A MODERN

COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC
(BRIEF COURSE }
CONTAININ G THE PRINCIPLES OF CORRECT ENGLISll

FOR SCHOOLS

HY

LEWIS \ VORTllINGTON SMITlf, P11 . B.
1

l't< 11 1'H ~:->Ot< 111" E ." c . 1.1 :-- 11, TAHfll< C •• l . 1. 1·:•.I · , 1 .. .

:,·

A N ll

JAMES E. Tl TOMAS, J\. B. (l-IA1<v.)

'
DENJ. I-I. SANBORN & CO.
BO STU N, U.S.A .

Ha.r· p;rci. C ollege Library
Doc . 20, 1918.

Transferred from

Education Library.

PREFACE.

Copyright,
H v l.liwts \V.

S:-.1 1·111

AN • •

1C)i'lf1

j.A l'> n .., F. T 111 • MA~ .

NF.ARLY two thousancl yea rs ago Quintilian clefined
rhetoric as "the art of speaking well. " H ad he lived in
the prese nt age, he would undoubtedl y have saicl, "the
a rt of speakin g and of writing well. " No bette r phrase
can be founcl to describe the tru e fun ction of rhetoric
to-day. Pre vious to the last deca de it was rega rded as
an ornam e nt al study, abounding in theory a nd subtl e distin ctions of diction a nd st yle. W ith the de,·elopment of
the study of English in th e sc hools came an awakening
to the true valu e of rhetoric, a nd its relation t o the study
of lit erature and composition . To-day rhet oric an d composition a re inseparably associa ted in teac hing- t lw
methods of simpk, direct, a nd acc ura te expression, the
prin cipl e of on e be ing supple men ted by the abundant
practice of th e other.
1n the ma king of the present text-book the authors
have been inAu e ncecl by two important considerations .
First, they belie ve firml y in the i11d11rth1c m ct/1od: a nd
the text has been writte n in the hope of e ncouraging the
pupil to ma ke his nwn rl'se:trclws undn t lw g uidan l'l' 11 f
the teac her, but with out th:i. t ahsolute rel i:utce up11 11
i1i

JV

PR T: f."A CE.
l'!.'F!··.-1CF.

t he dic tum of a n(lth e r, so subve rsive of ind e pe nde nt
literary judgme nt . Second, in an a rt so delicate as that
of lit e rary expr ess io n, it is of g reat importance tha t all ins truc tion g ive n , wh e ther propoun ded dire ctly in the wa y
of stat e m e nt of rhetorica l th eory, or left for the stude nt to
discover through the m e dium of exerc ises, s hould be made
as definite as is possible in ma tte rs involvin g such subtleties of psyc ho logy and of tas t e. ft is a comparatively
easy m a tt e r to write e nt e rtainin g ly a nd thoughtfu lly o n
lit e rary s u bjects without lc~n· in g in the mind of the

stud ied
Some statement u f rh etori cal d octr in e is necessary, a nd such s tate ment has bee n mad e as simple and
clear as possihl e ; but these laws th e student is gi\Tll
opportunity t o ve r ify for himself, a nd he should accept
the m o nly after such ve rifi catio n. They cann ot ot he rwise be o f any se rv ice to him in his own writi;w
IY

reade r an ythin g tangible or clear-cut. This in a textbook is a lways a fa ult. a nd failure h e re is well-nigh
failure a ltogethe r. The teach e r should he advised, h oweve r, that muc h depe nds upo n the care with whic h he
drives hom e the conclusions whic h the pupil is supposed to draw from the exerc ises and illustrati ve m a t er ial
placed before him. Great care has been ta k e n in this
hook t o m ;1k e phin to th e pupil just t he sort of investigation he is to make in each case, a nd th e t eac her
should s ec to it that from eve ry e xe rc ise the pupil get s
a definite unde rs t a nding of som e princ iple of literary
a rt .
Th e definite object of the book is that oi giving tra inin g in acc uracy of thought. nicet y of taste, and finer
c ommand of th e wizard words that t o u c h imagi na tion .

i
II

These things cann ot be acqu ired by rule, they must
not be taught by rote. l .iterar y judgment, not theore ti(':1 I k 11 m\' lt'<i(e nf the lit en r\" hrn·,;
t h:lt othe rs ha vc
l'st<ihlished, is the end f()r \rh1c h rhet oric should be

\'

·~

'

No t ext-book of rhetoric ca n lay c la im to e ntire
o rig ina lity, but each should have some original features
to justify it s e xisten ce.
The prin c iples of rhetori c
are o lcl , but improved e du catio nal m e thods a n d experie nce in the class-room are continually s uggesting new
m e thods of teac hing the m . A n y new boo k u pon the
subj ect must keep pace with m odern pedag()g ical n1ct hods, and embody th e blt'st results of class-r()om n:1x:nencc. It should not lie a m e re imitat i<Jn of li11oks
already in ex is t e nce, but sho uld aim tu rnakt.: a d i:-tin ct
a clvanL·L· 111 helpful :111J pr;1 e tiL·: d s uggcsti111i.s. ( l rigin: ility must l·o ns1st 111 prese ntin g- old trut hs in :1 llL"\\" light .
co n fo rma Lly t u new ideas and new met li"ds. Thi s implies a wise ch01ce o f mall'rial, a sound arr:lllgL·nw 11 t . ;1
prupcr pruportiun ol p:1rt s, .simple Lu1gu:1gc, ;111d C<1nll.~L ".
clear-cut cktiniti t>1b, L"l11-orcccl by c(>pi•n1s illu str:iti11 11s
and exncist.: s. The autli"rs oft his i>.,., k h:t\l· vi1<lc;t\urn l
to meet all these requ1rL·nients. l'r L'\"l<>llS t" the \11itin"
of the text an u11tli m : o f the h<><>k w:is sL·1 1t t11 t11cnt·~
t ea chers (If rhctn ric i11 the leading Sl'CfltHLtry sl ho<> I.~,
;111d sug.!.'.·est i1 ms ;1skl'cl f<>r . Till' :1uth1Jr ~ h:l\ L" .!.'.·i\L·1 1 cl1w
C()llsidcr;tt l<!ll tu th e :111s11·e rs recci\'cd. The rn ;1tcr i:il is
Ch1Js L·11 lr"m 11hat h;1s lit·t·11 f<11111d \·:1 ii 1:1hk 111 tl1c (-Liss-

VI

PR /:.'FA. CE.

ruom, and those points are made most prominent whic h
have been productive of best results. The usual order
of developing the them e, beginning with word s and working up to the whole composition, has been reve rsed. I 11
this book the pupil begins with the them e as a whole
a nd his 1i1ind is cent ered upon gather in g mate rial'.
Ideas and not words are his firs t cons ideration . This
is the natural order of proc<.:dun:, and is confirn1<.:d by
psychological a nd pedagogical reasons. lt is believed
that it will prove to be a n important feature of the
book .
The authors have made no litera ry prete nsions in what
th ey have writte n. They have ca red principally to be
unde rst ood by everyone who uses the text, and they
have bee n g lad to sacrifice the g races of style for the
accomplishment of this pu rpose. To this e nd, lik e wise,
th e defi nitions have been made concise and to the point,
with abundant illustrations and exercises. This last
kature, it is hoped , will be a boon to teac he r and pupil
alike, hdpful to one a nd s timulating to the other.
The necess ity of findin g something for the pupi ls to do
beyond m e morizin g the words of a text brings gray
ha irs t o the head of th e over-worked teacher ; it is easy
for him t o leave out part of the text, but it is fa r from
easy to s upply matt er for the pupil to work with.
Specia l effort s have been made by th e authors to relieve
him of this consta nt strain . In the limited time allotted
to the study of composition a nd rhetoric it is quit e
probable that th e e ntire material of the book ca nnot be

PREFACE.

Vil

used. It is desig ned to cover a course of two years;
but teachers who must give less time to the subject
a rc expeckd to make such choice of the ma terial as the
circumstances will pe rmit. They will appreciate th e
large opportuniti es of c hoice wh ich the book offers to
meet their needs.
Roughly speaking, rh etoric has a two-fuld function,
- to teach o n e t o express his th oughts with busirn:ss-likc
acc ura cy, a nd t u acquai11t him with the graces of style
and the a rtistic effectivc11css of lang uage. Ma ny schools
do not have tim e (or more th an the first of these pu rposes; a nd to meet the requireme nt s of suc h schools
l' ARTS I. a nd I I. are pnblis!ted in a separate 1•0/nm c,
tol[cl!tcr wi!lt a n af'pendix Oil p1111clualion, letter-writing,
,~ood and bad specimens o.f composition , 111td a-list' o.f s11bjcds Ji)!' t/1011cs. This BRIEF CoU RS E is a th orough
text on th e subject of corrrd En g lish a nd is des ig 11 cd
for one yea r 's wor k in sc hools ; the COM PL E T E Cou1<s 1·:
wil l ext end the subj ect to a full consideration of what is
required to ma ke a composition a rtistic a nd effecti ve, and
will furn ish mat e rial for two years' work .
Spec ia l obligat ions to the many authors of rhetori cs
need ha rdly be ac kn owledged.
The writ ers of the
present work have had recourse t o th e whole s torehouse
of rhetorica l doctrin e. Their indebtedn ess is gener;Ll
rath er th an specific. Special tlnnk s arc due, hu11·cic~ .
to Professor L. A. Sherman of the Un ive1-sity uf
Nebraska, to Professor Sophi e C. !-!art of \Vcll eslcy.
to Mr. Th omas 1fall of H arva rd , a nd to a score ill

Vil I

PR L F ACE.

Leac he rs m seconda ry sc hools fo r kindl y suggestions.
Tha nks are a lso clue to th e various publishe rs, to th e
Dial, a nd to E ast and West fo r permi ssion to use ext ract s from their publications. The work of Mrs. Ma rtha
A . L. L ane, of Hin gham, Mass ., in revising the proofsheet s, a nd in offering t imely suggestions, has been of
g reat value.
I.. \V . s .
J. E. T.
N O V E MB E R, 1 900 .

TABLE OF CONT E NTS.
~JI.

l' Al

~ u g gt ~ i i o n s t o

x v- xviii

T eache rs

..

I N TROD UC T O R V C l! :\ l 'TI·: R.

Com pos itio n a nd Rh eto ri c Defi ned
Th eir Relation
IJis tinc ti o n betwee n a n A rt a nd a S cien ce
I Ji, tin ctio n bet wee n Gramma r a nd Rheto ri c
A uth orit y o f t he Prin cipl es of Rhet o ric
ll ahit s o f Spe ec h a nd o f \Vri t ing .
lli ff e re nce betwee n Oral a nd \·V n tt e n r, , prc,si o n
E xcn:ises
l' A RT

1- 5

6
~:

s
'J
10
l 1- 1.1

!.

Composition .
CtL\l 'T ER

I. -

Tim T 11 v. ~1 Y. .

l're limi na r y Th em es
I li rectio ns fo r T heme \ Vri ti ng
Th e Su bject
T he Titl e
E xe rcises

I

5

t 6- 1S
I :)- ~ J
2 3 - ~4

14 - 1 <)

'.\Lt! c ric d .
l lc \·e ],,p m e nl

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1 · 11 A J'T l·. l\

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IX

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6

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;''

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;- ; •!

x

/',/!IL/:' OF CO.\ ' 'JFJ\''/S.

XI
l' Af, H

l\ a1ional U >'C

60
(J l - 64
64- 68
68- 7 1
7 1- 7.1
74 - 76
76-77
77 - 78
79- s .,

1lon:lo pment o f th e Parag raph
Repetiti o n
Detail
Specific Examples .
Compa riso n o r Contrast
Cause and Effect .
Proo fs .
Irreg ular D evt:l o pment
Exercises .
C l!Al'TEI<

\ '. -

T!IE SE:<TE NC E.

Th e S e nt e nce, th e lJ nit o f Di sco urse.
\\!hat a ~ e nt e n ct Iii .
Co nt e nt of th e S ent e nce
Compo und and Co mpl ex S e nt ence
Subo rdinatio n in th e Compl e x S ent ence
Variety in Sentence Forms
Sentence Length
Ex e rcises
C 11 /\ 1"n :1t VI . -

1'5
85- 87
li7- 88
88- 90

90 -93
93 - 97
97
98- 102
\V11 1<. 1>s .

Wh a t W ords Arc
S o urces o f Engli s h \\' ords
Anglo-Saxo n El ement
Classical Eleme nt
Co mpariso n of the Two E lement ,.
Emoti o na l and Intell ec tu al C ha rac t e risti<·s of \\' o rds
The Vocabulary .
Boo ks of Sy nonyms and Co nco rdances
Exercises

.
.
.
.
.

10.)
103- 107
107 - 109
109- 11 .,
114 - 1 1(>
11 6- 120

. J :? l - 1 :?8
. 1 28- 129

. 129- 13 1

. I .J l >- 1.1 0

•

1.1 0- 14 I

1' e pu1 a hi e lJ se
llo ubtful W o rds
Ex erci ses

1.p
. 141-146
VllL -

C H/\l''l'Jo:R

l' IJ R!TY.

HAl<.llAR I S MS.

1.1 7

Appli cation of th e Law s.of Good Use
Barbarisms .
Foreign Words
Slang .
New Words.
New F o rmat ions
Abbrev ia ti o ns
Exerc ises
C ll/\l'TER

lX . - l'l<Ol ' RIETY .

. I 4 7- 15 1
I

1 51

· 1 5:- 1 S·I
)Ml ' IWl'l<IETl b .

' .15
. I SS- I 5li

P ro pri ety
What Impr o priet ies Are
Causes o f Impropri eties
C lasses of Improprieti e.Idio mati c English
U nidi o matic Engli.-h
Ex crdses
C ll/\l"l'EI<

4 S-- I .l•J

. '4 9- 150
150
. 150- 15 1

. 156- 157
. I 57 - 17 I
17 I
I 72
. 172- 177

X. -

Sou:c 1orns.

Sol ec isms .
No uns and Pr o n u un ~
l'art s of Speech
]{edundant and Incomplete Expressio ns
Co nnectives and Cor relatives
Miscelianeou s Erro rs
Exerc ises

. 17 !>- 17•)
. I 79- 18.1
. 184- 187
. 187- 18•)
. 1&)- 19 1

.

l ~ l - 1 9 .1

193- 1.y;

l'Al{T ll.
C HAl'TEJ<

The Laws of Good Use.

Correct Expressio n
t ;ood lJ se .
I' rese nt lJ se

133- 134
1.1.1- 1.l5
135- 136

XI. -

T 1rn

FoR~ls ul" D1scut1 RSf:.

\ Vhat llistin g uish c.- On e Form n f Writin g f ro m Anoth e r

. I lJ9- :0U

D esc riptio n
Exercises in I h:s1.: ripti ve \V rit ing
Narration .

. 20 I

Excrc i!-i C~ in ~arratiun

. : 0(1- : 07

. 2 00-20 1
- 20 ~!

. :04 -~06

TA /If_/:.' OF COA'T/:.',VTS.
I'

Expositi o n.
Exen.: ises in Exposilion
Arg umt ntation
Exercises in A rgum c ntati o n
Exercises
C llAl'rER

XI I.

-

F.

,:?09 - 2 10

. 211 - Z15
. 2 15-2 18
. 2 18-2:?0

THE QUALIT IES

C llAl 'l'V.R

1\f~

.\ l'PE NDICES.

. 107 - 109

uF

A

Guu lJ STYLE.

What Co ns titu ets a Good S tyl e
C learness
Attainment o f Clea rn ess
C hoice of Words
Number of Words .
A rrangem c nt of \\' urds
U nity
Co he rc::11 ce
Exercises

x I Ir. -

CLEARNESS.
. 221 - 2 2:?

. 222-223

. 223-225
. 225 - ::!27

. 227- 229
229
. 229- 2.)1
. 23 1- 232
. 232-238
EM l'llASIS.

Ge neral Law of E mphasis
Uni t y a nd Co he rence .
Selection a Form of Emph a., is .
Proportio n
<:Jim ax Pro<ludive o f Emphasis
Emphasis in Sent ence St ructure
Figurative Language
Simile and Metaphor .
Perso ni fit:a tion
Synecdoc h e and Metonymy
Anti thesis .
()1 he r Figures
Eff e<·t of Figu res
Exercises

APPENDIX

1\ . -

l'l l NCTUATIUN

. :?'41-242

.
.
.
.

242
24 2- 243
244-245
245- 246
246-247

247
248

~ 65

Importance of l'u nuuation
Rules of l'unctuation
Comma .
Semicolon
Colon .
l'eriod
l nterrogation l\'I ark
Exclamation Mark
Hyphen .
Parentheti cal Exp ressio ns
Apost rop he
Italics
Q uot a ti on Ma i ks
Capital Letters
Al' l'E N lllX

. 239- 2.10
. 240-24 I

ANIJ Tin: UsE uF CA 1· 1T ,.\I .,.

2Gl>

. 2C.i -:!(,9
. 2&..)- ~7 0
::!jO

~j l

-F
~73

.
H. -

:?48

•

249
249
2 50-25.1

\ \1 ha t Elegance Ts
E legance as a C)ual it y o f S1 yle
A ttainm c nt o f Elega n,·e

Yiol ations o f E l eg: 11H.'t:

X I\' -

Eu:<;A sn:.

A l'l'EN ill X

.255-258
258

. 259-26 1
. 26 1- 262
. ~ 62-264

. 27 5- :7<>
. 2 j <1 · :! St

ns
. ~;S- .:!/tJ
. Z7<)- :So

zSo
zSo

C.

Example=-- of Ih·fectiv t ( 'o rnposition

Additional Exer cises

~ ; J - ~i - 1

LETTl-:R - \\ ' klTl:<t:.

What Makes a Coot! Lett er
!'arts of a Let t er .
The ll eading
Th e Address
The Salutatio n .
The Body
Th e C lose
The Signature
Formal Notes of l11 \'ilatio11
The Superscr ipt ion

, \1 · 1·ENDIX
C HA l'TER

Ex en..:i:-ics

Xiii

TA HLF OF CO.VlFN7:Y.

XII

I> .

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XVI
.\\'I I

fir st lesson , th e Introductory Chapter t o section 7, and
tha t each lesson as assigned includes something fro m

those b est suit e el to his wo rk.
Aliovl· ;1! I, kt t lw n:f'rL·iscs hc suggesl1\c t<> the pupil.
i\ L111\· .,f thc111 11L1\

th e e xercises. This will give the rec itation a m o r e
varied interest, a nd will h elp the pupil to rely upo n his

recall to his mind S()llll'thing far better f:1r l he
T hus l11s ill\'<.:: llt in · p• •\\'c·rs ;ire .stimuLtted.

exercises 1 and 2, page 1 2.

The t eacher should see

11'

own conclusions rather than u pon his memory of th e

IL
11re '

t ext.

ii

the pupil to think for himself, cannot be too cardul t()

"
j

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!t

\\'c 1nay 11< 1w l'l111SldlT th,· tl·;tchcr'.s task.,( 1·"iTCcting
11011· 111t1 ch m ;1y he w isely ;1tll'n1ptul ;

the lffitten w"rk.

In gene ral, u1rrect irn1 .. r w ritt e n w"rk sh "u ld lie t'<Hl finnl to thos,· m :Hf\'1-_s \\·h 1t·h ;1rt· :ti tlw tirn" 1111<k1 '"ll sidlT;tt 1"11. "1 han- ;1lrl';11I) IJLTll t:1kl'11 111'It i"
i1111"•rla11t th;_it at lir"t cr 1t1 cis 111 be not trn• ,,,:1·crc,
lest the case a 11d pk;1s11rahk s11nnta11cit v with \\hi, 11
th l' pupil writes he tunicd int" he; iL1ti-11 g dilfo1"11""
U1'\·;is101 1ally a 1>:q>LT sh<1t1ld !Jc rt'-\\T1tl<'1 1 , li11t 11 t""
lllllt'il " ' this I" dcllLllHkd. th·· \\()rk \\'ill l•!S t' iilllTl'SI
:md liccornc 111cL·i1a111c:il.
It will "ltc11 iJl' :uil'i,.;:1 hk t"
discuss subjects in the cbss-ri11im !Jd.. re the pupil
ll'ritcs upon them , such d1scussio 11 qu1d:.c111n~ i11tnc"t
111 tlic thcrnc, and setting· in nwti1111 rkti11ilL' t1·;t111..; "f
tiJ•it1ght.
\<11llclllllL'S it 11iJJ J1l' lll'li to kt l';tth lllt'l1ii1l'1
"f the Ll:ts.s <'<•rrnt the· ll'r ittc11 c.\lTcisc "' Slllllc: 111 1"
else. This ll'ill <in·l'l<>p t It,· niti,·:d lanilty "' t lie p11i•1 I.
a 11d rclic1'C the k:l• hn; lltlt the critil'isrns sl111t1! 1 1 I"'
sL tlul :rnd tlde11dcd in lite l'i:tss, ;ind \1·itl'11 tl1"1 ;11c·
1·:1;.;-uc :md lal'ki11;..:,- in clc~1r11css t hl· k;il'itn sh1J11!1I <'\ plain them ca refully himself.

Although the study of the text is not an e nd in it self,
but a means to an e nd , th e teacher. while e n cou r agingins ist upo n his reaching some d efi nit e un ders tandin g of
rh etorical doctrine. The cbss m ay d o a g r eat deal of
writing with o ut getting mu c h benefit from it, unless the
teacher is watchfully crit ical , and in his criticisms succeeds in making- clt>ar the exact r<:a'<"ll fnr hi'< ·"bjcctinns
to the form or th e phrasing which the pupil h as employed .
It is not int e nd ed, of course, th at a ll chapt e r s, or all
topics in a chapter, s hall rece ive th e sam e consideration.
A car ef ul r eadin g of topic

1

in the Introductory C hapter

is all that will be necessary, while topic 7 will require
some comment from the teacher.

Topics 2 and 3 will

need some study, for it is importa nt that th e pupil should
understand th e purpose of compos iti o n a nd o f rhetori c.
Finally, th e whol e I ntrnductory Chapter will require
much less study than the c h ap t e rs upo n the theme, tht:
paragraph, the sentence, etc., because these c h apters a rc

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fundamental.
Likewise it m ay n ot be possible to tak e
all the exercises. Each teacher must he governed by
L·irc um sta n ccs, and ii he l·ann<>t takl· all. he slwulJ choose

Finally, the teacher s hould :-ittempt as mu ch as pnssi -

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:>.ll\ll' rc·;1so 111
tlut tl1c p:1rat;Ltpli sh11ulrl IH' :1 11111licd

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RH FTO RIC.

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INTRODUCTORY

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True c :ise in wrltin .r.,: r· nm <'' frn m

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the sense.

1.

The

Difficulty of

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Expression.

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thoughts a11d fccl111gs which we ,k,.,ttL' t<> l"111111u11 1,·:1l<'
to others.
So long as wt.: t.:.\prcss "ursch "" t11K1111 sciously we c11joy it; in<knl. :1 grc:it p:1rt .,f t!i,· 1>k:1,.,t1rl'
whic h we have in life com"s to l!S throug-h tlH· "'l''c"s11111
of what w e think and feel.
If tht:se thoughts :111d feel ings are simple. we may C\]ircss them by"'". :1,· t11111s;
bllt when they are at all complex, we must see k other
means. \\' c mllst s1•eak tht:m, or write tht·m in 11·onk
Htlt hne we :ire beset with diffo:l!ltic,;: 11ur minds 11·ill
not work; the words rdllsc to come at our lmld111~; \\l'
are baffl ed by the lack of fitting phrases; and if we succeed in saying anything. we feel that our words do not
convey adequately what we have in mind. There arc ,.
kw ol us, perhaps, \\"h n cannot rcmt·mlwr Ji,,11· d1flicult 1\
was, 111 our first years at school , to make "urselves under stood. There w e re explanations which we could have
made as clear as crystal in the class-room, had we known
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JNIR<i/J UC /"U/\ Y CJ/// f'f'l:/1'.

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CO.lfl'US ITIU1\ ' .- IND Nlll:·Tl)l\/C.

just how to express the thought that we held with so sure
a grasp. How many times have we recalled the words
of Portia, in the " Merchant of Ven ice," " If lo do were
as easy as to know wltat ;wrc .i;ood to du, chapels had
been churches, and puor men's cottages princes' palaces."
\ Vhat we need. is something tu help us convey our thoughts
to others clearly, forcibly , and gracefully. The practice
of composition and the study uf rhetoric arc the sources
to which we must look fur help in surmounting our difficulties.
2. Composition Defined. - W'hat do we mean when
we talk of composition? BrieAy, we mean the f11tti11.i;
to.i;ctltcr of words into sentences, sentences into paragraphs, and paragraphs into a complete whole. But
composition is more than this. \\'urds, sentences, and
paragraphs in themselves arc not productive of good
compos1t10n. They must be put together in a certain
way. Our composition when complete must be grouped
about one line of thought; that is, it must ha\·c u11it_v.
The several parts of a ct imposition rn ust stick 11'.i;,·tltcr,
each part having a certain relation to its neighbor; that
is, there must be co/u-rcnq. These qualities are attained
only by constant practice. \\ 'e m:i.y define composition,
then, as lite practice t!f f'11lti11,g· tw;dltn' tlte sc;it·ral c!t-mcnts so as to produce a 1111ijicd t111d (o/urcnt 7vlwlc.
3. Rhetoric Defined. - The practice of choosing proper
words, and of putting them together correctly into sentences, is not alone sufficient for the adequate expression of our thoughts. Ii I shuuld say : "The man wept

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on hearing of the death of his mother,., the assert i01 1
might be accurate as to fact and correct as to g rammar,
and yet it would fail altogether to convey the real em11tional value of what l have in mind. It is nut enough
simply to communicate our thoughts to others: we
must communicate them cjfati;1cl_r; tktt is, we must
say what we have to say so that our readers ••r our
hearers may see exactly as we see, and feel exactly as
we feel. 1t is the part of rhetoric to gi,·e us ccrtaitl
principles, the applicatioll and practice of. which will
produ ce this result. \Ne may define rhetonc, then, as
t!tt' art of Jtl)'lll.!J-.wli1.1t we !ttl71e to Sll)' in tlte U( S! f'os .\°//i!c
ll/111/Jtt'r,

or tltc art of

t jfccti7 1e

exf'rt'ssili1t.

It is well to be on our guard ;ig'ainst certain false
conceptions, commonly prevalent, ·of what rhetori c ts
and what it does. Rh etoric should be helpful tu us
in making nur thought clear and forcihlt:. 1t is not, as
11 ftcn popularly cunceived, a s11rt of chican e ry, whereby
we may hide a po\·erty of thought in an ahunda tlce ol
hi<>h-sounding phr:tses. \Ve frequently hear ot a f\1111·
/\·hetoric, which is simply extravagant speech. This
0
is not rhetoric at all, but a violation of rhetoric. Rhetoric simplifies, it does not obscure, thought.
Again, we must not think that rhetoric Is a mere
knowledge of principles gained from :t te xt-hook. Thcst:
principles simply give us hints as to what to do or l~iw
to do. They help us in our difficulti es, but we must
overcome the difficulties by personal effort. Do not,
then, confound a knowledge of text-book definitions

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COMPOS/T/(IJ\' . / 1\·n R/fETOR/C.

/.!VT/Wf) lfC TOR Y CH AP T FR

with th e skill a cquired by applying- them to practice.
Do · not think th at any t ext-boo k suggests c n .: ry thing-..
A book that sho uld deal with every specific prnblcm (>f
effective writing co uld n1Jt be writt e n, a nd if written
would be of littk pra ct ica l Ya luc. Books teach us to
think for o urselves, train us in our tastes, d evelop o ur
powers of lit e rary di scern me nt. Th ey must he suppleme nt ed by practi cal experien ce in writin g. The important thing t o be acqu ired is not a kn owledge of rhetorical
th eo ry, hut a tra ining in lit e rary judg-mcnt.

may know a science without practic in g it. In physics,
for example, we perform experiments t o get a t th e
und e rl ying law, not to become skilled in th e perfo rm a nce. Every a rt h as certain und e rl ying principles, and
to that c..:xtt:nt pa rtakes of th e nature of a science; hut
there is this diffe ren ce, we do not mak e a study o f th e
prin ciples fo r their own sak e, but use them simpl y to
guide us in o ur practice. A ki10wl ed ge of th e prin ciples of music would n..:ve r ma k e us music ia ns. \ Ve
becom e proficic..:nt in mu sic a ccording a s we attain skill
b y pra l't icc.
Lik e music an d pa inting, rh eto ric is an
: 1;·t ; lik e thl' m, it has und l' rlyin g principles to guid..: us;
hut ;ts students uf rh etoric \\·e a rc chi e Ay ClJnce rn ed
with t he skill atta in ed in applying- thc..:sc..: principles.

4. The Relation between Composition and Rhetoric. I t \\' ill be see n that th e relati on between colllposit ion a11d
rhduric is very close; i1Hkc..:d , j ust what part ea ch plays
i11 th e effectiv e e xpression uf o ur thought it is ha rd to
point o ut. l t is 1w t impo rta n t th at we sh o uld kc..:q>
in mind just where o ne ends a nd th e other lwg in s.
Rhdori c a nd co lllpusi tion a rc insepa rabl y connected,
;ltld so hknd in th eir offices that th ey form, r:tth c r, on e..:
cducatiu na l m ct hml. \ Ve may get a tolerably L·lca r id L·a
nf th e field CO\"LTed by each if \\' C..: think of co111positi•111
:1s thl' b 11ildi ng--11p pron:ss, :11 1d of rh eto ric :1s th e
s111oothing and rdining· process, rcrnembering th:tt s kill
in either comes o nl y from practice.
5. Distinction between an Art and a Science. --- Rhct oi·ic is a n art and not a sL·iL' IKl'. The distinditJ11 bet ween an art and a science is this: an a rt implies skill , a
sc ie nce implies knowle<lge. Th e bas is of a n a rt is practice; of a scie n ce, law. A knowl edge of th e laws o f a
scie n ce is a kno wl erlg-c l>f the..: scie nce itself. Thus, we

7

6. Distinction between Grammar and Rhetoric. -- v\·c
slwuld disti11g-uish carefully between gramm:tr ;ind rh ettoric. lt is th e..: duty ot g rammar t u m a ke clear the ruks
whid1 .,·o\· e rn th e C<llTCCt use..: of words in a sentenc e.
Cramn~~tr dc..:als \\·it h th e forms and o ffict:s of words, and
th L·ir relations t o one a nother in th ..: sent ence. It tells
us whether to us e..: th e singular o r th e plural o f a nou n.
what an adjcctiv..: ur an adverb sh o uld modify, or th e
relation of a verb to its suhj ect. It tells us, in fact.
h ow to writ e a correct senten ce.
I ts fi eld does not
c\tcncl beyond the sentence.
Rh etoric may be sa id to begin wh ere grammar L·nd!.
Like .cramma r it deals with words; hut it concerns
"' er with th e choi ce, the numbe r, a nd th e a rra ngeit self rath
m ent of words in th e sente n ce th at will make th em

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CU ,1/ r'OS I !'/() , \ . . I.\'/) NII!:· TO NI C.

1N T!i' 11 n uc ·r o r. 1· c 11 / 1r TFR.

e ff ec tive. It t e lls us wh ether to use a long- nr a short
sent e nce, how to arrange th e sente nces in a p:nagraph,
a nd h o w to combin e the parag raphs int o a n effec tive
whole. 1n rh et o ric it is not th e question of wheth e r a
t hing- is ri g ht o r wron g, but wh cth c r one thing is bett e r
th a n anoth ~ r. H o we,·e r, to s ec ure th e b est results, it
is nccessary to introduce so mc of the less familiar rules
of g ramma r int o a t ext-book of rh etori c tu rdresh th e
stud e nt ' s m e mo ry.

sio ns as other people use them , or we sh;1ll not be
unde rst ood ; a nd th at is our only object in writin g . I i1
br id, we must express ourselves in accordance wit h
:;·oud 11 sage. The prin cipl es of rhet oric have, la rg ely , g ood

7. The Principles of Rhetoric and their Authority. Vl/e naturally ask o urscln:s, \Vh e nce come th e principks
o( rheto ri c ? and wh y should we follow th em? .Suppose:
that we wi sh t o paint pi ctures. \\ 'e might of oursd ves
by lo ng practi ce p rodu ce fair n.:sults; but mon.: probably we slwuld go to som e successful painter for instructi•m. \V e should expect him to tell us something of
th e prin ciples h e has foll owed in th e choice of colors,
in th e mixin g and th e bl ending of th e m, th e rules of
opti cs, etc. ; we sho uld naturally follow his course. It
is just so in our wnt1ng. \Ve wi sh to become good
write rs, and su we fol lo w th e me thods by which our bc:st
writ e rs have attain ed th e ir success. Now, th e prin ciples of rh etoric arc on ly con cise s ta t e me nts of how
th ese write rs have made th e mselves mastt:rs of their
art. Th ey simply record th e e xperience of our supe rio rs .
Th ey are not arbitra ry law s for wha t we must do, and
what we must not do. They arc no t mo rall y bindin g.
\Ve are free to e xpress ourselves as we please: but
th e n : is thi s dra ll'hac k: we mu st use ll'<•rrls ;ind v.xpres-

<)

fo r their a uthorit y.
8. The Importance of Thinking. - 111 the stud y 11 f
dTcctiv e expression we sh ould not forget th ;1t we mu st
hav e id eas t o express. Thoug ht is th e basis of exp res sion . If we think clearl y, we shall soon be alilc to express ourselves clearl y ; but if our wri t in g he de \'< ii d
of t hought , it will be wo rthless, no matt e r how be;1ut 1f ull y it may be e xpressed. The great diffi c ult y whi ch
confro nt s a hoy or a g irl wh o is cumpc llcd t " \\T ~t': ;1
composit ion is th e lac k of idea s. C i\'(:n t he idL\ '"· :1 11 1 1
t he writing becom es a pleas ure . Th<: fi rst ste p in 11Ttt iiw. th en, is t" think. O ur thoug hts will he s illlp lc :1t
fii:t. and .,ll th e commonpb cc m:1tters ., f t h" d:1y ; hut
th ese \\'ill lead to oth e rs, an d g-radu :ill y tlwy wi ll ti""'
easil y. \\'hat w;1 s prev iously ; u1 unpleasan t Lis k \\·ill
lie,«•11lL' : l so ur ce , ,f e n joy m e nt.
9. The Habit of Correct Speech. - \\ (:' sh<>tild ll<' \Uv
ca re ful to culti,·ate th e h abit r,f correct spnTh i11 <>llr
urdina rv cu n\·e rsa ti on ; beca use. if \\'C :1rL· ca rdu l to
speak ~'. orrcctl y, we shall suon acquire th e habit of
writing correctly. Sl ovenly speech , like a sln\ c nly l1ah1J..
sa vors of vulgarity a nd lo w assoc iati ons ; but it has an other effect, - - it bc;..;et s slove nl y writ in ;..; . T he Ji,,y \1·h
ca relessly says in sch ool, '' I ain 't got no hook ," or " I
can 't do th em l':\; tmpks, " will fl nd it difli c ult t<> pr ,·-

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JN TR O/!UC'f'O R V Cl/A ! "!FR.

CUJIP OSIT!OX .. r;vn RllETORIC.

sen·e care in writing. 1n general, la nguage once withi1i our control ca n be employed for oral or written
disco urse. As we talk much more th a n we write, th e
opportunities for oral practice g rea tly outnumber those
fo r written; consequentl y our oral practice plays an
important part in the development of literary power.
It is of the g reat est importa nce, then, that every teacher
should insi st on th e pupils' cu ltivat ing correct speech in
the ever y-<lay talk of the class-room.
IO. Difference between Oral and Written Expression. 1t is not strictly true that we should write as we talk.
To be sure, habits of speech beget ha bits of writing ;
b ut everybody kn o\\'s th at ordin a ry talk diffe rs from
written expression. It is more natural and informal.
The easy spontaneity of conve rsat ion, the rapid change
ul subject that keeps interest al ive, th e ready adjust111ent of e:J.ch speaker to the mood of th e other, arc
t hings that make our t:J.lk very different fr om what
\\'rit te n speech must ord inarily be. In talking we decide each m ome nt, and in fac t each second, wh at e ffec t
our last words have had on our heare rs ; a nd we fram e
our n ex t words t o correct that effect or e mphasize it as
the case may be. This we ca nn ot do when we write.
The effect o f eac h sent ence a nd each phrase must be
we igh ed beforehand, and \\' C must shape th e cnu rse of
uur writin g accordingly. I .et us take examples of oral
and writt e n com pos1t1on, a nd note some of th e differences in the manner of expression.

·I l

" l-l e's gone a Jong time. Ca 1~ ' t you see him down the
road ? Look! What is that hgure behmd the trees?
Jt 's mov ing! Don't you see the dust rising in the road, ..
(;eorge Dane had waked up to a bright new day; th e
face of nature, we ll \\·ashed by las t nig ht 's downpour . an d
s hining as with high spirits, good resolut ions_, Ji,·ely intentions - the great gla re of recommen cemen t, 111 sho rt. fix ed
in his patch uf sky. I l e had sat up late to fini s h work - ·
arrears overwh elmin g! - then a t las t had gone to bed
with the pile b ut littl e redu ced . H e was now to return
to it after the pause of th e night; but he could only look
at it , fo r the time, O\'e r the bristling hedge of letters
planted by the ea rly postman an hour before , and already
on the c ustomary tahl e by his c himn ey-place .. formally
round ed and squared by his systematic serv an t.
1-1 ENRV J A~ IE S: TIJC Gn:11/ Good l'/1rt'r'.

\Ve notice at once that the first exa mpl e has an easier
and more rap id flow tha n th e sec ond: it is less for mal:
it has certain contra ctions, su ch as " he's," "ca n 't,··
"it's,' ' an d "don't": th e re a re abrupt ehangcs in the
order of thought ; the se nt e nces are shorter; connecting
words a nd phrases, t o mak e th e t ra nsition from one sente nce to another less abrupt, a re omitted. \Ne feel,
almost instin ctively, that, whil e the first e xample is perfectly proper in conversation, it is not so suit ab le fnr
written composition as the second example. \ Ve must
not, th e n, in writing, a llow ourselves the liberties 11f
colloq uia l expression.

"
EXERCISES.

I .ct each a nswer consist of a t least one compl ete
scnt e 11ce.

12

CO. lfPOS/T/0.\ ' . I :VO Nl/F /'ON/ 1 '.

1.
What a re so111e of th e difficulties yo u ha \·e found in
express ing your th oug hts? R ecall and write · out some
explanation which you ha ve re<:ently found dilfa:ult in
the class-room. \l\' hy s hould you regard composition as
a pleasure ?
2. H ow do you think rh etori c will he lp you ? What dn
you unde rstand by tlu art 1?.f ((firti7·e e.xpressirm I Write a
b rie f distinction betwee n an art and a science. Compa re
T e ll why
rh etoric as an a rt \\'ith musi c or painting.
che mistry is a scien ce.
3. V.1rite a brief di stin ction between rh eto ri c a nd g ra111mar. To what exte nt should you obey the prin c iples of
rhetoric ? What d o yo u unde rstand by " good usage "?
Why is it impo rtant to thin k bcfor<' you write ? H ow <'an
you acq uire the ha bit of corre ct speec h?
4. Give an acco un t of what you sa w while on yot1r way
to school this mo rnin g . v\/rite the conversation, rea l or
imag inary, that you had with yo ur fri end while 0 11 the \\·ay
to school. Give the conve rs ati on during so me interesting
hour of the school session. Give an account of yo ur la st
bicycle ride .
T e ll what you think of your differen t
studies.
5 . Say whi ch of the following paragraphs have th e
form of oral or writte n di scou rse. and re write each in the
ot he r form. Give your reasons fo r thinking that each is
written or oral in form , and show what you have c hanged
to g ive it a ne w charac ter.

