to tho pcculinrly llO~ I
velvet; this nrrmi~c ment mny nlao ho O'bai...illll*1UI
rngs, whcro the out ends of ahort won&ecl
from a coarso c:mvns foundntlon.

or

0

The first operation perfo rmed on the raw wool is to pick
and sort it ; t his is particularly needful, as t he same sh eep
. produces wool of various qualities. It is next cleansed
from its impurities, and committed to the wool comber,
. who, by means of iron-spikcll combs of different d egrees
of fin eness, draws ont tl1c fibres, smooths, and straightens
them. It is then prcparc<l for th o spinner, who forms it
, into threads, the more twisted of whi ch arc call ed worsted,
- nnd the less twisted yarn. It is then employed in the
manufactur o of every description of h o8icry, stuffs, carpets,
finnn cls, blankets, and cloths.

England manufactures so

much woollen clothin g, that it was formerly considered the
"staple commodity of the conntry; and to mark its importnnce the Lord Chancellor sits upon a woolsack.

342

MIN.EEALS .

FIFTII STEP.-MINER.ALS.

MINEIL\LS.
GENE!: AL

cu ,1 J:.\CTEJ:S

OF

~fINET!.\LS.

The objects deri.-od fr om the mineral king<lom
one of the most obvious means of snpplying mate '
wealth to a country. In fact, some countries derive th :chief importance fron1 t he ab11nd:111t snpply of min
wealth which they export to other countries less ri
furnished than they in this particnhr.
l\Iincrals arc di~tinc;nishecl from each other
possession of certain characters, the r.1ost importnnr
which will be briefly desc ribed here, in or<lcr to pr~Y
repetition in speaking of the several species in <lctail.
Lustrc.-lUany min erals possess a high <lcgrce
'
brightness, but in characterizing thci11, the kind of\I
is more important than its d egree. The most im1>9
varieties areThe metallic lustre, as in
Vitreous, or glassy lustre, as in
Resi nous, or waxy lustre, as in
rc;irly lu stre. as in

1Vhcn minerals arc dcstitnte of any
termed dt1ll.

excevL when iL occur.s iu couucclioa with mcL:i.llic lustre ;
it is then more ucliuiLe, as, for ex:11n pie, in lc:lll ore or galena, 11 hich is ah1·ays gray.
~ome mi11erals arc l1ist.i11guished by poculiar a11pcaranccs co11 11 ccled 11 iLh eolor,-such as the raiulio11·-1i].;.e
variety of tints fom1<1 in ~eH ral of those possessed of
metallic brightness,-for ex:miple, in t he copper ore, called
from this circumstance, peacock coppe r ore, and the re. .flection of a floating milky light from the interior of some
.: othcrn, which is called opalescence from the fact that it is
-. very distin ct in the opal.
Ilrudn css .-Wliilc different minerals y:iry very mnclt in
- thei r de (Yrce of hardness, this character is generall y constant in ;he same species. Hardness is, therefore, r egarded
as of great importance in distinguishing minerals. Its de·
gree may be readily ascertained by the case or difficulty
with which one mineral will scratch another. In describ·
ing h ardness, the following scale is employed:
SCALE OF THE DEGREES OF ITARDNESS OF MINERALS.
No. J. Yield s easily to the finger noil, as fo r example,

Chalk.

2. Yields with diffi culty to the nail, but docs not scratch n.
copper coin,
Rock salt.
3. Scratches n copper coin, anrl i3 also scratched by it., be-

ing of about the same degree of hardne~s,

Lime spar.

4. Not scratched by n. copper coin, but not hard enough

to

~crutch

glass,

Fluor spar.

u. Scratches glass with difficulty, and yields easily l o the
knife,

other substances.
as a character of great nluc in distinguishing

Apatite.

6. Scratches glass easily, and yield8 with difficulty to the

knife,

.

Fclspar.

,1

,.,,

<
I I~ I

I

/

"~

I

I,

34'!

PU>TJ! STEP.-Mu..,ERALS.

MINER.\ LS.

Limestone,

2,250

ficulty,

Chalk,

2,5 00

Slate,

2,750

:: } IInr<lcr thnn flint. {
10.

Flint,
Emery,

2,700

TVeiglit, m· sp ecific
and, in fact, of all solitl and liquid substances. S.
with that of water as a standarcl, nml is tormocl.,·
cific gravity, or p eculiar weight. Thus, for UAl!llll
weight of sulphur is almost twice that or water;
three times, &c. It is a moro convrnicot '...a;,
mode of calculation to consider tho wo~ght
pressed by 1,000 ; that of sulphur would \.ha
flint, 2, 700. These numbers aro termed the

or' .

ties of these substances.
In the following list, tho Rpccilio

Wntcr,
Coal,
Clay,
Sulphur,
Rock salt,

Granite,

~~--

to 2,500

4,000

The Rpccific g ravity of water being taken at 1,000
'gives peculiar facilities for ascertaining th e weight of any
substance, as it so happens that one cubic foot of water
weighs almost exactly 1,000 ounces. It follows that the
· specific gravity of any substance gives the actual weight
of a cubic foot in ounces, sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes. Thus, for example, the specific gravity of
granite b eing 2,GOO, a cubic foot of it will weigh 2,600
ounces, or IG2 t lbs.; a cubic foot of cby, .in like manner,
2,000 oun ces, or 125 lbs., &c., &c.
Those minerals which arc five times heavie r than water
are mostly metallic ores, as lead or galena ore, &c.
The following t able shows t he number of cubic feet in
one ton of the undermentioned minerals:
23t cubic feet.

Sand,

Gravel,

21~

Grnnite,

13t

Marble,

13

Chalk,

13

Form.-l3 y far th e brger number of min erals arc naturally formecl in determined shapes, called crystals; when
is is not the case, they are termed m assive. :Minerals,
hether crystalline ?r massive, have usually a certain inter·
arrangement of their particles, which causes them,
15*

LIME.

346

when broken, to separate in somo directions
than in others. This is termed their cleavagtl
ample, rock salt a!l(l lead ore invariably bronk.., uj
•• .o~.i

f to

and should not. bo
they cleave.

347

FIFTH STEI'.-LESSON LXIX.

combinations with mineral substances. It enters also into
the composition of animal matter, as shellf;, bones, and the
hard coverings of insects; our bones contain eight parts
ten of lime; aml the shells of Lirds' eggs, nine parts in
ten.
Pure lime is procured from chalk, or limestone, by
. means of burning. Alternate layers of calcareous earth
and fuel are arranged in a kiln ; a fire being kincllecl, the
carbonic acid and miter Lecome volatilizecl, ancl are driven
' ofr', leaving the lime pure. In this state it is called quiclc
· lime, and is white, caustic, acrid, pungent, and infusible;
corroding and destroying animal matter. When water is
poured npon it, it swells, falls into a powder, and gives out
great heat. This last. operation is callecl slacking the lime.
· The water combining with the lime becomes ~olid, ancl the
, heat is occasioned by its changing from a fluid to a solid
state, for in doing this it parts with some of its caloric.
The uses cif lime are numerous and important. It is
formed into mortar, the cement used in building. The
li~e being slacked, is made iu to a paste by tempering it
with water; to this is added sand, anrl sometimes chopped
hairs; as it dries it becomes solid, han1, and durable. Ex·
nmplcs 11ave been known of huiluings a thousand years
old, in which the mortar is as hard as the stones which it
'unites.
Lime is usecl as ::t manure, to loosen soils "l>hich are too
tenacious, ancl to render them more friable and capable of
receiving vegetable fibres ; it also hastens the dissolution
nnd putrefaction of animal ancl vegetable substances, of
which monlrl is chiefly composed, and gives it the power

..:ri;· I r~!1t1

I.,,:.

i.

I U

I '

,
!

li!!f'1l 11

348

FIFTH STEP.-LESSON LXX.

I~ESSON

ALUMINE1 OR ARGIL.

349

:

' may be moulded into any form, wbich it retains unchanged
after cxposnrc to heat. The beds of Jakes, pond s, ancl
springs, arc almost entirely of clay; in stead of allowing
the filtration of water, as sand does, it forms an impenetrable bottom, and by this means water is accumulated in the
caverns of the earth, producing those natural r ese rvoirs
whence springs issue and spout out at the surface. Clayey
soils, in consequence of their absorbing and retaining
moisture" are heavy and sticky. Cl::ty is often used by
the poorer classes in some countries in forming their
cottages.
It is the substance of which bricks ancl tiles arc constructed ; wh en well baked in a kiln, or in the sun, it becomes very hard anrl durable. A proof of this is furnished
in the existe11cri at the present day of tllose mighty Egyptian pyrami<ls, 'rhich many suppose to have been the work
· of the I sraelites in their bondage.
Porcelain clay is that employed in china manufactories;
it absorbs moistnrc rapidly, and b ecomes very tenacious
when kn eade d. It is c1istinguisl1ecl from other clays by
the fineness of its texture and its friability. A coarser
kind, calledpotte1·'s clay, is used in making common earth·

1

~

.' '.

1u
HI 1
ii\ '
I ;1. 11
' il 1 i!,'I
;

I ·'·~··
·~
II

'!11•. 1

·' 1d·I·,.
, ;ii ·I
1.1 11

•.

.'. : i I~ Ii'
.,, I 1· I':·
. . . I~
I ! I Ii,!'.
I

,,

1111'11

1111.·:.
I ,.I"

:I ·1

1,1

I "I

1'·:1i.11
1

~11

'I

i

•If

11'

I

I~:
::\:'i

::: : ,

1·ii'

j

1·

·i I

11 li:11

':
I "11111'
1

I'l

!··'II·'!· I·
I;,

·1

~ I ·i! ~

: '.I :.:
-; !1 ~
f I
'

,1,[

I':;
'

l

I

;'L
v

i

; -1!1 i!
• ; 1 Ir

I.

~~

'.:. : l ~·di
' i; , ~ : I

·I

' : 11

11.'

11

~'

!

I I

··.I I
' 11

and silex; it is
able in various
• Argil, from Latin argll·I•, .elAf.
t Plastic, from trAllO'O'·fl• (pluHf•)i to

•

Another description of clay, of a plastic nature, is called
pipe clay, from its being used in the manufacture of pipes;
it is cast in a cylinclrical mould, a wire being anerwarcl
run through it to form the hollow through which tho
fumes of the tobacco arc inhaled ; wh en baked, it becomes hard and white. This clay is also used in extracting grease out of different substances. Fuller's em·tli is

1,

~ f:
~

!

!

ll!!j i'I1!r:· ~

J

;1! .r

I

•1111:-

:111~

'

'

' ,11.:[
i'I 1· !
1[,t
I

. i 1:~

11:~1

.
1!"

ill

I Ii u m ~~

l. f~i1'it: filtL
~ : 1:1 11r

ALUU.

350

taining water.
ever, greatly <lcpcmls 11pon
:mirnal aml vcgctalJlc m:ittcr.
U~SSON
Al.UY.

slate require to ho
setting it on firo in

351

cases, many thousand tons. Sometimes foe shale possesses
sufficient inflammable matter to burn spontaneously; in
others, small coal or cinders arc ac1c1ccl.
Propcrtics.-Alum is a transparent, colorless, saline
substance, r eadily soluble in eighteen times its weight of
colJ ::tml its own weight of boiling water, the excess dis·solvccl by hot water separating in crystals as the solution
~oob. "\Vhcn the crystallization is slowly cond ucted, the
crystals arc regular octohcclrons, but in the alnm of commerce they arc more or less conncctccl together ancl ir·
r egular in form. These crystals contain nearly h alf their
weight of water, ancl, when l1catcc1, the alum first dissoh·cs in this 1.-ater, which, if the heat is continued, boils
away, leaving a dry mass-the burnt nlnm of the drnggist.
The taste of alum is astringent, but somewhat sweetish; when swallowed, it has an astringent action; and,
although of value as a medicine, is unwholesome when not
required.
Uscs.-In the arts alum is a substance of great value.
It is much cmploye Ll in converting skins into leather (sec
Leather); it is also used in paper making; in the mannfactnrc of some kinds of caml lcs, to harden and whiten the
tallow; in dyeing aml calico printing it is absolutely indispensable; and it is employcJ by paper hangers in making
employed by bakers in the manufacture of
. wheaten breall , rendering it whiter in color, and causing
·; the loaves to separate more rcaclily. · Its chief 11Sc, how. ever, arises from the fact that it enables inferior flour,
' which has been damage cl by being harvested in wet

FllcTJl STEP.-1.E.'lSON Lllll, ,

352

and

times used for
bustiblc.