H ello, John l Going to s chool? Let's ta ke this ca r.
Jump ab oa rd. The re's a vaca nt sea t. I nea rly lost my
balance then. What's the matter now? Oh! it 's a wagon
stuck o n the track. I I ope it won't d e lay us long. Le t 's
wa lk the rest of the w:iy . l>on't go so fast! I ca n 't
brea the I The re 's th e bell ringing· now I Hurry up I
Yet, too, he struggled. H e rea li zed at moments what
he was d o ing, and his c heek grew pale at the idea that he
was juggling with his conscie nce and soul. He tried to
attend to the talk, and could only succeed in li stening for

/.\ " /'/.'1)/l //(''/'ONJ ' 1·11.tl'!FN.

. \ I <> ice · 11 e ke 1)t 110 Ill ore. h1 ild 011 . t he
SO Un f I 0 f Ile '
conve rsat ion th an was s uffi cient to allo w him to put Ill ;'.
wo rd now :ind the n to cover his p reoccupati on. I It:
fei.,n ed to be inte rested, t o be as u ~ ual ; but an h1,, bl ood
" trc m bl'm"· ..111 d tlIIJll)ling \\'ith this new
was
. d el1nun1· . .a11d
·
·ill stru •wles ~" forget his passion onl y mcre a sed its 1111,
·.
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ARI 0 H AT ES: T/11· J'11nta11 .
tensit y.
· ·

t I H.!

O h ! \ I e got the re a ll ri ght. Of course \\'e \\'e re covered
with mud . john does n 't kn o w how to ca rry· an umbrella.
The wa te r t~i ckled d own my back . . _1 ~ot mt'.l a , 11 ~~~\
puddl e, and the water came ove r Ill ) shoes: J,t nn1 e . . _
" net, too; look at that mud on her ar m ! J<>hn s .1 1111su :1hle failur e as an esco rt.

(,_ ]Zewrite the foll owi ng in the third 1:e rson th rougho ut. changin g eac h direct quotati on to the md1rect _fo rm.
Barret pressed his lips togethe r, and s ~?ok hi s. h~ad .
" You can't send him away hke th at. he s.1 1cl ' he is
.1 \·c ry importa nt young man ."
.
.
' .. 1:ind out hO\\:llluc h h e will take, then ,' e xcla1n~ e d the
·
· ncI irive
·
· t o Illm.
·
1 ca n be tte r al'! ord. to
hng- aiwnly
"a
it
l;ay bl a~krn ;; il to a 1~y am ou~1t th ~n ha ve my plans spo1bl
no w h . the newspape rs . Give 111111 what he :\•ant:-, - ,1 fl11
coat - ) t Iiey a I ways w ear
• fur. coats
' · - o r . h ve th
. ousand
,,
fra ncs o r something - anythm g, but _get nd uf him.
Ba r~et stirre d un easily in his c ha ir , .a nd shru~.ged his
"J-l e 1·s· not a• boule vard io urn ahst , he rts Il O ll 11
C C l S.
plied sulkily .
.
.
,.
"Your majesty is thinkmg _of 1-lunga nan ] e\1. ~:
Vien na," ex plained Kalanay , ''who h\·e on chantagt.
and the M onte C:i rlo propaganda fund . This man is not
in the ir class; he is not to be b oug ht. I said ht.: was an
A me ri cau. "
0

1

J' t!nui~s iun v ! 11 oughton, i\ l iffi i n S.: Co . , Pohlis hcr1.

!

( <i.1!/' ()S/T!O .\ .. 1.\"/J Nl!F/'1 >!.' !1 ·.

".-\n :\rne ri can ! ., exclaim ed J\ lrs. Carson and her
daughter, exchang ing rapid glan ces. " l s it Archi e (; o rdon you mean? " the g irl asked. "I th oug ht he w;is in
C hina. "
" That is the man - Archie Gordon. He writes hoo ks ,
and e xpl ores pl aces." Kalanay answered.
" I kn ow him. He. wrote a hook on the slave-trade in
the Congo." contributed Colon el Erhaupt. " I met hi111
at Zan zibar. \\'hat does he want ll'ith us ? "
" He wa s in \'okohan:·l II' he n.the J apanese-Chin ese ,~ar
broke out. " sai d Kal :111 ay, turnin g to th e king ; "and he
cabled a Lond on pa pe r he would foll ow the war for it if
they pa id him a hu nd red a wee k. H e mea nt Ameri can
d ollars : but they thoug ht he mea nt pounds, so they
cabled ba ck that they woul d pay one-half the sum. He
answered. ' O ne hundred or nothing'; and they fin ally
assented to that, and he started ; when the first wee k's
remittance arri ved , and he received five hundred dollars
instead of the one hundred he expected , he sent back the
d iffe ren ce. "
" What <l remarkable young man I '' exclaimed the kin g.
" H e is muc h too good for d aily wear. We don 't w ;rnt
anyone like that a round here, do we ?"
]{t C HAKIJ 1-I AR t!l :-; ( ; l>A V t s:
1

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Pc n11l :o\~ i u n o f ( 'li arl es Scri hn •.: r' ~ ~u n s , puhli !4 \i crs.

_/11d.:,1!. 1

THE THEME.

15

PART I.
COMPOSITION.

CHAPTER I.
TllE

THEME.

1 x. Preliminary Themes. In the preceding chapter
we have d e fin ed th e scope of composition ancl rh etoric, a ncl th e help we may hope t o d eri ve from th em in s urmounting th e diffic ulties o( expression. It is e vident
t o a ll ho w impo rta nt it is that our study of th e s ubj ect
should be accompa nied a nd s uppl em ent ed by writ t en
ex erc ises . It is d esirabl e, th erefore, that w e should
b eg-in writing a s soon as p ossible, not only as a preparatio n for our st ud y, hut also for th e pl ea s ure and interest
in cit ed by what we p rodu ce o urse lves, and fo r t he tra ining which the exe rc ise g ives to our powers of obse rvati o n. W e should writ e an e xer c ise as ofte n as possibl e,
ce rtainly o nce a week. For convenien ce we will cal:P.
these e xe r cises lltem cs.
In our prelimiuar.J' t!temcs we should not strive for
effect, or try t o be pret e ntious o r elaborat e. \Ve should
writ e simply on subj ects th at come up in our every-d ay

.i

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17

C01lfl 'OS!T!0 1\" .- / 1\'f) Rl/l':TON/C.

THE Tlll':!lfE.

ex peri ence. If \\'e observe cl1>~ely th e events of <.:ac h
day we shall find mu ch in them that is int eresting : the
walk or rid e to sch< ol, th e differe nt studies, tho ball
game, and the bicy cle ride m:i y :ill he made to furnish
material for short themes.
\Ve must not expect to
acquire all the nicet ies of ex pression at first, hut improve
the opportuniti es t o pe rfect ourselves in th e minor matt e rs \\'hi ch contribut e so much to the cxcclknce of a
manusc ript, such as neatness, care in handwriting, spelling, punctuation, and margins, all of which help to make
a favorable impression on th e minds of our readers.
12. Directions for Theme Writing. - T o get th e best
res ults, it is well for us to have some stated direc tions
to guide us in the prepa ration of our th emes.
Th e
foll owing, by general ag-reement, have been found to
be helpful.
1. Paper. If the pupils use paper of uniform size
it will be a conven ience to th e instructor. In general
it will be found that rul ed white paper, eight by ten
inch es in size, is preferable for theme-writing. Each
sh eet should be numbered, and folded lengthwise; th e
paper being turn ed to the rig ht in folding, with th e
nam e of the writ er a nd the date written on th e outside near the top. Below this th e title may he writte n
ii d esired. Th e pupil should write on only one side of
th e paper.
2. Tlte Title. Th e title should be written near the
top of th e first page, preferably on th e first ruled line.
Betwee n th e title and the first p:-ir:-igraph th e re should

he a blank space, eq ual at least to th e space between
two ruled lines.
3. Tiu: Use of Capitals in Titles. - In general it is
the custom to beg in all important words of a titl e with
capital lett ers. Usually the important words are 110u11s
and adjectives, less frequently verbs and adverbs. Th e
unimportant word s, such as pronouns, prepositions, and
conjunct ions do not begin with capitals.
4. lvfmx;ins. - At th e lcit of every page leave a margin oi an inch, a nd ind ent th e first lin e of a paragraph
another inch or more. At th e rig ht of th e page th ere
should be no ma rgin. All manuscripts should have a
mar!:(in at the left for the co mments of th e instructor,
or for the conveni ence of th e printer if th e ma nuscript
is to be published.
5. H1111dw ritin,i.;· n11d Spelling. - Plain, legible handwriting a nd co rrect spelling a re th e first essentials of a
good theme. Th ey go far to atone for rh etorical defi cienci es :Ille! to attract attention to a ny composition ; hut
above all th ey develop in th e pupil that regard for th e
appeara nce of his ma nu sc ript whi ch neat ness and court esy demand. Ca reless handwriting and spelling a re evidences of slove nlin ess, which all should avoid.
6. Crr1111111ntiml Co rrct'/11o·s. - Before ta king up
th eme work it is assumed that th e pupil is familiar
with dementary g ra mm:ir. Consequently he should be
c:i reful to avoid th e errors and vulgarisms so comm on in
colloquial disco urse. Grammatical co rrectn ess is sure to
mak e a favo rabl e impression on the mind of th e reader.

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18

CO,lf/'OS!T/O,,\" AN!J R!!l:' TO!UC.

THE THEME.

, I

7. Revising and Rc-wn"ting. - One of the most benefi cial exercises connected with theme-writing is the work
of revising and re-writing. When the theme is returned
by the instructor with his corrections and comments it
should be carefully worked over hy the pupil, and rewritten or revised in accordance with the suggestions
which the instructor has made. This is excellent discipline for the pupil, as it requires patience and skill,
often more than is req uired in writin<Y
the ori(Tinal
b
b
th e me. It calls the attention of the pupil to his deficiencies, impresses on his mind the qualities of good
co mposition, and produces a finished and complete
w'o rk.
It should form a regular part of the pupil's
theme work.
13. Choice of a Subject. -

Finding, as we do, plenty

to write about, we shall not lack material for our themes;

but the exercise of judgment in selecting our subjects
may still be a difficult matter. Theoretica lly the range
of subjects is world-wide; actually it is limited by certain considerations, such as our knowledge and experience, time, and space. Two considerations, especially,
enter into the choice of a subject, - our own interest,
and the appreciative interest we may hope for on the
part of our readers. \.Vhatcver we write about should be
uf present interest to us. This is true not only of school
themes, but of all literature. J f we look over the magazines of tO-day, we find th e articles written by men who
have made a special study of their subjects. We look
to Gibbon and Hume for hi sto ry, to Scott for historical

19

tales in prose and poetry, to Dickens for a study of
character, beca use each wrote about what interested
him most. No good results can be attained in any other
way.
If we have no interest in a theme, and a little ~tudy of it quickens no interest in us, we should
throw it away; for we shall have nothing to say that
is worth read ing. 'vVe should not, however, from mere
whim discard a subject as dull.
What seems at a
glance to be dull may, upon examination, prove suggestive and interesting.
'vVe should choose uur subjects with some reference
to our readers. 'vVhatever we write about should be a
matt e r of present int e rest to those around us, or capable of arousing an interest; otherwise it will be a waste
of time to put our thoughts on paper. " The Pl easu res
of Adversity," or "The Necessity of Hope, " would
never - unless in the hands of an Em e rson - attract
readers ; for the subjects are so old and hackn eyed that
they have no present interest for people, and the ordinary writer has nothing new or fresh to say which will
awaken an interest. Remember, then, that in addition
to our own interest in a subject we should hope to
arouse an appreciative interest in others.
I. G'ctting !11/ormation. 1t is evident that we
should be familiar with our subject ; if we are not, we
should proceed to make ourselves so. Here arises the
question, Shall we write as well if we are compelled to
inform ourselves upon the subject at the time of writing,
as if we wrote from a fund of previous information ?

,,
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COJlfPOS/T/ON A.NLJ RJ/EJ'ONJC.

There are advantages either way. If we write largely
~ff altogether from what we already know, we shall write
with more ease and freedom, with stronger assurance of
conclusions that have become convictions ; but our interest in a subject will be less infectious if it has become a
little worn for us. The writer, as well as the reader
'
needs the stimulus of novelty, and should choose subjects that compel him to do some new thinking, some
new studying or reading, for himself. This brings us
face to face with another question which we all have
asked ourselves probably many times, I-low far are we
at liberty to appropriatt: tht: idt:as of others? \Ve
should keep firmly in mind, that what we write ·m ust be
our own, and not a patching up of fact s gathered from
others. \Ne may read books for informa tion about our
subject, - the more the better; but we are not at
liberty simply to gather the ideas, a nd appropriate tht:m
without change to our own ust:. vVhat wt: read should
give us food for our thought. \Ve must digest it . We
must compare the ideas we gather from others with our
own obst:rvations and e.\perience, and dt:duce our own
interpretation, thcrt:!Jy coloring the work with our own
personality.
vVhat we take in must be thoroughly
assimilated before we give it out. Of course, our themes
on historical stibjects, such as Julius Ca!sar, or the Battle of Waterloo, will bt: largdy abstracts, as we must depend entirely on books for our information about them ·
'
but if we are writing on a subject of to-<lay, for instance,
"The Influence of the Newspapt:r," we can combine

Tl//-..' Tl11:.'Jlf E.

21

what we read with what we observe.
1 n brief, we
may settle the question of reading up by keeping in
mind that our reading should supplement our own
knowled ge and obse rvation ; it should nut furni sh us
with all our mat erial.
2. G-'mcml and Stccifi,· Subjects. In general we
should choose subjects that are definite and specific,
rather than those that are abstract and general. Subjec ts of the latt e r sort, while seemingly easy, a n: reall y
mu ch more unsatisfactory and difficult of treatment.
They present so ma ny lin es of thought that the mind
cannot readily take th e m in; they req uire, too, a wide
range of information and an exact knowledge of the facts
from which generalizations may be drawn. It is almost
impossible to add anything fresh or original tu the discussion of such subjects. They, therefore, offer more difficulties to th e writer, and have less interest for the
general reader. " Fict ion " would be a n uninteresting
subject, or at least a subject that could be made interesting only by one who had read widely and thought much;
it could not he t rcatt.:d prnpt:rly in the shurt space of a
tht:me; but George Eliot's greatest novel might be mad...:
the subject of an interesting papt:r by one whose knowledge of the world of books was much less extended.
Even this subject, properly treated, would be much too,
abstract for most of us. A book is rarely a fit subj ec t
for themes to be written by high-school pupils ; since
they have not the requisite critical judgment to treat it
properly, and ordinarily make their writing on such a

:)

..t:

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22

CU1 lfP OS!TI ON A N D RllHTOR/ C.

subj ect m ere catalogues of the fac ts of which th e book
makes reco rd.
3. Limitations of P lace, Ti111t, and K ind. - Th e
space that is to be given to a s ubject will a ffect somewhat t he sta t ement of t h.e s ubject a nd title. An essay
upon th e ea rth mig ht fill a volume, a nd leave all but a
fraction of the s ubj ect un touched. If by some additional wo rd or phrase of li mitati on t he subj ect be so
na rrowed tha t th e earth is to be con sid ered simply in its
astronomical relati ons as a member of the solar system,
much less ca n be writ te n ; and if th e s ubj ec t be furth e1
na rrowed, so th at on ly the size of t he earth in relati on
to tha t of oth e r mem be rs of the solar system is to be
conside red, th e re will be still less to be said. Finally,
th e subj ect may be so na rrowed that the th eme will
conta in no more tha n a paragraph.
4. Sou rces of S ubjects. - F ortuna tely th e world is
so full of things that inte rest us that we do not have
to repeat othe r men' s thoug hts in ord e r to have something to say. O ur da ily experiences, o ur everchanging
int e rests, th e newspape rs a nd magazines that crowd our
ta bl es, continua lly suggest ne w topics fo r disc ussion, and
st imul ate o ur thin king. O ur di ffere nt studies, pa rticularly English literat ure and history, fu rni sh us with ma ny
excell ent s ubj ects fo r th emes. Not hing co uld be more
helpful to th e pupil o r more interestin g to read t ba n a
theme based on some of Irving-'s sketches or on the
R oger de Coverley pape rs. A n incident in histo ry, s uch
as" The Battle of W a terloo " or "The Ri se of the S ara-

THJ:.: THE M E.

23

cens, " would be equally interesting . Whenever a pupil
finds something in his studies to interest him and stimu:ate hi s mind, h e can feel that he has a s uitabl e subject
for a theme.
The pupil should be careful t o d is1 4. The Title. ting uish between the subj ect and th e titl e. The titl e is
the special name that a write r g ives to the a rticle which
he writ es. Sometim es the subj ect may be so worded
as to ma ke a good titl e, but more oft en it is too vag ue
a nd general. W e may int end to write something about
our t ravels.
We desire a brief a nd attracti ve titl e.
O ur s ubject will readily furni sh us with s uch a one,
as, " F rom Boston to Ne w York by Troll ey Ca r, " "A
D ay at Niagara," or " Abroad with a Camera." " F rom
the An vil to the Pulpit" is a n account of the life of a
noted cle rgy man. In " Bro wn 1-t eath and Blue Bell s "
we a re treated to some ve ry int eresting sketches of
Scot land. The importance of a good title must not be
overl ooked; by it we ma rk out our line of treat ment ,
and arouse the curi osity and int erest of our readers.
If the titl e of what we
1 5. How to Choose a Title. intend t o writ e abo ut s uggests it self along with the
prospect ive s ubj ect matter and th e ma nn er of treatment, that is well ; but oft en thi s is not the case, and
th e titl e becomes our first care. \Ne should think fir st
of what we wish to say, - subj ect, point of view, leng th
of treatm ent, etc., - and govern ourselves accordingly.
Th e titl e shoul d have a ve ry definit e relation to what
it int rod uces ; it should appea l to the curiosity of th e

24

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CU.1/PUS IT! U i \' ANn RHl~"TONI C.

reader, but should not tell too much. "Prohibition doe s
not Prohibit " is very fa ulty as a title, since it betrays
a t once the partisanship of the writer ; a nd those whom
th e a rticle is written to convince will look no furth e r.
"Why Prohibition d oes not Prohibit" is better, si nce it
leaves the point of vie w of the writer unce rtai n. The
use of hac kneyed e xpressions in th e title is pec uliarly
open t o o bj ec tion, since it gives the colo r of comm onplace to the whole production. " Tripping th e Light
Fa ntastic Toe" we know to be merely an acco unt of a
dancing-party, a nd it a wakens in us no furth e r inte rest.
A ti t le should be brief t o ca tch the a tte nti on of th e
reader, a nd clea r, that he may see quic kl y the cha racter of th e a rticle. "Victorious yet S kunk ed," a title
recent ly g iven by a sc hoolboy to hi s t he me, wuuld ha rdl y
sllggest th at the hoy ·was narrating the inc id ents of a
fox -hunt. I\ title should not he sensa tional. Such a
title, so common in the newspapers of th e present day,
g ives a n unpl easa nt shoc k, a nd creates a n unfavorable
impression in the minds of intelli gent readers. \Vith
the h e lp of a prope r title we may hope to get the reader
int e rested in ou r them e.

THE

TH EM£.

2 • Which of the following subjects wo':'ld be of interest
to you, and whi ch would_ _b~ of gener~l 111terest ? Which
of them should you cnt1 c1se as bemg too abstract or
general ?
1. The benefits o f gard e ning.
_. Th e pleasures o f ·a well·
inform ed mind .
3. Co urage.
.
4 . A sunse t in th e m u unt a m s.
5. A Turkish man-o f-war.
6. Butterflies.
7. Astrol ogy.
s. A cotton-field .
9 . Zoroaster.
10. A Hindoo te mple.
1 1. Oom l'aul Kru g er.
12. M a nual training.
,,
13 . " The Man with the H oe.

14 . Cultur e.
15 . Coa l-minin g.
16. Th e rubbe r-tr ee.
17 . (_;eneral G ra 1H·s. ca. m- ·
paigns in th e C ivil W ar .
1 S. Ne wspapers.
" )· A visit to \lv as hin g ton.
20. Th e 13ostun S ubw ay.
2 1. A day in ca m p.
22. Yachtin g.
.
2 3. Trout-fish in J.('.
2 4 . The p leas ures of bicycle-.
rid in~ .
· 25. Our soldiers in Manila .

Narrow fo ur of the fo llowing the mes by maki ng limi of place, time , kind, either one or :di , ul~ they
are so far red uced th at eac h may be treated w1tlun the
compass of a paragraph.

t atf~ns

1.

2.

3.
4.

5.
6.

7.
S.

Moun ta ins.
Clocks.
Flo wers .
8icycl es .
Locom o tives.
Ca ts.
Opportun ities.
C har ac ter .

9. C h a riti es.
10.
11.

12 .
13.
14.

15.

l'ain.
J'J ay .
Air.
Fire.
Geysers.
S eas.

EXERC ISES.

Bring to the class l"i \'e subjects which yo u ha ve
found of interest to you in the ne,rspapers and the maga·
zincs yo u have recently read. Select from your own
observations tive subjects suitabk fo r themes. Select a
similar list from you r sc hool courses. Choose a prope r
titl e for each of yo ur subjects. Give your reasons for
thinking each title app rop ri ate.
1.

N .11-row four of the foll owing subj ects so as to make
4· interesti
'
·
them
ng to four different
classes o f rea clers.· N arrow at least two of the subjects so that the them4! ma y
be intere sting to readers for whom the subiect as a whole
mig ht not be attractive . In each ~as~ state to what particular class of reade rs the theme is mtended. to appea l,
and be prepared to say why it should have mterest for
readers of that class.

26

C01JfPOS!T!O.V ,./N/J RHETORIC
!.

Farming.

Prin ting.
~- Sewing-.
4. l\loonli g ht.
5. In ven lions.
(J. The post-o ffice .
7. E lecti ons.
2.

S. The Nile.
')· Our Country.
10. Niagara.
II. Nature.
12. Hase·uall.
13. The Milky Way.
14. The Aztecs.

5. Housing the Poor.

Lxpcri111e11ts in :--t' curi nk

6. A Garden of l\1 ercy.

A plea for se11din).'. tl1<"
poor frn1n the cr11"ded
ci ties to th e farn1inc.:
districts, and ior t 11"
estab li s hment nf train~
ing-cnlonib.
"La nd
Experiments,'' s;l\·s_tl1e
author . "is a nild title.
To nw the\· i the trai11
ing - colt111ie~) appear ;1'
Cardens of ;\Jere\·.
where- the g;:irdenc:1
longs tu make a '
~oudly :l show uf ~(1tils

S· Narrow five of the following subjects until yo u think
are suitable fur school themes, and give an appropriate title to each.
they

..
-''i

I.

Th e l\l other Country.

2.

Art.

II .

12.

3. Rivers.

The Span ish \Var.
5. Li teraturc.

4.

6. :\[ <1gazines.
7. \Vatches.
Co untry Roads.
9 . Heroes.
10 . Sunrise .

s.

i3 .
1.j.
I -~ .

16.
17.
18.

The Straits of Dover.
The \V ar he tween the
English anct the Boers
in South i\frica.
Electrici ty.
:\rbitration.
1mmi gTation.
l'ublic Parks.
Politics.
l\fonicipal Gove rnment.

6. Look over the newspapers and mag-azincs nf the
day, and select five titles which you think appropriate to
the subjects treated . (;ive \"Our reasons. Com111e11t on
the appropriateness of the following titles to the subje~ts
treated .
TITLE.

·i'

S UHJECT ll'\ ilIU EF .

;l s nl rost·s."

7. Forty Years of British Trad e .

A histor\" of the dc:n: l"i'·
rnent
trade in ( ;re;it
Brita in during the L"t
forty ye;lrs.

~- The lhttle of the Centuries.

A discussion whether 1h1,- ear 1110 0 1H"l1111.l'.."' t(i
il1e ninetee11th or 1l1e
twenti eth centur\".

'..! · /\Ten Ye;ns' \Var.

/\n ac co11nt of the lut1k
with the slums in Ne·\\
Yo rk City

1.

New York Bites the Dust.

Describing the defeat of
the New York base.
ball club in a game.

10.

!'nor Penplt"

2.

Lessons in Liberty.

An :iccount of the prep:i·
rations for the visit of
Cu ban teachers to the
Un ited States.

l I .

\\"e are tuu urnc·h ( ; overned .

3. A Patriot's Mecca.

J\n accou nt of the celc·
bration of Patriot's
Day, April 19, at Concord, :\1 ass.

4. Her Day of B:ittle.

An ;" ·r1•unt of the same
;1l Lexingto11.

model dwelli11,; · h<>tbe'
fur th e poor of L"11<lo11

uf

/\nove l. dealing;" ith life
in the tenenH·nt district
in Ch icago. This does
not me;rn the s I 11 ms.

I am asked." says tl1e
;uitlior, "tu expre.'-'s 111y .
\' iews of the tende1tn·
on the pa r t of the Le,>!_islatures of the \" Jr ious
States of the l : 11ion il1
th e din.:ctiun ul nniltiplying legisl.ttiun."

28

COAfP()S!T/01\! AND Rlllo.TORJC.

12. The K londike Stampede.

A history of the K londike region, and a description of the rush of
people to that loca lity
during the gold feve·r
of 1897 - Il\98.

13 . " Never Say Die."

/\

q . An Actor's Day off.

school-boy's accoun t
of the work and practice of the sc hool hoatcrew on the river.

·r he

experien ce of an
·actor who had stopped
over a day at Niagara
Falls.

15. Chocorua.

/\ description of Mt.
Chocorua bv a writer
who spent ol1e s11m111er
in that vicinity.

16. A Large !lass.

A

17. 1\ Steam Ca rria ge.

A desc r iption of a n autom o h i I e propelled by

school -boy's account
of a clay's bass-tishini;
in Florida.

stean1 .

7. Suggest suitable titles for the folloll'ing- news pa p e r
paragraphs.
1. The attorney-general for Kansas, on January 16, at
Topeka. rendered an opinion to the slate su/ler intend e nt of
public instruction, holding that when a pu )lie school has
been suspended by order of th e hoard of trustees, on account
of the presence of a contagious disease in the community,
teachers are entitled to full pa y und er th eir contracts during
such suspension.
2. What sneaks and snobs we are getting to be!
A Canadian railroad dignitary is written of by an American newspaper as" hav ing once filled the position of an humble ticket
agent." Mark the juxtaposition. The "humble" is attached
to the man more than to th e position. We never vet foun<l
that humi lity was req ui red iu that occupation.
·
3. The worst of the whole busin ess is, not so much the
harm that a single play can do, but the i;eneral degT;idation

THE TJ!fo'MF.

of public tast e, if not of morals, by exaltations of hrute
reproductions of the indecent as" art." Between th e re presen tations of life and life itself th ere must always be a
cl istinction.
.
.
4 . For three consecutive Co~g r e ss1onal elect ions the
methods and practices of that drstnct have ~ee1! rnvest1gated b y this House_, and in both of the pr_eced111g 1 nst ~nce~
this body has set its seal of condemnat 1on upon the de
bauche ry thereof.
.
_
5. Th e tlour trust has collapsed, fro m t he same cause th.'1'.
sent so many trusts down, over cap1talizat1on. As 1t '~as
written in the Reg ister many months a.go, . the peop le 11ho
will be hurt first and worst hy the trusts wi ll be th ose 11ho
put their money in them.
.
G. M amma - Tommy, you must eat every b it of ynur
soup.
How many little boys would be thankful to have
only half of that big bowlfu l set before them.
Tommy - So would I. .
. .
.,
..
7. Th e Dublin c ity counc1\ had an e:oi;c1t111i; session 01t'1_
a resolution to we lcome Queen V1ctona formaHy_ 111 he1
co ming visit. It was carried by a narrow m<1Ju nty, and
with groans from the spectators.
.
.
X. During the past week th ere have been in ~reas 111g signs
o f a risinor tide of war sentime nts among th e l· re nc h people
directed ,~gains! England , and it is an OP';"' secret that the
army and navy a re being put on a war fooung.
9 . The British newspapers very generally applauc\ Sa lisbury's rejection of the peace proposal.
.
10. In both Senate and House b ills have been 111tro<luced
giving the senior major- ge neral _of the army, while co mmanding the army, the rank of lieutenant-genera l, together
with the emolttmt!nts of that rank.

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30

COllfPOSIT/ON AND RHETORIC.

CHAPTER IL
THE TH EM E

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(c1111/i1111ct!).

16. Material for the Theme. --- Befo re the work of
composition is begun, mat e rial for the them e should be
gathered and consid e red carefully.
Every sentence
should be planned with th e thoug ht of the conclusion for
which th e whole is writt e n. A great genius may dash
off his lines without premeditation, trusting to inspiration for th e working out of a well-rounded design, but the
m ajo rity of us cannot do this.
In g-eneral, lack of d esign is a very serious hindrance to the pleasure as well
as to the comprehension of the reader. We should get
our material, and have it arranged in our minds before we
begin to write. But here the great difficulty confronts
us, where shall we get this material ? \Ve may ha\· c
our subject, even our title well in mind hut the 11t: xt
step is not always an easy one. 'Where shall we find
the material for our th emes ?
The great source of ma terial 1s our own experience
and observation. Havin g chosen his subject, the pupil
should keep his eyes open co ntinually for hints and suggestions. He will be surprised to find how many things
that he sees or hears or reads have a bearing on what .
he has been thinking about. I .ike a good reporter, he

THE TJIE!lfE.

31

should note minutely \\'hat is .~oin;..; 011 around him . and he
alive tn all the upportunitiL·s for getting i11 fo rn1~1ti<111. llf
course not e \·e rything that comes under our "hscrv~tl i.. 11
is available, and not <.: \-crything a\·ailable sho11·s its true
charact<.:r a t a glance : we may h:t\'C to l.,ok ;1 l,J11g· l illlL'
to sec a nything that has not already hecn sce11 ~ind
reported many times. \V e should make rn<.:nt:tl mt·rn"randa fo r future reference, ur lxtter still, we sh• 1uld
carry with us a not e-hook t o jot down what corn,·s
within th e range uf our ohservati111i. This has been the
experience of all the great authors whose books aff• 1rd
us so mu ch pleas ure.
The bc;wt if ul dcscript i"11s ,,(
la ndscape, th e faithful delineat ions of character, are the
result of close observation on the part of the ;1utli.,r.
The success of Di ckens was undoubtedly d11c in great
measur<.: It> the fact that he had bee n a reporter, and ;1,·quired the habit of observing minutely the m:111n<.:rs,
llH>V<.:m<.:nts, and surro undings of the characters which ht.
has portrayed with such consummate skill. Read 'vVash ing'ton Irvin;..;'s dest'r iption ,,f Sleepy I lollow, and _1"<111 Sl'«
at once that it is no fant'y <1f Irving's i1n;1gi11ati"11, IJ11t ;1
real valley whi ch l n ·ing had visited, and whit'h had 11L1tk
deep impression upon his mind.
ln Nathaniel J L111· thorne's "Nute Book" may be found the fulluwing
record, showing how he was co ntinually jotting du\\'11
minute observations for future use :
"October 25. - A walk yesterday through Dark Lane,
and home through the village of Danvers. Landsca pe
now wholly autumnal. Saw an elderly man laden with two

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CUAfP OSI TIOX ..! N /J R/11:.: T O NI C.

dry, yellow, rustling bundles of Indian corn stalks, a good
personifi cation of Autumn. An oth er man hoe ing up potatoes. Rows of white cabbages lay ripen ing. Fields o f dry
1ndia n corn. The grass has still conside rab le gree nness.
Wild-rose bushes devo id of leaves , \\'it h their dee p, brig-ht
:rvlt:eti11g-lwuse in I bnve rs seen at a
red seed-vessels.
distance, with til e s11n ,.,hining thruugh the 11i1ldu \\'S of its
b e lfry ," and so on.

S u ch is the im portanct: of clnsl' .. hst: r va tin11 ancl perso na l e xpe ri e n ce.
\N e m ay fin d mate rial also in th t.: obse r va ti o ns a nd
experiences of oth e rs.
\ \It: s hould c u It i \·a It: th e habit
of consul ti ng boo ks, of getting sumt:thing- bt.:sides plt::1surt.: o ut o f magazin es ancl papt.: rs. O ur readin g shoul d
supple ment our own e xp t: ri t.: n ce ; it should stimubtl.' our minds, not furnish us with read y m ade ide:1s.
'vVit h this· ca ut ion. th e n. we sho uld see k informati o n from
all the b est books a nd pape rs at our command . l l ert:,
aga in, w e are foll o wing in the footsteps of our mast e rs.
'v\l e know from M aca ulay's jou rn a l that h e spe nt
t.:ig ht een m o nth s in acqua inting him self with th e re ign ol
\ Villi am lll ., that h e might he ahle to write his I I isto ry.
Il e v is it e d Holland, Belg iu m, Scotbncl , lre land, France;
h e ransack e d the Dutch a rchi ves a nd the Fre nc h a rchi ves;
he turn e d over t h o usands nf pamphlets, :md explo red th e
Britis h Museum a nd th e gre:-tt librari es of E ng la nd, for
his m a t e rial. Go into the Bus tun l' ubli c l .ibrary any
day, a nd yo u will see men from :di parts uf th e co untry
pori n g over boo k s a nd manu scripts for information upon
subjects which th ey int e nd to di sc u ss.

Tiii:.:

!HEME

1.carn t o use indexes. such as l'oole' s " Ind ex to l'L· riodi ca l Lit erature, " a nd the America n Libra ry Assoc iation's " Ind e x to Ge nt.:r;il Literature," that you m :1y thL·
nH,re readil y find out what h as been written on ~1 ,g·i\·l· 11
s ubj ect.
l f y11u wish to knn\\' :1h"u t l>r. J<ilrn,;1J11, :111d
have 11 11 b1Jok "r m:ig·:iz i11 e art il·k dc:t!i11g \\'ith h i111. 1w1·
haps the ind ex tu a lit e of C1ddsm1th 11 r s"me "tli1T l 1111 t c m por;1ry will hel p y11u. A d1ance :tllusi"11 tn till·
s ubj e c t is l>ett er tlia11 1i o inform at ion at all; it 1n:1 y s11ggest a no the r \·iew of th e matt1T, "r m:1y sh " w th:1t
y our l'L'se: l rchcs ha 1·e bee n too 11:1rrow and <>11< ·-" i' lt-d .
\ \'c shoul d g uard ca refully :1g: 1i11 s l ;111y ,.,t1d1 f:11dt.
< lur
readers wil l hardly :1pprtT ia t 1: t lie rl·:tl force 111 "111· , 111 1rlusions. :111d th e ,gTounds lnr th e ni, if \ \ ' C k:1\<' tlH· 11 1
with th e feeling th;it ou r ,;hm\·ing· 1s 11 ot a fai r <>II<'
II ;1
rn·e 11 t p;q 1LT 111· ni; 1ga,1111l· h:i s su ,g·gcstnl 1iu1· s1il1.1 n·t. \\'"
li:t\ 'l' t<> ,g·11 ;1rd t·spe1· 1:tll y :1g·:1i11st the cl:111g1T "'. 1Jlll'-"ld <'d
tn.: atment. If 11·t.: are writing upon .. Th e u ni ted St:1lt'-.
and th e Philippines," a nd \\'ish for far t s in s1q,pnrt <>I "1 11
opini<111,;, we must consult the 111"rc st.: ri ous mag:i zi111·s
and re vie ws ins tead of rL·ly ing 1q11111 the dnuhtf1tl ,;t; i lt'm c n ts of p:1rt isan 11ewsp:1pers.
17. Development of the Theme.
l·i1kd o n our subject and ou r titlt:, st·c ur1'<l our m:1k ri:d,
an d thought o ut i11 a gt.: n e ral wa y o ur r 1m c lu ,;i1111-., w 1 ·
h:1ve st ill to cons id e r va riou s poi11t s i11 conncctio11 \\'itl1
th e t hl'me, such as how tu begi n, th e order and t he lc ng tli
o f treat m e nt, th e proport io n uf parts, and how to end it.
Most of th ese consid e rat ions can he :1 11s wcrcd :is ll'c

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35

CU,1!/'U.S fl'I UN A 1V/J Nlllo l'Uli'I C.

THE THEME.

:-tcquirt experience in writing, but a few of the more
e!t:mentary matt ers may be tre:-tted here.
r. Tile Beginning. - H ow to begin is one of the
most perpl exing questi ons that confront the pupil in his
theme writing . He may ha\·e hi s mat erial wdl in mind,
but he ca nnot think of a good way to begin ; everything
seems awkward or abrupt. \Vh cnce shall come th e first
words? Th ey must grow out of nothing yet expressed,
but must link th emselves to what is to come. \Vhen
we o nce get started it is easy to go on, for one thing
s uggest s anoth er. But how shall we start? Let us
consider for a moment what purpose our beginning is to
se rve. Plainly its first purpose is to get th e reader's
attention ; th en it must int erest him, and create a favorable impress ion in his mind; and lastly it must give him
to understand what we int end to write about. \V e should,
th en, begin with something fresh and interesting; and
this should prepa re th e way for a brief statem ent of th e
subj ect. S omet im es a short anecdote or a n apt quotation will answer the purpose; again, we may begin with
some brief assertion that will strik e th e reader with
surprise or pleas ure, or arouse his curiosity. Th e use
of th e first personal pronoun is often e ffectiv e, as it invites familiarity and confi dence. On simpl e topics we
may begin a th eme as we sh ould begin a conversation
with a fri end . lf we have ~pt: nt an enjoyable day at the
seashore, and wish to tell a fri end about it, we do not
hesitate for a way to begin. We say naturally, "I spent
a m ost delightful clay at the seashore yesterday;" and

then we proceed to t ell him all th e particula rs. 'vVe may
do th e same in our writing, although, of co urs e, in a
somewhat more formal way. Look over I rving"s " SketchBook," or some similar work, and note how th e a uthor
beg ins his different sketches. In a recent magazine
article on " Railroading as a Profession," th e a uthor
begins a_s follows :
" Ever since the Civil \Var, railroading as a ca reer has
probably been more attra ctive to the bold and enterprising youth of America than any other occupation ."