ROTTEN STONE AND TIUPOI.T.

353

cined for the purpose of enabling it to b e r educed to
powder with less labor.
Uses.-Thc use of emery depends upon its extreme
)lartlness, which enables it, wh en in a state of fine pow. der, to be used by lapidaries for grinding and polishing
. precious stones ; by cutlers, in finishing steel in struments ;
· by opticians, for p olishing glasses, &c. Sprinkled over
'. paper or stout calico whil:h has b een previously covered
with a layer of glue, it forms emery paper or cloth; this
cleaning iron instrnmcnts and artiof domestic use.

LESSON LXXIII.
ROTTEN STONE ·AND TRIPOLI.

Propcrtics.-Emcry is a grnyish blnck, ot • ,
opaque mineral, with n g listening Jngtro a.id 'g
frac t nre. I ts specifi c gra\' ity is nhont 4,0001 llDtl b.
tinguishcd by its extreme hanlncss, inferior on1i,..~
the cliamoml

Occw·i·ence ancl Properties.-Rottcn stone ancl tripoli
nre two minerals resembling each other, in h avi ng their
particles in a state of very fine division. Rotten stone,
which is founcl in consid erable quan tity in Carmarthenshire . and Breconshirc, South Wales, and at Ashford, in
Derbysh ire, England, is friable. It is found mixed with
icccs of black marble, and it has recently b een ascerthc soil, decomposes the
marble, thus producing rotten stone. Tripoli is so called
from its being first found in that country. The small particles of both arc very harcl; ancl when the min erals arc
educed to powder they a rc extensively employed in pol~hing metal articles.

collected for use.

Rotten stone is not found except m England.

Tho

354

FIFTH

SLATE.

355

LESSON LXXV.
SLATE,

LESSON

Slate is a mineral substance; it is never found crys·
. tallizccl, but generally of a foliated strncturc; it is either
of a gray, blueish, or blackish color, often streaked by a
different tint from that of the ground; it is opaque, dull,
compact, and brittle. It consists chiefly of aluminc, with
a small quantity of silex. It is dug out of quarries; when
first taken from th em, it is comparatively soft, but becomes
bard by cxposnrc to the air. It is used for writing upon,
for whetstones, and for roofing houses. In order to ascerfain its fitness for the latter purpose, it is wcighcr1 as soon
,as it is excavated, and is then put into water for some
days; if after being well dri ed it is found. to have increased
jn weight, it is laid aside as unsuitable for the purpose, the
~rial having proved that it was porous, and consequently
absorbent. Sneh slate would not only allow water to pass
throug h it, and so destroy the wood work of buildino-s but
•
b,
Jt would also be liabl e to be co vered with lichens and moss,
in consequence of the llloi:itnrc which it retains. If its
quality is ascertained to be good , it is split into thin plates
or roofing. The tiles arc fastened to the rafters by pegs
riven through holes, wl1ich have been previously made in
hem; the edge of one is laid over the other, in the same
anner as tl1c scales of fi shes. Slate which is dark-coloren
compact, and solid, is the best adapted for writing upon.'
order to prepare the slate for this purpose, it is renercrl smooth with an iron instrument, and it is then

BAND AND SANDSTONE.

35G

\

357

FIFTH BTEI'.-LESSON LXXVI,

ground with sandstone, ancl slightly polished.
is softer and more friable, is used for pencils.
The principal slate quarries in tho United Stntes ·~ •
V crmont., N cw York, Pennsylv:mia, nnd :Maryland. · ··~- · ' •
ries of great extent nro nlso worked in various }larta ~
British Isles.
· ·.jll'
The school slate!!, when split out from . tho > -~··'...,
taken to tho factory, where n mnn providod ,nLJi.
·
·of the six sizes usually made, mnrks ~ut'u~
such slates as it will make to tho best,'ady
other workman then cuts them out with ~
made of soft steel, nnd they nro drosscd, '1moi <'.§1,S
polished by a third. Before machinery WU ' a ·
these operations they w~re shnveu out liko
smoothing is finisl\ed by rubbing tho slnto with
with its own dnst. The slnto is now wMhod an
for tho frame. Slates nro cithc1· 11unrricd ·~i-1;
whero practicable, by splitting them ?ff with-

bl0o,;.•_·

1.

~·

1hmit.
<

SILICIOUS

...

LESSON LXXVL l<'·.

•

-;:i::.

uted, forming in many places lho bot.lo~
ocean, nnd not unfrcquontly tho bodl=~surface of- the earth it oft.en forms t-:
which arc usually termed dcsorts, ncli~
nud Africa.
.""''"'

.
Sand is also found in beds, or byers, alternating with
, other substances. \.Vhen at the surface of tl ie groun a,
sand forms that kind of country found in some parts of
. Europe, termed heath, which is distinguished by its sterile
'- character and the nature of the plants (chiefly heath furze
and ferns,) growing on it. vVhen the grains of
cemented together into a firm mass, they form the valuable
. stone called sandstone, many kinds of which are found in
this country,_ where they are extensively used. for building.
;From the hanlness of the gruins of sand, they are also
: valuable as grin cl stones, mill stones, scythe stones, and
from their porosity they are frequently employed in the

sa~d ar~

·manufacture of filters.
. T~1e vuriety known as Potsdum sandstone can be quar. ned m slabs of any required size, and is much used for
,paving.
-:ropertie~.-Sancl consists of silica, in small rough
grmnR of vanons sizes. 'When pure, it is white or colorless, but it is usually tintecl by the admixture of other
materials. It is perfectly insoluble in water, aml infusible

Uses.-San<l. is a substance of great value. It is found
) n all fertile soils, rendering them sufliciently porous to
allow water to percolate an<l. the air to gain access to the
roots of the growing plants, aml it is frequ cntlv a<lu eu
with great advantage to heavy, clay soils. Pnrc ~<;and, as
before mentioned , is unfitted to tho growth of plants.
In artificial processes sand is used extensively· the
. biter kinds are employed in glass making, the c;arser
in making mortar and bricks. From its infusible nature,

•

358

GLASS.

FIFTU STEP.-LESSON LXXVII.

and tho property that somo ki1ids possess of
mass when firmly prcsscu together, it is used for maltjD
the moukls into which melted metals are poured i~ the
process of casting; nml its hard, gritty nature renders i~~
useful in clc:miag and scouring coarse metal and otbe~/
articles.

LESSON LXXVII.
GLASS.

•

11£aterials.-The
or soda.
Lanesborough, Mass.
various parts of the country.
be perfectly free from colored· impurities, otherwiso f'
glass receives a tinge. Itc<l !call and lithargo a.·o c)· '
ployed in ce rtain kinds of glass, as they aro found
render it more rcaclily fusible aml t enacious ·:;hen mol
They have, however, the disadvantage of renderin .::..
softer, and, therefore, more liabl e to be scratched.~~
addition to these substances, small portions of m:mgan
arsenic, borax, an<l other minerals, arc occasionally~--­
ployed to produce more ready fusion and to rem.
color, awl, in allllost all cases, a considcral.ilo nmounL _
broken glass, or cutlet, as it is termed, is added. In ~.·- ;
coarser kinds lime is also used in place of a dearer al~
The localities of the glass manufacture arc determin
by the nearness to coal fields, and by the case of obtain the materials required ; for these r easons, it if! freqtl

seaports. Newcastle, Bristol, and Glasgow,
with Birmingham, arc tl10 cl1icf tow11s in which it is car. , ried on in Engl:mcl.
It is also mannfacturccl in different sections of our own
, country, particularly in South Boston, East Cambridge,
and Sandwich, Mass.; Brooklyn, N. Y ., where flint glass is
manufactured. The most important mannfactories of win-· dow glass arc located in the southern part of N cw Jersey,
! llbout Pittsburg, Penn., and the river to1rns below and in
, central N cw York. The only manufactory devoted exclu;·. sively to plate glass, is at L enox, Berkshire Co., Mass.
,.. Our b est plate glass is imported from . En"land
and
b
.France.

Prepamtion.-The materials, having been mixed in the
·,requisite proportions, arc made to unite together by expo. sure to a moderate heat, which is incrcascL111ntil they melt
'. into a pasty mass, termed frit. The ingredients of flint
glass, however, which arc of the purest kind, do not
-always requir e to be frittcd. The materials arc melted
together in large crucibles, or pots, as they are usually
These arc made of the most infu si!Jlc material.~,
· and each pot is capahlc of !tolcling al;ont fomtccn lrnmlrcd, weight of glass. These arc built into a dome-shaped furnace, with openings in the sides, corresponding to tho
situation of c::ich pot. In about forty-eight hours after
l1avin g been phced in the furnace, the ghss is in a stato
-of the most p erfect fu sion, and is ready to he worked into
_any desired form.
-1lfanufacturc;-As the mode of manufacture varies
,:·, ith the kind of glass, and the purposes for which it i!l

360

G LA SS.

Fll!'Tll STEP.-LESSON LXXVlL

it will be

361

th e t op, which is skimm ed off, :md a considernble amount
of broken g lass, or cullet, as iL i::i termed, is added, and in
auout forty hours th e g lass is reaL1y for working. The
workm an takes about t en or eleven pound s on the end of
an iron tube, blows it into a large, hollow, pear-shaped
form ; then, by pressure against a plane surface, flattens
the part opposite the tube; an iro n rod, C[lll ecl a punt, is
th en dipped in the melted glass of the furnace, and at- ·
tachecl to the centr.e of the fl attened par t, ::rnd the iron
tube is r emoved by wetting .the glass around it; the so ft
yielding glass is now carri ed Ly the punt and exiJosed to
the heat of a furnace, the workm an twirling it round with
, gradually increasing rapid ity, whi ch causes th e hole left by
th e r emoval of the tube to enlarge in size, and at length
the whole fhttens out in to a plane surface of fou r or five
feet in diam eter, of unifo rm tl1i ckn ess, ex(;ept wh ere the
i~on rod is attached in the centre ; a lump is th ere formed
called the bull's eye; t he glass is then an11 e:i,lec1, and each
. disc divid ed into two parts for the conveni ence of
carriage.
The dark g reen glass used fo r wine b ottles is made
without lead, ancl of t he coarsest material s ; co mm on river
sand ::incl soap-boil ers' wast e, consistin g of lim e and a
small proportion of alka.li, being usually empl oyed.
Plate glass is a very pure glass, capable of flowing
.freely wh en melted, without streak s or air bubbl es. Th e
•materials forming it arc t he whitest sand , soda,, small por_tions of lim e ancl th e min eral s mangan ese and cobalt, together with broken plate glass, the waste of previous
operations. Th e g lnss, when p erfectly fu sed, is poured
]Q

I'
I\
11

.I
I

FIFTH STEP.-LESSON LXXVII.

362

GLASS.• .

363

· .on table of the size required, and the thickness is
upon an 11
i·egulated by the height to whic~1 the sides of the table are ·,
raised. Immediately after it IS l)ourcd ont, the melted ~.
1
"'h~s is {httcnctl by having a metal roller passetl over the •·
~rrer snrfacc; it. i~ then :mncalc<l for scvCJ.·al days; after
tliis it is ~ronntl perfoeLiy smooth by rubbrn g two plates __ ,

'_ characteristic that it is termed vitreous ·, its bein!!
_ insoluble
, . ltnd incorrodible by all substances in ordinary use, even the
strongest acids; it is brittle when in thick masses, but
_.-, when in very thin threads it possesses :m extraordinary
. degree of elasticity, which , unlike that of imy other snb· stance, docs not seem impairCll by repeated uenrling.

too-ether with finely pow<lcre<l flint anJ water between th~m; each plate is again ground with emery powder, and ·.
finally polish e<l by a polishing powder, appliecl with I\

Uses.-The uses of glass in domestic economy arc well
' known. Its employment for ma~ing vessels to l1old liquids
depends greatly on its transpare~cy and polish, the former

woollen rubber.
.
. .
.; _
The process of the manufacture of glass beads IS rnter-..,
esting from its grc:i.t simplicity. Tubes of glass. of tho.