34

An arti cle in th e "Atla nti c Monthly," enti tled "A
Girl of Sixteen at Brook Farm," begins thus:
"Of all the memorable company whom l fou nd seated
at the tea table when I arrived at Brook Farm, a few
weeks after its opening, not one is now alive.''
In general, th e pupil will find littl e diffi cult y in beginnin h•
cr if he keeps in mind what he wishes to accomplish,
and docs it as briefly and simply as is consistent with
what he has to say.
::?.
T!tc E11di11g. - Somewhat less perpl e xing is
th e question, how to end the theme. Eve ry teacher
has doubtless list ened to the despairing cry of the
pupil who has writt en all he has to say upon his
subject, but cannot think of a suitable way to end his
theme; there is an ind efinite something in his min,!
which he would like to say to bring his work to a fittin g
cl ose, but he cannot frame it in words. As in the case of
the beginning, the difficulty will be easily solved, if the
pupil will keep in mind what he wishes to accomplish in

CO.IfPOSIT/ON AKLJ RHETORIC.

the ending. If we were to analyze the indefinite something in the pupil's thought, we should probably find that
it is a desire to impress more firmly on the reader the
important points that have been made, and to round
o ut gracefully his theme, so as to produce a finished
whole. This is the purp.ose of an ending; and this purpose can be accomplished best by a brief summary of the
several points, which will present them in one view to th e
mind of th e reader. If the th eme is a simple narrative,
a simple, happy turn uf expression, when int erest in the
subject is closed, will suffice for an ending. (Introduction and Conclusion will be treated m ore fully in
Part II I.)

Tltc Outline. - Before beginning to write a th eme
it 1s important to have a preliminary outline ur plan,
noting briefly the topi cs t u be considered. This enabl es
us to secure unity and symmetry in our work.
The
outline may consist of little more than notes of the
things we have learned in the way of reading or observation. 'Ne may simply jot these notes down and then arrange them according to sequence, or we may group them
under topics. Jn either case th ey will serve as a guide
suggesting the relation of one thought to another, and
th e line of treatment; and they will give that mental
grasp of the subject which is so essential to easy ex pression. Let us suppose, fo r instan ce, that we wish to
describe a N cw England village which we have visited.
With note-book in hand we jot down our impressions
somewhat as follows:
3.

TllE

TllE 1 ~!E.

37

THE LITTLE VILLAGE OF A.
Arrived at the littl e railroad station. Saw a number of
curious looking people gathered there. Strange forms of
conveyance. A bright, sunny day. A beautiful spot. 1\
rive r Rowing through the valley. Road bordered with
trees.
Green fields stretching away in the distance.
Fields of grain. Carclens. Farm-houses here and th ere.
Mountains in the distance. Approach to village. Main
streets.
Tall elllls.
One or two stores. post-offi ce.
Church. School. A hotel. A number of loafers around.
A small factory on th e river. People mostly farmers,
pleasant, talkative, always busy. Some work in factory.
Stayed at a large farm-house. Numerous walks. Beautiful paths. A lake.
Falls. Good fishing. Historical
associations. Traditions.
Feelings awakened by the
visit.
\Ve have jotted down our notes at random, as thl'y
happened tu com e to us ; but on exam ina ti on we shall
sec that we crn improve this outline by om itting some
of the trivial and unimportant notes, a nd by grouping
and rearrangi ng what r em a in. Thereby the outline will
be made more systematic, a nd th e th e me more ord e rly
and symmetrical. The reYised outline will be somewhat
as follows:
1.
Beginning. 1. Arrival. 2. Railroad station. 3. People around. 4. A sunny day. 5. My first impressio ns.
2.
Natural features. 1. A river tiow ing through the
valley. 2. Green fields stretching away. 3. Cultivate<lland. 4. Large tracts of woodland. 5. A lake. 6. Mountains all around in the distance.
1 . Prosperous-looking
farms .
3. Artificial features.
2. Stores.
3. A country church.
4. A small district
school. :; .. The hotel. 6. The factory.

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C0.1/!'0S!T/0,V A,\·11 RllFTORIC

4. l'<::ople. 1. Farmers. -· \\"nrkmcn in the factorr.
3. Character of the people. -- pleasant. courteous, htts)·.
Pentliarit ies.
5. l'hccs nf interc~t. 1. The l.tkc. 2. l·ishing. 3 .
The Ltll.s. .j . Bcautifttl p;tths through the woo ds.
6. 1-l istorical associations.
1. Indians.
_. A Revolutiona ry \Var incident. 3. A tradlliun.
7. Conclusion. Feelings awakened by my visit.
Of course the outlrne m;n- be still further svste matized
if desired .
·
'

4. Tlt1· Firs! and Si'<"o11d ! )rafts. -

l Tavi11,l'.· now out-

li11ed vur plan of work, it only rcmarns fur u s to dc\·clup
! ~.

2.

TITLE: "The Respectable \\'olf."
Beginning: "'There is nothing ~:ood in the wolf. 11 e has
a base look. a sa,·:ig-c aspect, a terrilJle ,·01ce. J.n 111~
s1tpportahk srncil. a 11;1tur(' lirntal and ferocious. a bud 1·
sn foul th;1t no ani111al or reptile will 10\tch it.' So says
l\ulfon, in a char;ictcrization well n igh as savage as the
n;,ture of the beast char.1clcri1c<l."

-' · TITLE: "The Cuck<><> Linck." A Story.
Beginning: "No one, not e1·en his wife. could deny tha t
'l\lr. Bates was the meekest of men. 1\ll his married
life he hJ.d submitted to th e superiorit1· of his \\'ife. :rnd
\\"hen hi~ daug·htcrs grew 11p. to theirs also-a superior~
ity which lie inYari aiJlv acknowledged."
.1. T1r1.E. "The l'l:icc of French Literature."

Beginnin g: .. The preeminence of French literature o,·er
'i ts ri1·als lus been complacently taken for granted h\·

the topics with the materi al at our comrn:rncl, that is, to
write out a comple te and

connected dr;tft.

this we shall not trouhlc uursckcs tuu

lllllLh

T11 doing
with the

choice of words or exprcss1011s, the uhject in the tirst
draft being to concentrate
full and conn ected story.

atkntiu11 on tclli11g the
i\lt-cr the first duft is comt1ur

pleted, w e may revise.it as much as we wish; but finally

we shall become trained to make only <111e revisecl copy.
Even this seems laborious, but the ability t o write good
English tiuently is worth the labor.
EXEJ{C I SE:-i .

I I

I.
Let the pupil study the following beginnings taken
from some uf the 111 agaz ines of the day, and sav if th cv
conform t~ his ideas of a good beginning, if ·they ar~
attractive, 1£ they serve their purpose, etc.
1.

TITLE: "The Little Tricks of Smuggling."
Deg-inning: "S uccessful smuggling at the port of New
York may be classed as one of the polite forms of
crime."

39

rnost Frcn1~lunen.''

S· Tn1.E: "The\ ' noffi ci;il Cr"·ernment of Cit ies ...
Heginning · ·•There is proli:t!Ji\' no subject to which.
durin<> the List fc\\' years, the attention ol publlC·
spirit~cl ,\ mcricans h:1s been murt· carefully directed
than to that of municip;tl goYernment."

,
Let th e pttptl l()(1k m·cr the pcrindic:tls a t hand.
note th e beginnings and thL· endings of some "f the :uticles,
and brini:; to the class l\\'O of each ll"hich e~pecially please
him. Le t him tell ,,·hat he sees in them tkit makes them
suitable for their purpose.
NOTE. - Th e teacher should have a number of the popular
magazin es and periodicals in tl1e class-room for distrib:1tion
among the pupils.

.3· I ,et the pupil rc:Hl one or t\\'o of the lighter articks
m the magazines, nute doll"n the important pomts, and
make a topical m1tlin1,t for. each article . l rving's "Sketc h-

Book "

furnish~s

excelknt material for . olltl~ an . ~xit r ci;;e.

From the / lisf l of hooks wti4ch · ·'you 1-· h~ve.! frctntly
read. either iil' I Ur.'. 1but of si.:h0JI. 1 'bri1\~ 'th 1 t!1f itJ'Asf five
.
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.
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subjects upoff 1 ~11,)', (l l1 ,e o. wlu~h . y~m . co~L]µ1_ ,111,pte.. n1·the.me.
Look over th<; -daily m:wspapers carefully, ..and: from the
4.

40

CU.J //'US!!JOX . / 1\D NllFTOR!<".

Tl!F

lopJt.: s undt:r discussion st:le<t tin~ "hich 1•>11 <«•tild use
fo r th e me writin g.

5 . Luok up m;ttc.:rial on three of the f.,llu 111n;..: suh Jec ts ,
using ;111 e11cyclupnlia only ;1,., a last rt:sort; bring 111 y»ur
notes on papt:r. a ttd te ll th e source of each jotting.
T h c l n vent i u 11 "f the
Ste;un E11.~inf'-.
-· Uavid Harttm a11d ~11·s.

'J· The Cit 1· of M;rniLt.
10. Th(" (;1J!f ~!ream.
11. The I ;01t·rn111«11 t of tlw

1· The Cape to Cairo J{a ilroacl.
•1. The Story of C he va lier

1~ .

1.

Culion1 in!Jt1 ·~ 1 id ll.1r11111 .

15ayard.
5. Elec tr ic }{ailrnads .
( i. The Story of Urpheus.
7. A Cyclo n e at Sea .
S. The.Boston Library

He )l'!"S .
The Movements uf tl1c
\,hcie r s.

13. Th e Making of l'ott e 1·1·.
1.1 . The Colony of
l'o~to
Ricn.
I~ . c;en('r;d (: nrdon in Egypt.
1i'i. The Cn.11 Supply of tl1c
\ Vorld.

f,. l\•l ake notes abo ut somet hin g ll"hich part icubrlv inte rests you. if possi ble g i1·i11g the re sults of your ow1; <'X·
pcriu1ct: an d ubserv ati un . fo r in.-;t ;rncc, th e \IS'-'. of th,:
came ra.
Deve lop a th e me fr o m th e nntes you 11ave m:idc .
7. From th e follow in g subj ect s select thrt:e about :lllv
o n e of whi c h you could 11rite :i 0 11 <.:-p;ige the m ,. . s,.1, .. :t
three wliich wou id rt: q uirc two o r three p:1g-es fo r treatmen t. Se lect three that :m· st1itabk for lo nger tlie1 11 t:s,
:rnd g iv e reasons fo r yu11r choice:
1.

l\.Yilitan· !Jrill
Sch,;,,k

111

l'ulili, :

- · J\ Day's 011tiug u11 t l 1c J:i

c vc le.
3. The Burning of a l l uu ~ e.
4. J\ Came of Baseball.

5. Duck-Shooting.
6. A Sc hool l nc alcnt.
7. J\ Natin' Flnwcr.
8. The Boston S ub way .
9. Rapid

Tr:rn sit

in Cr e;!f

Ci ti es.
10. Th e Pleasures of 1: icycleHidin g-.

11

Y ;u·liti11.:..:.·

I.! .

.,\

,\

ll es c rip t in 11 "I th,.
Shakespeare l 1rntsc.
.::_;. ,\ l{;iirw ll .t1·
A I Lit11it ed iln11sc .

St ;unp-l."tilkcting ..
M:t pl c- Su g ar M:1k111g.
Tlte Books we Rc:td .
The J) c 1· c '" p rn c 11 t "f
Scl1oul .\ tliktit> .
Tit.- I li.s;istrtllts Fll ccts Ill
\\';tr :ti lil t' l'1cs.-11l J i;t1".
30. I m p rove111c11 tsin Fire ar111s .
JI . Boston , a Literary Center.
y . The Ad van L1ge s t.o a Town
of a (;ood Libr :u y.
3 . ~ . /\. Knowi11.~ Cat.
l·I · An lntellig-ent Dog.

35 /\ \'acht ing

In ciden t

1-:ip \·an \ V inklc's T\\-c11t1·
\'ear s' Sleep .
Cr;1nt's
Ca m 37 . l .eneral
paigns.
;s . Sig-hts fr() 1n n1 y \Vi11dnw.
/\ < ;oocl I Ji nner
T he l' aris Lxposilion .

.p . J\ JJai· at the Count1· F:tir .
·12 · I 111prOve n1ents in Lnc o n1 0tio n
Th e Aut o111 1diilt-.
·1·1

I low to Sail" }\oat.
l >c c11pa -

4S· Th e Choice of a n
ti 11 11 .

.1i,,

·rlic Cuming 1;,1~cl1 .tll Sed'.') 1 lll.

iiorne JihorHJg-raµ h.

,17 . .-\ i:ox Hun t.
.1-':). T he \\"uod pcckcr .

1,;. 1\11 Electr ic- Ca r Eide.
1,1. l\! y ,\.; :iti,·e T ow n.
15. 1\ Bachclur ·s l< oom .
1Ci. The AJ.lpea ran c e oi I c habod Cran e.
17. A Na ti ve Tree.
1::> . The L 1·ils of l111111igr ;i t1nn .
1•1 . T he A dv:111 Lq;es of"" Fdll Cl t i11n .

zo. A Fishing-· Tri p.
, 1. 1\
kam ble through
I' a r ks.

/JIF.JfF.

th e

4r

Th e I .ife ,,f "" .- \ctnr
;1.

I I11\\'

to

l'\.a i."e

Str:i.wlw r-

rit· -.;

\.: . Slrnu ld
11 u · 11 t

C;q• iLtl

l' t111ish·

h e J\ iio l ishcd '

.\ ;. :\ \Yeck on :t l'ilot Ho.ti
1
5.i . ' l' i1t: l rinting (1 f a Ne\\:---·

paper.

.

.

_;\) - Tlie c·u1nin;:: of Spr111.:..:
5ri . Tl1 c I >e11artrnl'n t St1Jrt·...,
;\ t t lil· I . ll!lt ' ll l 'r1 1111 ti ·r
5S. Th e lnr iuence u! t l1e \J.,d
crn New .s p:t p et
) <1. Lat he rin g- \\'ild !:lowers.
1.0 . An Eccentric Clur;tc tcr .
1.1
An /\mer ic:rn Soldier 111
the l'hil ippines .
i..: . 1: is hin g through the I cc
1,:;. H ome Lif e nf the l\•w1 .s .
u.1. T he /\rt of T r uutFisli in;.: .
<•; . !II t. C lw corua.
(JI> . Th e Le ge nd uf tlw I Inly
(; Lt il.
'' I · !\ l \ea11tift1 I St111ri.sc.
1.s . 1\11 1\11tun111 lla1· i11 t h e
Cnunt r \' .

Th e () ld-Ls l1ion cd .'>L t;.:•c·
co :1ch.
The Justice of ~trike .s.
A !l!odc l 1:a r m .
A \Valk through :t Sl1 » cJ-";ictorv.
7 ). I d Joti J-: 0:1r1, .
, ,. The l';t ,sing of the .-\ 11 >cr1can I ndi:rn.
,\ Thu nder Show et .

()<) .

-·

4.,. Th e lJ,;e of the 1:1.,,Jil1gltl
in l'hotographv.

8. Look over carefully some of thl' com po.s iti o n s ;.:: 11-en
in tlw ;ippt'.nd ix , an< I t«i1t1111t:n L un th t'. c hoi ct: nf 111;1tcri .il .
plan. bcginnrn;.:; , cndrng, etc .

42

CUilfl'USillUJV A iVL> NHETOR/C.

CHAPTER III.
THE l'Al<A G l<APll.

18. What the Paragraph Is. - If we look at the
print ed page of any book we notice that usually it is not
solid, but is broken once or twi ce into what we call
paragraphs. Th ese paragraphs are not arbitrary divisions made to catch the reader's eye. They have a muc h
great e r signifi cance. Let us see, then, what the paragraph is, and why the printed page should be broken
by paragraph divisions. If we turn for a moment to the
two outlines of Tl1c little l 'i/lagc ef A, in the preceding
chapter, we see that the second outlin e diffe rs from the
first in this respect, that certain ideas that we re related
to one another h ave been grouped under heads or topics,
and that each topic is expressive of the ideas in its
group. So our thoughts upon any subject, if devel oped
at any length, break up naturally into groups of related
id eas. If they do not our thinking is not clear-cut and
log ical. These groups seem to be natural divisions of
the subject. Now, if th e id eas of the several groups
be deve loped int o sentences, each sentence-group will
constitute a paragraph. \Ne may defi ne a pa ragraph,
then, as n group of sc11to1as in wl11d1 cl single topic is
developed.

THE l'ARAGRAI'f!.

43

Let us take some th e me, and see how the ideas \\'hich
we a re to present in it group t hemselves. \ V1.: will
describe an old mill, and make such arr;rngcrnent of th e
details as will form fit ting paragraphs. Arranging these
details as they suggest themselves to us, without rt:ga rd
to order or grouping, we will afterwards see how they
are related to eac h other, and group th em for paragraphs
according to th ese relations.
I. The mi ll-wheel.
2. The be lts and whirring wheels.
The
clam
.
4.
The
mill itse lf. ?· Shape o.r. the mill.
.
3
G. The mill-pond. 7. The dusty rmller. 8. Size of the
mill. 9. The wagons of the farm ers bringing grain. 1 o.
Situation of the mill. 11. The background of trees and

hills.
Glancing over these items, we see at once that if the
subject shou ld be treated in th e order in wh ich th e Jetails are here given the description \\'Ould be broken and
incoherent, and th e whole imp ression would b1.: indistin ct. Attemptin g to bring t ogether those things which
ha\' e some relation, we may unite them in paragTaphs in
sume such fashion as follows:
First paragraph t o includ e
Second
Third

an<l 9.
6, J, an<l I.
4, 5, and 8 .

I o, I 1,

Fourth

Each paragraph now includes it e ms which we can ..
h old together mentally, and forms a picture whi ch is, for
our purposes, complete. We shall not fine\ it easy to
think in groups of related ideas at first ; but by being
careful continually to have the purpose of each para-

44
I

I I,
I

I

I

COMPUS!TION .-/N/J J..'HJ.:.'l'UN!t·.

graph thought out before we begin writing upon it, we
shall come to divide our subjects naturally into paragraphs. If that division is not made in the first writirw
it will be found difficult or impossible to make it afte7:
wards without rearrangement and re-writing. That the
reader may not pass over the break from paragraph to
paragraph the first line of each should be indented an
~nch more. than the other lines. On the printed page or
m typewritten manuscript the indentation is less, because the uniformity of print makes a slight indentation
sufficiently noticeable.
·
19. The Importance of Paragraphs._ From what
has been said in the preceding section, we see that a
paragraph is a natural and necessary division of the subject, containing a complete discussion of a particular
topic, and that the several paragTaphs enable the writer
to develop his theme logically. They are quite as significant to the reader. They show him the divisions
of the subject which the writer wishes to make, and
each conveys a sense of something complek. We
see further that the paragraph has a double relation.
l t is a division of a larger topic, a dependent member
of the whole composition, logically connected with the
other members; and it is a complete whole in itself, a
miniature composition, in which the several sentences
are linked together, each sentence fulfilling the function
apportioned to it. It is the latter relation with which
we are now concerned. Let us, then, consider a paragraph for a moment, and see how the sentences com-

Y'J-IE J>AR.-/1;RAJ>ll .

45

posing it are linked together by a natural relation of
one sentence to another and to the whole.
1. Once rn1 the brink of the crater, we obtained a perfect view of this wonderful cavity in the mountain side.
2. It is one of the main features of the southwestern
face of St. Elias. 3. It begins on the· right in the splendid jagged arCte leading up to a peak, ~vhich from another
point appears as a spur of the m?untam. 4. At the foot
of this peak begins the upper
of the crater, wh.1ch
descends gradually to the left Ill the shape of a spiral
curve. 5. In its entire length it is frosted with a layer
of snow over fifty feet thick; the effect of this 1s \·ery
striking. 6. The walls of the crat~r a.re composed of
~teep, bare rock, the surface of which 1s furrowed and
stratified in a most wonderful manner. 7. The interior is
filled with snow; its outlet is to the westward, where i"t
feeds a large glac ier. 8 . There is good reason to belie,·e
that this amphitheater is of volcanic origin . 9. Several
specimens of rock which were brought down seem to support this theory, while later in the day a cone was passed
resemblin" in shape and general appearance those seen 111
the craterbof Kilauea, on the island of Hawaii.

:1m

From sentence 1 to sentence 7 inclusive the paragraph is concerned with the description of the crater,
each sentence adding definiteness to the picture, and
having a close connection with the sentence preceding
it. Sentences 8 and 9, dealing with the formation,
could come on ly after the description, since it is thi:
appearance of the crater that leads to this as a condu- ~
sion. There are but these two divisions of thou~ht in
the paragraph, which may be outlined as follows: -

"I

''·

TllF /'A N.· / <;N.·I f'H.

The Crater.
I. Description.
a. Position.
b. The snow.
r. The walls.
d. Outline.
2. Formation.
a. Probably volcanic.
h. Character of the rock.

IP·
'I

I

'

r

I

l

l

,I:,·

; I

;
Ii

il

l

i
·.I
t

Observe that the paragraph is a complete whole, the
desc riptions and the conclusions as to the formation of
the crater being but different phases of the me nta l
effect of the sight of the crater. This sh<Juld be true
of every paragraph. It is normally the unit of thoug+t
which first presents itself to the mind of the writer as
he mentally outlines a co mposition before putting pen
to paper. Certain things must be said before th e reader
is prepared for certain other things; and these various
matters should arrange themselves in the mind of the
writer in a definite order, each separate phase of the
subject as it is to be treated forming a paragraph, a unit
in itself. A composition in which each paragraph is
complete and contains nothing- extraneous in thoug-ht,
mood, or manner, gives to the reader the sen:;e of lovical, clear-cut, orderly arrangement which i:; essential "'to
his satisfaction and interest.
2 0.
The Length of Paragraphs. - The length of the
paragraph must be det e rmined primarily by the amount
of detail that goes to form the one connected whole.
A paragraph may consist of but one sentence, and how
long it may he with out beco ming disjointed and awk-

47

.,

'

! !:

ward in effect the write r must determine in each individual case ; but, in general, paragraphs extending on:r
several pages are too long. \Vhen the subject is a complex one, dealing with abstract thuught or with hist orical
or scientific generalizations, th e groups of related ideas
may necessarily be large ;•but, whi le this will in c rease
the difficulty of makin g distin ctions between ' them , such
distinctions must be made with greater care. If the
completed composition is to maintain th e same t one
throughout, th e paragraphs should not vary greatly in
length . In rapid narration the paragraph s will :-;enerally he short, :;inct.: the story does not dwell long upon
the st.:parate in cidents. l n dft.:ct, then, long paragraph s
have weight and dignity when tht.: subj ect matter composing them is properly connected in thought, and short
paragraphs havt: movement and vivacity. Occasiunally,
for the sake of e mphasis, sentenct.:s that are connected
.in thought, and mig ht form one paragraph, are broken
up into several paragraphs. So it is in the following,
in which both sentences beginning " l ,ady Standish "
are put in p:,l ragraphs hy themselves for emphasis.
There was the bishop, the Bishop of Bath and Wells I
That reverend prelate had shown her much kindness and
attention. He would know how to interfere in such a
cns1s. He was a man of authority. Between them could
they not force the peace at Hammer's Fields, and co uld
not Sir Jasper be saved in spite of himself, were it by deliverin g him into the hands of the law?
Lady Standish flew into her room and called the sniffing Megrim.
"Pa per and ink ," cried she, " and get you ready to run
un a nH.:ssage. 'Tis a matter of life and death."

I.
I

i.

4S

"My Lady ," sa id Megrim, primly. •· 1 will serve your
L adys hip in all things that are right; but l hope ~ know
111y duty to my Creator; an d stoop to conni\·e at irregularities, my Lady, l won't and ne\·cr will. " She had been
read y to conde mn her 111aster on:rnig ht, but the talk in
the servants' hall had. as s he had expressed it . ·· ope ned
he r eyes.'' And what ll' Olllan is not ready to judge her
s iste r wo man - abo1·c all. \1·h:lt maid to condemn he r
mistress?
Lady Standish <;ta red .
"\\'hat 111ean s this ? .. said she. .. You shall do as I
bid yo u, Mistress ill egrim . I-l ow dare you! " c ried Lady
Standish, with a sudden flas h of compre he nsi on . ·· Why,
wo man , my lette r is to the bishop!"
··Oh," q uot h Mistress J\legrim, s till 1\·ith rcse n ·e, yet
condcsce nding to approval , ··that is a nothe r m:itt e r. Shall
J ," s he sniffed , •·be stri cte r th:in becomes a C hristian ?
Shall l refu se a id to the bruised sinner o r to the smoking la mp whose conscience is awakened? M:iy his L ordship be a to wer of st rength tu your l.;1<lyship along the
rocky pa th s of penitence - amen I " 1
!Jin.:ct quotations are usu:l ll y put in paragraphs by
themsell·es, though somct imes th c qu otation is so muc h
a part of tht: context th at it is in cluded with it . 1n th e
fo ll ow in g observe that t he first sentencc in paragraph 2
implies what th e quot at ion fol lowing it t:XJ>rt:sst:s more
d e finitel y, and the two arc tht:refo n.: too closely connec t ed
to ht: put in separat e paragraphs. Th e first senten ce
of paragraph 3 bea rs th t.: sa m e relation to the quotatio ns
f.,J1owin g it, and th ey ;1rc tht:rdore parag raph ed t o-

, r1

I

.1. I

11

'I',,1
,f
'I·
·r·

T!IF J' . /R ,. /1;R .- ll'!-l.

CU. lfl '<ISI J'/OX . /.\ 'JJ I.'// I:. J'ON!t ·.

gt.:t h c r.
' ' An d you ," he .:;aid . ··you prctcnd cd beca use you
thoug ht it was best for 111 e. "

49

S he nodded . ·'A nd \\'e s:iw thrm1i-:h each ot he r all the
time," s he said.
"Grizel, ha s it passed away altogether now ?"
Her
grip upon his hand did not tighten in the least. '• Y e~/ '
s he could say honestly, " it has altogether passed a way .
"And you have no fe:ir?"
" No, none. "
lt was his g rea t re\\'ard fnr all that he h ad done for
Grizel.
" I kn o w wh at yo u are thinking of," she said. when he
did not speak. " You are thinking of the ha unted little::
girl yo11 rescued seven years ago."'

The Topic-Sentence. - W e h ave defined a paragraph as a group of sentences in which a single t op ic is
21.

d evelo p ed . Thi s topj c is usually announced in somt.: one
or two sentences which are call ed / of'ir-s c11/1·11co. Tht:sc
topic-sent e n ces arc conve ni en t, both t o th e reader and
to the writer ; tn th e form e r th ey arc a guide to th e
th o ught of th e par ag raph , and to the latte r th ey a re a
help in k eepin g him stric tly t o his line of th o ught. A
topic-st:ntence is usually , th o ugh not n ecessa ril y, sh o rt,
and m ay com e anywhere in th e paragraph, th o ugh ordinarily it occurs at th e beginning. vVhen th e re a re tw o
topic-se nte nces they a re rarely separated ; hut if they
art:, one will usually be found at th e beginning and th e
other at the e nd of th e paragraph. Sometimes there is
no clear topi c-sent e n ce, especially in narrative and <le- ,
scriptive writing, in whi ch case th e first sentence will
<.rive a clew t o what follows, or the topi c must be in"fcrred from all th e sentences. The use o f the t opi csentenct: may b e seen in the following paragraphs .

I

\!I:
'

\.I

ii

.~~
I

..

H

•I'

''11'

'i!ji
50

C0. 1! /' 0SIJJ (),\' .1 X/J N!J/,·TO N /C.

),

J JI F

l'. / !.' .·/ 1; N . l /' / I.

'1;
1'

S tudy carefully its relati on t o th t.: parag raph , and be
prepare d t o say wheth er or not th e se parag ra phs show
:llly dig r ess ion from th eir th e me s a s ann oun ced in the
tnpi c-se nte nces. po inting out su ch digressi o n. if any.
7 ;, /)(' stn111g-b11t'/.:1·,/ 111/d 11t 11!-l>111111d 1:.- t/1e desideratum 1if
11 vo/111111·. M agnitlce ncc comes a ft er. Thi s, when it can be
affo rde d , is not to b e la 1· ished upon all kind s of books ind iscrimin ate h·. l wo uld not dre ss a se t of M aga zines, for
in stan ct:, in full suit. Tht: dishabille o r half-binding (with
russia ha c ks en: r ) is our costu111 c. .-\ S hakes peare, or
,\ i\1. ilto n (unless th e first edition s). it we re me re foppery
t<) tri c k n ut in g ay a pp,lre l. The possessi on of the m confe rs no di st in cti on. The exte ri or of th e m (the things
th e msdn::s be in g so comm " n). strange to say, raises no
s wee t e moti ons . nn ti cklin g sense o f prope rty in the
o wn e r. Thomson ·s Season s. ag ain. looks best, (1 maintain it) a little to rn and d o;,( s-ea red . I {ow be autiful to
a ge nuin e lover of read ing :u e the sulli ed lea ves, and
wo rn-o ut appe ara nce, nay th e ve ry od o r (beyond russia),
if we wo ul d not fo rge t kind feeling s in fa stidi ousness, of
an o ld ''C ircula tin g Libra ry," T o m J ones, o r Vi car of
Wake fi eld I H ow th ey s pea k of th e th ousand thumbs
that have turned ove r th e ir pages with deli g ht I - of the
lone sempstress, whom t hey may have c hee red (milliner,
u r harde r-working mantua-make r) a ft e r her long day 's
needle-toil , runnin g far int o midnig ht , whe n she has
snatched an hour, ill spared from slee p, to stee p her
cares , a s in some 1.ethean cup. in spelling o ut their en c han t ing conte nts ! \\'h o would have the m a whit less
soiled ? What better conditi on could we d esire to see
th em in ? C H ARI.l·:s L\\lll : R ss11_1·1· ef H /1;1.
Let u s dw ell upon t hi s contra st for a fe w min utes. All
t h e sun s hin e appea rs to ha ve b een on yo ur side and all
the s had ow on hi s . Born of hi g hly cultivated parents,
in th e hig hest rank in England under roy a lty . yo u have
li ved fro m th e beginning a mongst t he most offi cial aids to

i
I I
'I

·I
culturt: , a nd N ature has so end owed yo u th at, in stead <> f
becoming indifferent to these thin gs from famili :irity, you
have le arned to 1·alue the m more and more in every successive yea r. Th e p l11inest state111e11t 1!f r 1111r 11d7·1111li1p :s
would soll!u! like a11 extrircl fru 111 one 1!f J) isr11eli 's //(/7•e/.1.
Your fath er 's p rin cipal castl e is s itu ated a mongs t th e
fin est scen ery in Britain , and · hi s pa lace in L ond on is
fill ed with m asterpi eces of a r t. \Vhe reve r you have li vt:d
you have b een surrounded b y good literature and c ulti vated fri ends. Your health is ste adil y rnb ust, you can
trave l whe reve r yo u c hoose, a nd a ll th e b e nefi ts of a ll th t:
capital s of Europe b elong to yo u as m.uc h as to t he ir
own c iti ze ns. In a ll these g ifts a nd o ppo rtunities th e re is
but on e e vil - the be wilde rm ent of their multipl ic it y.
P . C. H A M1':RT ON : The Ji1te/lect1ml .1.ift:.
.: .

'· Mv instin ct would ce rta inlv be to lig ht ,· wh et he r
fig htin g we re of any use o r not. Hut the pro prie ty " f
fi g hting in suc h a case is a ve ry ni ce qu esti on of judgment. So long as the re is a nything to ti g ht fo r , 11 0
m atte r ho w ho peless the odds, a ge ntleman sho ul d go t n
the front - but no longe r. The questi on must be to d ec ide the precise p o int at whi ch the p osition b ecome s 1111 tenable. So long as F ran ce makes o ur q ua rre l hers.
e ve ry m an sh ould g ive hi s personal a ssi.sta n ce to th t:
ca use; but it is absurd to su p pose that 1f we we re left
a lon e, a handful of l.Zoma ns aga in st a g reat power . we
could d o mo re, o r sho uld d o mo re. than ma ke a fo rm al s how
of resista nct: . it h 11>· l>1'e11 11 r11 /c in 11// 11gi:.1 tl1t1! t/1c gi:ll1-n1!.
lwwn:er /1nn·e, u•/111 s11rrijii-es !l1t: li7·es '!f /1i.1 >Pliliers iJ1 a
p o :fertly !topeless rcs1~\'/1 1llff, n1t/11·r tl1111t 11((ep t lite !t:r111s of
1111 /11111orahle i'aj>itulatioll , ,~,. ;.:11i!ty 1if il 111i!il11r1· rr im e. ,
F. MARI ON C R.->.WV O Rn: S rn1,·i11ni't1 .
The propositions of Willi am were fr a med with a pun cti 1ious fairn ess, such as mig ht have b ee n ex pected r ath e r
fr o m a di sinte rested umpire pron oun cing a n awa rd t han
fro111 a chi1·al ro us prin ce di cta tin g tu a he lpl ess ene my.

III;
H

df!.

52

'I'

C<.J.l/l'OSl!JUN AXLJ Nl!Fr<J/NC.

No fault could be found with them by the partisans of the
king. But among the V\'higs there was mu c h murmuring.
They· wanted no reco nciliation with the tyrant. The y
thought themselves absolved from all allegiance to him.
They were not disposed to recognize the authority of a
parliament convoked by his writ. They were averse to an
armistice; and they could not conce i\·e why, if there w;is
to be an armistice, it slwukl be ;in a rmi st ice on cq ua I
terms.
Hy all the la\1·s of \\;1r the 'tronger party had ;1
right to take advantage of his strength; and what was
there in the character of James to justify any extraordinary indulgence ? Those who reasoned thus little knew
from how elevated a point of view, and with how discerning an eye, the lead e r whom they censured contemplated
the wh o le situation of Fngbncl and Europe .
The\· were
eager to ruin Jam es, and \\'ould th erefo re ha\·c rcfu:sed to
treat with him on any conditio ns. o r ha\·e imposed on him
conditions insupportably hard . Tt1 tl1e s11cass 1if 1'Villiam's
«as/ a11d prq/{m11d scheme 1if poli<y ii was necessary tlwt
J111J11"s sl1ould ruin himse(/ h)• n:jecti11g co11rl1tio11s oste11/altimsl!'
ltl1cral.
Tiu t"7'C!ll prm·,·d the. wisdom 'if the co11rse wl1i;lt
the mt1jority rif E11glisl111u:11 t1I H11111;-e1ji11-tl were i11di11ed to
1'0!1de11111. T. B. MACAULAY: History 11.f E11gla11d.

./!,'1·e11 the i117'Clltio11 1if r11ilro,1ds h,rs prud11dd /he 1111.fouJ eo1
rt's11/t of 11 ret11r11 in tlte dircrtio11 of barbarism.
If there is
one tl;ing that distinguishes civilization, it is fixity of
residence; and it is essential to the tranquil following of
serious intellectual purposes that the student should re main for many months of the 1ear in his own Jibrarv or
laboratory, surrounded by all h;.~ in stru ments of cu!t'ure.
Hut there are people of the highest rank in the England of
to-day whose existence is as mnch nomadic as that of Red
Indians in the reserved territories of North America.
You cannot ascertain their whereabouts without consulting
the most recent newspaper. Their life may be quite accurately describt:!d as a return. on a scale of 1mprecedented splendor and comfort , tu the life of tribes in that

Tl/ F

I'. I/,'. I 1;R. ll' If.

53

stage of human de1·el o pmcnt \\'hich is known :is the pcr1 "d
"f the chase . They 111igratc from one lrn11ti11g -.grrn111d t"
<l!lotlwr <I" the di111i1111tion .,f the g<1111c ""I'" !" tlt,.,11.
Their re,idcnLe,.; , vast and "1i!J,,t.rnti<il <1" thl' y arc , -.en•·
only as icnts and wigwa1ns.
7'/lt" ,·xis/ow: of" 1111111/..- 111
t!tt" Joistcr, 11/ t1 prisoner i11 "j~wtrc.u , is m 1irc fn·or,r/1/c f,, //t,·
i11tdli:d tlw11 lheir.1. l'. C. I L1:-1 unu'i
J'k: .111tdk•/11,i/

!1/;·_

1.
l>cline a paragraph. Cive rea~<•ns for your c!t-t.111i tion. \\'hy arc paragraphs i1nportant ? \Vh~1t do the ·\
signify to the rc:id c r ? I l ow are th ey hclpf1d t" tlw

\\Titer ?
~ ·
In thl '. foll1J\\·i11 ;._: (1 11tli t1 1._ ·..._ 1i11d tliL · 1i;1ttir. il di\ · i-.,1(~r 1...,
"t the subje<t. :rnd <111.111.c:t· th,· idc:h 111 1i:11-.1gr:.ph gr""i"
under :1ppr"priall" l"J'i, ·s.
1.

'l'hc Nc\\':-;papcr u l T1>-d<.iy .

uf printing-.

< )lJl'

of tlic

Cuun tr y where the newspaper

;ul\· .111Ll ~(' ....,
w:1~ l1r:--.t pri11t1'<i

11i;111 v

A branch uf th e periodic;d p1«:ss. 1:celi11g tl1. 1t !-'.·"·" it l.ir1l1
Th e pr<>,·ince of the ne wsp;ipcr lo-day. ll.itc of till' iir,t 11<·11,
Jl 'iper. Introductio n into the L: nitecl States. l ntlue11ce "I""' 111.·
people. \\!hat has contributed to ih c irc11hti n11. < >rigin <>I
th e first newspape r. l'rn cess of pr111t111:-:- a modern nC\\''P'IJ'C'
Th e setting of the tqle \Jv m;icl1inen·. Lkctrotq•ing. Till·
,·, \inder press. The circulation of <I l:trg e p<1per. l'n 11triliu ti•>11'
t"• frtcdom, justice. c:duc;it io11. l11ti1wnce "" literary ta .sl\' .
Abuse ot intiuen ce .

l 11tiu c 11ce 011 ci\'ilit<.ltioll.

advertisers. merc h:1nt s. re<1<le1s.
tu

1\<h·;u1 ta gc:--.

t{i

I Jui\' of citiL<'"' with rq: .1 rd

11ew~p clper:-;. .

::. ·r1ic Henchts i>!° Tr :ln· l
1nany useful idc<.l.'-'. ( )\ }je1·t:-.
JHirt:t ntdiscovcrie s. ' }'ravel

11f

t!1l'
1\ l t:;u 1:--i

l:r1LHI L·1"

tr;l\'t'I.

111drt.: l'1>1 nnio11111•\V

111i11d

l, 1\ 1·.. ,

(if 11i.1ki11_:::
tl1;u1

i111

f11r!l1L·1l\ .

\'ronwles general intcrr1111rsl'. Is a l11cans ,,f cdt1 catio1L i 1
;icquainls us with the 11i;11111 er' :ind customs of other.'. :\llo1d ,
plca"111t reco ll ec tiuns and i11stru c tion. J\l;ikcs u11e CP11lc11 tl'd.
ls a source of pleasure. A means of tra11sacti11;; lrnsi1H·"·
It makes an a~;.eeal~le ch ange._
). Life o f Washmg;ton I rvmg;. Early home. I! is parcn t:i~e.

lh:g inning- of his _liter ;lr y c;1rc·er

Europe, when ~111d why~

' f'hird

\ ·ovrt11l·

l!1

I )<1t<.: and place uf lJirtl1.~ l J 1.,

' '
·"

t\;f~11-::i.

!IH;;'.:!?-~
j

54

55

CU11/POS!T!ON .·I N/J Nfl/:IUR!C.