·, allowing the contents to be seen, an\t the I::ttter enabling it
, to be rcadil'y cleaned after use. Its cli~!oyment as a ma_ terial for glazing windows depends o'its transparency

re<Jnircd color arc made hy blowing cylin<lei:s, winch nro .
<l r:1 , 1. 11 0 11 1. , 1 ]iilc still l'h~ tir, t fl tlic rcrimred length. , ·,
T h vse t i11H"s :t r 0 r11t 11J' inl o Yr ry shnrt JJic ccs on tho .·
.
· 1(, C!-, ~<;
r· ., 1· ,- , ,\ l'lii..;:·l.
Tiin·
:11·<· then st inc1l over ..''
upr1(1·
() .... 1.\._ 1
.,
1

.and insolubility, which enable it to acl~it tho light
and '1·arm th of tltc sun, 1Yhilc it cxcl11c16s . . _tl1c wiml
"'--.___ ___ _

0

1

. · '

·

.

1iir c of fine

a·f 11 rn:l<' <' 111 :11111 \ ·

s·m1l
··

a111l

11·ootl a'hcs, lientcd
•

to s11rh a rl0grcc t hat the fragments of glass arc softeno
nncl lose their angular aml slwrp-edgcd form.

..

Colored glasses are produced by the a1lililio11 of sma.
. t't" ,, Af 1 - ~ 1 -'1 n 11 s minrrnl in"'rNlicntii to tho melt

<}11:11\ I \ !.~

"

·•

-

-~

.

, ,

mass. A small <1nantity of soot gl\·ca :1 ycllo11 c11lo1 , p
p:1rations of copper a r el1 tint ; ulne is prod~1cc<l by_,
·
lli ,.,,. , "n·cn 18 11r0Ju
. b:i.lt; man ganese g 1Y cs :m :imc J " " , "' •
• .
_
1
by iron, as in the common bottle glass; t~n p10iluc~
opaque white, and gold an exquisitely_ b eautiful r~by tin
Properties. --Thc peculiar properties of glass m am
eel state have b een already allude<l to. 'When solid,·_ l\.
striking1y distinguished by its beautiful transpare~cy,
ness, ancl freedom from porosity ; its lustre, which,

Ghss i.s frcr111c11tly gronnil npon rc\·oh·i11g

11

heels of

: sandstone, or p o li ~l1 i11g shtc, in l o 'm;i][ circ til:i r pieces, 1rith

ODe Or both siJcs concave or C011YCX j in these forms it
' alters the dirccLion of the mys of light which pass through
· it, either uri11gi11g them Lo one point or focus, or Jispersing
hem. Th ese g l:1sscs nro t crmcc1 l enses, ::i.1111 '1l'C' cmploycrl
making optical instrumc1rts- as microscopes, telescope s,
and also for Fpoctnclcs,

~c.,

It is our familiarity with glass that alone rcm1ers us
ually so insensible to the great value and exceeding
auty of this extraordinary substance,

3()4

FfFTTI RTEP.- r.1;:.c:;s o N J,XXVITJ.

GRA....'IlTE.

LESSON J,XXVIII.

LESSON LXXIX.

~! I C . \.

<: It.\NIT.E.

365.

' i1: 11~ lld!

IF1:irh
. !IH'!:1;rj
1 11

f.·

1l

ll ,1 .., ..

Occui-rcncc and Praperlies.-Mica is a mineral
possesses the property of b ci11g reauily split into exceed
ingly thin layers, which arc transparent, possess a penrly·
metallic I ustre, and arc flexible and elastic. 'l'he glisten•
ing appearance of grnnitc, nntl some other minerals; ht .duo
to the presence of sm:ill scal es of this substnnce: · · ~ '
It occms in large masses in many parts of tho world,.
especially in Sib eria., Swedc11, and Norway. It is n1'0
fouml in N c w H am pshire, and some of the other Stntei;.
and Canada, in sufficient qnantities to be quarried ·~o
economical l)tuposcs.
Uses.-Thc transparency and fl exibility of this ;lu
stan ce have led to its employment as a substitute for g
p articularl y under circumstances where it is exM~a .··
violence; l1 cnce it has bee n 11 sr:c1 in llnssia for vosa01- ·
w:i.r, iu which glass windows "\·crn apt to be broken.
the concussion caused by fi ri ng the guns. As iL --~
nltercd by .ex posure to n vcry'l1igh temperature, it Ii
unfreqnently used to form trans11:i.rcnt doors to sto;O.;
l::tn te rns, an<l it is now lrtrgcly employed to · form~- ·.

ceiling.

Gr:rni te is a compoun1l rock, formed hy ::m aggregation
of g rai ns of quartz, folspar, and mica. The proportions in
whi ch these component parts occur vary much; but folspar
is the prodominating, and mica the least considernble, of
these ingredients. The grains arc also of different marrnio
tu des ; when th ey arc large, the granite is of a very conrse
texture; but sometimes they arc so small, as almost to
give the appearance of a unifonn mass. These circumstances occasion a great ·variety in the character of granite.
When hornbl encl occurs in the place of mica, the rock is
, call eel syenite, from Sycn o, in Upper Egypt, 11·h ere it was
. first known and qnaiTicd. Some fclspar is liable to decompositi on, and when this is tho prevailin g substance in the
: rocks, th ey. yield to the effects of the weather, and Iiccome
more or less of a rounded form; but wh en tho granite is
' harcl and close-grained , which is more usually the case,
they rise in bold promin ent peaks, g iving grandeur nnd
boldn ess to tho scenery. Granite is found in most co untries where there are mountains of any consiuernble elevation. It forms the fl anks of a consider:i.blo portion of the
Andes, an cl it may be traced along the eastern spurs of the
Appalachi::m r:ing c throug h the Southern States. It is
finely developed through South Carolina and G eorg ia.
Th e Stone mountain of th e latter State is a u aked mass of
granite, rising four or five hundred feet above the surrounding country, and is so steep thnt it can be ascended

.·;·T,

I,,

1

'1' I!
,,,, ·1 I 'I
11
:
1' I

'I
. 'I
1

•t

.

I!lfi"1:'~r

11·

·1,11'

':I ..I JI I'·

'I

1

'

,,,

I I~

I I ':

I

1>11

11

I

f I

Ii!

1 I

I

., i

'

'·''I I

1

,;:' I t'
, ''J' I I
I iii.I 1 11, I,!
ii!' f i
11'

I

I

. JI t ~
1

hf
I f !'I

I

'

,j

' I '

t.I :

I

I' ~
I '

M

.'",.
!: , I
.. 1.f' '

)L

.

~
U•
ij

'

1·1

.. ;''" , r·
l•:111•

'I

I.

~ ~

'' 1:: ~

I

I

.

II

,. /!1·

.Ii Ii

'It ~
I /!

. "It ~I!
I , ',,
I

•''

,,
I ~

I ':l .;·I·
I I·

,1.i.·
t

:t

I
I

I
·

I··J11 II
. lf:1· I

:f

11 ,'

i11i11 !1 1 • ir

i'lll~ Iii ·

366

SULPHUI>.

FIFTH STEP.-LESSON LXXX.

only at one point. All N cw England abounds in grani~ ..
but the most famous quarries aro along tho coast :'.9e<
]Haine, and at Quincy, l\Iass. ; from the latter plnoo it U\
exported for building purposes to tho principal cities ~D .
t h e Athntic coast, the Gulf of l\Icxico, nnd in tho W~

INFLAl\IUADLE l\IINEitALS. "': .
LESSON LXXX.
SULPIIUJ?.

Occurrcncc.-S11lphnr occurs nntivo
h oocl of all active volcanoes, frcm which it ia di.I'~!l'll'C~

years becomes so far charge<! with snlph111: 08 to IOn'
'
t
-,;
same purpose again. It is also found more abundan&l
beds, as in Sicily, from whence almost nll tho native
phur of commerce is olJlaincrl.
Sulphur, when .co mhin e<l with motnls,
which arc tnrmed 1:mlpl111rcts; these occur in mos~
of the world; some of them-as tho eulphurota
1

or

3()7

copper, and zinc-are valuable ores, the sulphur itself be·
ing burnt away ancl lost during the preparation of the
metals. One sulphuret-that of iron-also termed iron
pyrites, is useless as an iron ore, but of great value as a
source of sulphur, containing rather more than half its
weight.
When this sulphuret is heated in the open air, the snl·
phnr burns away with a blue flame; but if it is heated in
close vessels, half the sulphu r it contains is driven off in
vapor. This is collected in a solid or liquid state in a cold
part of the apparatus; the residue of the mineral is converted, by mere exposure to the air, into green vitriol, a
preparation of iron largely nsed in dyeing black and in
making ink.
The usual form in which sulphur is prepared is in cylin·
drical sticks, known as roll su lphur, or roll brimstone.
Th ese are formed by casting it in hollow wooden moulds,
so macle as to divide into two parts longitudinally.
Properties.-Sulphnr is a min eral of a bright yellow
color, nearly twice as heavy as water, in which it is quite
insoluble ; tasteless, and without smell when colcl, but
odorous when rubberl or warmecl: it is brittle, and a very
bad conductor of heat, so that, if a roll is grasped in the
warm haml, the outer part only becomes heated, and, increasing in size, is forced away from the inner portion, and
the mass breaks.
H eated · to a degree somewhat abov.c that of boiling
' water (232 d egrees Fahrenheitt) sulphur melts, forming an
orange-colored limpid fluid; if the heat is increased, its
color becomes a deep red, ancl it thickens to such an ex·

368

PLUMBAGO.

FIFTH STEP.-LESSON LXXX.

tent that the vessel may be quickly inverted witbout-i
being spilled; if in this state it is poured into· water;!\
forms an cl:"istic soft wlid, 'rltich, nfte1· n limo, beeomol
brittle. H eated to a Rtill high er degree, it becomes somo
what more fluid; aml if in a close vcRsel, it boils nwny.lo
vapor, which, hy a greater or less degree of cold, mnybo ..,·
condcnscll into a solitl or Jiquiil stale. llcnted in ' th~ · air; ,
it takes fire, burning 'rith n bluo flame, nnd producing a
very irritating, poisonous gns or vnpor. Sulpbut bu ·•
great di sposition to unite with mctnls; this may bo abowo
hy carrying a piece in the pocket with silver oolot,'Wh~ '
the formation of a black sull'hur et of silver rnpidlyi takee ~
place. Th e same result occurs if nn egg is cnten wi~h·· &
silver spoon, ns ·s ulphur is contained in the yolk.
Uses .-Tho nses of snlphm in the arts nro or" tho big~
<'~t im port:mrc. Th e mannfa ctnre of RO<fa from salt/ d '
ing and blenching, tho making of leather, gunpowder;
congrevc match es, arc but a fe w of those mnnufaota.nl
whi ch mainly depend on sulphur, or its compoun<lt;' ,.existence.
:A·
Tho ready inflammability of sulphur

aaa·

3()9

sionally used in destroying rats an cl vermin when they have
accumulated in ships and other close places.
Its fu sibility lends to its employment in taking casts
from medals, coins, and similar olijects, for which purpose
it is used in its most liq uicl state.
Flowers of sulphur, which are formed wh en the vapors
arising dming its distill ation arc allowed to condense in a
solid form, arc much used as a domestic medicine, ·and
enter also into the preparation of vermilion and other
chemical substances.
Oil of vitriol, or sulphuric acid, an exceedingly corrosive, poisonous liqnicl, is made by burning sulphur in
furnaces constructed for the purpose, the combustion being
assisted by the presence of other substances. Some idea
of Urn use of this acid in th~ arts nnd manufactures may be
g-aincd from t he fact tlwt 300,000 ton~ :we :mnnall y m:ide
in England, the value, at th e lowest computation, amount•
ing to several hundred thousan d pounds.
It is the most extensively used in the arts of all the
acids, and is an important branch of manufacture in chem·
ical works in Philad elphia, N ewark, N. J., Roxbury, Mass.,
and other parts of the country.
LESSON LXXXI.
PLUMBAGO.