·! ;,_:;i~~·t
'.

i<;>_urne:t throug h the West.
His law stud ies.
C haracte r.
1_rst hte_ra ry work. _S econd voyage to Europe . S c hoolin .
His last_ book. Vacat1o_n r ambles. His d ifferent publication~.
i;ome influences. Ed 1t ~ r of a magazine. First voya e to
E_urope. Death and bu n al. Public offices. I mi>ressio~s of
h11n from what we read.
'I'

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it

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Ii

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Ill11°
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Pl

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:1
'·'

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I.

3 . Stat~ what _natura l divisions may be found in six of
the following s ubjects. Gather mate rial on four of these
su?Jects, a~1d arrang~ it in paragraph gro ups und er approp riate topics. _Justify your arrangement, showing why
you gro up your ideas as you do. Assume that the div isions you are makmg are for a writing to cover three or
four pages.
1. Michael Angelo.
-· An ama teur photographer.
3. The French Academv.
4. How a hailston e is formed.
5. The C hi cago fire.
6. -C:he m_ethod of secu rin g a paten t.
7. ! h e S iege_ of Troy.
8. fwe nty miles on a b icycle.
9. A Florida ri ver.
10. Building a railroad in Chi na.
11 . King Alfred and th e ca kes
12. The co llege boat- race.
·
13. How a caucus is co nducted .
14 . O ld Iro nsides.
15. Roman writing materials.
16. Feudalism.
1 7. The R e ign of Terror.
18. A sky-scraper.
19. Flying-fish.
2 0. A Klondike exper ien ce .
21. An Indian war-dance.
22 . An orange grove.
23. The delta of t!1e Mississippi.
24 . •How the ~res i dent of the U nited S tates is elected .
~s . f h e colomes of th e Un it ed States.
26. Municipal government in th e United States.
27. A summer o n a fa rm .

4· Have proper paragraph-divisions been made in the
foll ow ingselections? Tf not , co1·rcct ti1em, an d· g ive
~
reasons for you r co rre c ti uns.

SIR Ro(;ER 1:-:

Lol\IJu:-1 .

1. I was this morning su rp ri sed with a great kn ocking at
the door when mv landlady ·s daughter came up to me, .rnJ
to ld me 'that there was a man below des ired to speak with
me . Upo n my ask in g her who it was, _shc told me ~t was a
very grave, elderly person, but th ~ t she d1~ not know l11s name
1 imm ed iately went down to him , and tound l11 m to be the
coac hm an of my worthy fr iend S ir R oge r de Coverley. He
told me that hi s master came to town last nij,!ht , and wou ld
be glad to tak e a turn with me in C ra y's Inn walks.
/\s I was wondering in myse lf what had brought Sir Rogn
to town, not having lately received any lette r from him, he
told me that hi s master was come up to get a sight of Prince
Eugene. a nd that he desired I wou ld immed iate ly meet him .
I was not a littl e pleased with the c uri osity of th e o ld
knight , th ough I did not much wo!1 der a t it, having heard hi m
say more th a n once 1n private discourse , that he loo k ed on
Prince Eugenio (for so the knight always ca ll s him ) to be a
greate r man th an Sca nd e rbeg. I wa~ no sooner co m e into
Cray's Inn walks, but I h eard my fri end upon th e terrace
hemming twice or thrice to him self with great vigor, for he
lo ves to clear hi s pipe s in good a ir (to make use of hi s own
phrase), a nd is n o t a littl e pl eased_ with a n y _o n e . wh o takes
no ti ce of the stre ngt h which he st ill e xerts Ill hi s morn1ni.:
h e ms.
s(~urnE

Bu1, 1..

~- John Bull was a c ho leri c old fe llow. who h eld a good
man o r in the middle of a g rea t m ill -pond . which, bv reason
o f its b e ing quite surrounded by water, was generally call ed
" Bu ll ock Isl and."
Bull was an ingenious man; an exceed in g ly good b lacksmith, a dex terous c utter, and a notab le weaver besides. He
was, in fact. a sort of Jac k -a t-all -trades, a nd good at each.
Jn add iti o n to these, h e was a hearty fellow , a jolly compani on, and passably h ones t, as th e tim es go.
But what tarni s hed all th ese qualities, was a n exceed in g ly
quarre lsome, overbearin g disposition, which was a lw ays ge tting him int o some scrape o r oth er.
Th e truth is, he never he a rd o f a quarre l go in g on among
hi s nei g hbors, but his fingers itched to ta ke a pa rt in it ; s0
h e was h a rdl y eve r seen with ou t a broken head, a bl ack eye,
o r a bloody nose.
Such was Squire JJull , as h e was co mm on ly call ed by hi s
nei ghbors - o ne of th ose odd, testy, g r umbling, boasting nld
codgers. that n ever get c redit for what they a re, be ca use they
ar<.: always pretending to b e what th ey a re no t.

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::;. !\1cn hcgi!l ti) l<HJk ;lt lIH~ ,...;,igtl"- cd tlll' \\e:ttli cr. I 1. l
:--.incl· much r.tin ft'l!.
t " i l! ig
·rhe grCJt1r1d i . . . ;1 littic dn·. a11d t lic r11;u! j_..., ,t ,L'.1)()(1 dc;tl dtt-.t\

'I')H· g.trdt'll ));tkL·~ .

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l11okini..::- d;1n.~· c-r(1l1...... .
·
, !;tt_t' ( J1i 1 1 1~· ( !1 •tHL". ;]11· _,- i w_:.:,::1 11, 1·,1i(·1 1L111 1111\\
1 \I i·_l1
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l li e.;; !l!~ Lllfl l,t l J..... lict•Jf"t' tiit· pnLtllf( "" \\ill '.'>\l!!t:I
tl11...: ( f; t t:--., i I it· 1·1 )1 · 11. tl1c g· r;1._,_....,_ -- t'\'1·r\· t ) 1i 11 1•
1\..iin, rLtj!1 , L1in ! .-\ll (L1y, ;lll 11 i_:_:-iit. _. . . t~~;t!>- r . tiniri~
\\'ill it
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;oi1 ~:/L~~~~r'i::~;,~:0:1; ~; ::,;,~ ~: ',~ '.' (1!;'; ''.~'<11 1:,:, , ~··: ~:;~ ';~;',', 1 \;:.i ,'.;.,: : '11 '1 ~\ :'r
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le)\\·! i n .~Cll~L1I, ...,lwlLct ;l!Hi 11 it i 111t
Tiif' ~k\ · i:-.
' l lie clouds art · 111i! yet. Tlw l1 )Jq..: tln ·\· e <·~)\· er..., · llic

l i t ' l h , .11.1ti

le.Hien .
l ! l 1 I\ Ill

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, ·'· . : \ .Ii.i t

c.1p1 1ed i11 \\' hi tc.

dl't'

d1·t,·1111111c-, ti1t· i<'11 ;;1l 1

1'i1c ~t ir is f uiJ nl inoi:-.t!IH' .

«f

;1 p.1r11 .:_: r .lj1ii '

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you expect to tind long- and whe.rP short •)ar;i graphs? Find examples from tl1e magazines at har;d tn
"110u1cl

i11..,iify your npin1011~.
Hn11g ti_) tliL t:l.,t:--.. .'-i. st·\·t·r;d con~ccli1t\·c p:tr;i~-r~tph'"' f r1J111 tlirtT 01 f11 u1 l )11 11 k "' <lr lll.tg:l/lll! '
:1rt1cll· .....,, ;tiid ;u_ ·( ' <Jlllll li1J t!w It 11,~li1 1'1 th t· p:i1.igLtph ...,.
nul;in!-'. ;1111· <Titicisn1 <>11 Iii" J>t1r 11 .c :11qil11n:..: 1lut .'"" tl lllik
necess;irv.
\l,1kc,

were SO<l!1 foq:,·tJttcn . But in the rnunth n f :\L1y. Jf•1 1;. it ht·,t.:,.tn
lo he "lid ;111 ()\'('!'tilt' f<l\\'11 ih;it th L·di<.;t';JSC li;1d iJlll'St <llll 11iti 1
;.:re.tt \·ioknce 111 '.It. L il i·< ..., .. uld t!1.tl 1l 1e pe1 •iJlt· \\i:n· d}·in .t.:. i11
.:.::rr;i! 11u111hc rs. The ro;td~, ()tJt o f l.(1 1H l11 11 \\·ert· chok t·d tip hv
peo1iie t'fl(\c;t\·orir1~ lP c:--cqie frq111 tlic i1iliTted ('i ty. ,t11d l.1rg(·
~u:n:-. \\'ere Jlaid 1lil •.uiy kir1J uf c u 11 \· cy~u1Lc .
' l'lit..: di.'}c;..t:-:c ::iuun
...,llrt: . u1 ~(J LL'il tli.tl it \Ll."- nt.' l · l·:--...,;1r:; ft1 :---litit up the lt( 1u-...c:-. i ! 1
wl1icli the :-..il-k peuplt: \ \.C IT. ;u1d ti l l · t1t tl1v1n t• if !ro1n crH!llll\I
nic1ti(111

\\·iih

tlie li\·in;::

hjilJ.'-'t'"> \\·:1..--.. ni:trkcd \\ it li

Tr;u1:-i1 1L1n kd t re e .., .ire tliir-..,!\

tire-..

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57

·. //" ; ' , !" . II' I I .

T!H'

d1H1t

reel

,,i

t · \ · ery

(J!l l'

ul

tlw:--t ·

!he ,,.llrd:--, .. l.11 1·d.
have inert:\' upo!l ti:-.
Tlie :-.tU't:h \\t·re ;tll dt~...,crtt·11, ;..:,r ;1...., ..,
~r<'w in tht~ public \\';l! -"'· ;L1 1d t l1erc \\';t:-.. .1 dn.-:1dfttl -..iit-11\C ir1
;t

crif:-.:---. ;11Hl

tlw ; 11r
J.1·:1' Tl-.l\'-. 11J·

l\.L< . ~1\l\ ll-. '."\llr\ · 111i:\ .

~.

_,\ .:..::entkrn:111 unct· ;td\Trtl"'t'd 1· 11r ;t lH 1\· l ! i ;L:-. ..... i:-.t hir11 i1 1
11 1.. , llftlcc. ;tnd 11f'.1rly ti ft\· :1pp li cil l1 )r tlw pl.11T.
()ut 1)f 1l1t·
_ _ __ _ \\lttilt: !lll ll ll icr lie. i11 .l :-- Ji r.1 r t tl!ii C. chr) ~C f 1l1P, :-tnri .' :;cnt ;i.Jl 1:·11"
n t ll 1..-rs :lw~ · i :-..iH1~ ri d -h-k:-( ~;·; L:: '.:.~::,·· .~1,id_ :1 fr i.end. "<ir1
\Yii.t: g:r1)\l!H1.....,
•\I c h c h~' th . i t \,,1~,
I [t' l1:1d !\ ! •( .\
ltT ( 11 ; 1
TY1end:i.riern
t:ir:i :· ·· \nn ~trP iT:i~t::knl." ~:tid
:_::cnt!c
111a11,
· li (" )1.1 ( l .1 ~·re ,t L 11 t1i11 1 •t'r
lH' '' i} wr I l 1 i :-. 11·c t \\' l 1 ~· 11 I 1
~ · ;1 n1c in. ;u1d 1·in.~t'd the <1(1; .i ,1 fll'1 hl 1:1 · :-.,)1<l\Vir1;..:. lit· \\ . !',
11n\1·rl\· ;u1d tid\·. I le ~ ;1n~ up Iii:-- "t',!l in'iLtntl v 1•) th.ii n]d
rn.u1, ~h(i\\'in.1-:. ~li.1t lie\\';\" hi11d ;1 1H l tl1011_:.:,htlul - 11(· \(111k r1! t
hi~ \,li' \vheii lw c;1111t~ in . . u 1d ;1! 1.-.;\\'t 'l cd 111\· q11t·s.tit)n.-.. pnin1;i!h
; 111d re:-..pectftdly . :--ihci1,\i1i:_: tlJ.1t lil'. \\, l ."' 1)lilite .
:\1id lie \Ltitt·d
111iit'tly fl)r hi .. ., t\lrn. i11..., tt· ;1tl u l 11 11...,)1i1 1~ tlw idlit·r" .t....,idt·. :--!11)\\
i·

he was modest. !Jon 't you c;dl these thing-;; letters of
recon1n1 e ndationi' I do; an<l \vhat i can tl'il al>uut a hoy Ly
11sing my en·s ior te n lllinutc-,. is \\<lrth more t lLrn all tl1c fi11t ·

ing that

h·tter:'". lw

Lin

hrin:.:

HH' ··

I 1\

t i 1j l lt ·· :--.(' 1llt'llC t._"-..?

(

lf

t liL reader?
'l' u the
\\'h.n ide.1s \\'•"lU]d f'IH ' h nf dw fnllrrn·ing topir· ~
\\ rik . I ;_:1'<>11[' ,,f '11l fi 1cl1· ;h
'.'-!CI1tc11cc'.-> ~u~g c:-_.. l t' 1 yotl
lt l lJl L · ·.':JCl1 tell LC :-)

tu

fiir c ~1ch tt ip i,· - ~<·11h·111't·.

•r· 11

1

I · r ..·\ < ; r · 1

1 --..;

I ., )-'· 1 ~,

j .......

.1 . . 1)urii~.~· ~lie \\·int er id. l'• ' '.-l·_ i1 _k1d Lccll i\lii:--Jicrcd .tlHHii
lil.lL .l. 111Jnl ,) 1·1 o( /H'ilple li.td died. in '-,(lfJif· nl !IH' t11i •slHiks()lllf'
·'~il 1 t1r],s aro1i11d 1.!i1Hlo 11, (1( thl· iJi-..,1·.1...,1· 1-;1 ;k 1! l )Jt· PLt ' ti<'
:~ ews \Y:1s not published tlll'll, .t.-.. 1! 1 )\, .•. 111d '.'-IHlic Ji ( : op]r.'~;;l)t ·
l:c \nl ilie.'-C n111:ors , ;ind :" nnw di~l \f'i i!'\·rd :hun . .llid tlil~ \
11

\\.c Ii.iii nnt lwc11
;1r(1se.

i111t

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-"'<"Ii 11L\11:-·

d.l\,...,

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\·isilt'd t1H· C;q1it11]

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tv .lltcnd scni1:c ..ll the "lrl ,;11. 1,.:e ,·1i u1·cl1. ·'
1

Tllfo' /' . /R ./l; N .·lf'/f.

CO.JJPOSI T/OX ./ ,\D Rl/El'UIUC.
4.

ing

\Vi th the coming of spring the ceremony of house -cleanbe~ins.

5. ·1 he roar of cannon announced that the battle had begun .

7. Taking e ach of the follow ing s ubjects write three
to pic-senten ces for as man y pa rag raphs to be developed in
regular orde r. Be prepa red to justify the order in whic h
you arrange them , and say to which you would give the
fuller treatment.
1.

-·
3.
-I·
5.
(i .

Th e cou ntr y fair.
Gathering wild flower s.
The Old State H ouse in ll oston.
Government ownership of railroads.
A snow blockad e.
The c ho ic e o f an occ up at ion.

59

.
\ · whi ch 1 was not able to follow .
solace my_self with s~unc s, i
torment of endless. !ru1tless.
and get nd o f the di s tract
th e unpretendin g assem·
1
barren , attention! l take .~e u~~ 11 a\ . _and th e pur g at or y of
blage of honest common- 1 e s
· d.
enraged musicians beco._-nes my p~r~~:~~gs from th e he ad of
3· Previous to the ret1~em e nt ~tant ~ h anges harl tak en p l:uT
affai rs in C a~c utta. c erta 111 i_mp o anv's . overnment. Th e _cnn ·
in the ma chinery of th e Co mp . ~u~h col ossal proporuons.
c erns of ln <lia had begun .to ass um e ·. tl; the hon or and '~ e l 1d had beco me sn mixed up_ wti· 1 r tli e ir -ulministrat1 0 11
•al
·
ti 1·' 1 t the l)ro1)n e '· 11' ·d in a measu
·
fare o f th e n al!on.
re b)'. ti\ e·
pa ny. alth o ug 1' co ntro 1c·~c t of « nve con sid er·
b y a ·sin"" le com
h \ . f
° was a su J)•
., '
operatio n o f t e f cts 0 177cl- · . · d of the offic ials had 1oni.;
ation. The cor rupt_10n __ an . ~~Je from a consid eration of the
been a m a tt er for c nt1 c 1s;~~rl been naturally drawn to a con subordmate. th e public.
. . . that the status of the Co mtemplati on of the pnnc1pa1s .' 0
pany was pretty fre ely d1sc usse .
.

1

fg .

d ___

8 . Look over the magazines at hand , and find the
topic-sentences in several of the articles. Bring to the
class the to pi c sentences whic h you have found, togethe r
with a b rief outline of the ideas grouped under ea ch.
9. Fill .in the blank spaces in the fo llowing paragraphs
with to pic-sentences, writing these topic-se nten ces in the
tone and style of the paragraph.
1. - - - Does the su bst anti,·e which we h ave turned into an
adjective imply tim e only ? Or is there not in the word C hristmas a finer and more potent qu al ity whi ch we shonld <lo well
to preserve, even th o ugh we a nti cipa te the Yule -tide or let
o ur thoughts run aft er it ? The real Christmas Kift will bear
bestowal in !\larc h or J11ne or No\"tombcr, th o 11 gh if o ne can
link it with the d earer day . and p11t , too, a little of the de li g ht of anticipation into some o ne's life, a d e li g ht that is g: ive11
to us all too ch aril y. why it is so !ll11c h the better .
~- - -- A carpenter's hamm er, in <l warlll summer's noon,
will fret me into mo re than llliJ s u!llm er madness. But th ose un con nec ted . un se t sounds are not h in g- to t11c measured mali ce o f
music . Th e ear is passi\·c tn those s in gle strokes. willingly
enduring s tri pes whil e it hath no task to con . To music 1t
ca nnot be passive. 1twill stri\" e - mine at least will - 'spite
o f its in ap titude, to thrid the maze, like an unsk ill ed eye painfu.ly poring upon hicrog lyp hi cs.
I li;l\·c sat through :111
Italian ope ra , till for sh ee r pain. :1 ml in rxplicahl e a11g11isli . I
ha\"(~ rushed uul into the n"isicst l'l.1,·es .,f the quiet streets. to
}I

'~:

l

60

61

COJ!l'OSIJIU,\' .·I.VU RHJ:'TON/C.

CHAPTER IV.
THE PAl<A1;1<API! (_rflll l i11111 ·i/) .

22.
The Development of the Paragraph. - L1)0king
upo n th e paragraph as the de\·elopment of a single topil",
we may n ex t co nsider how that development is brought
about, its m ea ns and mann er. O wing to the latitude
:1llnwed in p:uagraph dc\·elopme11t the subject presents
man y diffi c ultie s.
It is a not iceablc fa c t that verv f cw

write rs m a ke rea lly good pa ragraph s, and consequently
we fi ncl in m ost writing a great la ck of lng-ical d evelopment . Again, man y things must he tak e n into 1·onsidc ration ; for in s tan ce, th e kind of co mposition , \\'heth c r
it he na rra ti\·c, descriptive. exposit ory, or argumentative,
likewise th e position o f the paragraph in the th e m e . It
is impossibk in th e space at our command to describe
all th e m e thods by whi ch a tnpic is expa nded into a parag r.:iph ; but we should k eep in mind tha t the main objec t is to bring o ut c lea rly and effect i\·ely the idea of
the t opic, a nd that t n a ttain this result all th e details in
thl' paragraph should be sn arranged as to aid in the
pro cess. V1/ e sh al I no w con sidl'r a few of the more
l·ornmon m e thods of devel opml'nt. Tht:st: arc not to be
thought of as arbitrary, but rather ;1,.; c111l\"enient, a nd

th ey are ch ie fl y \·aluable for study a nd prac ti ce Ill training th e mind t o ha bit s of analysis. .ln tim e the pupil
will come to ;rn a lyze his topic instin c tive ly, and t o use
the m et h11d of deYelopment best suited t o his purposL·.
23. Development by Repetition.- Sin ce th e parag raph
must have unit y, a nd unity results fr om a re la tion of
each part to thL: topic-sentence, th e m ost 11hvious devdopment of t hL: top ic-sent. e nc <: \~r ill bl'. by rqietition.
Th e repetition must , of cour,.;e, givL: tht: thought greakr
definit e ness, make it more L: mphati c or o f la rger im po rt,
or present it in some n ew form. This m et h od is effective in e xposition where t:xplanation is needed , a nd in
argument where th e rc::1cler is t o be convin ced .
The
fo llowing· parag-raph will illu strat e development by r e petition: .. r\ good summer storm is a rain of riches. If gold and
silve r rattl ed down from the c louds. they would hardly e nrich the land so muc h as soft, long rains. Every drop is
silver going to the mint . The roots are machinery, and
catc hing the willing dro ps, they assay them , re fin e them ,
roll them, stamp them. a nd turn them o ut coined be rries.
apples, grains , and grasses I When the heave ns se nd
clouds, and th t:y bank up th t: horizo n. be s ure they h:we
hidden gold in the m."
H~: NRV \VAl<fl B~:ECH~:R.

Sent e nce 1 is th e topic s e nte n ce to be d eveloped.
Sentence 2 prese nt s th e idea in a n e w form and nwn.:
definit ely. Sentence 3 g ives still another turn t n th e
idea in sen t e n ce I and g reater definiteness. Sentence 4
carries out the idea in sentence 3, and emphasizes it.

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ny n1nn1n,; !: u · c niir:
and s11ppiy11 1g the !ll::t!l wit!!

nr-,t, ('Ven

·rh(.,. entire g r(~up !if sentences

1c:i\·cs up()n the rrnnn the s111:..:.·k 1mprcss1on t h:it r:iin is
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dt'.\·cI1)ps t111.: tli11ui-l,ht

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(•·1-Jin c-· rn ;inn ~ hd:ir c- :111i.- :1nd :1i~ nllr li:111:._:hn· trH''-' in TH'\\" :11H i
J reaJful ll':t\' S Licc:u1 1-" lJ C"!lt\Tiy "!'IJ~l'.s~l\T :ilk1 1,,,,t1i1
tit'~ ;1ctu:illv-lw::·;11i.
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the· f()ll11\\'lll .'. .'. i 1:1r:1:;r:qiii,; 1:1r1·t11il.1. \l"llll
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lt IS d1thcuit fur :lll\llllt" \\Iii> 1.ll<'S II/I Jli,llit' \I/ I<';!,\ p:nty
juur11als \\1tlwut frl'.qt1t·11t 11T1Ltl1u11, :rnd 1t d"c' 1H1t s1g11if;
"hiL·li side th e 11c11sp:1pcr 1.tkcs . >kn :Ht:'" u11f.ti1· i11 un1 trov crsy tlut \\T best prcse1·11· tlw scrt·nit1· "f the i11t1·lkct b1·
studiuusly :1\·uidi11<: :tl l litcr.1 t11rc: tiiat il.ls .t cu11lr"1 us1al tunc.
H1· 1·nnr 11l'\\' ruic n f :1hstm t·nrt · frnrn ll<'"''jl~]ll'rs 1·nu \\'ill nn
d~u-bt g:till :tllllllSt :l.S llll!Ch i11 .Sl'IL.'llll\ :ts i11 11111:,
'!'() tlic
urdi11;11·\' 11cll'sp:1pe1 rc'.1der :IJL'lc; is l1ttk ln,.s cd s1·r1·1111.1. IJc
c1use !;l'. rc:1ds oni\' t ill'. ill'.llsp:tjlt'I' tlut he :1;.;rec"' 111tl1. :tllll
holl'e1·cr unfair it i~, hc 1s pk:1scd l>1· it.-: uni:i1rncss.
ll11t thc
hi~hcst :t11d hc~t cultu re 11i.1k c :-i u:-. -di:--.tpj ll"\ 1\·c t•f u11Ltiriit ·-., :-.
•_ill uur u\\"ll :--1dc ut tl1c t;uc:--ti{)~! .tls o.
\\ ' c :lr t.· p;111icd by ll;
11·c feel ln1 111il1:1tcd II\· it. Ill'. Lt111e·1it !ls jll'.lsistc·111c :111d its
perversity .
. I'. (i. I L"r1·:wro~: h1tdie<i1tilf J.1/i:.

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:td1t1it tli(_ 111 (_ liccrfull _
\ cl 11 •d:__i1 . >it11. L. t l1 1_·\ d., IH !l "-lTl l J l · ,
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cred tli:1t t ile i1.1l!--,t:111nl l1 :.: :1tl1 ••ll't: kc:cµu \1.1~ tk,lllllll'.
of s upplies :ind lnd :i very ;;ck b:iby. :rnd th e reupon pri,
ceede d to ~:e nd to th:1t b:iby c;ery m o rning , under :l rhg
tl"Ut't"', :1 L i l l
,ft t!!dt""!l"t•ti !11iiJ...
/!Jr' f11J1j'r ' fli/r·11!

The fat:L is, tli:"1L the <jll:"1l i tit'.s tit:it r;iise m;in ;ibove th e ;ini111:il arc s11pcrim1J(•sl'd <>11 tfi,,s1· 11·liicli 111· ,1i:1r1·s 11itli the
:1ni111:il, :llld tli:1t it is nnl\· :F iw is rclit·1,.,I frlllll t he \\':rnts
"f his :111i111:tl n:1t11r c tl1:1t his 111\t·lkct11:tl :111d lll1Jr:tl 11:1t11rt:
can grow . Compel ~ lllall tu drudgery fur the necessities
of :111im:il t>xisrenC'f'. :rnd lw ll'ill inst' tilt' 11HTnt1n· t n in dustn·
tl1t~ p1 0 .~cnil11r()f ..._1,;ili
;11Hi \\ill d1Jilliiy \\ · ii:tl : \t '
is forC'ecl tn dn.
!\fake his n1ncli tinn such tli:it it r:11111ot lw
11111rh wnrsl'. ll'hil,. ther e· 1s littk h"pc· tlu l :; 111·1lii11 c: tli:tl he
t·:rn d n wil l rn~kP it rn11r!1 hr' ~t r r , :in d hC' '.': iii' r e :is(' tn ]nnk
berond the clJ.v.
Llcm him kismc. -- a11d ki~ure dues nul
mean the want of employment. but the :1bsence of need
11·hich forct's t n 1mcnn:,:«·nicll t·mp l<>\'lllt·11t -- :111d ·'""1 t':tll-

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pat1n11_
·r!H· 111t"" rl'l1;1n1 !1 ;1' i 1is '.'n11g r1~tn·:lt ln the ~:i{'i ni~y
ot the m ctropuiis, \\'here he often d isplays as much pride "nd
1eal in tl1e culti\';1!i11 11 11f hi~ f11i\ •: e1 .: .:ardcn. :111d thL 1n:1ri.1

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rill·: /'. /It' . /( ,' /.' .// ' // .

and tbe s uccess of a co m111ercial e nt e rprise.
Eve n those
less fo rtun ate indi1·id uals, who arc d uu m ed tu pass their
lives in th e mid st of din and traffic , C<•ntrive to have something that shall re 1nind th e 1n of the green aspe c t "f nature.
ln th e m ost dark and d in g1· q uarters o f th e c itv , th e drawin g-roo m window n::se mbl c's fr<:i-p1ently a bank. of tlo wcrs ;
eve ry spo t ca pable o f 1·egetatin n has it s grass- plot a nd
fl o wer-bed ; a nd eve ry sq uare its m im ic park. l:iicl out wit h
pic turesq u e t as te , and gl ea 111ing with re fre shing ve rdure.
\\ '.h1 11:-;1:T11:-; ! 1n·1:-;1:: S/.:t'/,/1 /lo,1/.:.
24.

Development by Detail. -- ;\ secon d met hod of

devei u pi11g th e top ic-se nt e n n ; is

Iiy

.~wing details.

These

d eta ils s hould b..: Sll l' h a s ar <.: appropr iate to th e tnpi c-

c has te 11 hite 11\n,;,;1.111-, in tlw ,; nu ll g: nclcn s hefflrL· tlw ,.,,\
tages. T he h ka t1n:.: "t tlH' 11 e11 -clr"pt L1 11il" 11:1' Lu11 1l:
hea rd fr<>111 th e tiL·lcl s. Th<: -, 11·;1\lu\1·s t11ittncd :1 hot1 l tlie
that ch('d e:1\-cs :11HI hw l cl111 .~ licd:.:1· s : tlic· r .. 11111 11 11,·1\ :1
li ve li1·r nnte int" liis Lite <jll<'1·ui<•llS 11i11tr1· str:1111: :11HI t li1·
lark , ~pri11 g i11 g 11 p fr<~1n th l: r1.: c ki11g I Hh1 1111 ()f t l1l· 11H· ; 1d<1\\,
to wered a11· ay into the hrig h t , llcecy < luucl. pourin:_: f<>rth
t o rrents ',f n;e lr>< h-.
\\".1s111,1:Tll" J1nI"\1: : J'IJ,. Sf.-,./,/1 f! ,,,,;,.

l t \\'ill !iL: rc:tdill· Sl' Cll th:tl th <' t"l>IL -'-1·11tl'Ill ,. Ill t \11,

! .

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p:tr:1gT :1J'li 1s. ·· It 11 :ts 111s 1)1 r1 n~ :111 ii :111i111:1t 111.~ t • • 11it111·"
thi s fi r s t :iwak e 11i11 g or ,.;p ri ng-"

I n t h L' sc11te1H·L·s th: 1t

fo llo w l rv in g en um cra!l',.; i11 dc-t :1il s 11lll l" <>I- th c· thir1g ,; tli:1t

s..:11t c n n', and s hould a dd someth ing to the though t in

each c ts..:, just as in the method by r e pdition; ind eed,

and

th e l wo met hods a r e close ly r elated. fo r in givi n g d e tails

m akes more: c mj>h:tti1 · t lw .c::c n e r:tl idea 111 the t "\'i' · ~1·11 -

II"<.: r epe:tt to

SOJllC

eac h

c·l:t u se ~tdd s ,;1,111dhin .'. '.· t" tlw tl11n1 .~lit. :u1d

C:\ t c nt 1 h e id ea or th e topi c -sentence.

Thi s met h<>d is u sed in all kinds "[ discourse.

Sornc-

tin1es , :ts in the List :-;elect ion .,,. th"· preced 111 g sec ti on,
t h e t11· 0 rndhocls arc combin ed.
The following 1x tr:1g ra ph will illustrate tlw Ille! hod of
dl'1·elop m c n t hy detail : - ·
The co untry was ye t nak ed :111 d lea ti ess; but English
sce ne ry is a lways Yerda nt , a nd th e sudd e n ch an ge in the
k mperat ure of th e \\' Cather was surprising in its quickening effects upo n th e L111ds cape . It wa s inspiring a nd ani111atin g to w itn css this fir:-;t :rnake n ing o f spring; to fee l its
ll'ar m breat h s tea lin g m-cr the se nses; to see the mo ist ,
mellow e arth beginning t1J pt1t fort h th e g ree n sprout a nd
the te nder blad e ; and th e tree s a nd s hru b s , in th e ir revivin g tints :l!l(l bursting buds, g iving the promise of returning fo li a ge and fl ower. The co ld snow-drop, that Jil(le
Lo rd e re r o n th e skirh nf winte r , was to be see n wit h its

Stucl v tlw fnll"11·111 c; p:1 r:1gr:qil1,.;. point 1111t \1·ii:1t ,;c :i
t cnCl'S g i1T dct:tils ckn·lopi11 g· tltc· t " t• iL'-St' Ilkllt •·. :1111 i "'I\

how th ey :1. dcl

t<> the \ \i11u.'..'.ltt

1. M-uc li ~· 1 H1 d ILHI t '\> llll' t11 1:l(i r c 11t ·c .... i11 cc tl1c d111 1 t11111._ ·
of struggle .lw t11«T II tl 1<· .. 1c1 p: 1tr"11 .111d tl 1e 111·11: '" 11w
qua rreli ng an d bl c1o d s he d. d u u btlcss, !Jct11·ee1 1 (;u elf :<1111
Ghibell in e, b e t ween Blac k a nd \\'bi te. b ct11ee11 nrt li " d ' ' ~
son s of the C hur c h :rn d he re t ic l' ater i11 i; ""111 e 11,,,,.i, ,
famine, :in d pcstileIHT : h11t s ti l l 11rn c h 1n·:tlt h :111d .l::lllr1·.
2 . .Florence h:1d :wh1cn·d 1·111111 11 csts <•1 1: r \\: 1lk <I •Ii i•·>
o n ce mightier th:1n it,.,elf, a nd espec iall y 111·er h ated l'i -,:t.
who se marbl e buildin g s \\T re too high ;111d b ea utiful, \\liu.'-e
m as ts we r e too much h"n orecl o n <;reek :llld l t:1lian e<•: 1s ts .
3. T h e name of Vl"ren ce h a d b ee n groll'ing prouder a 11d
p ro uder in :11 1 th e co urt s uf Europe, n :ty , in J\fri ca it.se lf.
on th e st n: ngt h " f purest go ld c u in:1gc. fines t ch cs :111d

,..
~·

..

68
!'

TH F. !'A l\ . 1<7R,.l!'H.

CO.lff'OS!F!OX . /.\"JJ NllF.T()R/C.

a g- rea t s o11l's p ;1ssin11 as tint passion , looked upo n, painted
itself? 7. To co lll e d o ll'n to things rnore humbl e, yet by no
m ean s le ss signifi cant , hy \\'hat wo rd s can any o ne find
ho w to se t fo rth a ;,:-ail o r :1 m ice) 8. And ye t if I could
,; imply ,;ee th e h :1 d ' o f Cltu jog;.:-ing out a tie ld, o r h ea r o ne
sentenn: spoken hy ( ·aes;1r's \"<Ji ce . it rea ll y seems to me
that I s ho uld get a bett e r kn 011'\ edgc " f e ithe r. from that
single to k e n , th an I han: gotten yet from ;i\I other so urces.
9. So 1·e ry impo rtant are 11·o rcls to re p rod u ce . o r kee p in
illlpression th e facts :rnd men o f histo ry. 1o. \V e have a
1ya y of speaki n g. in ll' hi ch ll'e congratulate ourselve s on
th e score of a d istinct io n he t11·ee n \\'h;1t are c alled the
unhist o ri c and histori c ages.
1 1. The
unhisto ri c, \\'e
fa11 cy , m ake no history. b eca use th ey ha 1·c no ll'rittc n lan1 ~- Hut ha1· ing ,;uc h a g-ift , 11· it h paper to receive
g11agc.
th e re co rd of it. :rnd types lo multi p ly that reco rd , and
librari es t o k ee p it , a nd. \i;1c k n f all . a body o f lea rn ed
s c ribes, 11· ho are skill ed in \\'riting history as one of the
elegant a rts, \\'e co ncl ud e th a t n o w th e hi s to ri c age has
co m e . 13 . \\ 'e do no t perce i1·e. that , in jus t this m a nner,
ll' C are goi ng t o 01·e r\\'rit e hist o ry . and ll'r ite so mu c h of it
that ll'e shall h a 1·e re a ll v n o ne.
1 .J.. lf ll'e h a d the whole
\\·o r iel's hist o rv ll'rit tl'. 11 <;lit i11 suc h det a il of art. we co uld
not e1·e 11 n ow. m a ke anything o f it - th e histori c sh elf of
yom libra r y \\' Ot1ld gird l e~ th e wo rld. 15. Wh a t , th e n , will
0 11r writt en history he l" us. aft e r it ha s gotte n fift y milli o ns n f ye: irs into its ren>r<i ? for 11 c 11111st not forget that
th e age ll' e Jin; in is b ut th e 11·o rkl's ea rl y m o rning. 16.
Ca llin g it th e hi stori c age. th e n. what are we d o ing b ut in
obli1·io 11 . ;1s th e unhi s to ri c :1.c;t· ton k it without \\'tilin g at all.
I l t> IU «E llt1s 11 N1·: 1.1 . : .J/,1r<1/ { :.., .., 1!/ / )111/..· Things.

25. Development by Specific Examples. - A third
m et hod of d e v elop in g t h e paragraph is b y g i\·ing specific
in sta n ces o r ex amplt: s .

Thi s method of d e ve lop m e nt

is Clllj>J<>yed \1-hL· re 1 he t opiC-SL'llk ll n ; is Ill th e fu r!ll o f

;t

ge n e ral statem e nt.

The p r ecedin g mcth11ds may also be

employed fu r the same pur pose, but spec ific i11:-L111 l·L·s
are more effective in ii lu st rating- and e nf o rcing ;1 gL· ncr:1I
statement, and ma y be us e d in <kseription, cx p"s ition, o r
followin .:!
argurnt.:n t . '1' 11··
~
. , 1iar:t,:!
. , r a 1i hs are de\·e lope d accordi iw to this 111cth1!d.
The pupil s h o uld stud y th e m
"' y, a nd n o t e t I1c e ff. eel 11 1· ti 1t.: s.·e\·c r:il in s t :uK c s in
car e full

.,.

d evel o ping t h t.: t op ic-senten ce : -

If 11·e look fur th e explanatio n uf th e sit1uti on , it :q ipe ars primarily in th e absol ut e diso rga rn z;1t1o n of _th ' :
Libera l party. lt h as nopo h cy, n o le ader. h st_'rnd ~. f, 1l.
no thinu-.
It s 111ost prnm111 e nt m e n are c 1the1 ]>LH t1 c.1ll;
0
at o n e 11'ith th e <: 0 11 se r1·ati1-es i11 poli cy. Je:ilo us "f e: 1ch
other , in co mpe te nt , or m e re l Ileori· ". t s· :1nlI_ c-r-rnl
· ':·s · . I ·<>rd
__
R o sebe rv is a s mud1 a11 Impe riali st ;1s l.<>rd .S:di shui: ·
Je rh a p s- m o re 11 f on e . S ir \\'il lia 111 ] I :ircourt 1s a d1.:-;1p\ .
· sp
· Icc
· ·11 11·h c n e1·«1
, 11· jl() \'ellh· IllS
. · he l111. d s
l)Oll1te d 111;111
,,i th e 11 1.,·h
· 1.>e ;1 t t l1c· .e'\· j). "·nse
o ppo rtunit· y, 11· \iet \ler 1t
_·
_ . . .
. . ~.
C hur c h p ;1rt y. th e Cul o 111 a l e xp;rn s1o n1 sh. t l1t ( li.11 Hc ll 1
o f th e E xc heq uer. u r a11yli1Jdy ebe . ;lll d ii h 1,\., 11 s h it
hi s 0 11·11 ;bs"cia tes as s harpl y a s tln·y d u h 1.s "i'\l" 1H"l \h.
Sir] lenrv C:unpbe\1 - l\a11n e n11 ;111 ll :1s sh<>11·11 th :1l Ile " "11 1H,L
ri se ;1\,();.L. 111 edio c rit 1· ; 11hile 1\ lr . l .a h<>11 c hcr" "' l'r:i• ti call y thL· 11ullun11 . i1.1 po li ti c s ,_ IH >ldin g \11 ~ 0 11 11 ''"ly liy
v irtu e "f ;111 o cca s10 11al s :ill y rnt o s o ber l Ullllll"ll Sl 11 "' ·
l o hn J\ l nr leY h:1s dr opped nu t . ( ln th e ot he r \i;111d. th l·r, ·
is Mr. Ch ;;llll>L·rb ill. c\v ;1r ht";1 d ed , 111 c 1s 11-c. 1kte rn 11111·d .
th e o ne nLlll in E11 g L1lld ll' h" kn" ws «X:1ctly 11 \1;1t It,·
· \H> lll HI t o Ii.1· 1·c· 1· l . 1"1Tl
l k..,s
wants ;1 n <I 1s
•
· · 111 c1·Hknc<".
.
·11
·
·
·1
·
1
·
·
·t
.
1
1·
·
is
th
e
th o ug h pro IJa l J 1y sll 1110 1e. e ec e, ._ . . _ l're
.· m1 e. r. h1Jld·
_.
iiw th e man v lin t.:s of l'.n g li s h Jl" lit1 cs 11 1th .1 loost .
a l~i ost cy 11 ica'i hand , yd so th at :h e slighte st 11'. ''.1e 111.ent
se r ves o nly to st re ngthen his gnp 011 the111 . l here 1:
,1\rtlrnr Bal fou r. 1dius.; lc:1 clers h1 p 111 the 1 l uusc In

.