Occurrence and Properties.-Plumbago, which is also
termed graphite, and black lend, occurs in many parts of
the world; large quantities arc found in Ceylon, the East
Indies, ancl several localities in the United States ; particu-

rn*

370

FIFTII STEP,-LESSON LXXXI.

CO.AL.

Iarly nt Sturbridge, Mass., Brnndon, Vt., Fishkill, an .
Ticonderoga, N. Y. In Englaml the most celebrated mine,"'"
was at Borrowclalc, in Cumberland, as much as 100,000l. • .
h av ing been realized from it in n year; but tho mine is · •
now closell. Plumbago is of n dark londcn color, hnving a
dull metallic appearance. To tho touch it is very smooth;
and when placed between rubbing eurfnccs, enables them
to glide easily over one another. It adheres to 1mbstl:ll}OCI
on which it is rnbbccl, staining them of a dark color. and
imparting its own pccnliar nppcnrnncc. It is, perfootlJ.
insoluble in water, and is quite infusible in the fire f,~a~; . .
heated strongly, and exposed to a current of nir, it alowl7
... .
;:;...
consnm es.
· · f•
Uses .-The purer varieties of plumbago nro en ,
used in the manufacture of blnc)c lead pencils, being Cl!t
by fin e saws into thin slips, which arc glued into groo
cut in cedar wood. A method . has also been devised .
pmifying the more gritty varieties, and conden~g U..
powd er into blocks, from whi ch slices arc cut that. •
good as the best original specim ens. Tho leads for pen
intended fo r the finest work, b efore being placed in

-

lead, antimony, and mercury.
of graphite p owder, mixed with

!~ ji ;
I~ !U
"
Ii

371

Finely powdered , it is frequ ently used inste:id of gr ease
to prevent the fri ction between rubbing surfaces ; h ence it
is not unfrcquently applied to wooden screws, &c., &c. It
is also a valuable material for crucibles and portable furnaces. It is sometimes adulterated with lampblack.

LESSON LXXXII.
COAL.

Coal is of two kind s, :mlhracite and uituminous; the
former being the most condensed :mcl the richest in carlJon . Coal may be cousidcred as a mineral, both from its
subterraneous situation and the qnalities which it possesses ; many circumstances, however, justify the n?w prevalent opinion t hat it is of vegetable origin : the following
arc, perhaps, the most convincing . Carbon, which is t he
chief constituent of all vegetable matter, particularly wood,
composes three-fourths of t his substance. Coal is also
fou nd in the various stages of mineralization. Sometimes
it p ossesses a completely fibrous texture an d lig neous
appearance, even the knots of wood b eing discernible,
while t he same bed produces specimen s of perfect mineral
coal. Some remarkabl e in stances of thi~ have been found
in the coal mines of Pennsylvania ; the roots of trees

~
.;

"[! I
.ii!

into moulds. Gum arabic ancl resin are sometimes used as
ingredients.
A large quantity of black lead is employed in polishing
cast iron work, particularly stoves and ranges, giving to
them a uniform color, and concealing any rust they may
have on the surface.

=

:3

'ti"

11,:

,11 :,

~'

I 'IIi
I

!

r

<O

11 .:

~I
!

•
372

COAL.

·FIFTH STEP.-LESSON LXXXII.

~

11

373

,,11
I

were imbedcled in fire eby, and forming the substnnce ' or'"
them (which generally und erli es the coal measures), while .
•
t •
the trunks passed into the anthracite beds, and almost im· , .
perceptibly from th ese into the bitumin ous coal. In some
instances the bark only was convcrtc<l into coal, while tho ·
woody textnre of the ii1tcrior " ·as still plainly to be seen •.',
In Ireland :i standing forest 11m1 been discovered nt·tho
depth of one hnnllrcd feet below tho Boil. ·To thi.a.we · ·
may add th e infhmmaLility of this enbstnnoo; the DW'llello
ons vcgetaLlo rc111ai11R and impressions thnt' aooom~7l' f ·
· and that it has n ever Leen discovoreu nbovo tho lb!• to
whi ch vegetation r eaches. These vegetable remnioa generally Ldong to extinct species, antl differ so much from
any liYin g species t hat th ey cannot always bo rcfcrrcd.evm
to the cbss to whi ch th ey Lelong.
Coal is of a ulack color, uright, antl frequently ir:rida6"
cent; the structu re is slaty; it occ urs always nmor~hOUJ
it is very combnstiLl c, a quality which few mµierala
. .1s tn k·en nro 1 ll.llUI
-- 11 od ~
sess. Th e places from " ·hence 1t
mines ) · they ab onnd in different. portions or'th~•d4'
.
especially in t.ho United State~, Englnnd, . nnd ~
and h ave contributed much to the wealth of these .oo
tries. Both the persons employed in tho. mines, IDC\ ·
v essels whici1 transport the coals, nro cnllod ~ ~
pbce where the t.r:ule is carried on, n coUien;. ttb1•.:.at0111f
to coal mines is generally through n nnrrow, perpe~
tunnel call ed a s!toft, up which the workmen and Oolla
drawn by machinery. The mines nt 'Vhitohavon, Ena.
arc flomo of the most cxtrnonlinnry in tho world( .
principal entrance is by an opening nt tho bottom of .a
.

through a long sloping passage which is hewn in the rock,
and leads to tho lowest vein or bed of coal ; tho descent is
chiefly through spacious galleries intersectin g each other,
formed by the cxc:wntion of tho coal, large pilla.rs of which
nro lea to snpport th e pond ero us root: Th ese min es arc
very deep, and arc extend ed und er the b od of the sea, even
to where the d epth of t he water is snfTicicntly great t o admit shi ps of burden. In these mines there arc three strata
of coal, which li e consid erably apart from one another, and
arc made to communi cate by pits. J\lincrs are froqncntly
impeded in th eir progress by ' 'Cins of hard rock called
dykes, and tho coal is seldom found in a direct lin o on tho
other side of t hem ; to ascertain its precise situation is
often a work of considerable labor and expense. Coal is
g enerall y situated at the foot of mountains, and in hollows,
whi ch vary much in extent; it rarely lies much above the
level of t he sea.
Several clan gors attend tho labor of miners; the greatest is that arising from fire damp, which is occasioned by
the hydrogen gas or inflammable air produced in t he mine,
ancl which, wh en mixed with atmospheric air, explodes
with great violence if bro ught into contact with any
lighted substance. To nvoicl this danger, safety lamps arc
used, whi ch were invcntcll hy Sir Humphrey Davy. They
arc of a ve ry sim ple constrnction, consiflting of wire gauze
so closely interwoven, that gas of suffi cient qnantity to c:rnso
ignition cnnnot enter them. Another clanger arises from
the formation of carb onic acid gas, or fi xccl ai r, which,
being heavier than the common air, occ upies the lower
part of the mines, and occasions death by suffocation.

iip.
d '1 I

ii:

'I'

I

.''1, ·1·'
"
1'

II

ti

~:

1••

1~,I

,. ,, I

1·

I ,,

r

~1 1

I.I /:
:,,

II

••

!

~

I·

.

II

·.·11
11

I

:

I

1

::11
,1,1

Ii
I

·!1li:11
'

J·

1

/;
.

I I

,,,'',.11I l'j l
i::f', Ii ,
I

'

,.

'

I

•

i

I

ii; I

I ' 1'
I i I

11l!

111

: 'I,."'

.11·. '11·

IfI .
'l1, I·, I

. hJ

1

1 11
I

i

1

,!

I

Ii
I'

Ii 1

l ill
111

~ 'I

I~

' I

'I

I

'I.

II

'· ij

'

. : ,:''.III

I"

I

::/ i/

:H
f' '
'1I1

I

·1·,

!:

:I'

I

l

,ffl
)iljl

.

~ilii

1111

I

•
374

l'IFTII

STEl'.-LESSON J ,XX:Xll r.

SALT.

Coal is used to raise tho temperature of rooms ; to cook
food; to supply the fuel for railway locomotives, ocean : •. '
steamers, manufactorics (particularly where steam is re·
quired), and in the working of metals. Bituminous coal
furnishes us with the gas so much used, which is the substance called hydrogen, aml exists in coal ill ·utiion with
carbon ; it is easily driven away or volntilizell by heatillg
the coal in a close place, and when caught nnd preserved,
it forms the gas now used to light our streets and buildings; when this has been extracted from tbo coal, the·
residue is called coke, which is employed whore intense ·
heat is requisite.
' "t..t
Coal tar is also produced in the evolution of gas, nnd
was for a long time considered useless. It is now used to '
protect iron work exposed. to the weather, nnd by distiJ.lao
tion it yields parnffine, which is made into candles, and alto
,.
the coal oil which we nsc in lamps.
•

.

•

SALINE l\IIKERALS.
LESSON LXXXIII.
SALT.

pccnliar fl::wor call ed saline.
Yision of nature that salt-the only mineral eubstanc• •'
quired as n11 nrti clc of food by man and the higher ·ord
of the nnimal kin gdo m-is almost everywhere 111c0"etlillll*
There are several yarictics of this useful mineral,' W

3i5

are distinguished by the different situations in which they
are found . The principal arc sea salt, called also bay salt,
which is produced from the ocean; the best comes from
Portugal; salt drawn from brine springs; and i·oclc salt,
which is dug out of the earth. Amongst the most extensive salt mines hitherto discovered arc those at ""\Vieliczkn, a
picturesque little town situated on the sides of a gentle
valley, about eight miles from Cracow, formerly the chief
city of Poland. The traveller who visits these subterraneans deposits of f.lalt, being furnished with a guide and
two lamp bearers, is let down a shaft of about 150 feet by
a rope. At the depth of 90 feet he arrives at the rock of
riurc salt, which is of a diniry soot color, here and there
glistening by the light of the lamps. The swing is now
abandoned, and the ear is assailed by the busy sound of
spades, mattocks, and wheelbarrows, in every direction.
This is the first jlooi· .of a large cavern, containing in dit~
fcrent parts a stable for twenty horses, quantities of salt,
some in bare masses, some in casks ready to be hoisted to
the sn rfacc, stores of implements for the min ers, &c. This
excavation is about 100 feet long and 80 broad (b esides
the stable), and abont 20 feet high. From hen ce a long
gall ery, 12 feet high by 8 broad, leads toward the interior
of the mine, where lateral avenu es branch off in various
direct.ion s, ca.eh namccl a~cr some Anstrian prince or princess, and r esembling more in appearance the aven ues of a
snbterraneous palace than the passages of a mine. A
flight of st.eps conducts down another hundred feet to the
second floor j in this descent the bed of salt is interrupted by a narrow stratum of pure clay; sometimes by a

376

FIFTll STEP.-LESSON LXXXlll.

SALT.

...
mixture of salt an cl the same earth; these strata are,· in" ·

377

'-:

places, very curiously curved, as though a rolling wave had \· ..
been arrested in its course, and preserved in its original ·
form. The miners arc here found at work, some hewing ·\
pillars of salt from the rock, some cntting them into mass· ··' ·
.
. tiie masses m
. ''l
es for home consnmpt1011,
am1 some stowmg
barrels for exportation. Tho cavern on this floor is rather
smaller than the first; it consists of one spacious pall, and"
has no pillar to support the roof.
Proceeding on his subtcrrnnc:m journey, tho tmvollo~·'~
arrives at a wooden platform, from whence be looks down
upon an abyss, which the simple lights of the condtic.t'Ors•
fail to illuminate, though the, spars of the mineral 'rcft~(lt;:
ing the rays of light prod nee a novel and beautiful' effect; ,.
\Vhcn princes or other grc:1J. personages visit the mines, ii•
chandelier of crystal salt, hang ing in the centre, is fur-1!
nishccl with 150 lights, which display a stupendous cavern,
haYing the nppcarancc of a cnslle in ruins; at tho bottom
arc some rows of scats, rising like the benches of n theatre; ~
opposite to these is an orchestra: here, on such occasioni,
a small band pbys a few airs of slow and simple mu~0; ·
which has a most si11gular effect, and harmonizes well with "
the surrounding scene. Long galleries nncl flights of stell'-t'
all spacious enough to allow free course to tho fresh: al t ~
lead deeper and deeper in the saline rock; tho socnoJ no'i
and then is varied by a cavern full of workmen, and some
along the galleries, wheeling their little carts full of salt;.·
each with its lamp in front. On the fourth floor there ·la
a little subterrancous lake, about 80 feet long and 40 brqiadj
over which illustrious personages are ferried on rafta ~

fir logs, lighted by numerous flambeaux. Here terminates
the becl of g1·een salt, the most common Aort, ancl easiest
to Le cut. The next to it is called spicci ;alt, which is
harder and more close grained, and next succeeds a white
and finer-grained variety. This part of the mine is 700
feet below the surface of the earth ; 300 feet ben eath this
li es the finest crystal salt, which is reached by long flights
of steps a_nd inclined planes. The cavern in which it is
found is sufficiently spacious for a regiment, of soldiers to
perform their manmuvrcs in it. This is the deepest part
of the mine: the air is quite pure; rather cooler than that
of the open day, but much warmer than it is about halfway down. The return is through a diff~rcnt series of
corridors and caverns. On the third floor is a simple tomb
of salt, with the name of the late Emperor of Austria.
inscribed with letters of wood neatly gilt. On the second
floor is a large saloon with all the implements of mining,
and the mode of letting them down with men and horses
exhibited in transparency. On the first is a chapel presenting an altar, statue of the Virgin, crucifix, and figures of
Casimir I and his wife, all cut out of the solid salt · b efore
. '
the chapel is a small pulpit in the Gothic style. To visit
the whole of this extraordinary and extensive mine, with
all its galleries and caverns, no less a distance than 300
miles must be traversed.
The salt used in the United States is chi efly obtained
from salt brine springs. The principal springs are at Syracuse, N. Y., in "\V es tern Virg inia, and P ennsylvania, in
Michigan, ancl the States bordering on the Ohio river. The
most productive springs are about Onondaga Lake, at Syra-

3'18

FIFTH STEP •..,-LESSON LXXX.III.

SODA,

cuse. To obtain this, wells are bored or sunk in the low .
Janus about the lake, to various depths, from 200 to 800 -.
feet; and from these salt water is pumped up into reservoirs, from which tho evaporating works arc supplied. · It
is allowed to remain in these reservoirs until some of its '
impurities, particularly tho oxide of iron, are deposited.
To hasten this they put in a little alum, or clay, or heat
the brine. About one eighth of tho whole B:llt product is
separated by solar evaporation, and seven eighths by boil·
ing. Tho great reservoirs for tho former process cover· an
area of 700 acres. They aro divided into tanks of about
1G by 18 feet each, ancl 6 inches deep. These are provided.
· with covers, or movable sheds, which arc romoveu in
pleasant weather. About fifty bushels of coarse salt, such
as is useu for packing and curing provisions, may bo mado ..;
::mnnally in one of those tanks. Seventy pounds is called~ ~--'!:
a bushel of solar salt. Of tho boiled salt, fifty-six potinda
or five of these bushels make a barrel.
· • .-::, {
The boiling is conducted in large iron kettles, contaiil.f
ing about one hundred gallons, and set in "blocki'tt -/;e ·
brickwork, close together, either in a single line, or i ·
parallel rows, tho whole length of tho block. A ' do~ble block may contain eighty kettles, and may inli~o •froifi:
20,000 to · 25,000 bushels a year. To make fort7~fivtt,
bushols of salt requires a conl of hard wood or a ton•ot
coal. There are here 312 blocks, containing 161434 kottle1, '
and capable of making 12,480,000 bushels of snit yOD.tlJi ·
Just before tho suit begins to crystallize, tho sulphate ' O
lime separates, and is caught in a pan nt tho bottom ol · ~·
kettle. It is further purifieu and mo.do pcrfocUy·ilf~
_., .
1

t"°

379

when it is scooped into a basket, drained back into the
kettle, and put into bins, where it is allowed to drain for
two weeks. It is then barrelled for sale. The cost of man·
ufacture is about one dollar per barrel.
The conservative properties of salt render it invaluable
for 110usehold purposes, and for preserving meat during
voyages; and its stimulating properties give a relish to
~ood and help digestion. When fused, it is used in glaz- .
mg pottery; it improves tho whiteness and clearness of
glass, and gives hardness to soap; it is used by the dyer in
fixing colors ; also, sometimes as a manure.
It was employed in all tho J owish ceremonies, being
emblematical of purity and incorruptibility. Our blessed
Lord calls his disciples the salt of the earth; thereby sirrnifying to them that having, by divine grace, their :wn
110arts purified, they are to exercise by precept and example a purifying influence on the hearts of others.
LESSON LXXXIV.
SODA.

Maniifacttl1'e.-Until within the last few years, soda
was obtained from a substance termed kelp, formed of the
ashes of burned seaweeds. In Scotland alone, twenty-five
thousand tons of kelp were annually produc~d. At the
present time soda is prepared by fusing the native peroxide
of tin with caustic soda in an iron crucible.
Properties.-Soda, in its ordinary state, is in the form
of large crystals, more or less perfect. These ar.e transparent and colorless, containing more than half tl1ofr weight

•,
I. •

I

I

I·l . l
<:' ":'.

~ :I

/.l

1.I.

380

of water.

FIFTH STEP.-LESSON LXXXIV.

Exposed to a dry air, the water flies off, leav·

If the crystals
are heated, the soda dissolves in the water they contain,
and the whole becomes liquid; on increasing the heat, the
water evaporates, and at last Llw Jry tiuua remaius only
as a white powdP.r, without any trace of a cl'ystalline form.
Soda is vol'y soluble in watel', its taste is alkaline and
unpleas:mt. It has considerable cleansing properties, as it
renders grease aud dirt soluble in hot watel', and so enables them to be removed by wa~hing. This po1vet· m:iy
be much increased by adding qnickli_me to soda, when tho
latter is r ernle reu causLic. This mixLuro lias 'Leen some·
t.imes cmp1oyct1 for 1rnshing clothe~, lrnt it is far too corro·
sive to be used with safety, destroy ing the texture of the
linen , &c.
Uses.-The employment of soda in domestic economy
depends on its cleansing properties. It is us~<l. to .assist
the action of soap in washing clothes, paint, wood, &c. In
the chemical arts, such as making glass, soap, &c., it is of
the very highest importa nce ; it abo forms, in combination
with othor substances, many Yaluablc medicines.

ing the soda as an opaque, white powder.

l\

·~

. MANUFACTURED ARTICLES. ·,,,
LESSON LXXXV.
PORCELAIN.

Clay anc1 flint are the chief ingredients of porcelain.

The first gives the plasticity ancl tenacity requisite for the
moulding it into a shape; the l:lttcr rcm1crs it hard, and·
allows of n slight degree of vitrification.

Tlic following

is the usual process carried on in tho E ;1glish manufacto·
rics of china. Fliuts are ii.rs~ calcineJ, thou wixccl in cer·
tai11 proportions with Cornish granite,* and' gro~111cl to a
very flue pow clcr; water is poured upon tliis m ixture, :111cl
it is twice strainerl th rough silken sieves.
It is then
boiled till it is of the consistency of cream, and the watery
particles being evaporated, it becomes a \on;;h paste. A
portion of this substance is then placed upon a turning
wheel, and moulded by the hand with a precision and rapiJity \\ lii0h practi0c only can give. V cssels of a circular
ski.pc :<re fanned in this manner, as bowls, plates, c1111s, and
saucers; 11tensils of other forms arc made in mo11lrls of

!

gypsum, the pores of 1rhich absorbing tho moisture of tho

il

clny, the vessels aro. contrncted in sizo, nnd in eonseqncnco

I 1,1

m:i.y be e:i.sily loosened from tho rnonlrl. E:ich Ycssd thus
formed is placcc1 i11 a, separate cb.y case. Tlie fnrnnce is
filled with these, and then bricked closely up, and t hey are
subjected to a red heat for sixty hours. The temperaturo

I !/I
l111!/I

! i/1

.I

" lt is to the large proportion of fclspar in a stale of decomposition

11

that Cornish gmnito owes the preference which i9 given to it.

. !11
111
Ill
I 1~
11'
111IJ

II

•',

~

;~ fl ,. '

..•'
~

,,

3S'.!

KEEllT.Eg,

F ! FTI! ST l·:r . - u:;.:so'i J,XXX 1· 1.

is then grauually lowered, anu the porcelain is withdrawn i
in tLis state it is callcu biscuit, and is wl1i te, Juli, and poi:ous. This process greatly diminishes the size of the vessels; and it fits them to receive the blue color, called
cobalt,* which has the appearance of a dirty gray till
glazed. The ulazing consists of lead and glass, ground to
an impalpable powder, mixed in water with some other
ingredients, which arc kept secret. The biscuit is merely
· dipped into the glazing, and is then baked again for forty
hours. It is now ready to receive other colors, and the
gilding which the pattern may require. It is baked a third
time for ten hours or more. Lastly, the gilding is burnished with bloollstonc or agate, and the china is rca<ly for
the ioareroom. The colors arc change d by baking, appearing very different when first lai<l on than when they havo
been subjected to heat. Comparatively little of this ware
is manufactured- in the United States.

Fi ve or six thonsnncl of th ese lengths arc made into a
bulllll c, kept together Ly a ri11g of steel at each c1H1 ;
they arc then heated to redness in a fornac e, and aftcr11ard IaiJ upon a :flat iron pbt~, ancl rnlibecl backw an1
and forward with a steel bar, until each wire is perfectly
straight.
The next stage is to grind a point at each cn<l of the
wire. Tliis is done by the aid of a grindstone about eighteen inches in diameter and four inches thick· they arc ..
.
'
made to revolve so rapidly that they are liable to fly into
pieces, and are therefore partially enclosed in iron plates to
avoid injury to the grinder, should such an accident occur.

.

LESSON J,XXXVI.

Maniifaeture.-The material from which needles are
made is soft steel wire of the requisite degree of fineness.
This is obtained by the manufactnret; in large coils, each
containing suffi cient wire to form several thousand ncedleP..
Th ese coils :ire first cut up into pieces of the length required to make two needles, usually about three inches,
large shears being used capable of cutting a coil of ono
hundred wires.
• Col.Jalt is an oxillc of the metal of t.hat nnmc.

..
. '·
··
·
·

'l'he grinder takes from fifty to sixty wires. between the
thumb and forefinger of his right hand; and as he presses
them against the stone, he causes all the wires to roll
round, and thus each is ground to a point. So expert do
the grinders become by practice, that they point a handful
of these wires, usually about sixty, in half a minute, or
about seven thousand in an hour. During the g rinding
every wire gives out a stream of .:parks, and th ese together form a bright glare of light.
P ointing these wires is the most unhealthy part of the
manufacture; the fin e dust is carried into .t he luugs of tho
workmen, and d estroys them in a few years, v ery few living
beyond the age of forty.
W ct grindstones cannot be used, as the points of tho
needles would be rapidly rusted.
The wires thus pointed at each encl are stamped by a.
heavy hammer, raised by a lever moved by the 'vorkman's
foot. The under surface of this hammer is so formed,

~·" I· ·~

-r

I 'I'

j :: iI
384

NAILS.