'

70

CO. lfl'OS!T!O. \ . . IX/7 Rl!ETOR!C.

;tlr .. adv prun:d hi .~ abilit1·.
con cl u.-;i o n.
·

The rcsti~t \1;1 s a f.,rcg<>11c

Editorial in the ]11,/<Jc111/c11/, (kt.

,I
I'

[

I:

!'
·1

THF: l'.1 R.-/C,RA PH.

1

1,

i900.

It is a mistake to st1pposc that writers 11·ho win the
greatest re no\\' n arc co1nn1onl y hasty , and that they cl as h off
\\'hat they say by :1 str_okc of genius. The biography of
Di ckens sho\\'s \\'hat pa ills he took to sec(1re e\·e n the right
proper nam es; fo r exalllplt.:. not e his c hoice of the title
" I l o use hold \\'ords ." l'ages of his proof-sheets ll'hic h .I
h:1ve see n show how cHeft1l ly he re1·iscd e1·ery paragraph.
Th e very last proofs of .. l'e1·er il of th e l'ca k .. (ow 1{ed by
!'res ident \\' hit c) show that a roni:rnce of \\'alter Scott recei1Td th e master's t·i nal tou c hes just before the printing
began. Bret I lane 's h111011s poem on th e I leathen C hi°nee \\'as corrected an d re-correcte d. and o n the ultimate
rl'l·ision rece ived. I believe, that s:iti ri ca l tou c h whi c h
g ;1n; it \\'Orld-11·id e fame: "We arc ruined bv Ch in ese
cheap labo r . ., Emerson is consid ered by many as a sort
of oracle, simply o pening his mouth to let fall aphorisms
of profound impo rtan ce, but recent and a uthe nti c narrati1·es of his life s hO\r that he forged hi s sentences like the
gold-beater who is pre parin g a setting for pear ls.
I >.-\ N11<: 1. Curr C1u1A :-1: Co//,.;;'<' Ji-tt i11i11g, an ;1ddress.
In no mode rn society. not e\'t.: n in · England during the
rvign o f Eli zabet h, has the re bee n so great a numbe r of
n1 e n elll in e nt at once in literature and in the pursuits of
a cti l'e li fe, as Spain produced during the sixteenth century.
A lm os t every distingui.shed 11Titer \1·as disting uish ed also as
a soldi er and a politician. Hoscan bore a rms ll'ith a hi " h
reputation . (;arc ilaso de \ 'cga , the ;1uth or of the s\\'cet;st
and most gra ce ful pastnra l poe m of modern tim es, after a
short hut splendid militan· ca ree r, fell sword in hand at
the head of a storming pa;·ty. Alonzo de Ercil la bore a
conspicuous part in the war of Arauco which he afte rwards
celebrated in one of the best heroic poems that Spain has
produced. Hurtad o de i\'J en cl oz:1, whnst: poe ms ha\'e been

7r

compared to those of H orace, and whose c harming little
nove l is th e model of Gil Blas, has been handed dow n to us
as one of the ste rnest of those iron proconsuls who w_ere
employed by the House of Austria t'.i crush the hnger~n g
public spirit of Italy. Lo pe sailed 111 the Armada; Cervantes was wounded at Lepanto.
T. B. J'vlACAULA \': F.ssars.

Development by Comparison or Contrast. ·- .-\
2 6.
fourth method of developing a paragraph is by compari son or by co ntrast.
In compari son the points of resem blance between the subject o i thought and some wellknown object arc brought out. This comparison is not
to be unde rstood as o f the nature of a purely rhe torical
tigurl'. J\ great d ea l of our rea soning is by comparison,
and (•tir knowledge of all sorts is largely relative. The
enforcing of the statement of a topic-senten ce by comparison is more in the way of illustration than of proof.
J f the difference between the subject of thought and
some well-known o bjec t he brought out we call the process a contrast.. The statement of th e t o pic-sentence is
mad e more ernphatil· by be ing placed in contrast with
something of a diffe rent but nut necessarily conflicting
character. The development by comparison or by contrast is much used in desc ription and exposition. The
following paragraphs will illustrate this method: Some minds are wonde rful for keeping their bloom in this
way , as a patriar~hal gold~fish app~ren_tly retai?s to the last
its youthful illus10n that 1t can swim m a straight Im~ beyond the encircling glass. Mrs. _Tulliver was an amiable
fish of this kind; and after runnmg her head against the

7'!.

C'<).lfl '<)S/ TIO.\- .I X/J NII /'./'( ) /,'JC.

Tiff:' l ' Al\'.·/ 1..;R.· ll'J/.

same resisting 111 edium fo r thirtee n 1·ears. would go at it
again to-day with undulled ala crity.
C EUI{( :t·: E1.10T : J'/"· . Ifill "" th.· Flo.rs.
I )ay was breaking un the world. I .ight, hope, fr eed o111 ,
pierced with 1·italizi111! ray the clouds and the miasma that
hung so thi c k 01Tr the prostrate l\lidclle 1\ge . once noble
and mighty . 11uw a foul image of decay and death .
Kindl ed with new life. th e nations ga Ye birth tn a progeny
of heroes. and the stormy g lories of the s ixteenth century
rose 011 awakened Eu rope . But Spain was th e ci tad el o(
darkness, a monasti c cell. an inquisito rial dun geo n,
whe re no ray could pie rce. She was the bulwark of the
church , against whose ad :1ma11tine wall the waves of inn ovation heat in 1·;i.in. In e1·ery country of Europe the
party of fre ed om and rcfo rlll was the nati onal party , the
party of reaction and absolut islll was the Sp;i.n is h party,
lean ing on Spain. look ing to her for help. Abo1·e all it
was so in Fran ce: and while within her bounds there wa s
a semblan ce of pea ce, the national and religi ous r;1ge burst
fo rth on a wid e r theatre. Thithe r it is fo r us to foll ow it,
where on the shores o f Fl orida . the Spaniard and the
Fre nchman , the bigot and the 11 uguen ot. md in the
grapple of d e:llh.'
FiU!'\\°IS i'AKldlA :--1:

I
I·

. I

./'io11,·,.,._,.

'

'i

1~/.f· i·1111<'t:

i11 //11·

. \~ ·1••

l f/11rld.

In the following paragr:1phs point 011t th e u1mparisu11s or th e contrasb, a11d ,.;how ho11· thev art· effective
111 clcv e loping thL' paragr;qihs: ·

! .

l\'1r. Speake r. 1 kn v11· .,f nu parallel to thi s charming
phil osop hy, unless it is to be found in the sayings of
Mause Hedrigg, an elderly Scotch lady , ll'ho figures in
one o f Sir Walter Scott's novel s. In one of he r evangeli cal mood s . s he rebuked he r son Cuddie for using a fan, or
;rny \\'Ork o f :irt. to clea n his barley. She said it 11as an

awesome d enial o ' Provide nce not to wait Jli s 0\1·n tirn c.
when I le would surely send wind to winnow the c haff o ut
of the grain. In the same spirit nf e nlighten ed phil osophy does the gent leman ex hort us in Ohio , Indian;i , ;i.ncl
Tilinois, to cease our impi ous roa d -making, and wait th e
good time of Provide nce. who will , as he see ms to think .
surely send a ri1·er to run fr om Cumberland over the Allcghanies , across the Ohio, and so on , in its he:wen-directed
course, to St. Louis .
THO~tAs CoK WI N :

7'/1e Cu111l><'rl1111tl R 1111J.

1f it were only for a 1·ocab111ary , th e sc hola r 11·t,tild l•e
covetous of action. L;fe is our di ctionary. Years a rc
well s pent in country labo rs ; in town , - in the in ~ i g ht
into trades and manufactures : in frank intercourse with
many me n and women; in science; in art; to. the one end
of maste ring in all the ir fa cts ;i. language by whi c h t o illu ~ ­
tr;i.te and e mbody ou r perceptions. I learn imm ediate ly
from any speaker ho w muc h he has already li ved, th roug h
the pove rty o r the spl e ndor of his speec h. I .ife lies behind us as the quarry when ce ll'e get til es an d co pcstones fo r th e masonry of to-day. Thi s is the 1ray to
learn grammar. Colleges and books onl y copy th e lan guage whi c h the field and the workyard mad e.
RALPH

WALIJ O

E~·Jh:KSUN:

l'/1c American .)dwlar. '

. . He (Grant) surpassed his predecessors also in th e
dignity of the object for whi c h he fought. The three
great generals of th e world are usually e numerated following Macaulay - as be ing Caesar, Cro mwe ll . and
Napoleon. Two of these fought in wars of mere conquest.
and the contests of the third were marred by a g loomy
fanatici sm, by cruelty and by selfishness. General Grant
fought to restore a nation , that nation be ing the hope of
the world. And he restored it. His work was as complete as it was important .
Caesar died by violence ;
Napoleon died defeated; Cromwell 's work c rumbled to

ti

74

COMPOS!T!OX .·LVIJ RI/ETON!<".

pieces when his hand \\·as cold. Grant 's career triumphed
in its ending ; it is at its heig ht to-day. It was finely said
hy a Massachusetts statesman that \\'e did not fight to
bring our opponents to our feet but only to o ur side.
(;rant to-day brings his opponents lite rally to hi s side,
when they act as pallbea re rs around his coffin.
T. \\·. H 1c;cr:-1so:-1: U h-sJ·cs S. Cr1111/.

' ·'

1,

No, sir. we are abon: all this. I.et the I li gh land clans1nan , h;1lf-naked, half-c ivilized. half-blind ed by the peat
sllloke of his ca vern , ha1·e his hereditary enemy, and his
he reditary enmity. an<l kee p his keen, deep , and precious
hatred, set on tire of hell, alive if he can; let the
North Alllerican "Indian ha\'e his, and hand it down
fr o lll father to son , by Heaven knows what symbols
of a lligators, and rattlesnakes. and war-clubs smeared
with ve rmilion and entwined "'ith sca rlet; let such a
country as Poland . cloven to the earth , the armed heel on
he r radi:rnt forehead, he r body dead . her soul in capable of
dying, - Id /I(.,- rt'lllt'111/11·r t/11: wnJ1i,£;S of t!11ys /011,; j>1rsl; . . .
but sha ll Ameri ca, young, free . and prosperous, just setting
out on the highway of H ea1·en . . . . shall s he be supposed
to be polluting and corrod ing her no ble and happy he art, by
moping over old stories of stamp-act. and the tax , and the
tiring of the Leopard on the Chesapea ke in time of peace ?
No, sir: no, sir: a th ousand times, No!
H.11Fus

CHOATE:

T/i,· Old Gn11fge 11,i;1u11.1·/ 1~·11,;la11d.

27.
Development by Cause and Effect.
A fifth
meth od by which a paragraph grows from ~ l t op ic is by
making th e t opic-sentence the cause, and immediately
following it by the e ffects produced. A full paragraph
of effects is not often found ; more oft en a few sen.
tences at th e end g ive the effec t. This m et hod uf de\'elopm e nt is common in alm os t all kinds of disc ourse,

THE /' A R.·J<;RA !'l-l.

75

and is ofte n indicated by such words as !l11wcfol't', cons1·cjllC!l!ly, and o thers, but sometim es this relation of caus~
and effect is left to th e understandin g of th e reader. It
prope rly s uggested, it will be eq ually clear and vivid.
and may he more pl easin g by reaso n of b e ing le ss
fonnal.
l'oint out the relation of cause and effect in the para·
graphs that folio\\' : The most erudite woman l knm1· studies as hard at
thirty-eight as she did at e ighteen. S h ~ speaks five lan guages, is .. up " in many systems of philosophy; com·e rsant with sc ie ntific d1scovenes , and is a competent art
c riti c. For a ll that he r acquaintances and the outer world
are benefited by her attainments she might as w ~ ll be
unable to read or to write. She has her own study 111 her
fath er 's house, and takes no inte rest in any other part of
it. seldom descending to the dra wing-room ; and whe n she
takes her meals with the fam ily rarely speaks unless
directly addressed . She hates house wifery. has n eve r
mad e a bed or dusted a room, and conside rs the th1mbl~
"a degrading implement. a reli c of the barbaro;.1s ages
when wo1nan was a chattel and a beast of burden.
MARION

HAKl.AN!I:

Tl1e /n rli:j>enden!.

This treatment of liis subjects and ignominious punishme nt of his fri e nd outraged the pride and exasperated the
passio ns of Philip. The bolt whi c h ha~ fallen thus at 111s
very feet aw a kened him to the gathen ng sto rm , and hc:
dete rmin ed to trust himself no longer m the power of the
white men. The fate of his insulted and broken-hearted
brothe r still rankled in his mind ; and he had a further
warning in the tragical sto ry of Miantonomah, a great
Sachem of the Narragansetts, who, after manfoll)
fa cing his accusers before :1 tribunal of the. colomsts.
exc ulpating himself from a charge of conspiracy, and

'

76

CU.Jf/'(!S/T/U ,\' .· /.\'/! NllHl'ON/i -.

receiving assurances of amity. had been perfidiously
despatched at their instigation. Philip, therefore, gathered his fightin g men about him ; pe rsuaded all strangers
that he could to join his cause; sent the women
and children to the N arragansetts for safety ; and wherever he appeared, was continually surrounded by armed
warriors.

28. Development by Proofs. - Tn argumentative discourse a the me is often deve loped by giving proofs.
The t opi c-sentence is th e proposition to he established;
the other sentences gi\'{: the proofs. These proofs will,
of course, tak e different forms, varying from simple evidence in s upport of the principal statement to more
formal and logical presentation of the proof.
The following paragraphs will illustrate this method
of dev e lo pm e nt : -·

Tiff-.' l '. IN . /1 ; /,'/I'// .

Europe, the turbulent, but energetic libe rties of the people
"ere suppresse d , the building of cathedrals ceased .
CHARU~S ELI O T NORTON:

N,,1,-..- o.f Tra7't'! n111/ St11dy in

1111 ~1'.

Afte r all has been said tha t ca n be said of the horrors
of war, it still remains that there are certain circumstances
unde r whi c h war is not only justifiab le, but absolutely
necessa ry. There are times when a. people_ hav.e been
crushed in all of the rights of a nati on which (,od has
,,"iven to them ,· when all measures of redress for their
wrongs have been spurned and contemned. Beyond that
they see the gleam of fr eedom. Then. it is _that they are
prompted to bare their breasts to the lightnmg a nd place
their reliance, through (;ml , in the argument of force. No
nati on can see its peopl e bow their heads in s hame before
the rest of the people of the world. The nati o n 's hon o r b
the nation's soul; it is the nation 's spirit and mu"t b e
kept alive.
_
.
JoH N

29.
C athedrals \\'ere essentially expressions of the popular
will a nd the popular faith. They were the wo rk neither
o f ecclesiastics 11or of fe udal barons. They re present
in a measure the decline of feudalism, and the prevalen ce of the democ rati c e lement in society . No sooner
did a c ity achieve its fre ed om than its people began
to take tho ught for a cathedral.
Of all arts, architecture is most quickly res ponsi,·e to the instincts
and the desires of a people.
And in the cathedrals
the popular be liefs . ho pes . fears , fan cies, and aspiration s found expression. and were perpetuated in a language intelligibl e to all. The life of the Middle Ages is
reco rded on the ir walls. \Vhen the democratic element
was subdued. as in Cologne by a prince bishop, o r in
Milan by a succession of tyra nts , the cathedral was left
unfinished.
When , in t he fifteenth century, all over

77

I'.

C1-111>w11 · K:

Irregular

T/11· Sf'r111 i.d1-.- fm1'rtm11 TV11r.

Development. - \\'e ha\' e d esc ribed

some 11f th e more common forms <>f paragraph d evelop ment. There are many 11thers. As has been remark ed
before the real value of th ese meth ods is t"' t eac h thl·
pupil t;) analy ze his thought and to develop it instincti\' ely .
Paragraphs of the t ypes desc ribed above are t11 be found
only in the more severe forms of discourse . In ordinary
wri.ting less form a l types prevail. Again, it is rare that
a parag raph is d e veloped h y 11n e method only. 1f \\'e
t a ke at random a paragraph frnm a hook or a magazin e.
we shall find two nr three m e th ods e mploy ed in th L'
same para~raph, som e times o bsc ure and hard to classify.
For this reason and b eca use of faulty constru ction thl'

!I

C-0.J/l'OSIT!O.\ . .·1N /I J.'llFTOR!t.
THI:' l' . IR .-J1;· N . /l 'H.
li la1onecl in stained ;;lass. I n var ious pa rts of the churc h were
tombs o f knights ;111d hi g h-born dam es. uf ,!!;nr!!; co us wo rkmans hi µ. wit h th ei r etll;;i cs in colored m a rbl e. On e 1e r v s idl' , the
e ye is struck wit h so me insl :tn ce of aspiring morta lit y; so nt e
haugh t y memorial w hi c h human pr ide had erec ted o ver its
kindred dust, in thi s temp le of th e m os t ht11nbl e of a ll r e li g io ns.
\V..1 s 111 s 1;Tos I n· 1sr; : lltt' S!.·t'fd1 Hool.:.

I
I

An Am e ric a n ),.,,., ll'iin li:ts r cce i1·ed a fair co 1nm o n sc hoo l
ed uca ti o n, and has · an ;i ct in" in qu irin g 1nintl. dot:s nol willingly co n sent m c n :ly lo dri n : <>xt:n and h o ld th e plow fo re 1·e r .
H e will do th ese with ;ilanit1-, if th c1· com e in his w av: he
w ill not a ccept th e m a s th e he -'al l and l.he Cll(l -a ll o f his c:u:eer.
He will no t sit d o ll'n in a ru de. slo l' c n ll', naked hom e. d e 1·o id
of tl o we rs , and trees. and hunks. :rnd 1.>e riodi cals. and inte lli ;;e nt , inspirin g, r e li ning co nn~ r s:ttio n. and th e re plod throu g h a
life o f d r ud ge rv as ho peless and c hee rl ess as any mul e' s. l k
h;i s hopes. and.ne eds. and aspi rati o ns. which thi s l ife d oes n o t.
:llld should not sa ti sl'y. Tl 1is mi g ht hal' e ser\'ed his progeni ·
tt1r in the ninth ce ntur y lrnt this is the nin eteen th, and Young
,\m er ica kn ows it.
HnttAl' E CREE i. Ei': J£:rir11l/11 rc.
Energy is th e s tea m-power, the 111 ot i1·e prin c ipl e of intell ec t·
11a l capacity. It is th e prop e llin g- force: and , as in physi cs.
mom e ntum is r eso lvab le into 1·c loci t y and q uantity of matt e r.
so in m e ta p hysi c s th e ex te nt uf hu man acc ntnp lis hm cn t m ay
lie r es o lvable in to the d e g r ee of int r llcc tll:tl e nd ow m e nt , ancl
the e nergy with w h ich it is di rec te d. A '1n: tll body driv e n i> y
a g r eat force w ill prod11< T :t res ult crp i: tl 111. nr l'l'c n g r eater
than that of a m uc h larger !inch· moved In· a cons id e rably less
for ce. Su it is with m in ds. l lt:n ce ll'C o(ten see m e n o f cn m·
paralive ly sma ll c a paci t y. hi' grea te r cnergl' a lo ne. lea ve a n d jus tl y lc: tl' e - th e ir s1qwr io rs in na t ur;il · ;..: if ts f:ir l>e hintl
tl1 e m in th e r ace for hn nnrs, di st inctio n. and p re ferm en t.
i\1.i-: ~ ANJ1i-: 1 t 11. STE l' ll ESs: Fno :\'.1'.
Amie! this mountaino11s n· g inn te m pests g il' c bri ef warning
of their app roac h . \ \'a lkd in as t hese lak es arc by m o untains.
behi nd whi c h th e c loud g athers un see n. th e co ming o f a s to rm
is lik e the spring of a tig·c-r. ,\ sudd e n peal of thund e r. a k een
s haf t of li g h tn in g. w hi c h ruts tl1roug h th e atm os pher e in fro nt
of your st art le d 1·ision . a p ulf of air. or the spin nin g o f a whirl ·
ll'ind across t he la ke. and the tempest is upo n yo u. So w as it
now. Even as I g-azcd int o th e whi te mist , a heavy bank of
jet- l1la c k c lo ud ros e up lhrou!!;h its feat h ery d e pths. un roll ed
itsel f :ts :t liattery unli1nl ie rs for !i:ttt le, and the nex t i1 1sl:tn t a

~I

sh ee l of tlam c d a rted o ut o f its 1·e r1· ce ntre, :tnd th e a ir see11H.: d
rent into fragments by t he co nc uss.ion.
\\' . H . H . M L' lt ltA\': Srrl>l1a//i i11 /li e /f'oodr.
On th e other han d. tl1 e sto ry of rapid fa ta l e xtin c ti o n is di sproved. J\l a n y o f the a ccounts arc exp lain ed h y th e facts immediately a bov e m e nti oned. hut tr ea ted co n 1·e r sell-. \\ih e n a
n'1m e n f a tribe had b ee n ~dt1ptcd, wh e th e r co rrect II· or not.
and ~l numb e r of o th e r 11a m t·s of th e sa m e t ribe l°>ad bee n
abandoned or disu sed. the n u n1hc 1· of pe op le hdure r eported
as be lo ng ing· to all th ese dis11secl n;1111es was subtr ac ted frnm
the to ta l. So thel' we re considered to he e xt incl. I louht lcss
tribes i>ec: tnt c cxi in c t th rniq; h th e ir d est ru c tion 1>1· th e Lum.
pea n inv aders in al l part s of th e r ountr)·, e' p ec ia ll \· in i\ l assac hus e tts and C: tlifo rni;i; l>1 1t as a ge ne r:tl rnl e. th e rldeat t>d
tribes fl ed to other r e.~ i ons of the rontint·nt wh ich we1·e t11l<l c·
cup ied. and ;is ,!!;Ood fo r their habitati on as th ose the1· ldt.
and we re not ··a nnihilated.'' as was th e co mm o n exp re:ssion.
L 1·en II' he n th c v in fringed up on th e r eg ions c laimed li 1· a b°'ll·
of Indians o cc 11 pving th e m, th e r e was se ld o m d iffi c ui't y abo iit
th e adop ti o n of th e \\·e:1k c r lw lhc more pow e rful and s uccess·
ful folk. Th e h c rcdit a n -. traditional. a nd most h ated en e mi es
of tribes 11 c r c ad o pt ed inutu a lll". :111d this f:tct. in addition tn
th o,c l>cfo r e ment ion ed. e xp lai ns th e disapp ea r a nce of tr iba l
nam es as publi s h ed b y irnp e rfec tl y inforrn ed wri lcrs. Th e
tribe s. as su c h . did di s;ippca r frorn ih eir o ld habitat. and wcr"
not r l'<:Og11 izcd 1111d e r th e ir fornH ·r name s , llllt th e peo pl e did
1111t

tT; 1se

111

<'xist.

j . \\ ' . 1• .,11·1-: 1.1

/ !11 · . \ .or/Ii . lm «ri,·an ln,/i,111 .

A ra ilroad train was rushin g a lo n g at alrnnst lightningspe ecl. 1\ c11nr 11-: is jlls t :t he ad . i >cynnrl whi c h was a sta t1nn
a t whi c h th e cars usu :lil y passe d eac h oth e r. Th e co ndu c tor
was lat e, so l:tt e tha t th e p e ri od during whi c h th e doll' n train
was to wait had n earl v e lapsed: lrnt he ho p ed \'l't Jo pass th e
c m\' e safell-. S 11dcle nl y. a locom nt il' e da s hed int o si~ht ri g ht
a head.
In an in stant th e re wa s a colli s io n . A shri e k. a
sh o c k. a nd lif t1· souls we re in e te rnit v; and a ll beca use an
en~111e e r h ad hee n hd1i11 d li111 c.

r•. I lc n ; lop e:ic h o f th e fo lJm,.in g top ic -se nt e n c es. o r
th e n cga ti n: of e a c h. int o a p aragrap h o f 1 so words.
mainl y by repet iti on .
He c;u eful to add so m e thin g t o th e
t h o u g ht in e a c h n : p c t iti o n . :ind t u ou tlin e th e p:ir:igraph
Ldurc 1n itin g.

'•

cn.1rf'()S/T/01\' .-1.'' ·1) N fl F TUR/ C.

Sc ie n ce has g- i v en 11 s
practictlly ~1 11 our mod ern co mforts.
__ \Vum en are le ss re adv
than me n to brea k uiJ
dom e s tic :111d local ties
a n d m o \' e t o n e w
places.
1.

3 . Su c t~ess in an y g: r ea t 1111 -

d ertak ing c a n he expec tedo1 ily ll\· o ne thor oughly interest ed in it.
4, The lives and deeds of
heroes are an eternal
legacy to the world.
5. ··A thing of beaut\· is a
joy fore ve r ...

6 . Announcements of new
d iscoveries in sc ience
are now so frequent
that we have ceased to
marve l at th e m.
7. Th e stre ngth of a nation
is in its young men .
S. , \ "crank" is always
needed to make th ings

Tl/ F
1.

-·

3.

(Y ()

, 1.

T l~e . growing cordiality
between Eng land and
the United States is an
unmixed good to both.

4.

5.

7. J le\·elop eac h o f th e follow in g topic-senten ces into
a brief para g raph. ma in ly by gi \·i n g partic u lars and d e tai ls ,
but in s o me of the para gra phs employ ing both th at 111et hod
and th e m e th o d o f re pet iti o n.
Be sure that the partic uLirs gi ve n are su c h as w ill in some wav add defin iteness
to t h e t bought of the topic-se nte n ce .
1.

I n I c habod C ran e In·in!!
has crea ted for 11s ·a
tnost

a11H 1sing· and in -

teresting c h arac te r.
, Jeffe rson ·s inaug uration
was in harmon\· with
the spi r it of 1n1r . re pub lican simp licity .
J. Th e mate r ia l resourc es of
th e United States are
as yet hut impcrfe c tll·
known.
4. I sha ll ne \'er forget an
e xp er ience I once had
in tr y in g to cross a
swollen ri ver.
5. The patience th at an· im ·
patient man wi ll ex·

8.

I levelop the

fo ll owin~

hibit when he goes fis hing is remarkable.
'~ - .- \ nava l ofliccr is giv en
supe ri or opportunities
fo r see ing the world.
, . I t was n ot unt il the next
clay tha t w e rea lizecl the
destru c tion that the
storm had wro ught.
s. Th e woods are a wilde r·
ness o f !-:'loom and
h ea utv .
'J· There Is some thi ng un canny in the sight of a
locomotive
head light
Mas h ing th rough the
darkness of m idnight.

topic·sente n ces in to paragraphs by g i\·ing spe c ifi c in st:rn ces or ex a m p les.

I '. I N.-11 ; R .-1!'JI.

T he ninetee nth centu r y
has been remarkable
for its ;;cientific discoveries.
Am eri c a 's great wr iters
have a lmost uniform ly
been men of clean and
nob le lives.
1\1any o f the victims of
the H.eign of Terror
had been prominent in
bringing it about.
The early at tempts to
gain domin ion in the
New World were not
properly directed.
The h isto ry of the Turk
in Europe is one long
succession of infamies.

' " Mil lio na ire s ha\·e often
b een an imat ed by ''
spirit of nobl e licnn·o lence, looking up on
the ir we a l th merel y as
a trust ancl not a possess ion.

7. In former timts great dis-

coveri e s were generally
met by popular (1pposition.
S. In co untri es ha,· ing- a
great d ea l (If sea-coast
ihe pe ople li;t\'e gene rally been mor e enlightened than in others.
'J · The last yea rs of a w~ ll ­
spent life are often th e
most seren e and happy .

9. 1 >evelop the following topic-sentences into pa ra grap h s main ly by the use o f comparisons or contrasts .
Be sure that the comparisons or co ntrasts arc su c h as
make the tho ught clearer o r fu ll e r , more definite o r more
emp h atic.
The coast-lin e of Europe
IS
very irregu lar and
bro ken .
-· l t is safe to assume that
some of the races now
11 nc ivi li zecl will even tu ·
ally de\' e lop a Ci\' ili za lion like our own .
3. T he garden was sur ro und ed b y a high
hedge.
·I· A lexander was a verv
successful commander.
S· Youth is the time nf
growing st rengt h.
I.

().

,.
.~ .

'"
10.

In the time of the Sal..111
witchcraft peo ple m11st
ha\' e he en \' ery sup er stitious.
The Northm e n wer e 111st inc tively a ra ce of
fii,.: h ters .
T here are ~a ins for
o ur losses .
Nature s hows he r ll l OSt
beau ti fu l aspects i11 the
e arly a u tumn.
Th e b irds of trop ica l
arc
South
Ameri ca
many and bea utiful.

""

1 o.
Ucvel o p the fo ll owing topic-sentences into parag raphs by giving the effects of which they are th e cause.
or hv gi\ ing proofs.

'

CU.l//'(}S//'/r !. \' . /.\/!
1.

~flic f.1r1n 1s :1:-; \·<'r\-

m1wh

rh:ing·cd ,,-lien

\\Tll !

It

back.
:\:irnn T~nrr \\,1-..; a 111. 111
,if in~;l 1i; tl>Ic .llnhit i111 1

\\.illic h<1d run
:-;.chnnl : h,l!

1

fr1H1;

;1\\';1\·

Liv

-

.; . lvlonks lead Tso!;l'tcd Jivt~.

S· Be-fnre th t·
(J .

\\.('

C; lJl

)11i\lL'

tht'

·"·'k

L.\

j_•i dLing

1il

hanrls nt

lil

inor ;dity .
'I he 01d\· liopP l11r
.~nnO nf tii e w(1rld

th e

tin·
1:-; 111

i1ni\ · 1_·r~;tl 1..·d1ictt iun .
:1t1..·1·li\T lt·b, i 'Ltti()Il !ll\l::-l
;ilw;i\·s folk11v. r:illwr
!h ~t!I - ;_•recede. puhJj,

C(lJltr 1 1]

i111iy

( lL\l'TLI\ .V.

rcspunding advance in

ill,11t·

J:11u1 ir
it in

is 11n \\ c,· id t ·11 l 1h;u ~1
r c ;ll1lilic :t11 fnrrn of g!l\.
ernm!"nt is the best ihat
111,11 ; li;1-.. :--. <1 f.tr dt·,·i:-'cd

\ . \\"itJ1 tliL· ;1d\.Ult ' t· ]11 t! 1c
ci ri l i z;l t i<>ll i >f t lie \\·urld
there !: a~ J;ccn a cor-

r:1i11 w;1-..; t)\Tr

the r i\'cr l 1~1J r i:-.u1
than two t PP. t.

//IF .\/ \ / / .. \Cl.' .

li'lll./11/,'f('

!'- '

tl1.c

go\·f•rn

lllC!l t

()pJnlO!l.

.'lo . The Sentence, the Unit of Discourse .
t \'tii11;~· I h:ipl<T'-' \\'(_' h ;l\T

111l· ·'' 1;f,;;,-, , ;111il

scntcnn.:s
\\" ri.tc rurr:Hin; p.1r.i;..::Ltpii:. " 11 M.'\U;il ol tlit..: fo ilowm g- f'opws, :ind s ho \\' th:H e1c h p.1r:1gr ;1 pli j,.. dn .. lnped
111 the time ord e r.
'.'.

that

kn U\\'

\\"C :i.!l

111:1\k

"1 11· \\11\tt ·11

i n·111w11\

a gc11•_T:d
li,_i\\.

111

t"

h:11 ·1· ll'-'1· ri

l'rcsumabl y

\\ ' ;ty \\'li: t\ :1 " "11\1•Jl('1•

c~>c11l1~1l Jl !'--'

II \ ]H'] >11·

It kt<'!\(\',..;

\'1,11 l!1t · \\·c·

roug·hly scrn:d our purpose.

Ill

rcali ...:c

ina\· 11t1l

111

J

i..;; h\I\ \\\'

t l1l: t.'..\j>lt:~s1u:1

(i1

nur tl1uu;.J1h, ;1rn ! \ <l \1·!uL c.-.:lu!l dkcti11· di-..1,,111,..,· d1·

·\ r ;ti!rn;rrl tr: p.
;\ :-- l llll l lll' ! i it("!I I\
_).

1,

[IJ

'.llt. \\".tcJ1i11..: -

t ( !J ]

:\ dccJ hll!ll.

,.\ hicyc it ' rid(_'.
.; . .-\ tr~1rnp thro11 :;l 1
t 1>!t11 t r:

_\ \'1'll
:\ d .1y

.\ . . \

;lH·

] I) ,l i.ll"L,'."I'
h1111'--.. (' , j',ll"l\'· .

"· :\ l 111;1 t -r;1 ce .
l U.

; \ :--lt.:.lllllHl;ll

(·i I>

' I \f('

1w11r\<.; 1111 <.;\' !1\t •111 ·<' -st rtll'I Ill'<'
1111it 11!

"'·11t1·11< ·1· j,.. \ l1t·

11 ·.11

···--=

"~~a

~ - -~=--s

· ~~~-~J.;
-~~

... ::~

1J

::_]~

tli..;,11111,..t', tli1· 1111·di11111 .. 1 1Jl\1'iii;.-.1·11\ (11JlJllllJJlll :1

·

:11111. ,111<\ th1T1·ft'11' !lie: 1i L tl ck1111·11l "I \'11illl" ''1111111

l':\~·111_,!!1l!

l'-' ,,1

th1· \l t1!1""1

11111"•n:111\1· tk1t 11'1· ,Ji,,1tl<I

Ii

1111<i1·r"\ ,111 .i

.:=-~~
· -·

t

~•

•

\ V1 1tc

fnll1 1\\·1ng
order.

dc;.lT1J1tin·

'"II""·

d«1·1_·loping t':1t·h

A summer camp.
.\ 11 .. 1<1 h:1rn.
.I· ~I v early home .
·l- ,\ de1•.u.lmc111 sl•irc .
l)osto11

;.c\·t:r. il

td

::.=:-~-~

tlic

p:11:1gr:iph in th(' space

tl w11, 11·, · 11·ill 1·r111 s 1ilt·r tJi1...; :-,111>)<'< t. \,·:J1111:_:· th1· lll:ttkr <> !
S\'111\'lll'\' -S\ 1·1" lt1r l'tll1Sl\kr:tl it•ll l11·r1·alt1T.

I .

5.

p :ir:1~r;1ph~ 1111

Cor11r111)11,

(',

Trnu\-lishi1w
\-·~~ill.
S. An a11tom1 ;hilc.
')· :\ laq.;c h o te l.
10 , An :1rt museurn.
. \ llllH.ic.J'll

:

--·- ~

3i. What a Sentence Is.
w11rds l:1ck111;..: 1kt1111t<· .gr:u1111ut1c:il
11\ltt'I'. 11u1 gin· 11" \(k;1,;. hllt

rL'l:1l1t111...; t11 111w .111 -

tlll·\· il11 1111\

S\T\\' \11 \: 111 \1\1 , J ildi111l\' 1111:1;.,'.L' 111 tliL'
11trt ,c; 11·,.

th1·

tht1ll,!.:,ht

11l1L'11

\\'<1rtl" :111tl

rt·:1<kr ;1111

\It'

k1111wktl.c:<·

l"·11111·il

it

\\ <'

1·11111111u11i1·:11t'

mind. h\IL it \\ii i

<rf
11i;11

wh:1t

add

tit<· wr11<'1
lll•1dd111 1::,

1ilir:1,..<·~. ~ll< Ii . 1.-.. " lh 1: l1rwk hr1ll~l·," "' "\)i,·

CO.IJ!'USJJ'/UX ./.\°/J 1.'J!Jc· f'uRJ C.

brick house belonging to the doctor," and yet t:hc thought
is nnt complete. Somdhing more is 1H.: edcd, and we sec
at once that to complete the meaning we must have a
finite Ye rb which shall prcdicak something definite alxn 1t
the house. Occasionally a single word used as an exclamation or as a question scrn.'s to transfer tlrnught
from the writer to the reader, but even then it is done
by the aid of the context . Separate the word from
what precedes nr follo\\'s it, and it would han.: 11<1 meanmg. A sentence, then. is a f.'Toup of \\'ords s" arranged
with defi nit e grammatical relations to one another that
th ey con,·ey a complete thoug ht. Ordinarily t1Yo parts,
expressed or understood. arc essential to e\·cry sentence,
- the subject. about which something is said, and the
prcdicatl'., or finite n .:rb, which says it. To these may
he added any number of modifiers. Such \'t.Tbal form'.-;
as the infiniti,·e. the participle, or a finitc \·e rb in ;1 subordinate clause do not of themselves constitute a sentence. Beginners fr eq uently err 111 this respect, and
should carefully guard against treating a mt.:re collection
of words as a se nkn cc.
O ccas ionally, e\·en among g·(H1d \\Tit ers, we find groups
uf words which do not contain a complete th ought punctuated as st.:ntenct.:s. This is 1wt in accord with tht.: logical
natun.: uf the sentence, and should not be imitatt.:d by in 1.:xpcrienced writers. 1t is usually dune for sumt.: special
purpose, but only a trained writ er is competent to judge
wh e re it is justifiable. J\ mistakc in judgment in thi.~
matter is shown in the f"IJo\\'ing sl'lection from ;1 stu<lent's paper: -

TH J:: SFXTFNCJ~·.

:;;7

Large and gray stands the Quaker meeting-house ... The
shingles and clap-board mg, weather beaten and ncket) ,
showing not a trace of pamt.

H ere th e first pe riod should be a comma, for what
follows is simply a partic ipial clause.
3 2 • The Content of the Sentence. - A sentence must
not be a collection of disconnected ideas. Everything\hat is put into it must have some definite relation t"
th e thought irl\'olvecl, ancl whateve r is necesssary to
complete the thought must be included as carefully as
irrel evant matter is e xcluded. L et us conside r a few
faulty st.:ntt.:n ces select eel from students' papers, and
learn- from them what we should put into a sentence.
was the son of a cl.ergyman.
1 . James Thomson
~. Jl e spent six years in Edinburgh. m th eologtcal sturlies . 3 . H e tutored in private families. 4 ·. At the age
of fm~rteen he wrote some blank verse which possessed
111;111v merits.

Clearly these senten ces make un pleasant reading as
they a re, and it is quit e evident that they are too short.
l'onsidering sent<.:nct.:s 1 and 2, we see - regardless uf
what we may know ahuut Thomson's life - that there
is a closer rclati(ln between the two than the form makes
L'\·itknt. They may bc joint.:d inn> one sentence, and t 11
this we may add se ntL'n ce 3, assuming- that his theolog~­
,·al studies were the prt.:paration for his tutoring, and in
this relation finding the link that fastens the last to the
"·J10k. These four sentences reduced to two will rcacl
s1nnewhat as follows : -

<.,I.I/ !'US / /Ji I, \ . . I .\D

li'll I :· 10N/C.