. FIFTlI STll:P.-LESSON LllXVl.

that when it fall" on tlw wire midway between the twoends, it stamps on one side the gutters or grooves in .which ,
the eye is afterward made ; :md tho nnvil on which tho
wire rests when tho hammer strikes it forms tho ·two
arooves on the . opposite side. This stamping also makes
b
a slight depression or pit on each . sido at the spot in·
tended for the eye:
The wires aro then passed to a boy, who takes a num· ·~ ;ll.
ber of them in his left hand, while with his · right •ho . .·'
works a press moving two hard steel .points or. piercera." ;' .• ~·
These come down upon the wire ns it is plaeed ;bene~th .~
them, and pierce the eyes for tho two needles. . Ea9h ~
wire now resembles two rough, unpolished needles, uni·
ted together by their heads ; and as it would require much
trouble to divide them separately into two needles, a DU?l• ·'
b er are threaded upon two very thin wires, and are sepae~ ·.
rated by filing and bending.
Any needles which may haYo b~? en bent in
processes are straightened by rollin g under a steel bar; aD
arc hardened by heating in n furn ace and suddenly coolecl ·
in cold wntcr or oil. Aft0r hardening they are tempered ··"·
by beinO'
sliO'htly
hented, :mu, if any aro bent during hard• • '~
0
0
ening, they arc straightened by being hammered on anvils : ~
with small hammers; :finally, the whole aro polished, by
laying twenty or thirty thousand sid e by side upon a piece
of thick canvas, smearing them with oil ancl emery, rolling .
up the cnnvas, and rubbing them under a press for sevel'l'l;
hours or even dnys.
Drilled-eyed needles unllcrgo another operatio .. ,
fine drill is made to revolve rapidly in tho eye

·

385

to tnkc off the rough edge ancl prevent their cutting the
thread when used; linally, . the points arc .finished on a
revolving hone and polished on n wheel covered with
leather, and cncloseu in a paper for sale.
Simple as tho construction of a needle may appear,
the steel which forms it has to pass through the hands of
one hundred and twenty workmen from the time it leaves
the iron mine until its manufacture is completed.
The manufacture of needles is now carried on to a
great extent in many villages in England, but principally
at Redditch, nbout fourteen miles from Birmingham, and
from this obscure place a large portion of Europe, the
British Colonies, ~nd the United States are supplied.

LESSON LXXXVII. .
NAILS .

Manufacture and Varieties.-Thrce distinct kinds of
nails, adapted to various uses, are manufactured in this
country. It is stated that of these kinds there arc three
hundred different varieties, each variety being formed, on
an average, of ten sizes.
The three kinds are, wrought nails, cast nails, and cut
or punched nails.
Wrought nails are made of sheet iron, which is cut by
machinery into rods of various thicknesses, according to
the size of the nails required. The persons who convert
these rods into nails are called nailers, and men, women,
and even children follow the pursuit, each perso~1 usually
making one form of nail only, and by so doing acquiring

17
•"

'

:

'.~

1 1fii

H~. i
II ~ -:....~·.:·
i 1 Iii .:~
1
1t

I

~,

1

111
111

I II
Ii

!,~
11

:

386

KNIVES.

FIFTH STEP.-LESSON LXXXVII.

a remarkable degree of skill and rapidity in its pro·
duction.
The first process in making th ese nails i8 to heat in a
forge one end of the nail rod to redness ; it is then hammered to a point, and the required length cut off with a
0 bisel. If the nails are large, the rod is immediately returned to the forge, but if of moderate size, two nails are
made at one heating. During the time the rod is being
·reheated, the nailer forms the heads of those cut of1~ by
hammering them, while still reel hot, iuto ihc hole of a
steel instrnment, used for the purpose, calle<l a bore, this
hole being the shape of the head.
The nailers become so expert by long·.practiee, that one
man has been known to m:ike sc:Ycntl•e n tlionsnnll nail8 iu
n, week without assistance.
To do this won1<1 reqnire
more than h alf a million blows of the l1amm cr. The
mmal number made by each nailer is aLout six: thousand
weekly.
The r1iifcr rnt sorts of n1il s :ur n1m r1l cit.li er from tho
11sr. to \Yhi ch they ::ire :ipp1ierl , 01· frnm their i;hape: as - -

shingle, floor, ship carventers', lwfocslwc, rose h c::ids, diar7---monds, sprigs, brad3, :-in1l ~p ikes . 8 1wigs :-iro :1 small, sharp,
taper nail , without heads, used by shocrn~1kers. l3rn<1s nro ~nails with tho head on ouo side, and arc used for nuifi.11g
floors and ceilings. V cry large n:iils arc called spikes. Rose nails have a broad, spreading, circufar head, nnd are
made of various degrees of strength, and for various
uses.
Horseshoe nails arc thin and fiat on the sides.
arc made of the very purest aml toughest

·' i' • •

.....
:~\' . (:• •,· :rsij,.
;,

' ·.·:· ..

..

having been used, the o1cl iron ·is in considerable cleniaud
for making gun barrels.
Tacks arc a useful fht-headccl nail, aclaptccl for nailing
down carpets, &c. They arc usually small, and arc frequently tinned over by boiling them in a solution of tin
and sal ammoniac, to prevent their rusting.
Cast nails are adapted only for coarse purposes, as for
garden walls, nailing up lathir~g for phsterers, &c. They
are rough, and have the <lisadYantagc of being much more
brittle th:in wrought nails.
Cut nails are usually punched out of sheet iron, the
most common form b eing the sp::irablcs, or sparrow Lill :>
-so c::illccl from their rescmbbncc to the beak of that Li rd
-1 ncl lJr:-t<ls, which haYe a slight projecting head on one
side.
The employment of nails in connecting various substances, and the nscs of the several parts, as the point, tho
shank, nncl th e head , nre too obvions to require description.

LESSO"N" J,XXXYIU.
KC\'I\TS.

Mam(facture .-Knins, or cutting instruments of va·
rious kinds, have been usccl by men, from tl1e ca rli e .~t age~,
for the purposes of war, ancl for slaughtering animal s, cutting food and other substances. In ancient times, as at th e
present day among some barbarous nations, shells, sharpedgccl flints, ancl other hard stones were employed; at n,
later period cutting as well as warlike in struments were
formed of hrnss or bronze, but at the iwescnt time, in all

1

•

·'

''

.

·~\I'

388

FIFTH STEP.-LESSON LXXXVIII.

SCISSOR.'!. ·

',.'\\:.. .. >_..
•.

civilized nations, they are formed exclusively of steel or;,;~~-~
Hon.

LESSON l ,XXXIX.

Cinf'p k niv es-~o cnl lcd · from tho bl:ulo shutting into ~---""""""""9

th e h nrHll c-consist of four <lisliBct parts, \'i z., tho blade1 •
the spring , the iron sides, and tho scales, or omamcn~al
outsides.
P enknife blades, which onght to be made from tho best
cast steel, arc forged with a small hammer, from 't~e end
of a steel rod heated to redness, and arc cut off witbtisufl.l•',
cient metal attached to form the joint ; tho blade ia then >
·'
held in a pair of tongs, and heated a second time, when'tho
part forming the j oint is finish eel; tho notch called th; nnii ·
hole, usecl in opening tho blad e, is also made by striking
with a chisel of the r equired shape; tho maker's name ia I
at the same time impressed by pnnching. The blades are
th en hardened by h eating them t o r edness and dipping the '•
cutting p:ut in water, and th ey arc afterward tempered, to ·
prevent their being too brittle. Th e spring and iron sides •
of the knife are forged by hand . . The scales, ns th~y are
t ermed, whether formed of ivory, bone, wood, or mother.
of pearl, arc fitted to the sides, and drilled with holes for'
the riv ets ; these arc put in aml tightened by hammering;" ·
~
after tho various parts arc exactly fitted to each oth~r b;r ·
tt1-.•
filin g.
'\

.

The sides and hack of tho handle are
scraped, and polished on a revolving wheel covered ·~ith
leather ; lastly, the hlado is ground nnd polished read>i' •
for use.
.'~ ,

..

·SCISSORS.

11fctniifacturc.-Scissors are forged from bar steel, heated to r edness, each blade being cut off with sufficient metal
to form the shank and bow; for th e latter a small hole is
~un ch ed; this h ole is afterward stretched to the r equired
size by hammering it on a conical anvil; the shank and
bow are then fil ed into a more perfect shape, and the hole
bored for the rivet; the blade is next ground, and the
handles_ filed smooth a nd burnished with oil and emery;
after tins, the blades arc screwed or riveted together, and
fi tted, so as to work pl easantly over one another. The
screw or rivet is then r emoYcd, and the two blades, .bound
~losely togeth er with fin e iron wire to prevent their warpmg, arc heated t o redn ess, hard ened by sudden cooling,
and tempered. After this th e wire is r emoved, the blades
are again ground and adjusted, so as to bring the edges to
a perfect state ; they arc then polished by emery and oil,

ground for the third tim e, put together, and the edges
whetted, wh en they are r eady for use, although some of
the more costly kinds . unde rgo the additional process of
burnishing, by rubbing with polished steel tools, which is
clone by women.

Uses.-The use of scissors does not require any detailed description; it may be noticed, however, that the
edges of the blades are not sharply ground like those of
knives, and that in cutting they crush or bruise more than
that instrument. This does not interfere with their use

.I

! .

:I•·, ..'·

..

390

FIFTH STEP.-LESSON XC.

in cutting thin articles, as paper or cloth, but it prevents ·
their ueing usefully employed in dividing thicker sub· ·.::.;;;;= ...:
stances.

LESSON XCI.
ZINC.

LESSON XC.
STEEL PE:'.'<S.

11.faniifacture.-Stecl pens, which nre
tured at Birmingham, Englancl, nre mndo from -tho best
steel, which is first rolled into narrow strips of the reqajred
width a11d thickness ; these arc then cleaned by the notion .·~,
of some dilntc acid, and cut by means of a punch worked ~
by- a screw press, into flat blank pieces of the requisite
size · t he hole in the centre is then made, and tho make1·'s "
'
.
name stamped on each pen; after which, tho hlank ·is ' ·
curved into a nib, or a cylinder if a barrel pen is rcq11ired;
Up to this stage the steel has been worked in a so~ stnto; ·
the pens arc now· harclcnccl by hci;ig heated and cooled
suddenly by immersion in oil; afterward they arc tempered
to the r equired d egree of elasticity, polished by being
placed with fine sand or some other polishing material 1n · --~
a revolving cask, aIH1 the nib g rornlll to n. fine point on a - i" ·
grindstone, or emery wh eel ; aft.er this, tho slit i1:1 r.ut by a
c111scl workcu by a screw pres;:, aml the pens maclo 'rcndy ·
for sale by being colored and varnishc<l. Tho manufacture :
is chiefly carried on by women, men being employed .only,H
to repair the ·tools. It is estimated that 1,000,000,000 J'Cn•
arc manufactureu at Birmingham m11rnally. Tho princip ,
demand for steel pens in tho United States, and ~
countries of Europe is supplied from this source.
;':.~{;
w

·

7

Occurrcnce.-Zinc is not fouu<l m a native state. The
ores from which it is extracted arc of two kinds. In one,
which is termed blende, or, by the miners, black jack, it is
combined with sulphur. This ore occurs in tolerable abundance distributed amongst other ores, particularly those of
lead, in Cornwall, Derbyshire, and in the north of England.
The other, which is the mineral known as calamine, is by
far the more valuable ore; it i8 found in the l\fendip Hills,
and also in Flintshire, Derbyshire, &c., England.
Preparation.-Zinc is obtaineJ from its ores by first
heating them to r edness in an open furnace. This operation drives off the sulphur from the. blcncle, and some
gases from the calamine. The roasted ore is then mixed
with coke or charcoal, and pnt into large earthen pots re-·
scmbling oil j ars in form; these are placed in a circular
furna ce, ancl from the bottom of each pot a large iron
tnbc passes throngh the floor of the furn ace into a vessel
of cold water. 'Vh cn the jars arc heated to r ed ness, the
metal is reduced to the metallic state, and, b eing volatile,
flies off in vapor, which, passing by the iron tube into tho
water, is condensed into a solid form. The metal so obtained is remelted, when the impnrities are skimmed from
the surface, and it is then cast into bars for use.
Properties.-Zinc is a bluish-white metal, possessing a
high lustre when polished, and tarnishing slowly on the
surface when exposed to the air. The thin coat of rust

392

so formed appears to protect t.he metal beneath from any
farth er change. Zin c is about seven times heavier than
water.
As obtain ed by casting, it is brittle, and on being
broken shows a crystalline frnctnrc, but heated to n de.g reo
somewhat above that of boiling water, it becomes malleable, ancl may be rolled into sheets, which retain their' inn!·
leability when colcl ; the sheet zinc so obtained is flexible;
and possesses some degree of elasticity. IIcatcd to big~ · · ·
d egree, but still short of the }Joint at which it melt's, zinc ' ' '·
b ecomes brittle, and may b e powdered.
··". { '· ·..

a

It melts b elow a reel h eat, requiring a higher te~pcr· ..
ature "than tin or lead; at a bright red b eat, in ~ c~v~·rcd ·
vessel, it b oils rapidly, passin g away in vapor; but if the ·
air is admitted, by uncovering th e vessel, it takes fire and .
burns .\vith a splendid greenish flan1e.
· '• ·

~inc

p ossesses a very consiclerabl c degree of Jmrdne~ · ·._
cons1clcrably greater than that of any of tho common· .
metals except copper and iron.
Uses.-Zinc b eing only snpcrficially actccl on by nir . '
and water, and b eing much lighter than lead, h~ to' ;.~!
great extent, snpcrsccl cd t hat mct[11 fo r such purposes · ns
/
gutters, rain-water pipes, &c. Its irghtncss and cheapness
has also led t o its employment as a covering for roofs,
and it is much employed in making baths, cans, nnd othe.r ..
utensils for holding water. It is not usually employed in •
lining cisterns, as it is apt to impai·t an unpleasant flavor to "
~ew~~
·
'

1
·

·

I ts hardness enables it to be used for making
dividing blocks of salt; nncl as it does

· ~~3

BR ASS.

l'IFTII STEP.-LESSON X CI.

ferab le to iron for that purpose. I t is also used inst ead of
lilhog raplii c stone in prodncin g prints, which are t erme d
zincographs. lts lustre has led to ils employ ment instead
of brass for name plat es on doors, &c.
Th e slow action of air and 1~oisture on zinc has also led
t o its employment as a covering t o sh eet iron, for protectin g th e latter from the acti on of th e weath er. The iron so
protected is known as galvanized iron. It is made by a
similar process t o that used in making tinn ed })late, the
iron good s being first cleaned by an acid, and dipped in a
bath of the melted metal.
'
Sheet zin c, perforated with holes, admitting the passage
of light and air, is used largely in th e pl ace of wire - gauze
. for window blinds, meat safes, and other purposes.
Preparations of zinc are now largely used in house
painting , as substitutes for white lead ; and, although they
do not mak e as opaque a paint as that substance, th ey
possess th e advantag es of b eing cheaper, uninjurious to
th e workm en, and are less liabl e to become discolored.
A very large quantity of zinc is annually consumed m
th e galvanic batteries r equired in working the electric
telegraph.
The only alloy into tho composition of which zinc enters
largely is brass. (See Brass.)

LESSON XCII.
BRASS .

.Oomposition.-Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc,
various proportions of the metals b eing employed in order

.

·.,--

394

Fll?Tll STEP.-LESSON

xcru.

to obtain different degrees of hardness a~d color in ,tho
resulting componnd. The best proportions for common .
brass are about two parts of copper to ono part of zinc.
Formerly brass was maclc by heating copper with calamine
(the ore of zinc) and charcoal, but it is no}V formed by
molting togethci· tho two metals; it is then cast.. in~o
plates, which arc either broken up for recasting into.·nny •
! .. 'j. ~;
desired form, or rollecl into sheets.
Properties.-Common brass is very malleable, and dup-_·
tile when cold. It is melted more easily than copper~ and . •. _
readily cast into any required form. It admits of a very · ·
high polish, an cl does not tarnish 01· rust on exposure to ....
the air, and although sufficiently soft to' yield without diffi·
culty to the files and other tools of the workmen, is durable
in wear.
Uses.-From its malleability, ready fusibility, and due·
tility, brass is so easily worked that it is employed to an
immense extent in the manufacture of machinet;y, wheels
for clocks and watches, and for articles of domestic use, as
• candlesticks, pins, buttons, door handles, &c.
LESSON XCIII.
PINS.

.llfaniifacture.-Tho making of })ins is, from their ex·
tensive use, a very important article of manufacture. Two
rnanufactories in Connecticut, located at Birmingham and
"\Vaterbury, pr9dnce about eight tons of pins a week.
They make their own brass and wire, for which they re·
quire a ton of copper daily ; this they obtain exclusively

395

PINS.

from Lake Superior. In ·England, for home use an cl exportation, upward of fifteen millions are made daily. The
old method of manufacture furnishes a ;emarkable instance
of the division of labor, fourteen persons b eing engaged on
each pin, without including those who formed the wire
from which it was made.
This method of making pins may be briefly described
as follows :-Brass wire of the required size was cleaned
by soaking it in water, rendered acid by oil of vitriol or·
sulphuric acid; it was then straightened and cut into short
lengths, each being sufficient for four or six pins ; these
pieces were pointed at each end ,by grinding on two small
broad wheels, the first useil beihg made of steel, and cut
like a file; the second a fine grit stone; the grinder would
take from fifty to eighty pin wires in his hands, and,
spreading them out flatly, apply them first to the revolving
file, and afterward to the stone to polish them, rolling the
wires during the whole time between his hands, so as to
bring them to rounded points at the ends ; from the wires
thus pointed one pin's length was cut off at each end;
they were then pointed again, and two more pins' lengths
cut off, and finally they were pointed and divided in the
centre; tho stems of the pins were thus complete, and the
next step was to form the head ; this was effected by winding, in a lathe, some soft small brass wire in a close spiral,
around a piece of steel wire, the same size as the pins ; this
steel wire having been withdrawn, the coils were cut up
into short pieces of two or two and a half turns each, when
they are ready to fix on the stems ; this was done by tho
wmker, usually a boy or girl, who would take up several

•

396

FUT!l

STm'.-LESSO~

PEWTER.

XC.:111.

of the headless pins, and plunge them into the heads, which
are contained either in a bowl or in his apron ; the wires in
this way wonld each catch a head, or sometimes more than
one; the superfluous ones, if :my, were pulled off, and the
pins placed one at a time, points downward, in a small steel
die, and a heavy iron bar, raised by a treadle movccl by tho
foot, was allowed to fall on each, striking the top of tho
pin, and thus moulding or fastening on the head ; the pin was then removed from the dio and another operated · .
upon; quick workers coukl head fifteen hundred J:ins ll_!l. ;_:
>• ft.
hour, and from twelve to fifteen thousand a day.
The pins were cleaned by boiling them in an acid liquor,
snch as sour beer or wine lees, and were tinned by boiling
in a solution of tin; after this, they were polished by being
shaken in bags partly filled with bran, which was afterward
separated by winnowing, leaving the pins dry, clean, and
ready for papering. The paper in which pins were stuck ·
for sale was folded by a crimping iron, and the folds were
placed between the jaws of an iron vice, across which
grooves are fixed as a guide ; the paperer passed a horn
comb into a heap of pins in her lap, catching up a number
by the heads ; these were thrust through the folds of the
paper, one in each groove. The im1lrovements introduced
into the manufacture by American inventors have entirely
changed its character and led to a more rapid production
of pins, and at a much less cost of labor. The machinery
for sticking pins saves much time and labor. · The only
attention the machine requires is to supply it with paper
and pins.
Solid-headed pins are made of a single piece . of wire;
• ;.,• t

307

the heads being pressed by the aid of machinery. ·The
pins so made are more elegant, and the heads cannot come
oif; but they bend easily, as thi3 mode of manufacture
necessitates the use of a softer wire than for the common
kinds.

LESSON XCIV.
PEWTER.

Gomposition.-Pewtcr is an alloy, the composition of
which varie~ according to the purposes for '~hich it is required. Its base is always tin, to which is added, for the
inferior kinds, about one quarter of its weight of lead; this
latter metal, however, is not used in making the best pewter, which consists of tin with very small proportions of
antimony and copper.
Properties.-Pewter is soft, flexible, but inelastic; capable of being bent to a considerable extent, ancl again
straightened, without cracking. It is of a whitish color,
with a very considerable degree of brilliancy, and, although it becomes dull, it does not readily tarnish when
exposed to air or moisture. It is very fusible, and may be
readily cast in any desired form.
Uses.-Formerly pewter was in almost universal use
for plates and dishes, but it has gradually been displaced
by the great cheapness of pottery ware. It is still employed for beer and other measures which are exposed to
violence, as it is not liable to crack, and if pressed out of
slrnpe, can be restored by beating on a mould. Its softness
also allows the engraving of names and addresses without
much labor, and, therefore, cheaply.

.

~:Iii
- --· -··- -.-... - ,.. -.-_..._._,__.i.:=
- ~·-'-'

·~·-'"';'~-~- .... -r.~-,,.....,= z.. ..
I

I

.

"

•
398

·v

FIFTH STEP.-LESSON XCIV.

-~'~.

'

.

. ~:[,, ...

i.
.j
i

Britannia metal may be regarded as a harder and superior kind of pewter, containing a larger proportion of anti·
mony. The best consists of ninety parts of tin, ten of
.antimony, and one and a half of copper. Like pewter, it is
readily cast into moulds or rolled into sheets; it is ~mffi·
ciently soft to be stamped with cast iron; or even hard
brass dies ; it is also capable of being turnJd in a. lathe, ·
and fluted or moulded by pre::isure; hence it is extensively
employed in making spoons, teapots, pitchers, and · other ~.
domestic articles. The superior kinds a.re often plated .
,, "'~ \ ~
l el ectro process.
with silver, by tie
.
:.i• ~:·.
'

. I

.. ·1

I
I .

I

I
I

VOCABULARY.
'.

AROMATIC, derived from the Greek &pwµ."-, aroma: spice having a pun·
gent spicy smell.
ADHESIVE, derived from the Latin ad-h:Er-erc, to stick to: composed of
particles which not only unite together, but attach tbemselveg to other
substances, causing them to stick together ;-thus the particles of gum
have a strong mutual cohesion; it also easily attaches. itself to· paper
and other substances, causing them to hold together. '
. AFFINITY, derived from the Latin affin-is, related: the tendency which
some bodies have to unite with others.
ABSORBENT, derived from the Latin absorb-ere, to suck up: sucking up
liquids. An absorbent substance must be also porous, for if there were
no pores, the liquid could not enter the substance.
AGGREGATION, derived from the Latin nggreg-are, to collect together in
one flock . A collection of things brought together in one.
ARGILLACEOUS, derived from the Latin argilla, clay: partaking of the
nature of clay, or consisting principally of clay.
ALLOY, an inferior metal mixed with one more precious; or the com·
pound of two metals.
AST!UNGENT, derived from the Latin ad-string-ere, t~ bind to: binding,
contracting.
, .
AMORPHOUS, derived from the Greek a (a) not, and µ.op<P71 (morphe) a
form: without any regular form .'
ACIDULATED, derived from the Latin ncid-ulus, slightly acid: made
slightly acid .
ACRID, from ·the Latin acri-s, sharp: hot, or sharp to tho taste.
ANNEAL, to heat glass after it is blown, that it may not break.

I.

400

V OCAIJU LAit Y.