Jam~s Thom.son_ was the son of a c lergyma n, ;ind
spent six years a1 Edmhurgh in theological studies, afterw;irds tutoring m private families. At the e;irly ;i<'e of
fourteen , he had writte n blank verse that w;is not wi~lJOut
me rit.
33·

Compound and Complex Sentences. -

Then.: is
:mother impo rtant reason why sen-ral sh"rt senkllCL'S
should often be united into one longer se nt ence. ThL·
('hild beginning t" talk puts all that he has to s;1y int"
the form of brief statements.
Each of these statements
is as impo rtant :ts any o ther, so far as he kno\\'s, and he
gives them all eq ual \'a luc in form.
But in ()Ur mature
th inking and speech we C1Jnti nuall y make nice d istinctions between the \'alue of one th1Jught and another.
According to the degree in which we arc able to express
th ese distin c tions, do we attain accuracy in the use of
language.
Certainly, if we do not recognize such diffnc 11ces in v:ilue, our thinking will hardly be clear and
l'..\ac t enough to command the attent ion of otlwrs. The
sentences th:it follow illustra k this ddect.
l. Th t.:se books incrt.:ased his L11He. hut did not make hi 111
prosperous. - . Th e reason ,,f it \\·as bec ause he had dt.:pe11 ded llJH>ll tli t: c1 1t1rh. .3 · I It.: \l'rutt.; a lettt.:r tu th t:
qt1 ee ll 111 1 5'J 3 ;i,.,king for l1 e lp.

.I n reading this paragr:iph m .: feel at once th ;it thl·
\\Titer had 110 sense of proport i<>n or relative value. Sei! tcnce 2 is properly a part of sentence 1 sin ce 1·t ...1·\ .. .
·'
h
cs
the rc.ason for th e seeond part of se 11 tence 1, and shou ld ,
therelore, be a modifying c busc.
Senten ce
as it

3

stands is isolat e d, and see ms to have no dependence
upon what precedes, though in reality it foll o ws as e ffect
from what goes before it as a cause. If, then, we rewrite these sentences, makin.g the proper distinction s in
thought, we shall have someth in g like this: These books mad e him fam ou;;. but thn· did not makt'
him prosperous, si11{e ht· h11d t!epentlt'd 11/)(11; the 1·111td.>. 111
1 593 he was reduced to the necessity of writing to the
queen for help.
Jn the r e-\\Titte n form it will he noted that sentenccs
and 2 have bee n united, the re lation of the latter to
the former being that of subordination, and the union o f
the two making what is call e e! a complex scnlt'11cc, that
is, a sim11le sentence with a subordinate clause added.
Freque ntly clauses of equal value are united into \\'hat
1s called a ru111j>f11111d scnlntCi', that is, two or more simpk
or complex senten ces connected by a codrclinak co11-

I,

1

junctio11 . It is often difficult to determine whdhcr tw11
statements should be so united or should be separate
se ntences.
The following selec tion is faulty, beca use
the write r did not takc sufficient care in joining like and
related thoughts.
1.
The poe lll ·· \\'inte r." in blank verse. brought him
three gu in e;1s thro11g h the sale of th e copyright. '.! : This
poem attra cted mu c h attention , and thus he was fairh- "
started in his literary career, as his poems sold readily an;I
were at that time much appreciated.

It is e \·iclent not only that the first sente nce :ind thl'
first c L1use uf the second arc so closely related in mean-

.'

t

I1

,!I
,,

',/:

'i: r
'I

!
,I

'''

90

C0. 11/ '<)S /TI U .\ - .IX!J /\llFFtJ IUC.

i ng that they should be put together into o ne sentence,
but also that the remainder of the second se nt e nce is sn
much in th e nature of a result uf what precedes that it
sh o uld Ix: put into a se ntence by itself. Obse rve that
the thought of the fir st 1x1.rt of the second sente nce is
not subordinate tu what goes before it , but of equ al rank.
Re-writing, and giving t o each th ought its proper rd.ttiun and value, we shall ha\·c : The poem "\\"inter." in blank ve rse, brought him three

g-u mcas th ro ug h th e sale o f the co pyrig ht. anci attracted
mu c h attenti.01 1. Thus he was f;iirly s tarted in his literary
ca ree r, as his poe ms so ld re adily , and we re at that time
mu c h apprecia ted.

''

34. Subordination in the Complex Sentence. - - We
ha \T see n that the th o ught of the pa ragraph ·is usually
rcbt ecl in sonH.: definite way to the th ought of some one
sentence in th e pa ragraph to \\"hi ch th L: other sentences
arc more or less subordinall'. ...I'h is in a ge neral way is
true also o f the comple x se nte nce ; it subordinates one or
mo re clauses to a more im portant one. Le t us take two
clauses h;.l\·ing dost.: relation to each other, and discuss
different possible arrangeme nts uf them.
''· I le gavi.; up thi.; attack on thi.; fort. /1. I Ii.; had hi.;cnnw assured of it s futilitv.
r. I Ie had beco111 e as~ure d "f th e futilit y of th e attack
on the fort , and gave it up.
2.
Having become assured of th e futility of the attack
on th e fo rt, he gave it up.
3 . I le gave- up the at ta ck on the fort whe n he had
beco111e assured of it s futility.

Tll F

sF .\ '!F .'\ "CF.

91

Ju st what is thl'. best form for a ny sent Clll'l'. must
always de pend largel y upon the context , and \l'l'. will not
attempt to de cide in this case; but we ca n profitably
cnnsider the diffrre nt effects of th e se veral forms.
Th e original arrangement in two Sl'.parate se ntences "'
not to be tolerated. Sentence 1 makes the h opelessness
of th e attack on th l'. fort the thing of most import ancL",
a nd the scl'ond c11<)rdi11:1\L' c busl'. merel y emphas izes t hat
hnpclcssm:ss. l 11 st.: ntL"nl'c 2 th e first cht ust: is subordinat e, rath er th a n coordinate as in the preceding, and hcc:iusc of this subordination it l'.Xpresses a rea son fo r th e
direct predication not manifest in the insistent hopelessness 0 f form 1. In senten ce 3 th e subord inate cl:1usc
g ivt.:s a reason as before , but in this form th e emphasis
is on the fa ct tha t th e a ttack was given up D11!J' when it
had become hopt.:lcss. Ea ch of th ese sentences says tht·
same thing, hut tht.: un clcrsta ndin g of that thing \1·hich
the reader \\"ill rcct.: i\·l'. is not th e same. Th e altcrati1in
in meaning comes through th e ch ange in th e dq;rec and
charact er of th e subordination of the secumbry clause.
The foll owing sentences found in stud e nts ' papers an.:
faulty in the matter of th e subordination uf clauses.
H e re tall trees grow on e ither side of the road.
1.
ni cely mo wn grass plo ts come b e tw ee n th e broad walks
and the fen ces whi c h incluse we ll-kept lawns .
_
Margy's ho ld rel axe d , and her stre ngt h
. At thi s
2
was totally exhausted . for she had faint ed.
. .
. He arranged his hea d-gea r and gave his _signal , but
3
th~ ball hit his shoulder, but fort un ately landed 111 th e arms
of the great full-ba ck , who hit center and gained live ya rds.

<) 2

("(J. Jf/ 'liS//"/rJ. \ - . / , \ "/!

<) 3

RllFTllN/C.

1n the first sc11te 11 ce, \1·hic h is part "f a d escr iption of
a 1·il bge street. th e relati"11 of th e c nn c luding c la use t o
th e precedin g , wheth e r sub .. rdina te or colircl i11ate, is not
at once c lear. The s ubj ect m:-it tcr o f th e clause s ug:
gests the c oordinate relat ion , hut the r c lati1·e w ladt is
:1 s u bordina te c11111lL'l't i\.L'. 1\g:1i11 , th e \\·ore! rr11d seems
at first to c on ned a ll L'\\' l·niirdinall' l·l:i11se t11 th e preceding in stead of merl'ir j11 ining thL· 11nt111s 'il'rrlks and
/;'llffS. In rC -\\Titi11."· this 11·L· mus t bear in mind th at
the clegTec of suhordinatinn which the grammat ical
st ru c ture indi catl'-; mu-; t lw that whi c h th e s uborclina1 lnL' th e L'CJll cluding cla use
t ion of t hCJught rL:quires.
-;L:cms t•> bl.'. quit..: :1s irnport a 11t :1s those precl.'.ding, a nd
th LTe sh o uld be 1111 -;uhnrdi 11a tio11. the se ntt.:n cl.'. re-writt e n
readin g- about as fCJllo\\·s:
H ere tall trees grow 0 11 both s ides of the road , the
la\\'ns a rc wel l kept. and ni ce ly mown gra ss plots come
between the broad \\';1lks and the fences.
I 11 th e second sent e nce thl' suh"rdi nat io11 o f the final
c l:rnsc is more clearl y a nd unmistakably fault y . Eith er
Margy fa intl'd h eL·ause h er stre ng th \\·as tCJt a ll y exhau stl.'.<I. 11r hn h"ld n.: l:l.\l'd i>L· L·:1usc s h e had fa inted.
l\ ·rhaps . if we say t h :tt lw r s trL·11 ,!..;th \1·as L'\ h;1usted, she
Ltintl.'.d, and her h"ld rch\l'd, \\"l' shall ha\·e indicated
the propn rl'btio n lw t\\'ec n the cla u,;es, hut in any case
th l.'. final clause is not suhord ina!L' to t h e others. ln the
third se 11t l.'. n cl.'. \\'e h:t\·c :t st1li!trdinat c c Ltu sc \\'ithin a
suli"rdinatt.:. s1>11ll:thi11 g· .,f n1>t infreque nt ucc urrence

a nd not a lways e asy t" man age . I kre . thot1gh th e
clau ses b e ginning \\'ith the cu njun c tio n but a re not i11
strictn e ss g r:-immat icall y subordinat e , they arl.'. so in
e ff ect, while thl' first c lau se s hould be mad e st1bc,rdi na t e in structurc as it is i11 thou g ht . ()( course tht·
rcpe tition "r t h e c·011juncti"n adds t" th e a\\·kw:udness
of th e c onstructiun. liut th 1.: s uh st itu t i1m 11f fl/()11g li ti ir
th e second but wi l 1 not make t h l.'. sentl: 11 lT s:-i t isfacto r\' .
l~e-writing in s ul' h fashion ;1s t o rn :ike th e first cbu,;L·
subordinate \\'e sha ll ha\"l' som e thing lik e this:
Wh en he had arran g-cd hi s head-ge:ir and g-i\·cn hi ~
signal, he wa s hit 01 1 the s ho ulde r by the ball , ht1t fo rtu nate ly it 1:111d cd i11 the ;1 r111 ~ of the g rea t full -ba ck. who hit
ce nte r. :tn d ga in ed tin: yards.
35. Variety in Sentence Forms. - \ \ 'l.'. get ple:-isurl'
o ut of r ead ing when each 111omu1t s"mct hin g tha t we
did not know o r had n ot felt befurc com es int o " ur C!lnsciousn ess from the pri nt l.'.d page . \\' he n t h e b oo k in
ou r h a nd ceases to gi \·e us new sensat ions, or t" re \·i1·e
old ones with new \' i\·idnl'ss, \\'e throw it down.
In "u r
read ing, th e pl easu1T o f non·lt y m ;ty com l.'. t• > us thr .. ugh
th e subj ect matll'r 11r thrnug·h th e f" rm of \\·hat \\. l'
read . \\'h e n it is soml'thin g morL' t h;rn cnmrno npb n ·
in th e form th:1t hr>lds "\Ir att e nt i"n \\·c are Jes,; c1111s c ious of no ve lt y as th e S<H llTe .,f pkasu re, but it i,;
so none t he k:ss truly.
Monoto ny .. r sente n cl.'.-structurv
will d estroy our pleasure in almCJst a n y subject. if th :tt
m o notony be ,;ufficien t ly pn 1n"u11 cl.'.< l.

I 1 !.I! I' I ! .\I I/ 1 I . \ . .

I . \ I ' /,'I I/' I

1

// .1/

'/,'I 1

9· '['\\, d:1 _1·-; ,, f ('J t· :1t i1 .11. tit ,· 11.1 \' l.ltl l <'.' (If j1)-;<:ph :111d
h s bre thre n , o f l-~uth, o f th e tin:tl d eie:ir o f Ahab, of the
d sco rniiture o f the 1\ ssvrian bust ol !:)c1111aclie rib; lhc
111(1r ;.1l ,ii-...( ••llr:--t·~ 11 r
F., 1 ....l(·_. . i;J.-.. \(· .-.. ;ind l~1 , -1l_._. . i ; 1.~t i cu~ :lnd
th<' llno k "f \\'i-..;r\ om : t he· 1""·111-..; (If tlt c l'~:1l1w; :rntl tl1t·
\'1-..phct-..;; tlw \'\-;inn-; 1•f th e IZt·1Tl:tt1u11.
:1 h1111clr,.d
o ther pa :-, sagcs wiH Lh it i~ unnccc :-;...;,u")-· tu catalogue~
\1.'il l .1l\\ ,i\-... l w t li.1 · 11: / ./u • .'1 1./1 . 1 i 1f L11 :.._:1 J... h l ti!l1pu:,.1tiun in

> \l

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30 .

thin'-'.'" which

f,q · 111

>· l· r \l '

l il

1Tl:t\i1111

li ; 1vo_· lilt· -..;:111w

.C:TOlljl lll.c; <.;:\\'('S \Vflr!i" . :111<1 '" 11 1111e

l U.

J.l!\ llrlll\ J-.._

J1 1 .1lwt li
1 1.

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0

( ( )11 ...;picu(iu ...;;

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v 111 d Ill ,.fft" <'I.

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~!\'l •1 1 !

11

\\ Ii l (_ ll -\ l\. ) I ( 1 . 111

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(; 1; 11 -.:.
\\'l'l'C

l'ort -

h11 111ing l1·d 1nu c h 111 n1 ;1n did nr i .
<:1<11-I F.
1

1 ' 1i i11st r;ill: .J it'krl:11t 1.v,iv.-; of

i11tr UL l lll' l11~

t cn c e.

the : 1djet'll\·c· :1t t lH· bt' .c;11 1 11i11~ 11!' t he scnThi s should bt: dqn c oniv when the adiectivc: ts

<111 e that may jX O l XTly li e m <id e

pr"111111c11l.

Of poiiti cal wisdu 111 in ih Luge t alld 1J10re ge11erot1s se n se Eli zabet h had little u r rnm c; hu t he r political
ta c t \\':ts un e rring. - (;1~1-:EN.
13.

Th e transposition of a portion nf th e object to the be11f th e sentence gin:s \·arict y. sin ce it is unusual,
hut is :-i clmissible onl y wh e n th:tt which is transposed
m~ty prope rl y be made e mpb:1tic.

gin nin ~

1lc·1i 111 tc ·

l l<I

: \~

ldt•:ts :111d fini'r
lt\

il

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tilt.·

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_-..,t J 11l 1_:_:,

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l ·1111t : ll l l

thouc:liL. 1h
( ~'

.'\.~;1 111 . <-:h1·1rt

l ' _\ j 1Jt '>-..., ! ll ,:_:

ll1ll"t

lc11:.:,tli

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.111~ 1

11t 1' jj ( l· ', ,

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11 r 111 )( l> l l \11; 1-.. .

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l11n;...:;( ·r

S('llt t' ncc -..;

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r:111 11! ,1t · t1(~ I\ .

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l't ' ( j1! 11" t'

11111 r 1ln 11, - ti> :1

1.

i ' 1 1]H ' l.'->1. '

'.'-'. " ' " lh

-; t \

k

Long scnt<.:ncc' S h;11-c t he oppo'< Jt e u ses.

Thn ,c;·11 c·

\\'l'i.'..'.Jit dllti ti1c.:11it1. ;11111 >l1f1 \• II'! \ '· 1i1 1·c· l11]'

j >l•>j>••,111•111 .' .

1: :1,·h

:md c--:pff'" tiw fi1wr lll " rii fi1 ·:1 ti · •:1s ,,( tii><11 .c;·h1
~l · r\·l·:-. ( c r L111)

10,

11(.

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\\1

l'.\]>1'1·0...,-...\'(l

t

II]" J I \ <k·t l 11it 11 1] l_'-,

\l .11 . \I. I..\\'.
( 'rrt.1in it i~ tlLli :1 ~T l' ~ l: diffcr( ·ncc of ch :tLlcler

Se nt e11ccs

t li:1t

11c cc ,-~d1 V \•1 c<>111p!clc the

a ll th at rs

\ ll · 1.·~1lJ ] 1.·

in.:..: t ill' I 11 1t ch trnn1i-;

~ff~1 ir" ~ lTH1 tlH1'--.l' wh; 1

,;]i (I\\

tl11" (lllt ' ~ti (l ][

wh;it

A little

,1 ...:.

cxi:-;tcd L•c l\\ccn t hu::-c (;r c t · l~ ~ \\

ti1nc

.i~k

k-d 1.-.

11· e ;,r.-: n a turall y

th e r n•1 :.er length o t a sentence s hou ld be.

t c 11 c·l · --: l ( )r 1· \· 1ff1 ''-''-' T11n

lands a11d Lmkd l':-- Hur" l' 1 .~ .

• I,

Sentence-Length .

sentc 11 cc structure

>·! 1l 'dhl\);,.!. 1

(1f t1Ji....;.

Sl'l1t1... ·1 H ·l · ....;,

\ 1 /

.\/ . \ / /

<J\' short

jHJ:--L·"' . ! Hi t .1 '-> I i i l t · :--.>l<lll <1!

St'il\l'' lll't' "

th e l'Gtd e r.

tht·ir

j!l!l

(;11111\

l)\'('11ll1t"S

l·1tlH · r

lllllnll\lllill\\S , ;i11i\

L11i .~

1"11 i,L; l lt'"

\ITitc1" j lldicl11t1sly \:try th,· ic-11,c;t\i iii

~l ·11 t t·11 c · ( .<.:. , ; 1....; :i .:..: 1: 111 ( ·1 · : ll

l)()()k~

1

ir nL1 ,;_:,.1 1 1r1t· ._,

\\ 11]

show.

As in expc ri f' tH'e<l 11Til<'rs

<> ftt'l1

11-.:e tn•) 111:1111· ll'nrds in

a1~ imperkct
co nce pti"n 11f \\ li;it :i se nt e n ce s hould c1111tai11 , th ey will
find it \\'orth while 11> pra ctice bre vity. There c-:111 lx~
110 qu e stion that the sh()rt sentence is one of the cle me nts of a good st_,·k, a nd contributes nlll ch to 1·1gorotis
exp1essi1111.
To ;1c quirc the habit u f 1niti11 g short senexpress111g th e ir thrn1ghts, :ind as t hey ha,·c

r111:·

CO.JI l'O.~Frtt!. \' .-1. \'/I NI I/'. TONIC.

tt:nces 1s certainly s~tfer and more advisable for young
\\'riters than to attempt long and ponderous express ions.
'I

I

EXER C ISES.
1 . Divide th e follo\\"ing e xtracts in to se nte n ces and
pun ct uate them so as to br.ing the thought o ut clear!; .

I
I

'!' he p repar:1tion s of a snow storm arc as a rul e ~entle and
<1 u1 e t a marked hush pervades both th e eanh and _sk{ there
1s no up roar no c las l11n g of arms no blow1n~ of wine trum·
pets th es e s o ft feathery exquisite crys tals are form ed as if
in the silence and privacy of th e inner cloud c hamb ers rude
winds wo uld break th e s1iell and mar the process th e clo uds
are smoother with less d efin it e outlines and slower movements than th ose whi ch br!ng· rain in fact eve rything is proph etic of the gentle and noiseless meteo r th a t is approaching
and of the stillness that is to succeed it
Jo11:-; Ilt'HIWt'(;l-IS : .-/ S I/o w-Storm.
Thinking no t g rowt h makes mankind there ar e some who
thou ,i;-h th ey ha ve clone growing- are still on ly children the
const itution m a1· be fixed while the judgment is immature
the limbs ma y he. strong while th e r eas~ nin g is feeble many
who ca n run and iump and bear any fatigue cannot examine
ca nnot r eason or judge con triv e or exec ute because th ev do
not think ac c usto m yo urs elf then to thinking- se t yourseff to
und ers tand what eve r yo u .sec or read to run through a book
1s no t a d ifficult task nor 1s 1t a very profitable one to und e rstand a few pages o nly is far be tter than to read the whole
where mere r eading- is th e only object if th e wo rk does not
set you to thiukin g e ith er vou or th e aut hor must be defi c ient.
·
lsAA(' T , \\"J.()){:

T!ti11li11.t.; .lffl~'t'.\" 1/1,· :11<111.

~
R ewr ite th e follm1·in~ paragraph in longer se nkn c es, giving ca reful attention to the proper subordination of c buses, and to the proper grouping o f related
ideas in the senten ce . Be prepare d to justify th e arr:rn ge mcnt in e:1c h sentence.

1. i\frs. Ba ker was at that tim e an eage r young wo man.
She was somewhat tragic. She was of co mplex mind and
unden!loped manners. S he had had a c rud e e xperien c e of

s1:.\-r1~·.vc1,·.

99

rn a trimOn\'. This had lilted her nut \1·ith a s to ck of g-cn e rali zations. ·(hese explod ed lik e bombs in th e acade mi c air of
Hillbrid ge. S he had beco111e the spokeswo111an of out raged
wifehood. Her hu sband had been s igna ll y g ifted 111th the
fac ulty of puttinghimseH in th e wron ~. This 11as fortunat::
for her. It had g-1ve n her leav111g; !um th e d1gn1t\· of a ma n1 ·
festo. 1n th e light of spokeswoman o.f outraged wife hood she
was int erest ing. She was eve n c he rish ed by that dom111ant
portion of Hillbrid ge soc iety which wa s leas t indul ge nt to
co njugal differences._
.
.
It found a proportionate pl e asure 111 be 111g for once a lile tn
feast openly o n a dish liberall y seasoned with thehu trag-eo us.
This e nd ea red i\lrs. Baker to the 11n1 ve rs1t y ladi es. In 1-1ill hridµ; e misfortun e w;is sti ll reµ;a rd ed as a Yisi.t a tiun . It w;i s
desi g ned, as th ey thong-ht. to put people 111 th e n pruper pL1.u.
and make them fee l th e snpenontv o f th e ir ne igh hors. I"
Mrs. Baker, how e,·er. th ev a ccorded more th:in usual lil icrt1
of speec h and action. Th e yon ng- woman St> privileged had a
kind of person al shyness. She had also 111ti: ll cc tu :d audac>t,-.
This was lik e a reflected impulse of coque tr y. One fe lt th ;1t
if she h ad been prettier she would have had e mot io ns instead
of id eas.
3.

\Vrit e sentences h ;n ·ing th e forms of th o,.,e 1111111hcre cl
13 in s ecti o n 3-l· il lustrating diffe re nt senten ce- type,.,.
making two o f eac h kind.
4 . Re-wr it e eac h o f the fo llo\\"ing groups o f se ntL·n n·s
in o n e sentence, bringing to the class severa l \\"riting.s ,,f
eac h group, showing different treatment in th e wa y of subordinatio n of c lauses . Be prepared to say which yuu think
b est , and to give reaso ns for yo ur opinion.
1 to

1. I set 0111 with a· co mpl ete distrust o[ m y ow n abiliti c ,;_ I
renou nced to tall v e\·c ry specu lation of my o·,vn . l had a pro found re,·e rence.fn r the wisd om of o nr a nces tors. Th ey h:t\"t'
left us the inh eri ta nce of a happ y co nstituti o n and a Auurish inµ; e mpire. Th ey ha,·e lef t us th e treasur v o f the maxims
and principles which lorm ed the one a nd obta ined the ot her .
This is a th o usand times mor e valuable.
z. One senator with the breath of his eloquence has bl ow n
a beautiful piece of rhetori c. 1t has bee n respl.e nden.t w~th
the hu es of the rainbow. Another senator has pricked 1t with
the sharp spear oi his sarcasm. Then the senate has lapsed
into inextinguishabl e laughter. This has bee n fo ll owed the
next day by a squall of ill -humored contention.

!00

CO.lff'(IS/T/OX ./.\"/) RHFTOR/i-_

3. There are those who say th.tt Co 11gre.,s rarely acts intelligently. It is intluenccd by personal considerations. l t
is concerned with b encti ts for the distri c t or the part\'.
Those who s;1y this a rc intellig<:nt nlJser\·ns. As they think,
Congrt'ss acts intelligently on ly in conseq11ence of popular
agitat ion and in fear of it.
This agitation occasionally
amounts almost to a revolutiu11.
_c;. \\"hi ch is tht: mort: important of thi.; t"·o sentenct's in
each of the fo ll o wing groups)
Could they ht: co mbined
into one with better effect)
If so, combine them in accordanci.; witl1 your decision in regard to proper subordination.
1. Sometimes he <'<Hild sec for miles and miles "'·er the
still, green jungle. In lik e fashion a man on the top nf a
mast can see for miles a c ross the sea.
-· Night is a dead . monotonous period 11nder a roof. I 11 the
open world it passes lightly, with its stars and dews.
1· Two centuries of th e plav of th e sea-wind were in tlw
Yeh·et of the mosses. These Li v along its inacce ssihk ledges
and ang·les.
4. This may IJe kept u p through ;di the sessions. If so
there will co mc tu Christian work of e verv type a n e w impulse .
_;. Th e begin11ing of the national ca mpaign draws near.
:\ dense fog st ill obscun:s in thc publ ic mind the problem of
the trusts.
S. Thc balloon \\as inn: nted by thc French. For this
reason . pl'rhaps. thev appear tn bc li cn: that it \\·ill furni~h
the final solution of the n ;l\·i .~a tion of the air.
(, _ \\'hat is the re.Jati"n of till' third .se11tL-11c.- in the
f<1llowing group to th e tll'u pre ce ding. a11d holl' would yo u
express that relation m ori.: definitely than in the arrange Re-ll'rite.
1ne11t here)
1.
It 1s a purely nominal rep ul.Jli c . a "holly fi ctitious
d e nw c r;1cv. __ It is hn1talh· g«>verncd hi' the militarv oli
garchv. .i- l'ublic spirit there has grnw1i ,·e ry narro\v, and
·popul;ir sentiment lias become rather dangerous toward
foreigners.

\Vhi c h uf the two sentences fuUoll'ing hears to the
other the causa l r e lation, and is 1h;1t sufficiently J.11ro11otmce d to ll'arrant. the use of .such ;1 ddinite word. .,f

JJ! F

I Cl I

SF.\"lI-.\-CE.

1.:..--w rit« th.l«·lation ;i.; ··be ca use. " ·· since."" nr ··;is .. ?
two cL1uses indicit1ng the relati<>n and the dl·grcc ( ,f re htion v011 tind hctwn-i1 thc111 .
I. 'l'hesc people ;1rl' t·tid1>\vcd ~vitli
I. I , Jnndwork nude 11i;1tcnals
supp)
J) f ·
. . . -, · Thc\·. .stand
productso
nu c·I·
11nt11.
their pr~)ducts wit\! tl1'.)'-''' nations \''.li1>
thc machine -ni;1dc t:ii>rics th ey rc<Jlllle.

.unl!1n_i1~·d .1:0\\~T ,ti :
lll e"' h.rn~e lot ti> 1
waiting
to
.
k e:-;chang«
I
.
will \\'ur · t

1e1n J!llP

\\'hi c h of tht: \\\'<' sl'lltc· ll!'cs f,,\\<>\\ing is "f. the: grc·,1.tt:r
importan ce. and whil·h \\«1llld Y"'I place hrst lll rc· -\n1t111~
th e m t o make theh· reLiti<1ll clcarcr?
\\Inch is gc-i1e1'.il 11 '.
·
~nd ,,·hich :-,pec ilic?
ls thl' gennahz;1t1<,n "' th e
meaning,
.
., . .-. . . . . .
111;1kin •" the 1e;1dcr
speclhC state111ent lll<•lt 'lie< tl\ c 111
,....
re aliz e the gi.:ner;il truth ?
J{c-\nik .
1

1 It ha,; ;dr c:ll h · !Jccn r emarked 1li;1t the_ 1r.1llic· ','f. tl'.c
Sault St. ~J; 1 rie Can;d nnw e xceeds the_ trarl1c nl the Sia z
Canal. - · 1·r,>1n thi,; 011 c Illa\· ~c t '<>Ill e 1dc;1 nf tlic 1nerh.ll1
isn1 of ()\Ir \\'<.ltcr\Y;1y:-;,.

.i.\/I /i'/l/·. /(!/i'ft.

t tl.l //'(). ',///1I X

102

:i t·

I. \ .\

,t · --.-- ! 1• 11

!ii:n
-·

: 11 : -,:

.11 1JI

·

1 \

-..., J •· i · •.._;

1 . 1 11 ! \

0

.!!Iii 1]1 1

d i \

,r• ·(i

.. , ., .

11\111~~

.~1i\

1 .1.I\\ •

\l lL !'._.'.t

j •1·11 ji k

,t il il•...:lt:.'-. !llU :-- l i1.. . ! l
1
1
111

lll < 1d1_'lll

( 1 \i l'

1:: 111 ' \ !1 . tt

t·

11 1,. , 1.. j1 1. i \

l1

t•1I , \·J 11t ·i . ;i

>l!lJI\'\\

ii.ll

b!~~-b7t~~~~ n !::si~~ i .~i; t~'/;: ;1~1 1\~~ ;\\i!:t~ t~tc i~~-~~~ r~\-~\: : : c1 ~;1~:~h ~~:~~i ~~~
1 1

Hf Ji, ·ikHi 1 r,_.\;, ,,i
hefnt'" nt

their

TLt·' 11tti....I -.1ri\·,_._ , liht" iht· V••lllt :_·
f11r 1\:r~ C1 1 T1j d r·~f'" dcn·l11p nwn f r1!.

rt fl

i't1JCJ;1r.

111.u 1l1 u ud . ~l L d

d1· li ~ l 1 \ ,lf

j..J LLc .:::, ill\.L::.~

il c

:-,,__

Le

:--.i 111p k · :-.\·1 11)., , J
tl a .: \. '. r::, u i 1.,1 i t l:. cii
1·1rnlh for g"oid, dire 1·tly, or in direl'lly. througl1 divi~iun ol
;: :if(· r cct' ir-t '~, ;1r·-r p~:1 nr(' ;·,f ( " f)-.: ~l :1 · r ·ri ::c....: , 1·1r r( 1i ning; in ti ·)
1no ne y the n q tori e ty th:tt th e new~p:q h~r r1re :-;s :ind the tel e :..::raph i ns t:tntl ~· lend to t'\Tn· forin of cpht•n1Pr;d prt·t•rni
nPn r P.
1 l t is 1ud mt •r1 •J,· 1!ut 1li1· rnm nH·n ·i:1l spi rit
' i 1· _-, ; 1 1 1 \ " , 1 I i t l w 11 I 1 · . l i , t -.. ...., 1 ' 1 1 . 1 : : 1 , : -.. 1 1 ' , 1 ~ : 1 . l 1 l -.. 11 :...: i 1 1 1· 1 \ l 1 I ' . t 1 '
p h\·;.;icai fac ts of !l: c c ,1;1tc s:. ..; _ : : . 1 i. ;:-; i: h:-1i it .: h.1ri:i 2r::--. . l ~
\\'iii i 111 . 111ti ; iv l r : !: (·" 1 : 11 · f ~ ·(·I 111 ~
l l ~ . . , ( .ii .11. : 1 ..... U: '
til

li. u ll '..' l.

( ~r1 · t ' ~"

)llTlcc t l \· tr :ti1 1t:d )•ll\\T r-.. . t litl
_;.

T licy

], .tr 11 t· 1l

....,11n1c

i 11 1·:!! 1r <l 1' '. ' 1·11(' r .1:, · 11.1.., . . . . !•• 1l 11

\T l

1,

1

1•

>

. 1t i n1i11i:--.tt· 1Td
'f" !Jc

t1 1

i1H i11 \ ·l ·

t!1ri)\l~:h

t lit ·

j1 1'1ilt' :'°" _...,iu1l.d

\ \ ;]]

l< 1 \q· r;!l.~

I Ii

..... k1 · i 1

l it Tr\

r lj

l h l ll jl

. i! !i ·r

)1(·,1\ y

1J

( · 1i ( L•

rc p. 1-...: . . .

!'t 'i ll\ ' j'...'. '(l !' :l'. i ll'. '.

t i l\'

ji\. H 1.· ~ 1 1

! l 1 ! ( I : I ~~ l \

:--: . l >ru;..:. . . . \\ill

till'

11r

lie

()\1 ·1

till ' ] HH\\'

-~

\\ " rds ;\re ;1rhitLlry symh ni s

l ! l l't·:--- ,>! . c1 t) 1l· r

. . . . 1.'.....'.1):---;

)Hi t 1!

\\ ' ('\\·ere·

l ' '1J\t,IJll ' ([

l!I

.~1·:.....ttJl'l'--.,

ut lllincl.

.111<! "1_;, lh .1 i" 11 c· 11c· :--li<>u lti I,.· 1cn 111uc· li lt':--\llctnl 111
t'\f•lt:.'·" lu ll <ii ullr thtJU<;llh . \\·e use wurds, because
111 thc ·111 11t· Ji.111· .1 i.11'-'.t'l 111111iilt I ;111d 1·;111\'\1 t>I "\llliitl]"

l lit:

11li1cli ;11c· 1c·; 11l1l1 111 1< kr .' t'""I

.\ II \\1>1·ds . li1111·t'ltT, :111·

,l tll .lkl!l".

1111' ti ll h ' 1 1f .t il ikt ii· 1· 11111 1·-..t..... .
1. ' 11 i'...'.,l1 h· . . . ) ,,.,·i ,1 li 11·d.
tinH:-:1hs11rhi11J:.!: i11nns nl tr;1i11i11 ;.: \\'ii! ill' slil1.'>iit11h'd f11r 1! 11·
lrt.: e :uid li c .tltliy j d,1y id tl1e l ,\c11lti t.·:-- in l t ·i ~ 11re ]111ur~. k< n li 11~
In mnnstrn u s and abnonn; d dcvc lopn1cnls o t body and s ii1 )!-

~ishnt:s:;

What Words Are.

I

ti l \' : 11 t .. l 11 ...... ( 1· r . l t j l ( . r 1 111 i '-.\ 11 . I ' i \' (. t j 1 t '
g-i\·in g· t110 111uch ~1tt c 11t i u11 to th e 11 1c;1ns .
tr:l i llill.~'_.

37 .

11·!11 c lt ill· u1:o t um represent id ea:;_ By general ::igrce
n1(:;1t \\1· 11:.. . 1 ' 1h1 ·1n t!"l cn rnn111nic:1 t 1· (-,;1r th cn1g·ht ~ 1< 1

1\L i~ · ·

,,

I

\T

t .> r •. •.':, ~ i ~;.__;,:c

ll ltl:-:t ll 1,!l

i 1 11 I 1 '..'. \ 1 1i i 1 , 1 ..... 1 1 ; 1 1 1" • 1 11' ! .i i i i i 1· 1 i 1· 1 · 1 , 1i i ~ · . . . 1 ..... • 1 1, · i 11 ..... t i t 1 1 t t · ( l . r I 1 ~ ·
ii. \ r 111 1 11 i I ' Ii...., ' ~ ( . \ I' ] 1 ' I ' : I H .: it f I t] : r .
" ,tJ \
: I l I •1 . t I \ (. '! l\ '-- 1 l \ ,1 11 l
1 ii 1111 · 111i 11d in :1il 1lw .1 rr .1i1 ..... 1\I l i!< ·
! 1 1-... i
Lt l• it· !11.11
'.\~il'll: llltJ !I C\ ' i."i th e c r.d lliC:1 '. . il l :, :1Hl lt J l. t~ t· tl 1t '. t.•:11! .dHJ\(
I t i t·

( -Jl.\l'TFl\

LL c UHL:::.Liuu:-i

. 1:-....-....( i1 1: 1 t ti )J 1 :--- t 1.~;..:.. l · .-.... t 11 ·11 1t

l1

1i1 ( 1 1 l ·

t ~ 1 ( ~t 11· 1) i 11 1(I :-i t )1; 111 , •t 11l · r . . .

1

that 1s, t hey h:in· ~rc:it e r tht iu~ht <ff emot ional 1·::ih1e.
T·• l1t· ,-11,-. lilt' 111 .. 11 1 111·it 11 1_:_;· 11· l· 1111h1 h:11·l· :1s rn;u11

11·ord .s ;is l'""'ii'k , 1\ "'" c 11111rna11ti, .111<i u11 dcr,.,L111.J
."11 111c thi11 '._'.· •ii. tl1t:i1 ut ility . "" tlut 11·e lll:t)' 1 li"""c· thu,c
1d1 ich h,· st express "11r th,,u ;.J1ts am l ln· li11 gs.
T" this
e ncl 11· e 111:1 y ctt11 side r ttJ sumc c.xtc n t huw "ur 11·ords art·
1i1ade up, the stJ urc cs frtJ lll 11· hi ch th t:y arc dcrived. and
their

38.

tht>u~lit

1·al ut·

Sources of English Words. -

The English la 11 -

;.; u;1gc is t:s peciali y ri ch i11 th e number ui its \\•Jrds and

I'

10. I

•'
' I

1·11.lf/ 'llS/f'/{l, \

,. / .\"/ ! Rl/F/'U A'/ C

i11 lhl'ir range "f mcani11g. They a rc draw11 fr<1111 ,·;1rinus
so ur ces; but t\\'o intlu e nu:s, ma inly, ha\·e contribut ed to
th e ma king o f our vocabu la ry. Primari ly it is Eng lish,
dra wn fro m O ld Eng lish ur A nglo-Saxon sources, t u
\\'hich h a ve bee n add ed man y m1rds from the cla ssical
la nguages, introduced pri11L·ipally throug h th e Norm an
Fre n c h at th e tim e of the Norman Conquest, a nd la t er
hy scholars durin g th e R ev ival uf Learning, or sin ce
th a t pe riod. \.Y h e n Old Eng lish bec um: a writ ten lan g uage th e pL'ople wh1 > spuke its \'arious dia lect s were
b ut little ad van ced i11 ci,·ili za ti un. conseque ntly th ey
li;td no g reat ra nge of ideas t u e xpress, a nd dcv d oped
bu t a limit ed vucalrnlary . Th ey ha d word s for all th e
s imple fa mil y rda tion s, suc h as fath er, mot he r, son ;
W<1rds for hou se, home, ri ver ; wo rds for heat and cold ,
lig ht a nd da rkn ess ; a11d th ese \\'ords have rem ain ed
with so little c ha nge that we c 111 oit en know th eir m eanin gs from th e ir mockrn fo rms. Naturally. word s th;1t
we re a part of the lan g ua,c;c prev ious to th e Norm a 11
Conquest , and still re main in use, arc large ly th e si111pil',
111 o re e lem e ntary words uf our speec h,-- 11·ords in whi (' h
we express fee lings that arc n nnmon to a ll. For compl e x th o ug ht, ho weve r, or fnr nice di stin ction s of m cani ng, th e voca bul a ry of our e:-i rl y t ong-ue is inad equa te ;
abstraction s a nd g ene ralizatio ns 11·c mu st pu t, to a great
e xtent, int o th e words deri,·ed from Latin or (;reek
sources. Hut for t elling JlUIVcr over s impl e e moti ons
our native E ng li s h is most effect ive. The followin g selection from Dick e ns is writt e n a lmost wholl y in th e

11.0 R DS.

10 5

voca bula ry of th e moth er ton g ue, and to this 1s du e
largely th e directn ess a nd ,·ividn css of it s em ot ional
appeal.
There wa s once a child , a nd he st rolled about a g rea t
d ea l, a nd tho ug ht of a number of things. H e had a siste r,
who was a c hild , too, a nd his constant compa nion. These
two used to wonde r all d ay long . They wo nd e red a t th e
hea uty o f th e ti owe rs; th ey ll'Ond e red a t the he ig ht a nd
blueness o f th e sky; th ey wo ndered at the d e pth of th e
brig ht ll'ater ; th ey wonde red a t th e goodn ess and the po 11·e r
nf G od , 11·ho m ad e th e lovely wo rld .
Th ey used to say to on e an oth er sometimes, Supposing
all the c hildren upon ea rth we re to die, wo uld th e ti owe rs
and th e water a nd the sky b e sorry? They b e lieved they
would be so rry. F o r. sa id they , the bud s a re th ~ c hildren
of th e fl o we rs, a nd th e little p lay ful streams th at g am15ol
do wn the hillsid es a re th e c hild ren of the wa te r; a nd the
sm a lle st b ri g ht specks pl ay ing hide a nd see k in the sky a ll
ni g ht , must surely b e the c hildren of th e sta rs ; a nd they
woulcl a ll b e g ri eved to see t he ir play m ates, th e c hildren
of me n , no more .
The re was one c lea r shining ~t a r that used to co 111 e o ut
in th e sky befo re t he rest , near th e churc h s pire , ab ove th e
g rave s. It was large r a nd 1no re bea utiful , th ey tho ug ht,
tha n all the oth e rs, and eve ry ni g ht th ey wa tc hed fo r it ,
standin g hand in ha nd at th e windo w. Whoeve r sa w it
tirst cri ed o ut. "J see the star ! " And oft en they c ri ed
out both togethe r, kn owing so well when it wo uld ri se and
whe re . So th ey g rew to b e such fri e nds with it, that before lying clown in th e ir b eds th ey a lways look ed out once
ag ain, to bid it good night; a nd when they we re turnin g
round to sleep, they used to say, •·God bless the star I"
•

CHARLES DI C KEN S .

1n th e foll owing passages th e words of classic orig in
have bee n printe d in italics, and you will obse rve that in

I
i·
r
I·
I

CO. J!l' OS! TIO. \ ' .·/. \'J> It'! I 1-.'f'O A' /( .'.

106

/f'ORD S.

\\lords "f c bssic origin a r e uf 11111r1· fn·-

comp;1ris.,11 11·ith the.: preced in g sdectiu11 there is a sur-

the same way.

prisingly large number of th em.

'l lll'nt llCcurrencc in tlw literature of thought than 111
the litt-r;1turc 11f k1·llllg.
\\.'hc·n 11·1· ,.;,·,· th1·111 .. 11 th1·

/ '1{·7, 1,;,/ fro11 1 the Sdt?tl1_jtl "l;t1Hlp11111L the .1//ub.1jit! 11.!nf tropi.-,i/ dcf ,·11d1·11ol·s j>ri·sc11t.1 a 1111111/!rr .,f
di(/iml/i,·s which Lill readil y int11 tm1 J,r.cs,·s -- th e t!i!Jic11//1i·s i11/1a·c11/ in th e 1111/11h· uf th e //1,-,,; 1w1dit1{111s and those
i11<i,/o// to th e i!!lfojid1{111 of th e i11s/r11mc11/s 011pl1~1 ·ed: in
oth er words, th e d1//iotl/i,·..- im·/lh·rd nn the <1ne hand in the
.fi1r11111!11/io11. <•n the other l1;rnd in tht: t.ffmlit1n of a f/li1ly.
( ·,!/ur/111111/e~i·. h11\1·e1·e r, mankind in .~tl/i'r,i/ nji1S1·s t1!1somi111~»/ralit111

/111t ·~1'

\\)

/11,/11,/,·

,;'·, 1;·rl'111J1<"11I

t1il11i/1n~i-tri1 /1~111

;nuong t hosl·

things 11·hil'i1 are l<• he ,·,111sid,·n-J froj>tr .»1d1i·ds for sof-11tijil /rt11/!!lo1/. ~o. in setting out tt1 examine some of the
j>n1d1{·,,; fr11No11s o f ln>f1i·11/ ,·o/011i:::11/i1111 ire must re11/i:x al
once that the si!!lj>fc s/alcmmt of th e sootliji,· diffiot!tics of
the l11sk falls far s hort of c.1f1D·Hn_:; the 111<1;;11il11de uf the
work in hand.
.-\LI.EY NE JR~: l.Al'll '"!ft( /i;.!rpmdoll. July 5, 1900.

pr in ted p:1gc 11r hL·:1r tlwm s pokc11. thc·y hr111.~ t" 111i111l
thin gs that h;11·L· hl·cn :1 part of 11ur 1111·nLil life· r;1tlw1
t.han those that ;1r,· :1 part of 11u r ,·, 1wric·11n·s; :llld 11·ords
influl·ncl' 11s quite· ;1s much through

their ass11ciations

;1nd suggc·stion.s ;1s through their ddi11itc mcanmg,; .

39. The Anglo-Saxon Element.
< >11ly a sm;tll 11:1rt
"ur E11glish 11·ord,; ha1c· h1·1·11 L11gl1sl1 ;1h1·;1ys, li11t
these kw arc used mut·h more in ordinary spec c·h and
writing than arc the 11·ords ckri1·c·d fr"rn nthcr sourccs.
\V,· will SLT hnw :i ft:11· 11f them are made up, so that 11c·

11f

may us e thcm murc intell igen tl y .

l'nhaps yo u lun·

fancied that, if you know the m e aning uf a word, you
know qu ite e 1wugh to enable yo u to 11se it effectively,

(;lancing on: r thl: words in italic s we sec al "11ce that

but that is not tnt L·.

The significance of any w ord is

there arc man y f11r 11·hi c h a primitive people, 11r a pcoplc
not alrcady advanced in civilization, would have no \Isl·,

s" hound up in its history and in o ur cxpc.:ricnce that

sinc e th ey w11u ld not han_'. in their thought the th ings
for which these words stand.
S1wh w.,nls arc s1·ii-11tijfr,

t w<> rcaclcrs. Helow is a list of words with Anglo-Saxun
l'refixcs
Study cwh group c ard11lly, ;incl define thc

adl!t1.11istratio11 , lrofi1·11!, d1J1 ·11,/011·fr.», i11lt1-rt'l1/, i11cide11/,
i11slr111110!1.», i11<10/; ,·d, and pcrh ;1ps othcrs. As c ivi li za-

meaning of l:ach f'rt/ix.

probab ly it docs not ha1-c exactly thc same va lue fur any

1

ti1i11 ach·ance s it

lkm~tll(ls nL·11· 11·"rds r1111l i11u:tlly . :md

these additiu n s l11 "ur 1·ocab 11bry c11l1l L' n-ry Lirgely from
thl' I .al in 11r the (~rcek. Th ese words, when tlwy have
come i11t" the language, arc just as muc h a part o f
it :1s ;trc those which k11·L· bL·cn 111 u>1111111>11 use f111
ce nturies, but they du 11ot qui c ken uur cnwtiun s in just

_-\bed, aback, aho;ird. ;itie ld . atlu"!.
Be c rnsc.
Become, besmirch , b estir. b eset.
Forgi1·e, forget, forb ear, forbici.
Vordend, foretell, forest.d i, forewarn.
Mischance. mi smatch, 1ni stake .
N-ever, 11 -e ither, n-one. n-ut hing.
Outlaw, outstretch, outwarci.

1·,; . l//'11\//°/11 . \ ' . 1. 1·;1

IC><'-;

I I ·,

/, ' / / F /, 1;;;1 ·

I Jver,;pr..-.:1d. o\·crrln . nn: rrnatch.
To-da y , t(l -1111nro11. t11-11ight.
l l ntn i"t h. unf ultilled. un hn110red.
l lnc lt-rLlkl' , u11 cln.!_'.u.

1' 111 · Ji11, Id 111 ,c.:

·

I.

l'l h· l>1 :1 \ ' l·r"--

-:u .

. -:ird.
,. · d<llll.

_") ·

- Cl l.

(,

-t_. r.

7

\}·
10 .

Ji,,.,,1 .

s -kin.

-cm ft .

-ling .

,).

-Jlt·~~ .

I I .

(1( k

I 2 .

- ri t·.

,Ji 11'·

I

I

'tl' :!< I.

I

·'.

"tt• r
-wrighl .

I (1.

\
t!lCt

Ji

up<tt i

\

1,11i

11 1t· re ·l·.

\.

'\ ,.,, . 1llu11111u111 '11\ l l l l i

gL t li!lll .

!11111-.,(·.
( I,

-

I •y i 11.~

( · 1 \' i Ii / ~l t ]l 11 1-.. .

40. The Classical Element .
Tlut p11rt 111 11 "' " 11r
FngJ1,1i 1111 ·:1ln1!:1r1 ,,Jiwli <•<111t·s lr1•11111tlw1 tli.1 11 , 11· i, t ll·

I .ng·!j,}i s1111rn·s

is

'"

11H 1<·ii 1ll111·,· ,·11lllpkx ;1111! 111 11i:1111

\\T il ing,,,. d11 111 1t

11,11·, '" 11111.-h r1,·Ji, r tli:1 11 11111· 1i: 1t1 n : 1111·,1l111L11·1, tli.1t :111
.[l ' t ! \ i;t ll ll .l I lt 't• \\ ' it 11
)I i t ~ 1111 l] ' t ' 11 ll \)I 11·1 ;11 it 1· 1 l
!. . . .

tl1111k th :1l 111 01 1c pl.in· \\L' .sli11u ld use ;111 ,\11gl11 ·

;rn .! ,,·ith tli<· prdi .,,-.s :1 11<! .,11t°il\ <._, tli:1t "'' 11r 111"1 l· 11,·-

:\11w it
::-i ~txun

l·~r :tph

1 - · k·1 1 1i11~ .

l11g.
(1.

~tup Lu

, tr l( 11\

I11111.- , •. d 111l<1 1l1 . 1<
! 1ll j )f" 1 •\ -1 'l l H"lllS i i i

(

\(!

"''' .,f tr:11i:;p11rl .1 t t<>ll.
I"· 1111l11c 11 n · "' t l1 1· ;, I

1·1i ,. ,\:11 '" ' ,. 1·11t 1i, l1-

:•·

fo llull'ing· 11111111 suHi\c.s, :111< ! .s: 11 11·h :1 t th,· '11tfi.\ :1cl d s t"

I.

I .

111:.v J,;i ,t ·-l i;ill.

Bring to cbss :1 li st n! \\'ords m:1ck with e:1ch 11f the
\\' () f(

I:.

'"' k th,· ( :1 :\11\ "ilkr.
I I «\\ I" Ii 11 J, ·:" ."'. ,I 1..
+· \I

111·

1lw

{! tT '-. .

With .stand.

t

"I

!(

I/,' I I ,·.

h

t 11 lw 1<'111<'1llhtTCci th:1t

wurci a nd in ::\111\th e r

:-,,1 ! ) ] ] I '

w n rd th:tt !wars tl11· dassi1·

c om c.:: s tiff :ll1d nH.:ch:.rnic;il.
t

llul

:t

)I 1

I

\ \ I 1]'(

•1t1<·11tiy in it. i.s p:t r ticubrly \:tlu:t!Jlc f,,r :111\ «t i<' "Ii"
,,.i,_1i,._, 111 11.,,· the !:111_:..;u:tgl· 1·tk1·t1\·l· ly . '.\.1 t11 r.1i l1, •>111·

!Jid w1· do th:1t , our writ i11,c; would l1e-

s tamp u po n it.
i:uit v \\' ll ii the

:1

Ill

, :tit I 1c·,t c "111 c· t" .1 k1111,1lcd:..;c "t th e c.\:1l°l f11 1Tc "r 11·.,rd s
i],·1j,,.,j lr1<111 cbs,1< ·:tl r1 111t .s tl11-.1t1,:..;l1 :t d1rn·t , tu1l.1 <d

d iscri111inat i11g Ltmil

w" eleme nts 111 th e b ng u:tgc tnakcs it

more natural for the word tktt 1s assuuatnl with deq1

tht · l .:ll111 :111d Crn·k l:111.g·u:1gc.s tiil'Jl\S<·llc·s. hut c·1 ,·11 .1

ke lin g s to conw r.eadilv t o mind when it is wanted to

"''"'11< l·k111d :1n11 i:1111\:111 c1· ·xith t h l'lll 1s ''"'rtli wli1l1·
\\ ·,. will ,-.,11s1il<T li r 1,·f11· s111nc: '" thL· 1·:1 r1111 1s 11,,·., l«

to uch :t lik e feeling· a n e w .

l ,l't us see whether 111 <>Ill

"'" 11 writing, eve n \\' 1t hou L t l11s Lt11 nliar tty. wc ma kc a
distmction in favor ot th e En gl is h word wh e n wc havl'

wli 1ch :1 .s111.gk L:1t111 r11<1t 1.s jllll. wh<:11 it li:t s lic·c1 1 tr:111:-.

s ubje c ts of a ce r tain kind in hand.

d11n 1, mcanm,g· I It-ad.

( >n

l<'IT <'d

one subject

fr o m eac h o f th e two ltsts lol!Pwin_g \\'rile nut les s th;111
"n e h undre d w1•rds.

\ll

<>llr Sj>L'lTlt.

l.l't

\l.S

t:tke the 1·c-rY c·11 1ll lll<Jl l \lTIJ

\ V1: h ;t1·« 1t in the

"°' •rcls

11 dd11, ·,-,

11/id11r!, 111;11<1!11, ·t, (,111d11(/, (1111d111f, rl1·d11d, doll11f, d111

\ Vhen Y<>ll kl\ c Ii 11 ish e d fin d out,

t ilt-. n/11ral1» nl11r1» :111d m:1 n1 11tlw rs.

;\c111. t<1ki11g th e·

w ith the aid of a dictionary, w hat proportion ol the

11ou11s 1l<-ri1·l·cl fr"m S<>ll\L' of theSl' w" rcl s, 11· h1ch :1.s g1VL·11

w"rds e m p lo yed in each case is 1\ ngln-:--i:ixo11, a11d b1·
pre pared to stat e in the class wlff 1l 1s greater in 1111c
l ;1,._,. t \i;111 Ill t iJ,· 11t liL'L

;ir1· m11.stll 1n!Js. 1\·c c:1n dcfinL· tlwlll rc; 1clt! y c 11., ugh i11

r

te r111 s <>I th e 11rig·111:d ruut :tnd its prdi .\ .

.\ clnl u1ti1111

l l ()

1.s

whH'h

'"'11cius1011

:1

<Jlh,·r

I I I

r 1 I//' r tS/ / '/ r r

i

f;t( I, :tll

11"

:1hc!ucl!<ll1

lt:11·, · ; ,

th, ·

IS

1! d,1;"11

lr<>11t

l1<1d111,o,'" 11:,·111·

ti:mg, ~ui uluc:tll<Hl is the f<a, / 111.i;· 1-'lil

ul

the

<>I

111. i11lt1.

/!/

·'"111''

~(

""1111·

>,

th:tt

]"1 )(it

:111d

.'-'.<'\ lw r

11!

prl'li .\ , ; 11 \(I

< J1tfcT< 'l1

J1u111

;t_....,

\d,

~L

rl · I

\\'t•

II~\'

l tli 1tl'-'." · ; I; I \ 1° ~ 1 I:._: \i

1 h t·1 11. l ht ' \

ii. l\ h

111

1111r

~111(k-r .. ; r:111d 1n.-.

" "li r e ,·,, lJ\

l"rc·1;.:,11

titt ·; arc put t n I-':t:llH.·1

.1

."lii<ll <>I

tlH.· pr·ict ·_-.. _. .;

ill

n~

u -..:.1_•

tile:

td

l ~ l1~tt1;;e~

,,/,.

f re ll i 1,
, / ! I; , 1'

, / /! \

rl'\; 111 \

1-

"./

----=

\1

~

_-.. l 1 1 11 i

d\-ri\.l'\l

11·:1\

111

ht·( ' 1Hn111g

11·h 1'

,· 1

,- 111:

i.

t rt ·1 t1 1

11 r

{·. \// (r/c· :--: l,, ! _1ti,_:~1tl1c
{ 1/1

__..;

~lg:1 i n...;t

, -,r

1 1

1.!t .

nl_l l

( 'li ; 111;_:· 1·~ ti

j

, ,

'

i!/ , ;.~/J

, ;,·'

' '/'. / ', '
l-:. 1r'

,r

1111 .

/'11.rf,.fl1l // 1'

!

• \ • ll~\H1 . 111l~ i11 _-.. \H'\ t::--..-..l•lii \\

1tli1i11I

.111 11itcrvc11in .~

\,.-'1)\\-el.

r1 ) n l

fld-/1rrc = to clin~ tu.

"''I --- 111tll ur tu;.:Llilcr.

/ J ·,I J/ ~·

/1 chan.~· c ~ :--,1t\J!HI r1( ·c; 1~ 1 1l11.1 l l\ ·. f,1 !'!1l lf l_~·

, 11 - .

1lf.11

=

tn draw t\

I, t1 .1·u11dr'r, 1Jf'fo.1·:/r.'

T hi, ,

1"111.~e" t<>

JiJ/~1i11

~

,o,:.,r-, , r1/-,

,;,.

'.~ctfH·r .

d1

1 I Jf. 1 ll!

I \ \ II

J1; 11l.

:l1H; lt _L:_l1

,,,

. I\\

!· 1

;/

• ,1(

l ' ;l:--.l

i• l

' 1!11<111 .'..'. li .

>l' lH i

.ti

'!/.
, ., rr11111

.Ii- ,rnd .!il

.-- - -= tu 11L1 ke

= t"

!w\• i1t d
II

ror-.
1·1111-IFr1t·/

___;

111lc

It

p :trl i~l

tiii" 1Jrc!i .\ i-.. t1-..Li:1i1' h.111i..:, ed t11 till· _'·dlll!Hl (Jr
th e conso nant fo t l ow mg- it int-he niot-. becoming then a-,
u<-. 11/. 11;:- . 11!. 1111 -, 11/- . 111 - . <1 •· , ,1/. Thi,, Ii~,, cumt: fru1t1
the di ffic ulty t'X Jll' r i,. n,T d i:i pr<>tlfninc-i n;.: !w " di -,, irnihr

,/; 1

1! 1 111t-, 11.
!11 1:1 11 :1

.llll."1 .

·riie J,

'l'hc

l11

sli:tll lw

\H'

\\-i )r d...;

t Cl,

d'!!t-.

11it·.11i111,L:_

1l1t· ( •!' ! >11 . . . itl·

(if j1 .i ricd.

t

:1ru und.
,/! . .'ill!

,· l1/ - -

!1,

j

111

\ t·r l ,·, .t J11 I

.t lll'_;_:. i t 1\·1· 111 ,tt! Jl . ( ·t 1\ · t . ..., :11 1(!

1h1 ·

I 1 1)111

;1 \•.-;1 ,.

1-...

.....,;111\t'

"m Lngiish speec h. Hrmg 111 a li st ot nut less than
thirty word.s in whic h th e fo!lowing I . at<!n prefixes occur.
'!.

1111 .-..

l i,l:--.

I 1tr l

11 h·; 111 ;il \ >1-

r·J, ·:i rh

( k:trh·.

~tnil

hr ·

ll

ll11l!]l-...1

inl:t .\F -==

<'illp<>\llJdnJ ,Ji t

word.s of c l:i ss 11· nr1g-111

ot hcT

\ 11._·]pcd

:111<! ,/,·,/11. (

1/c't/!f1·c·

1

1t1r1:---.

11,

1•llit'i

l'"ll'Cl;, <tttd

faculties pf the' une whn h;is been educakd .
\ 1H

11 11

( 1 r.

J!\ll '

i J) lp_·

, [! 1)l [l1ll.

J"llFF<!NI<~.

( .(!.I/ I , ( I.'> .11 .1 I 1. \ . . . / • \·11

12

l/'1!N/JS.

such
.
. . 1. ·t " f I ·•··\tin r1111t,.; ·Jill' l t itl L.·s .. nl)· .·.
Tl
l<>llmnnµ, b
.
IL'
.
.. . . .
1:n:rv t>ll<..: \\'ho '' bh l,.,
:ts :trL· ,,r lrL·quL· nt C>tT t1111..:nt 1..:.
.
.
·1
. ·1· ·11 hn
,,·ua ••<..: L·fkctin·ly sh .. uld h <..: fam1 .
to use t lI t: I ·. n o lS
'
:--. · ,. . .
·
·
1
,..,
I'
.
.
·1 list
11! lllll, kss t 1a11
i:ir ,,·ith thL'rn.
)rl11µ, t () th.<..: chss
'· · '
•
.
\ · ·l . ·l' h·1,·L· h L'<' il tkrt\'L·d tr<>m thu1i.
t hirty ll'<>rt" ' ' IH ' '
.

,-,!f'i<I , ••If'

I

tt> rLTt.:i\T. t•>

·-

/(II/ -

Llkl' .

f

.

·
thi,, 11:1 ,; h\'L' ll
111 llH>St C>f it s J-:i1;.::li s ll clt.: rl\';.\tl\'l'S·····-- ·
. '.
j,',·, ·, ·i;·, ·. r!t 't"f'/';'r'. f1 l t t /, t •
crn·d \Cl (t'l7'r

>-I>

t·

I·!·•'
"
1 •\

It 11·ill b e
1111ticecl th at tlws <..: suffixes do 111>\ c ha11g-e tlw root 111
quit e the same way as the pn.: ti .'\L'.s.
!\ 11·ord en din g· 111
th e suffix -1'011 is a .no un, and r L'm :1 i11s s" ll'hile it rl'tai11 s
this L'JH)ing; but a wore! with the prefix d1· - 111a1· i>l' a
1·1..: rl>, 1Hn111, acljcct i1·l', r1r acll'crh, ~1s d, ·d110-, d ,·d11dio11,
d1·d11rti;-1·, dcd11 cli<·dy.

l{ring t1i class a list o f n•>t less

t ha11 tll'enty-fi1·e "'"rcls c "ntaining· suffi .' \es in th<..: 11 -,t

Noun Sutnxcs
-an.

i,,li
''•

'
/11 1i11 _::

.. \·

liq

'!: ..

"I

·

tn thro\\ ·

.

tro / 1. ·,·/ . 1·01u~·t'/11 rt'. lrir ,,., ./1' 1 -r
. • .<11!•1;·d.

/»rf11, ('or/.r/11111

= t1>

I

<":1rry.
nf1•rl. rr,111." forl. ,/,for/.

;I

1 "I
I

1~ rom thl'sc ancl Yarinus othn rnnts 11·nrcls arc f11rmc<l

liy the :t clclitinn C>f suffix<..:s of different kinds.

lie!""" and he prepared t" g i1·e s 11 c h ddiniti<>1 1 11f L':l('h
w11rd as ll'ill in clude the 1111..:aning <1f the suffix.

i

I

r r3

to Sl'lHJ.

mi//{J. 111i.,'.U/Jll

/'r'r111il. ,/i.rnris.\'. l't'lllil. ,·11111J11il. omit.
lll
t ''"'.J f1i>'lfll
.
f.11'J//. jtT1'//iJll

= t<>

p\;i<"t'.
(

=

1·/ ,\/

. . , 1·( '111/ ('r,1J11.11'. /'"S/i!Ft', dr'f't1111·11f.

I} -~ I .

f .

,

•

ti> lll:lkl'.

_(<rd. drj"crl. fo}'d.
\·,·1·1'/11 1.

.1'1TI/'
' .fl/Ill

==

u I \\'rite.

rt' .
, /'1011, S(r/h/11
i11 s,-ri/1i'. i/<'J'O"ll<r". Jrt .ffr!P
r

= 011e

ll'ho (agent), o r that ll'hic h.
one ll'hu t1nd c rst;1nds
math e 111atics.
-1er.
r1n·11/ii·1-, 011<.: who is c hi1·;i lrou s.
-111 e ll t.
al/11l111t'll/, that which is a ll otkd .
N11 u11 Suflix cs =.state; <'onditiun; qu ;i litl'; act.
-e ll Ct.:.
of'11/1·11t'1'. co11d it ion 11f bei ng o pu knt.
-it)' .
n;1111/ilr . conditi(/11 of being equal.
-t uclt.:.
11j>lil11t!1", <'on ditivn <>f IJci1 1g apt.
"icn111 Suftixcs = s111:il l.
-c ult.:.
111oli-1H!.". a small 111ass.
"ioun Su nixes = "nt.: who is ((lhject ivt.:); th:1t whi ch is.
-n-.
n1111111illce, that to whi r h so 111 t·thi11:.; h
('(Jllllllittt.:cl.
:\djcrt in~ Suffix es = lik e; rc: lati11 g- tn : hc i11g.
-lilt'.
Alj>i111', rc lati11g to the Alps.
-ar.
l11 /11t/,1r. lik e a tlliil' .
.- \d jccti1·t· Sufllx e.s = that 111ay bt.: .
t!11t1ik. that m :w be dr:ill'n .
-ile.
:\cljecti n: SuftixL·~ = aboundi11g in; 'h:i1·in g the qu:ility of.
-aceuu .s.
!1erht1t'et111.r. h:11· i11g th e quality of a11
herh .
-<HI.-...
/l//)/f /llt1 i 111111s, ;1bo t111cl i 11 .~·
Ill lllUU!ltains.
111at!tt'111t1!1(·ia11.

14

.\ djl·ctive Suflix,;.'
-1\'e .

4 r.

!.'11/:· ru NI <·.

, ·1J .l//' 1IS//"/ (!.\" . / . \ ./!

=

I I )

h: 1\·ing th<.: power of.
tlr'risiff , h:1ving th<.: powe r uf J ecidlll g.

Comparison of the two E l eme nts. -

\ •V ere we de-

! >Cll <kn t who! Iy u pu n t he J\ 11 gln-S:1xon ckment in o ur
trn\l.'. lle, w e sho ul d h e able to vo ice in but a bung ling
Lt,,hi"n th e rdincnwnts of th"ught a n d feeli ng that h ave
""111 c t" 11s in t hl: c .. mpkx it y .,f rnrnlern l ife.

\Vere we

dep ri vl:d "f th e w"rd s "f our 11 :1 t i,·e speech, we sh ould
h:trdly kno11· how t" pu t "ur 111orc elemental emot io ns
in to form to m ake others kTI them as inte n se ly as we
feel them.

The m1rd,; i11 thl· t\r,;t colu mn below are

i\n g li >-S:tx<>n , and th ose 111 thl· sec ond colu mn their class ic il equi,·alents.
spec ific and less

\ Vhi c h

c:tr h

Ill

inclusi\·e t erm '

case is t h e m ore
\V hich would gcn-

cr:tl Iy sccu re g reat er :icn irac y oi expr ession ?

1s this

in e ach c:ts c in ac nirdan c c \\·ith wh at yo u know of t'he
\() class se nBri1w
of the w ord, o r not
~
S< >ti \'L'C
t Clll'CS illustra t in g th e
of sy n o n yms.
I.

2.

3·
4·

S·
(,.

7·

.s.
')-

10 .

Show,
(; litter.
Slave ,
1 lid ck n .
L.:.ipe.
Right,
Truth.
1::1ir .
1.V ish ,
\\' u rt h,

e x hi b it.
radiate .
servant.
sec re t.
m ;iturc.
proper.
ve ra c ity .
ho nes t .
d e s ire .
mcri t.

l\ S C

of

I

'>Il l'

JI .
I 2 .

13 .
l ..j..

I ~·

di .
I

7.

18.
I')·

<Jf each

"r

Dark.
Crowd .
S in.
l\<1 \d .
Bent.
l in \Jo und ecl.
l i pbraid.
He lief,
l; uud.

th e pairs

obscure.
multitude.
c rim e.
brave.
curved.
infinite.
reprov e.
faith.
benefit.

In the fir st 11f the foll11\1·i11 g selections ;1 11u 111 !1n ,,(
Anglo-Saxon 1\·ords ha,·c b ee n prinkd i1 1 it a li cs . :111 d 111
th e s eco nd a num ber ()f cla s s ic W<>r<ls h:11·c bn·11 i11di
ca t e cl in the sa m <c: way.

I.et u s sec \\·h:1t effec t it ,,·ill

h a ve up o n eac h of th c se pa ra grap h s t " s ubstitutl· . :1,; Lir
as possible, words of :l different o ri g in for th l· \\ 1>r< ls
indicat e d.

R e-writl· each of tlw111 , employ ing cl: 1s ,c ic:11

wor ds f<>r t hose ita li c ized in t he fir,,t . :rn d .-'\11 g l11-S :1,,, 11
w o rds for tht1sc s•• pri n ted in the ,,cc•>1 HI.

Jk

rl·:11h

to say in th e case 11i c::lL' h word 1\·h ct h e r the c han g·c h:1s
resulted in g r eat e r d e finitenL·S.'-' " r lc,.;s, in grcatcr L'il1"ti o n a l fo rce "r less . i11 g rcatl'r c learness o r lcs,c: :1 11 <1 hl·
prepa red with some gcncr: il c im c lu s io n drawn fr,

1111

wh; 1t

you obse rve in t h ese: separate cases.
The English ,,·<· rl' not n11111i11.:;. · 1·h,·1· 11«·r 4• /1 r1d·in·'
and /11:wi11;; .:rnd stabbin g . for th o ug h on'e \\'hitc 111:111 ;:,
seldo m ph y s 1c:1lly :1 111f1!d1 for :111 .\ fgha n in ;1 shcep-,k111
o r wadded c oa t. yet . through th e pr""s11n· of 1n :111 y whi t• ·
m e n be hmd . :11\cl :t cer t;1111 t/1ir.•! f"r rcn:nge in Iii,- /i, ·, 11 /.
h.e b ec~ 1:1cs c~pahlt.: o f do ing 11111 c h \\'it h hotlt e nd ,- ,,f ! 1i,
nfl e .
I he l·o re :rnd Aft /1 drl th e ir jiu ti ll rn 1c 1111\!t- t
co uld dri7·1· throu g h li,·c <> r ,, i, 111e11 . ;i',1.i th, · fr,. 11 1 ., f 1lw
Afi:;-h a n fo rce ga \'e 011 th e v11llcy. Th ey tli c 11 ,,c\cct<-d
t_he1r m e n . and .r/1'7l' th e m ,,·ith rl1 ·1p gasps :rnd slllir/ /i 1id.:mg m11g/1.r , and gro1111i11.:;,c o f k;1t her hclh ;·1ga i11q o;tr;iinu l
bodies, and rc:l li zt·d for th e l1r'l ti111t· th;I! ;111 :\fgl 1. 111 :i i ·
ta ckcd '·" far Iese; fo r1ni d:1hlc th.·111 .·111 .'\ f«l 1.,1 11 ;d1;11
· I\ 11 \g '
whi c h f;.tcl ul d ,,o \di ers 111ighl lt a1·c tol d tl~ rn.
Rl'f)Y .-\J..'.[I

}( 1 1 •i , I :'-.. ~ . .

7'/11' nr11111s r:f ////' .hn·r 1111d .- ///.

G o ld e n in d eed \\'t: rL· the 1·.1jiNl11fi1111.• \\'it lt \1·1t i,·lt hupt· ful j>t:oj>k \\·e kn111 c d t he r·.d11h / i"11 ,,f 1 .~5 1.
lt 11· ;i , 1lw

'fi"

'·-·'

.•

'

:·I

r6

<"!).1/l'US!li<l. \ . . /.\"/!

I

I
tl
I

;

I

'·

lir,.,t 1i1 :;.,111i;;<,/ 111 ,g;1tlwr :di the r./r1·.•1·11/11lfr,·., uf the
1\'orld·,., i11d1i -/Jy int11 nt1e grL·aL f:iir; :ind there 11'l·re those
\\'ho .vrio11.• (r 1·.1ft'dol th ;lt lllc n \\'ho h:1d 011c · b 'l'tl punnii'rl 1qloll to tll ce t togethe r i11 fr ic11dly and jll':l n:f ul
n r11!1 y 11·rntld n ·ver :1.~ : 1i11 he /'np11tkd to meet i11 ri1·alry
of ;1 ll erce r k111d . It "L'L'tl\S 1·.dr11r1rdi11111y 11011· t h:1t ;111 1·
sane ]Jt·rson can h;tn.: 111.!11~;-,-,/ in such expcctatinns, , ;r
1

h:l , .c. i111t 1,ri11,·rl t '1;1 l the lr1·111,·11rlo11s j(11 ·1·e ·s .~·P11l 'ri1/, ·,/
i>y th e ,.17-,,; i11/o·,·.1I•. 11111hl1ii11s. and p11.r.flims of ra ce
could IJc s11/•1/11,·,/ into ltrt n11r111io11.• ,·01ijicr11li1111 ],y the "uod
!'-L'llSe :rnd g111td fc-cli 11g horn ,,f a frie1Hlly lll eetin " . >-:l'h.ll yck l':1rk Exhibition :rnd all ex hi bitin;1s that follo\\'ed
tt h;1 ve not yet 11l;lde the slightest j>«NrjJli/i/i: ili(Fr1'11a
111 the ll'arl1ke tr-11i/1·110, ·s of nat tons.
.J 11,;-r1 .'1 l\k( ·,1RTll\' /fis/1i1:i- ,~/ 011r (hi •// :11·111,._,_
c;1 11

1,

//" O N US.

!i'l lF/"1! /1' /1·.

42. Emotional and Intellectual Cha racteristics of
Words. -- S<mH..: ti111 c,; 11·c :i re s:1 ti sl1cd w it h making ou1·
rc:lcicrs know what 11·c ll1 L·:111: srn11et imes 11·e wish t"
m :-i k c them sec with the L}t.: .. r th e 111 i11 tl a pil'lu rc that
II'<.: rL·:tli zc 1·i1·idly: a11d a;..:·:1in 11·c 111:1y 11·ish t•1 h:11·c h1Jth
111e:111ing :ind 1·is u;ili1.;1ti .. 11 qui, ·kc nnl i11t11 11111 rc rL·:tl vx \\ "hen 11·c h:11·c bct·11rnt'
i.-;lL JHT hy a rush .,f fcL·l i n.~· .
;1hlc t<I ti .. this las t S(lllll'\Vhat :ts ll' C ll'ill. ll"L' l !l;\y kl'I
th:tl 11-c h:11·c ill ;.Jt':tl 11:1rl m: 1sllTL'<! 11·li:1t is t":tlkd t he
teL·l111i c of litc r:ir1' art.
l\.11hLTt ! ... uis ~te1·c1i,;"n is rL·p11rtcd 111 h; 11·c said th :1t :1n y "lie wh" i,; amh it i11ti s 1 ,f

;1cqu iri11 g litl'r:try skill 11111,.,1 be 11 il lin.~· t" \\':tit h:tlf a da i·
fo1· the right word.
l 1r11b:-ibly c1·L-ry 11-r itcr who h :-is
:1chi c 1·L'(I l ik e success 11·11uld C<J ll fi rm the rcm;1rk . Hut
fi rs t 11·L· mus t tr;1i11 nursL·ll·L·s \11 k1111w th e right \\'o rd
wh c 11 it C1tmcs, o r 011r 11·;1it in ;..;. hmvc:vcr l1111g, 11·ill 11 .. 1
av:1il. t lilly l>y yc:t rs .,f li11th 1c·:1d i1 1t:: :111.J ll' riti1 1;..: ,·;111 11·c

I

17

c11mc to all easy command of :-i full a nd ri ch 1·oc:ibubry.
;u1d L:vcn thc11 we shall 11"t writ e clearl y if ll' c have !lilt
lea rnc'Cl wh;i.t so rt o f dist in c ti1tns b etwe e n 11·ords should
be m:tdc .
l.L't 11 s attempt a little cbssifica ti on nf
w11rds in :tccu rda ncc with the ch aracter .. r their appc:t l
t" t h11 ught ur feel in,_:;. I 11 th e first c olumll 1Jcl c111· i-;
g·i1·cn a list of li 1·e cbssL·s 11f 11·Drds, ancl foll11w i11;..:- each,
a letter tu be cmployl'\l 111 designating 11·ori,ls 11f th;1t
cl:tss.
In the second cul umn is g 1v ·n a list (if suhsidiary ,·haracterist ics c i1· 11·onls wi t h cur rL:spo nd in;.:- n umhcrs \ll be cmpJ,iycd in indicat ing words which h:-i1·c
t

hL'SL' ch<1racteristi cs.

·10scly pcrs11 nal
Concrete

l

:= //

==

7£'

!' arti c ular am\
speci fic

= x

( ;eneral

= y

/\ bst r:i c t

Sug).!csting- i1Hages th :Lt a rc:

U niversal

l'rimitivc
Loca l or spcc:ial

=

I.

-==

~> .

Scholaril· o r technical
"'"' I·
Civing- meaning without irna i;e = S·

I .L'l us consider a few words with reference to th is
t"bssil1c:it io11 .
T he word rr111 11t1:1', for inst :-inn:, 11·c
11·11uld m:trk 11 1 (nJ1//l/1y'" ), because, :1s soo n :-is 11·e
k n uw the 111ca11ing .. r the word, we k 11 ow it. as somct hi n)..'. ll> which 11·c ha1·e some s 11rt "f perso n:tl rcl:tt ion:
11·e arc told ',f 011r cuu nt ry fi r st, and 11· c ,,h• iltl d :-idcl t hL·
svmbo l 1. bcctU sc , though the jmagc it suggests is we:tk
and ind efi nit e, it ts rL·:tl, a nti it comes t• > c1·c r yonc.
whet h e r c ivi lized or uncivilized , c ultured o r ig no rant.
Jn li ke m:-inncr we should m ark jtrt!tt"r"', 11wt!to"' ,
/ii rt/1f'/t1(l -'". anti m a ny others. F.,r words th :tt 11·.,uld
su ggest images that h:1vc: tu d<> with the life .. f :di

.

I I:)

( ·u.lf /'()S /J'J U.\ " . I . \"/I N!/!:"TUNI C.

11"0/i'J JS.

,•

[ I<J
!

jll"im iti \ L' J'e"plcs, hut less dcti 11it cly, if ;1t all, with
th 1><;t' c i, ·ili zecl, \\' c should ad d the Sl'rn11d:ny 111arking
2 ;

a n d fo r wo rds t hat wottld ,;uggest illl ages t" peo ple

.. r

somc p:1rticular 11atio 11 , l<>c1lity, or OLTUp;1t i11n only ,

\\'e sho uld add t he symb"I .1·
11a!i1111

\ \'ords s lll·h ;1s ra/i(l(i-

\\'ould ha,·e 5 as t he sct' "ncl:1ry sy mb()I, a nd su ch

11·ord;; \\'ould ge n e rally lll'lo11g t•> cbs,;cs _I' ;u1 d .'...