AMALGAM, the combination of mercury with nuy other metallic substance.
AQUAI•ORTIS, signifies literally strong water, but is applied to a weak
nitric ncid .
.ALKALI, a substance which, uniting with acids, neutralizes their n:idily: it derives its name from a plant called kali, from the ashes of which, alkaline substances arc procured.
ATMOSPimHE, derived from the Greek cnµos (ntmo,) vnpor, nnd. c11pa1pci
(sphairn) a glohc or sphere: the nir that surrounds our globe IS com·
posed of oxygen nnd nitrogen.
.
.
UR11"1'LI~, easily broken : h~rd substances only aro brittle.
.,
CONGEA L, derived from the Latin con, together, nnd gel-u, cold: to tum
from n liquid iuto a solid by the influence of cold.
CIRCLE, n circle bounded by a curved line, which is equally distant a~
m•cry point from the centre.
CIRCU LAR, iu the form of a circl e.
CONE, a sqlid bounded by n llnt circular surface called the base, and· n
curved surface tapering to n point, called the apex.
CONICAL having the form of a cone.
·
CALCINED burnt in n fire and reduced to a cal:<:, or friable substance.
CULINARY, d~rived from the Latin culina, a kitchen: belonging to the
kitchen.
CHALYBEATE, derived from the Greek xa>-vtji (chaly-bs) iron: imprcg-.
nntcd with iron or steel.
CORROSIVE, derived from the Latin rod-ere, to gnaw: having the power
of eatin g away anything.
CONTAGION derived from the Latin con, together, and tan-gere, to
touch: sorn'cthing proceeding from body to body, by which disease is
communicated.
CONCAVE, the inn er curve of a hollow sphere.
CONVEX, the outer curve of n ~phcrc.
CONSERV A'l'IVE, derived from the Lntin con, together, nnd serv-are, to
keep: having the power of preserving or prcvcnt'.ng decay..
.
CAUSTIC derived from the Greek 1<avuT11<os (causl!cos), burmng: havmg
the pow~r to destroy the texture of parts by burning or eating the~ nwny.
COHERE, derived from the Latin co, together, and bier-ere, to sttck: to
stick together.
CALORIC, derived from the Latin cal-01·, heat: heat.
COLLISION, derived from the Latin collis-us, struck together: the net of
striking two bodies together.
COMPACT 1 firm, solid, close.

VOCABULARY.

40l

CARBON, derived from the Latin cnrbo, charcoal: the -pure. inflammable
part of charcoal.
CARBONIC ACID, carbon united with a certain portion of oxygen.
CALCAREOUS, derived from the Latin calx, lime: consisting principally
of lime.
COMPONENT PART, derived from the Latin con, together, und pon-crc,
to pince: n part forming with others a compound body.
CYLINDER, derived from the Greek 1<v>.1v5w (kylindo), I roll: n solid
bounded by one curved surface and two flnt ends.
CYLINDRICAL, having tbe form of a cylinder.
DUCTILE, derived from the Latin duc-lllis, capable of being drnwn out in
length.·
DECOMPOSITION, the separation of the particles of a compound body.
DILATABLE, derived from the Latin dilat-are, to extend: capable of being expanded. •
DENSE, close, thi ck : the opposite to rare.
DILUTED, derived from the Latin dilu-ere, to wash: having been made
thinner or weaker.
ECONOMICAL, derived from the Greek 011<ovoµ1a (oikonomia), household
management: relating to the management of u family.
ELEMENT, a substance not compounded, having but one constituent part.
EMOLLIENT, derived from the Latin moll-is, soft: having the power to
soften.
EXPORTED, derived from the Latin ex, out, and port-are, to carry: to
carry out of the country.
EXOTIC, derived from the Greek l~o: (exo), without: not produced in our
country: particularly applied to plants.
EV APO RATE, derived from the Latin e, out from, and vapor, vapor: to
pass off in ii. vapor.
EXCRESCENCE, derived from the Latin ex, out, nnd cresc-ere, to grow :
something growing out of another body, not useful to it, and contrary
·
to the common order of productioO:
EXHALE, derived from the Latin ex, out, and hal-are, to breathe: to
send out vapors or fumes.
ELASTIC, hnving the power, when bent or stretched, of returning to its
original position.
·
EFFERVESCENT, derh-cd from the Latin cffervesc-~re, to boil up: bubbling up with in ternal commotion.
EDIBLE, derived f~om the Latin cd-cre, to cat: fit for food, eatable.
FRAGRANT, having a sweet scent.
· ...

.,,,-

I

l

I

I·

/ j,
11

L

,,JI
h

lj

l

ll :

I·

402

VOCABULARY,

FLUID, derived from the Lntin flu-ere, to flow: having pnrts ensily sepn·
rable, nnd flowing nbout.
FUSIJJLE, melting in fire.
FRIABLE, easily crumbling.
FOLIATED, derived from the Latin foli-mn, n leaf: composed of lcavc.q,
or laminro.
FRACTURE, derived from the Latin fract·us, broken: the nppearo.nce of
a mineral when broken.
FR .\.GILE, derived from the Latin frang·e1·e, to brealc: easily broken or
injured.
FLEXIBLE, derived from the Latin flcx·1t.•, bent: easily .bent.
FRICTION, derived from the Latin fric-are, to rub: the act of rubbing
two bodies together.
FARINACEOUS, derived from the Latin farina, flour : mealy, of tho na- ...
ture of flour.
FILTRATION1 deril"cd from the Latin filtr-ttm, n colander: the process of
passing a 1iq uid through the interstices of another body.
FERMENTATION derived from the Latin ferment-um, leaven: internal
commotion in ;he particles of a body: plants undergo fermentation
when they decompose.
GLUTINOUS, dcri1•cd from the Latin gluten, glue: tenacious, viscid.
GLOBULE, derived from the Latin glob·iilus, a small globe: small globe
or sphere.
GRAMINIVOROUS, derived from the Latin gramcn, grnss, and vor-are, to
eat: feeding on grass.
GRANULOUS, derived from the Latin granltl-wn, n little grain: separating into small particles, or grains, as sandr
GENEIUC, derived from the Latin gcncr-a, kinds: relating ton genus, 01
kind of things.
GRADUATED, derived from the Latin grndu-s, a step: marked by !I reg·
ular .increase of degrees.
HORIZON, derived from the Greek ~p•(•w (horizon), bounding: the line
that bounds our view.
HORTZON'l'AL, in the' same direction ns the horizon.
HERMETICALLY sealed, so scaled as entirely to exclude the air.
HYDROGEN, derived from the Greek v5wp (hydor) water, and ')'•vva .. v
(gcn-naein ) to produce: the lightest gas: with a certain portion of oxy·
gen it forms wntcr.
lRlDESCENT, derived from the Latin irid-cscere, to become like o. min·
bow : shining with the colors of the rainbow.

.VOaA.BULARY,

•

BIPALPABLF:, derived fro·m the Latin in, not, and palp-are, to feel: not
to be p~rccived by touch.
DlBRICATED, derived from imbric-are, to cover with tiles: arranged in
the manner of the tiles of the house.
IM PORTED, derived from the Latin in, into, and port-are, to carry: car·
ried into a country.
BlPRESSlllLE, derived from the Latin in, and press-us, pressed: easilj
receiving and retaining an impression.
INDIGENOUS, derived from the Latin indig-~na, native: the natural pro·
duction of the country. This term is npplied to vegetables, as native is
to animals.
INSIPID, derived from in, not, and sap-ere, to savor: having but little
flavor.
HfCOMBUSTlllLE, derived from in, not, and combust-us, burned: not
to be consumed by fire.
INTERSTICE, derived from the Latin inter, between, and slit-um, placed:
Arnall space between the different parts of the body.
IMPREGNATED, fill ed with any quality or thing.
INCISION, derived from the Latin incis-us, cut in: a cut or 'vound made
by a sharp instrument.
IMPERVIO US, derived from the Latin in, not, per, through, and via, a
way: presenting no passage. A substance is impervious to a liquid
when it presents no pore or passage by which it can enter.
IGNITED, derived from the Latin igni·s, fire: having been kindled or set
on fire.
INFUSION, derived from in, into, and fusus, poured: a liquid in which
something ha.~ been steeped to draw out its properties.
LIQUID properly signifies that which has been melted: anything which we
drink, or which forms into drops. Air is a fluid. Water is both fluid
and liquid; when we speak of it as a stream or current, it is properly
called a fluid, but when we speak of it as passing from a congealed to a
dissolved state, it should properly be called o. liquid.
LA~fIN A, a thin plate.
·
LAMINATED, formed of thin plates or laminro.
LATERAL, derived from the Latin latera, Aides: at the side.
LIGXEOUS, derived from the Latin lign-mn, wood: made of wood, or
having a woody structure.
LUBRICOUS, derived from the Latin lubric-us, slippery: slippery, smooth.
LAYER, that which is spread over a substance.
l\IAGNIFYING, derived from the Latin mngn-us, great, and fi-eri, to be
made : making things nppenr larger than they actually are.

·/

f, \

· 1\1

·r
i

•

.

!-" ·:

=--==..::'.:~~-::~'t;J~

···---·-=/

- ----.-

'L

.

----- ~

~
ii

1i
N

~

I

~

N

I
I

•

.

~

400

N
N!
i
I
I
I

r-.1

~
N'.

Oj

ol
I

OJ
0

oi

oiI
01

PC
PC
PC
Pl ·

VOCABULARY,

SMELTING, the process by which the pure met.al is separated from the
earthy particles with which it is combined in the ore.
SILICIOUS, dcri l"cd from the Latin sil'ex, flint : consisting principally of
silcx or flint.
SECRETION, derived from the Latin secret-us, separated: that which is
separated from any other substance. Tears arc an animal secretion :
the honey in flowers is a vegetable secretion.
SOLUBLE, derived from the Latin solv-cre, to loosen: melting in a liquid.
SOLVENT, having the power of dissolving things.
SOLUTION, that which contains nnything dissolved.
SPHERE, derived from the Greek cnpa1pa (sphaira ), a globe or sphere : a
solid bounded by one curved surfac:tJ, which is @\ually distant in every
part from the centre.
SPHERICAL, having the form of u sphere.
SOLID, filling up space: in this sense it is opposed to hollow.
SOLID, having particles adhering closely together: in this sense it is op·
posed to fluid.
SONOROUS, derived from the Latin son-us, a sound: capable of producing
sound.
SUMJIHT, derived from the Latin summ-us, highest: the top or highest
part.
SAPID, derived from the Latin sap-ere, to savor: having a flavor.
SPARKLING, bright in parts and not over the whole surface.
SATURATE, derived from the Latin satur, full: to fill anything till it can

I
I
(

i

~·

& ·~:: ·~\:::~~~~~:· ~~i~'v.0~¥*~·~·
4

I

. .~1~

J ...

-J.. :;...,;'"'>:-

,f

'.-~~l.~4[~~~

TARTAR, -~ hard :;~bstance:..~~po~it:;~o~the~aid

:-cask~duHng~

fermentation of wine. .c. -·• ·, ·.-'"'·>V7'"'> ··: ~ • 7_ ~.Uc .~, "· ·.;,·~.----~,,,./j
TARTARIC .ACID, tartar combined with a certain portion of oxygen. · ' ·:
.. - ~
TIUANGLE, derived from the Latin tres, three,· and angul-us, an. angle: a
>'
form that has three angles.
TRIANGULAR, having the form of a triangle.
TRANSMITTED, derived from the Latin trans, across, and mitt-ete, to
send : sent from one person or place to another.
V .ACUUM, derived t:rom the Latin vacu-us, empty: space cnmpletely
unoccupied.
VELOCITY, derived from the Latin velox, swift: speed, swiftness.
VISCID, derived from the Latin vise-us, bird lime: glutinous, tenacious.
VITRIFIABLE, derived from the Latin, Titr-um, glass, and !i-eri, capable
·"
of being ~onverted into glass.
· -~
VOLATILE, derived from the Latin vol-ate, to fly: passing or flying off
naturally by evaporation. ·
!!
. ·
UNCTUOUS, derived from the Latin unct-us, anointed: fat, clammy, oily.

.•

receive no more.

SEMI-TRANSPARENT, derived from the Latin semi, half, trans, .through,
and par-r.ns, appearing : presenting an imperfect passage to the rays of
light, so that objects do not appear clearly through.
TRANSPARENT, derived from the Latin trans, through, and par-ens, ap·
pearing : yielding a free passage to the rays of light, so that objects
appear through .
TRANSLUCENT, dcri\·ed from the Latin trans, through, and lux, light:
yielding n partinlly obstrncted passage to the rays of light; so. that light
only appears through.
.
TENACIOUS, derived from the Latin tenax, holding: having particles
uni.ting firm ly together. Gum being tenacious, the particles cannot
easily be separated, and on this account it acts as a cement; glue, be·
ing more tenacious, nets as n still stronger cement.
TUDULAR, derived from the Latin tubul-ns, a small tube: having the
form of a hollow cylinder.
TOUGH, capnble of being bent or extended without breaking. .
I

· ·.I

.

..

1~:

:•·