N ot

all :1bst ract 11·orcls \1·ottld h a1·c t he SLTo IHl a r y marking

-' · .\la·: ·o:i·, t«• r
s"\"l 111" ;1n im: 1gc
t': tily a ll p rimitin:
da 1·y m a rki11g- 2 .

instan CL', 11·ould clearl y s ugge st s<> me
haYing t" do ll'ith the life of p racti JW•Jp ks, :ind s<J 1n1uld ha1·c t he sccu11i'\rnr, in _!..'.CllLTa l, 11"11rds to \\'hich we

shou ld :1pply the symbols 11! arc clea r ly 11111rc lit te d to
quicken the e m ot ions of the read e r th:111 th .. sc .. r :1ny
<1 tilLT cb ,-s. a 11<1 tho sl: t" 11·liic h \IT sh"uld appl y the
syn11Jols .:5 arc rathe r in tellel·t ua l than L'lllOtiona l.
\\ ' hL'll we w ri te 11·e lllU :'t c1mti1111ally mak e a st11d y
n[ the appL·al that th e \\'nr<ls 11T employ will ma ke ti>
though t and kelin.~.
1\ L"1>lllj>o,;itiun that is tn move
the ,;c nsi li ili t ics mu st n"t he writt L: n in words that apJ>c;1] ];1rgL·ly t" the i11t cl k l"l.
\\ "c 11ill spe nd a littl L:
t im e in mark in g· the fnllowing 1';1r:1gr:q1h,; wit h th e sym bols g i\·en in the cb ssi ficati(l11 ;1li111·e.
nf course , will lie in c lt rd et l in

Not all wo rds,

tlw class ifi c::i ti o n; hut

11 01 111 s, ad jccti,·cs, :111d solllL' 11f t h e 1-crhs sho uld he
nurked.
Co m e tu class prep:1rcd l<J justify the marking of each word, a nd bring a st;1tcmcll\" 11 f the numbe r
11 1" 11'<\rds ()f cal·h cla ss tha t )'<•ll find i11 each se le cti o n.

Uf tli e tw e nt y-tive marking-s jlllssilik, whic h s ix in

) llllr

jud gme nt cover tht..: more emotional word s, a nd which
s ix the m o re intdlect u al?
\ V hic h of th e sdc c t ions
give n seem to yo u to deal m o r e with thought, and which
m ore with feel in g, and do yo ur m a rkings ag ree with
th is decision ?
!\ co mpa rison b etwee n Europe and Ame ri ca, as respects
th e c urre nt productio n of dramati c literature inte nd ed fo r
actual pe rformance , offe rs resu lts . whic h re ti ect upo n
us a s triking natio nal disc redit. In _Ge rm a n y. _the t wo
foremost write rs am o ng those now h vm g a re wri te rs for
th e stage. The tw o g reatest of li ving.Scandinavi;rns are
li ke wise dramatists. In Fran ce t he re is at least the poet
of "Cyrano' ' to recko n with, besides th e rn e n who h:1ve
passed away du rin g the clos ing quarter of th e c~ ntury .
Italy offe rs one contemporary name of mu c h s1g n1h can cc,
and th e lik e state me nt is t ru e of S pa in and of Belg ium.
El't:n E11 g L111d h;1s he r prese nt-day g roup oi hi ghly respectable playwrigh ts , me n of seri o us purpose and s11hsu11tial pe rfor man c<.:, if not e xac tl y 1~riters of ge n1u ::.
Th e ll"orks of all the men here me ntio ned be l(Jl 1g <li .~ ­
t in ctly to the lit e ratures of their respecti1·e eoun t ric .~.
a11d i11 som<.: cases the v constitute th e best lite rature tha t
is now l;e ing produced 'i 11 th ose co untri es. 1 las Amer ica
a nythin g o f the so rt to show I Well, we h ave .1\1 r. Bro11so 11 Ilo11·ard, and Mr. A ug ustus Tho mas, and Mr . <:lyde
1"it cl i. ll11t wh" would think of n;ckoning th<.: produ cti o ns uf these men arnong th e 1wteworthy thin gs o f o ur
mode rn literat ure ? Th e m e re suggestion is a n absurdity.
\\'e have poets and nove lis ts and essay ists fairly compara bl e with those of the Europea n coun tri es ;. but of dramati c
writ<.:rs , i11 th e E uropean se n se, we h ave no t o ne , no r
ha vi.: we eve r Jj rocl uced one.
Ed itor ia l in th e Dial, J a n . 1, 1900.

l> acier h ad obse rved th e blush, an d the c heck to he r
Iloll' ing to ng ue did 11ot escape him as th ey walked b;1Ck to

I

'ti

!i

'.:

-

l'.!0

CiJ.l!!'O.\l/'10. \ ". I X/ 1 !.'ll Fl"0/"11 '.

th e 111 11 d o wn t h <.: na r ro\\' s ired uf black ron 111 s . \\' h e re th e
11·omen goss i pt.:d :1 l the founta in an d lh e cobble r t hreaded
on hi s doo r-sll:p.
11 is nm-..:1 t:xcitcment s u ppl iL"< I t h <.: dcficic11cy, sweeping past 111i111 >r rdic c t ions. I le was. how<.:l't:r, snrprist:d tn ht:a r hl'I" 1"11 Lady l·:squart, :is soo n :rs
tht:y were togL·tht:r :it th e hrc:1kfast-t;1blc , tlut he had t h<.:
inte11t io n of st :1rti11g fo r E11g l:1n d ; a nd furt h e r s ur pr ised,
and sl ightly st u ng to " , \\'hL·n . 0 11 th <.: poo r lady's 111 0 :111 in 1-:
ove r h e r recollec t io11s oi the 1nid11 ig hl hell. and 1·ow ing
she conld n ot atte m pt to sleep :u wthe r ni g h t in t h e p l:i ct',
I >i :rn:1 <k c l:Hcd h e r res<>il"e lo stay then: one d:iy lo ngl'I"
wi t h li er 111 a id . :1fl(I t·xplo rl' t h<.: 11 <.: i" h lior hon<I for th e w ild
ilo11·ers in \\'hi c h it :1bo 11n <iccl . L~rd an d l .:1cly Es q u;irt
:igret·rl ln a 1w th ing :ig ree:11Jlc tn he r. aftt.: r cxc usin" th <: lll s~h·es for t l~e n e~·es.s i takd fl ight. pitt.:ousl y rt.:l:i~ng t h<.:
story nf tlH: ir suffcri11gs. J\ly lnnl could h:11·c sh-p t . h 11 l
h t: h :1d re111:1in ed a11·:1ke t11 co111fort 1111" Lich- .
( ; 1.:oR<:t·: 1\ l 1·:Rt•:l•ITl l: ])i,111a ·,:f /It;· Cr osswt1y.<.
Th e n J:ison ;..:«•tout of the c:1 rri :1ge , :111 d \\'ithnut furth e r
wo rd o r sig-11, swu n g dn11·11 th e st reet. T he doctor loo k ed
after him until his stor m y fi;.:-111-e w:1s lost in t h t: d is l a n ce .
W h a l th o ughts bea rded the physi c ian's respec tabil ity: \V ;is
th e c it y, so atroc iously rn nde rn , as aggral' at ing- to hi s u nta med 111 :111 hood :i s it 11":1s to J aso n 's 1 \\"h att:1·e r g:rn1 es
t hey h ad playt:d t h ey h:id gt:nera lly wo n. 1\nd he k n t:w th :it
of a ll m e n J:iso n 11·:1s t ht: o nt: to p urs u e a f•>e to th e ut tt:rrno,, t pa rt s of l il t: e: 1r1 l1. J:1s<111 w:·1s 1\1 0~: 1i c i11 hi s be lief
pf fa ir play , :111d in hi s instinct of retaliat irn i.
I le \\'tJllld
L ikes t r ip hi m se lf lo p :iy :i dcl 1t of honm o r <>f ki 11 cl11es,,.
wise lo hi m \ "e llgL· :rn ce 11·:i s :1 la\\' :is s:i c-rt:d as hosp itality,
and he c ould entrus t it n t·ithcr t11 C od no r 1n an to e .\ ecule it fo r him . T he d oc tor knew t h:ll 11·h ate1·e r h is old
mate p ur p ose d would bt: deftly done, :in d wit h d is p a tc h .
Fa r off, th e t: il l so 11 1brero wa1·ed ahon: t he pclty c row d
:rnd \\':I S t·in :i lly sw :tll owt:d. !-'h:1k in g off hi s rt:ve ri e, th e
dnclo r call t::d h is m a n a n d hu rrit:cl o n h is ro u nds.
1-l r:i.:.uun LJ. \\ . 11u •.

/ V()ft'/)S.

43.

.

I '.! I

A La r ge Voca bu lary. --- l t is 11<1t c n " u ;..:1 1 th:1 t we

ha1·l· :111 :1cc ur:1\L'. k11 o ll"l nlge ., 1· t h L· wo rd s t h:tt
i11 o ur d: 1ily spet'l'h a11 d i11 wr iti 11g;
voc:tbubry ll! dr:1w upo n .

\\"L'

W l ' l' Illj>l<>y

mu st lu ve a brge

''

\ \ "ri tcrs wh" u se the s:tme

11·onls nilL'll seem l<> us, ll'iiell 11·e re:1d , to he rqieatin.~
tlw u ;..:·hts as well, a n d that feeling destroys ou r pleasurt ·
in t he re:1d i11 g.

I ndeed , the th"ugh t of :1 \" •>l11Jl<>S ili"1i

ca 1111"t lie de1-...: lu p ed as iu lly ii t h e l"< >c:tliubi·y in 11·h ich
it is w ri tte n is a n a rro w ll l1 <.~

T h e inkllect u a l l""'LT ly

:1f th <.· ll"rit cr bet ra ys it sc ll. 111 h i:.; pov e rt y of \\"o r ds, :111d
11e s:1ys le ss, jlL'fh :q1s, th :1 n he 111 ca 11 s, a nd s ee m s t " s:1y
ks s s till.

In t he f.,J]ow in g, f1-.11 11 :t s tud e n t's 1•:1pt-r . nli-

se r1·e how t he rcpetiti•n 1 of the 11-. mls " l i1·cd.'' " 111<>11 11t:i. ins," "liut." " cr:1hlied," "lho11ght, · · ;u 1d "neit·r . ·· gi1«:
l he

effect .,f Li ck 11 f

subst;~11cc.

Th ne :trL: 11t hn Ludts

in t he c11mpositi1111, b u t th: 1t 11( ta u tq]og")' is t he m"st
s e n •1us.

(lid T illl I Ludy \\'a s a rn in n 11'1 11) li1·ecl all alrni c: in ;1
li ttle cotta ge u p in th e Roc k y l\ l <•nn ta ins.
Fo r 111: 111 y
ye:irs he h a d li1·t:cl in thi s d esnlatt: r eg io n , l':tge r to ;.;ct
,,wn e t1f t he gnld ;rnd s ill'n t h :ll t hl' 11 H11 111t :1i11 s c•1nL 1incd.
I le h:id "e:i rdit:d nften fruitle .~sl y . li 11 t wo uld IH : l"<; r gin· up .
but d :iy aftt.: r da y he toiled , hut in \"a in.
11 is su1T<>11nd in gs h :1d d rniL" 111uch l(•11·:1 rds ..!1 :111g in g hi s n ature :rnd th e
cha r:1cte r <>f h is lik. T he h:1ppy. _g:ill:111 t Tim nf lnng :ig<>
h;1d h <Ccome. as t i1n e we nt 011 , t h e lurd , crab l>u l old Ti n1
H a rdy . No n n t: t ho ng hl an ylhi n g uf hi 111 a n d m :v l· r did
a k in d ll'O rd pass hi s lips .
I le so m t.:t im cs wo nd ·red 11·h1·
flL''J fl le never h :id :rnyt hin g t" do w ith hi111 , bul h t: n ei·t· r
once th o ug h l th:ll it \\"as hi s uw n crabbed n a tur e fr,1111
\\' h ic h t hc1· rccu ilecl.

..

~

<"11.J f/'1 1.'>./ / / 11. \· . 1.\·n NllF/1!/l'JC.

under the inllt1c1HT c1f tl'rrn r. The· hi sto ricil my ths we
11111st lean~ to the 111 :1stcrs o f h ist o n · to f"llow: th ey, and
th e e1·e nls th ey recn rd. \1 ei n,:.; y~t i111«1h-ed 111 great,
th o ugh :ittr:1 c ti1·e :rnd pe net r:1hle. mys tery.
But the
stars , :111c\ \111\s. and sto rms are ll'ith 11 s now, :1s th ey we re
with <•t hers o f old; :rnd 1t only neccb th:1t ll'e loo k at
them with th e_ l'.:H11est11 l'.ss of th<•'-'e c hi ldish eyes to unclerst :rnd t hl'. hrst ll'<m ls spok,·n of thl'lll hv t ht' c hildren
of lll l'. n , :i n d th e n. in :ill t he most he:1uti f1i1' :rnc\ enclurin ir
m y th s. we sha ll lind. not onh' a litl'r:tl ~t •>ry o f a re al pe ~
s1.n, n o1 on ly :1 p: 1r:ilkl i1 11:1g·cry "f n ir• r:1I pri 11<'iple, hut
:111. 111itlerly111g worship of
11:1tur:d pht·noni e na. o ut of
w\11 c h both ha1· e sprnng. and in 11·hi c h both forev e r re11 1:1i 11 r111>lc'd . T hus. fr n111 the r,·:d s1 111. ri.-,i ng ;111d sett i11 g,
- fru111 the 1e: d at111n~phe r e . c:il 111 i11 i t~ clo mini o 11 of
unLtding b lue . :11 1.J fi e rce in its d e s cen t of te mpest. __
the Cree k fnr111 s 1·1rst I.he id ea C1f two e nt ire ly pe rso nal
:rnd l'nr po r<' :il gods. whosl' li111 bs are c lothed in di l'i ne
flesh , a nd \\'h ose b rows are cro wned 11·it h di1·in e bea uty ;
yet "" re:il th:il. th e qu 11·e r rattles at !he ir s hould e r :incl
t he (' h ,1ri.,t bt'ncl .~ \J c·n e ath their wei .:.:·ht. :\nd,
th e
o t he r h:u1d . col l:1t e rally 11·ith these cmpo rea l imag« s, a nd
n e1·c: r fur one 111st:1nt sl' par:1tcd fi«111 1 the m . he conce i1·es
:ils< > two <> i t lll ipre~L'llt ,;pirit11:il influences . uf 1Yh ic·h o 11 e
i\ lu m i11;1tes . :h the sun. ll'ith a co11..;t;111t lire, \\'hat e \'er in
liu111a nit y is ,.,kilful :ind 11·isl': ;rn d the o th e r, like th e
li 1· in g air, breathes th e ca\ 111 of he a1·e 11il' fo rtitud e, and
slrc: ngt h o f ri g li tcou .~ :rngl' r. into e1·ery' hum :111 hrl'.ast
th;1l IS pure and br; 1vc:.
'[/,,- (}111.,·11 '!/ llh· .·fir.

rn;

" J\s C'e rt :1 in" is a w11rcl 11·L· do 11 "t \I SL' "ft e n: :rncl h e re
/l it/,

lcg«· 1HI, like

plete cl .
ancl

" P e rs onif y in g, "

"ph e nrn11 c na,"

1111 1. il

" imaginat i1·c .. , arc a ll

ll'o rd s

cnrn-

".._:11do11Td,"

of but

infr e quent

occurre n ce in o rdin a r y speech a nd writing-; am! yet th c re
is no rcaso n ll'hy th ey shCJuld b c cut off from c 1·ery -d ay
us e.

Othe r 11«1rd s that :1re ll"t a part of the \\'() rkin g

vocahu!ary of mo st p c11plc :t rc " i111«1ln:d, " ·• ]>c nctrah lc."
"myths," •· irn ag·e r y," "1111de rl y ing, " " cl111ninion ," "l'n r pure ~tl ," " q ui1·cr," " l'rillatcrally," "im agcs, " " co n cc i1«.::-;, "

"omnipr,:sent , " :in d" f11rtitucle."
Ruskin

c" uld

feel in g- of
and

th is

11c1·n

ha1·e e:-: pres sed th c thou g h t a nd

p:1ragr:1l'h 11·ith

p c rk1ps hc c ould

n ot

thm ig h ts a nd kclin g s himsclf.
mer e ly k110\\'11

"r

\\litlwnt th es,: ll'orcl s
s 1wh

han:

h ;td

clear 1·i1·icln c,;s,
jt1 st

th e sa lllL'

Furth e r , if ],:uski11 l1;1d

th e s e 1\'<1rtls i11 a 1·ag u e

ll'a y.

th ey

migh t alm""t as wcll ha1·e b ee n ot1t "f the bngu:tge, s"
far :1s th e ir bci11g or se n ·ice t o h im is con ce rn e d.
\ Ve shall f111 d it \\'orth ll'h ilc to look for ll'ord s th at
we do not ordinaril y m a ke t1se of, and \\'hen n cw \\'ord s
com e up in o ur read ing we should ,;pend tim e i11 tra c in g
t1p their orig in i11 o rd e r t" f:tste n thL·m in the memc•r y.
The fo lloll'ill g p;tragraphs c ontain w"rds that prnb:1bl y
arc 11ot

;1

par t of y •ittr servic e able 1·ocabulary.

Brin g t11

it s sy n onyms, sul·h

c lass a list of thos e that Y"tt do n o t t1se r ead il y and

o r di.11·0.-·1·r. h1..T:11 ;se t •' :1scl'rt:1in m ea ns

bring als11 sc.:ntcnce s that y c111 have ll'ritten to illustrate

l\u sk i11 e mpl oy s 1t r:ltlwr th;111
;1s /,·ant, ji11d

d e s c ribin.~· th e s l1111· p roce ss of g rowth of a

th a t of a cryst:d, 1111t t1J h e see n or known

Jll )'

"r

t ci make mor e C'LTt:ti11, and in thi s c 1,;c sc 1n1e k11owlcd I::>o-e

their t1se.

He sure that you han.: rnadc dili gen t study

.. Cr r;;t; illi 1ecl " we use

of them i11 the di ct ionary, and hal'C eo m e to kn"\\' with

l'\'L'll less c> ftc:11 , b ut <>liscn·e h1111· df:l' ti 1·e it is here in

sufficient cert: tinty t he shades of meaning by whid1 they

of the subj e ct is pn.:supp1>sl"l.

differ fr11m othn \\'(1rds uf lik e s i,c ;nificati u n.

12 6

CU.1/POS/7J(!N A / \TJJ Rf! FTO RJ C.
f.VORDS

It. is well m ea nt, it is b ravely sa id; :rnd yet, is t he conclus ion e ntirely sou nd ? I lwrdly think that e ith er the
g reat Apostle o r the. august Empe ror would be honestly
gratified by th e mscnpli o n upo n the ir pla ce of sepulture
of th e epitaph mad e by r.lr. Stevenson , Anno Domini
1 8<)o o r so.
These m en :1 re among the mi g hty builders of
the wor ld ; th e ir p ort io n wa s n o t failur e, ]J ut tra nsce nd ent
s u ccess; not. ddc:it, hut \·i c tory . Hut a h al f-truth bal:rn ced hy ih oppos ite m o ie ty is rohbed uf h;il( its g lo ry;
:rnd wh:tt b eco m es of th e w o rk of art und e r these c irc umsU n c cs 1 J\11d th e a rtist is houn d tn wo rk \1·ithin co ndiMoreov e r,
ti o n s imposed u pon him fr o 111 11·ithout.
Steve n son \\'a s far to <> a c u te a logic ian nn l to look, when
it su ited his purpns e, u pon b o th s id es of the shield; and
in his .Rrb!es he gives l><Hh obn; rs e and r eve rse. The
] </rblt's were w ritten at int e n ·a ls during th e latte r half of
hi s c are e r; and p e rhaps, o f ;i ll th e li te~·ary forms employed
by Stevenson --- and he use d m ost of th ose e xtant at o ne
time (Ir a n o the r · - t h;it of th e hbl e " set his ge nius"
bes t.
I ! ere ro m ;ince and m etaph y sic. c hara c t e r and wit,
111:1y m eet toge th <.:r in lu rmony and in the realm th at is
li~'.th h o1 n c ly a nd id c :1I ; and t he prnl>km of pre se ntm e nt
oilers v altnbk opportunities in th e 111atter vf prose co mjJos 1tJun.
I .. ( \ wt·: ( :11R NF•H!t•: N o!•o·t l. u11i.,- .Sh7-•<:11s1111.'
:\ lthot1gh th e <•Utward :tppc:tr<1 1wc uf t lt e house i., u11in v itin g , th <.: int e rior i., w:trnt :rncl cl:1i11t y . The odur 0 (
d e l1 c a1 e h ot- ho use pbnt s i.' in th e: slightly e n e r vating at111osphere of th <.: a pa rt1111.:n ts. lt is a J{uss ian fan cy to
Iii! the dw e lli11 g -roo111s with deli c ate , for c<.: d fuli:ige and
bloo m.
In n o c ountrv in th e world a re fl owe rs so worshipped, is money sc; fre e ly ::>pe n t in fl o ral d eco rati o n .
There is something in the sight, and m o re espe c ially in
the . s c ent o f h o t -ho use plants. that a ppc.:a ls to the co mplex
s1ft111gs o f three rn ces \\'hi c h co nstitute a mod e rn ]{ussian.
\\ ·~, in th e m ode st se lf-d e pre c iation whi c h is :t Jiational

i'

c h:tra c t<.: r is ti c. :ir e in tlw luh it uf thinking. :111d son1t·times saying, th :1t we h:1\·e :ill the good points o f the
An gle and th e S:i.rnn ro ll e d s a ti s fac torily into une An g loSaxo n whole.
\\ .<.: are of th e opinion that 111ix e d r:JCes
arc the b est, and \\'L: lc:ffc~ it to b e t11Hkrsto"d th at (lttr~
is th e only satisfacto ry comhi1ution.
M11 s t 111 th ignure
the f:-t c t th:tt I here :ir e ot he rs :1t all, :rnd \'e rv few in deed
recog11i ze t h e Li c t th :tt the Ru s ~i:rn <•f tu -d :1y is csscnti:tlly
a m o d e rn <1utt:()llll'. of :1 tripl e r :1c i:1l alliance "f which the
best cu 111po n cn t is the Tartar.
Th e 111<>dcrn 1'uss ia11 is an i11t c res ti11 g ;;tudy, l> ec: t•isch e ha s the: rc 11111:111t of barb:tric l:t s tcs, with u ltra -c i\' ili znl
fa c iliti l's fo r g rat ify in g the s: t111 e . Th <.: hv s t p :irl of !1i111
c"111t·.s f n 111t the 1-::tst, the \1·nrst from I ':t ris.

ft i,., well , i1 1 rc\· ic 11·i11g· th e · ·h: 1r:1ct<.: r ,, f S11n: 1ll's, t"
111 :irk th e ;\gt· i11 1\·hil·h lw li\·cc l, :1s thtc 111oral a nd politi cal ciret1111-.t:111ce.s (If tl 1c ti1t1t' .'i w<>tt ld pn>IJ:ilily c.; .\t"rt ;111
i111po rt:t11t and i1n 111ed i:tk i11i-luc111 ·e upon hi s opi11iuns :t11d
r·h:tr:tcte r. The d :irk :<gc·.s <>f ( ;rc-ecc, fro111 tl ic- s dtlc111 c •tl
of the co lo11i c s t11 tl1 c: Tr .. j: tn \\':lr , had lo 11g c l"~ c d . Th1·
you11g rqlllhlics h:id J, c:.-1 1 g r<>wi11 g i11 s trength, p11p11L1 t i,,11.
:111d tcrr1t"ry, d1gc·~ti11g thei r \'(11\~ litltlt llnS :llld ln:tidi11 ;..: "i'
their tLttll l'. :tnd i11q1"rt :tt1< 't' . Th e l'vr s i:t•t \\'a r , lh :<I h.trcl
IH1t 1tt<.: 111"rahlc co ntrov e rsy o f r:tgc a11d spit e·, c1>111lict111g
\1·it h l' t1crgc.:ti c :ind dis c ipli11 e d indepe n dc n c <.: , h :td ~bed
over th e ir land a11 e fful ge n ce of gl11ry which richly dc.:scrved
all that ap p l:tuse ll'hi c h aft e r a ge s hav e b e stowe d.
It \\:ts
a stern trial of hurn:tn e ffort , a11d th e Creeks mi g ht he
pardoned if. in their in te rco urse with less g-lorious n a ti o ns ,
they c arril·d th e record o f th e ir long triumph tun far to
co n c iliate national jc alousi e.'>. The aggrandiz e m e nt of
Grce<·c \\'hicl1 f(l]l()wcd this m emo rabl e war was the zenith
1 ( ·u p y ri .~ ht,

18S'h by H a rper & Hrutherfi.

I

(

C U .II /'(IS//'/u. \ " . I.\/ i NI IF TONIC.

ll'URIJ.-.,·.

()f its jl<'\\"crs ;llld spknd u r, a11d 11shc:red i11 the decay a11d
f;ill "f the pol itictl fabric.
J{ ,\J.Pil \VA1.1>0 E~n:KsON:

I·:.

J'/11: C/i,rnrdc·r /I/ .\i1(ntkl'. ;111 e :nlv essay p rinted in
J·:. 11;tic: 's R aip!i I /·;rldr1 F1111·r.r.m: 1

45.

Books of Sy nonyms and Concordances: -

Even

t lh.: t ra i1 1cd ll"ritcr wh•' h:ts ,;ut·cc·L·(k< I in 11 1a k i11 g him self
th e 111:1,.,"1.er 11l :t l:irge \ oc;1lrnl:try uftcn finds that the
Jlr"Jll'I" word h:i,; !"<1r th e lll111l1L'llt L'SCtped his memory,
anil that h e rn ust make use o f a hook of synonyms, or, in
ddault 11f th:1t. a dicti o nary.

\\ "hen the r ight wunl docs

n"t ,;u.~·.~· c·st. it,;L·lf, o n e th at is uf cl11,;cly allied mea nin g

I ~ •)

qu est inn whether th L· 11·o rd is i11 !.·t"t}i1<!.;- ; t h:1t is, li:1s it
l>ee 11 i11 \l Sl'. i11 like· l""lllll'c·tiu1 1, 11<1l \\"ith the· s; 1rn e· lllt":t ll
in;.:; si 1n l'ly, l111t \1·ith s imi\ :1 r c• 11 1tl·.\t , or kts its u se IJL"l"ll
such :t:--\ t ( i st1.~·g l·s1 i1H '( 111 ~Tt ll>t! :-\ th11t1ghts •. 1r i111;1g· c ~ ?
Only liy s u ,·h c:1 r dul p:1i11sL1ki11g 1·:111 II"<" 111;ik,· the·
w ri ttL'll 11"•1rd fu lly i1 1f,. r 111«d 11·ith thl· th.111 ;_;-!1t :111d fn·l i11g l lt:tl str uggl e·,; i11 llS r.. r e'\J'rL·s.si()ll. Th c gTe·:1t g·,,. ,.\
t h at Ct il lll'S t11 llS fr,.111 "lll- tr;1i11i11g ill tra11 s ht i11g tht·

J ,:-t tin :111d ( ;rcck clas,.;i c ,.; is hrge ly that of cult i1:1ti:1,:..;
th e f:t c ulty 11f p:1tic·nt J!LT,.; is tencc in l· hrn1s i11 .~· jti-;l th e·
ri g·ht 11·11rd fr"m a 1H1111iil'r ,,f ll"ords th;1t tile 1·.,,·;1li 11 l:i11·
shm1·s

:1r ~·

admissihk.

will gt'IH:r:illy c .. mc· t •• mind; :111d by look in g up its sy11011 y 111,; :ind \•L·rh:1ps. if th:1t is not suf"fl c icnt . the synon yms
.. 1· S• •llll' \1·urd l"ound ;1m• lll g" them , \\·c 111 :1y find tht.: wo rd
\\'L" w:111t.
llllt \>erli:1ps tl1i,; \1·ord is llCJt rn1t.: t h:1t \l" c
h:11·e merely forgnttt.:1 1, hut one ll"it h 1\·h ic h \l'l' arc 111 ·L11 11ili:1 r ; then 11·c sh a ll ha1·e t" sec how 11tliLT \l"l"itcrs
IH:l1 1. :1rn l if ll"L· h:11·c :1\ han d spcci :tl con cord :1ncc,; of
<iill1Tt·11t :1utltor,; they may ai <i 11s fllrthlT.
It i,; iwt
e11 .,t1 ;.J 1 t• • knuw of t h e word th: 1l. it is used 1n tht.: sense
i11 11·hi c h \\"c wish to 11st.: it.
l t m:1y he llsl'd in 1·arious
"thl'1· sc·11ses; :ind perhaps some unc ,.f thl:sc, in the con 11e1·t j, 111 in 11·hich l\T \\"ould employ it, wn ul cl be s ug-gcst cd
tot he reade r 11wre \"i\· id1y th;m the llll':1nin .~· we intend
t"

l"t> ll \ ' l" _\" .

/ \ 11 thi s must Ill' ,., ,n sidcred in passing upon

th e fit 11 css 11!" the word fnr

1111r

u se .

i:11rthcr, we shuuld

F:X

l·'.l<C ISFS .

1. \\ "Jut :ire 11·(1rd s. :rnd 11·h1· d" ,,.c u,;e th c: 111 ' i:i .. 11 1
\\" liat ""111-ccs ;11T <111r Fng\i,Ji ,;.,. ,·.J s d (" ri 1·n l '
~
Br i11g tt1 tlic cl;1,,,; :t \\" ritt<-11 ,1;1\t" 11 1c11t ,,f the· 1·h:1r. 11 ·1o-1·
of l":tc h ck 111 c 11 t ,,r the J·:1 1gJi , h l:t11.~u:i;..:c :i s .J i,1i11.c:11i ,hnl
l•y dcri1·atiu11.
3 . !Irin g to th e cl:t,;,; :1 list rtf lifty ,,·ord, th:it s<..-c 111 l•• y.. u
espcc i:i lly titkd r.,r use i11 till' li1c· r;1tmc: ,,r ft.c li ng. 11 11 11
L1 r gl· a pr()pnrti1111 of tlH ·1n ;\ n· . \n ~lc1 - ~:tX1l tl ?

11 11\\'

111,11 1)

"r tli c 111 \\"(1tild yt111 m:i rk \\'i th th e: ,,y 111!H.J s .. r tit" ,, j,
cl:isses (>f wo r d .'< h:t \' in g the: hi g li e:<l \' t11' 1t i(Jn;il v:t lt1 c :1s 111·
Ju,·e di,.,tin g ui shcd t he m '
-I· \\ rin g to th e c lass :i li s t <,f 1irt y ll'l•rcl s th ;;t S<.:t: rn t" Y"ll
es pec ially littc:cl for use i11 the: liter:iture ur tho ug ht. I lu11·
1n :rn y .,r t liclll ar c cl :i ss ie;1l? J l.,1\' 11 i:111y of thc111 1111tild
yrt 11 mark 11·ith the: sy m bols cir the: s ix cLtsses (Ir 11·o rcJ ,
li:11· i11 g th e highest in t<.: llcct u;1l 1·:1luc :1s \\"C h :11c: di -.; ti 11 g ui s hul t hem?
S· l\r ing t" t hl' cl:t;,s :t p:1rag r:1p h tli :\l see ms to )'< >II :111
eff ecti1·c: 0::1111 ple "r the li tt.:rat111·L. .,f feel in g. and l·e· pre -

n

I .)' I

/I ' Ii Ii'! JS.
1.l/ l'llSI /'It 1. \ . . I .\'I J NII F /(I 11'/ C.

11: 11-. ·d l" Sl:l l« tli e proporti<>11 of 11-.1rds ,, f the six classes
<>f highv,L «11111tion:d q11;ilit1· whil·h it c11 11t:1i11s.
..<' . . 1:ri11.:.:: to the cL 1s.' a 1;: n:1gr:1ph th:1t stT ill S to you an
e llccL11·e e:>:: 1111 plc of th e lit«raturc of tht>ught, :u1d be prep:tred to st:1tc th« p1-.•porti11n of words of th e si:x c lasse s
,,f h igh es t intellectua l cl 1:1r;1cter 11·hi c h it c" nl:tins.
7. Hring ttJ the class sL·ntc nccs conuining c :ich o[ the
l\'f1rds in the f.,JJ011 i11g .:.::roups .,f syn()ny111s, :rnd bc prep:irc·d to st:ttc how :1ny 11ord .,f c:tl·h gro1 1p diffcrs in
1111:;:\lllllg f ront :rny o t hc r m1rd o f th c group.
.\ di,.,cussion
of '>Olne or :i ll of thc \\'<trds uf e: 1«h grmq.J " ·ill bc found
11n1kr m a ny 11f tlit·n1 in tl1 c· St11rlo!1s' .\/a11daril /)/d/011 111:11.
·ru aband1111 , :tl>ju re, c;t~l ldf, furs:tke, rt· li nq11i:-d1. repudiate,
!"llrrl'nd c r .

T" :ulopt. c h e ri s h, kt:cp. mai11 1ai11. reta in. uphold.
·ro abate, d ~c r e:i.se. din1inisli. lessen . mitih·a te. 1lH1dera1e,
:-.uppress , tcrn111l<tl~.

/\l>s<1lu1t:. arliitr:iry. allt li11ri1:1ti 1·c. despot ic. tn:11111i1 ·:d .
./\ctin: . :1gilc, :lien. l1r isk, cxpl'ditiu1is, li1·c ly:sp r y.
Io :uldrt:ss , :11T"st, appro :tcli. grcet. salute .
1\ l>ut1i11g. ad j:icen t. :idjuini ng. bordering-. contiguous.
To admonish . :t<h·i s c. C:ll 1tio11 . ce nsme. dissu:ide, rel.Ju ke,
rei ) rove .

T11 adorn. beautify, bedeck, decorate . embellis h. ornament.
J\ fli11it1·, consang uinity . kin. kindred , relationship.
To aflirm . assert , :issenT:llc . derbre, maintain, prote s t.
/\ ~ r eeahk. :iccep talik , g r ate! ul. pleasant, pleasing.
I\I 1the , hu11y:t11 t. cheer! 111. chee ry , gcni:il. joyo us, lllt'IT\' ,
S llllll \',

.

\ ·1i·ildish. c hildlik e, pellv . triYi :tl.
1:nllow. o\.Jsen·e. pursue .
Llllancip:ition. fr eedom . ind e pendence. lib erty.
S. Hring to class not kss th:rn thrce ,;ynonv ms for e:ich
uf thc f" ll11wing words. and s hm1· h1111: c:1cl; one diffe rs
111 Il se from thc o th c r s.
/\ h hor.
/\biding,
/\ liso rbed,
i\dcpl.
1\dmir e.

Allure,
i\n~cr.

Animal.
/\ ppa rc nt .
H:rntt:r.

!Sevy.
l\norish,
Blaze,
Hra\'e,

C:indid.

c~rricc .

I l isco rd a11 t,

I rrltatinn ,

·har:iclcr,
Cote rie
l leprcssion.
I lelicate,

l ~xcess iv c ,

l::xcuse,
Futile,

I ssue.
1..: nowlcd"c
List less, " .
Satisfy.

l

(; uess,

')· 1-'ill 111 the lil:lllk "P:l Cl'S in tlw fu llo11iug 11 ith tittillg
wo rds.
This was probably the first li g h1 -po1111 .n tn e - - of L111hcr,
his pu r er will now first decisively - - itself; b11t
the l" "''
ent. 1t was still :is one light -point in ;111 clenH:ut all ,,f d:irk ·
n ess. He s:iys he was a pious monk; faithful ly. p.1i11f u ih·
--- to work out the - - of this one hi~h act of l1is: i•llt it
was tn little purpose. I !is - - had not kssent:d; Incl ratl1n.
as it we re, in c re:iscrl in to i11ti11i ty. The drud ge ri es he l1:1d t"
do as novi ce in his conYent. all suns o ( s l;l\·e- wurk , wl'rt: not
his - -- ; th e rke p e arnest soul uf the rn: tn li:id - - int<> all
mann er of blac k sc ruples - - ; he believed him~ c lf ·-- t" di e
soon, :ind far worse than die . One hcz,rs wi th :1 11c·w
-- i11r
poor L uth e r that, al this - - . he li1· t:d in ft:ar oi th e l\11 scry; f;111 c icd th :i t he was doomed tn (·tern;il - - . \\ · :1~ it ""l
the -· sincere - - ,,f the 11i:t11 r
\\'hat w;h lie 1ii:it 11 .:
s ho uld be ·
ltJ he:11-e11 '
l i e that had k1111w11 011h· mi,«n'
and - - sh very: the news \\·as to<) blessed to l>t: l1c.lin-.1hlt:.
It co uld ll<Jl beco 111e - - t" him how. by fasts - -. fo r m:tl i·
ti cs ;rncl mass-work , a. 111an's - - «<Jlild lie present:d . I l e fell
into the bl:ickest wretchedness: had to wander ·--- "" the
- - of bottomless despair .
T110 ~1As l..° AHl . Yl.l.:: : J '/1,; /frr" "-" l'ri,-.-t.

r.,,.

1o . ( ln o nc nf th e following top ics wri te n n t less th :rn
nn« h11t1dre d words without pa yi ng particular attcntion 111
th e phr;i,,ing. Th c n look it ove r , and g ive it careful re ·
v1s1011 for tautology, t h e repe titi o n o f th e same wurd or
id ca.
Bring original and cu rrc c tecl copy tu cbss.
/\ face lO be r em em be r ed.
Seeing the fa ir.
\.Yh y violets are blue.
Poli tics as a profess ion.
Influen ce of 111 ac hin ery on the condit io n of th e laborer .
Th e man shows in his work.
Cleanl iness t lt c c hi ef agent 11f c i1· iii zation

;·

r

PART

II.

THE L AW S O F

GOOD USE.

C ll/\l'T ER VII.

46. The Necessity of Correct Expression . - 1n indir:itin g t h e prnper mcth()d .. r de\'\.: lop ing the th eme a nd ih
compune nt p a rts n() rdcrencc has beL"n 111;1de t(I the
n ecess it y ()f cx prcss in)..:; ou r thoughts in Ct> rrcL'l l:u1 g u;1ge.
l mportant as ha,·e bL'L'n \he pn.: cedi11g sugges t ions,
they :ire :-tppl ic:ibk tu th e devell)pmcnt u r \ h<1t1ght rathL'r
th;1n \() th e exp ress io n or it: and th ey w ill not :ilunc
s urfice \<> m:tke l!S g rn1d \\Ti ter,.;, if WC ;ire ll< lt ;ti1lc l<1
speak ;u1d tn ll'ritc c rnTn·t l·: ng lish . Co rrc·ct exp re,,,, i., 11
is the· first requ isite C1f go11d d iscou rse.

47 . What Correct Expr ession Is. -

Fnr the I 1urpc iscs

"[ En glish cl)111pnsiti1 1n \\·e ma y define c1 1rrcct cx1•rc s sion :is the use "f g()ud En g li s h \\·11rds :in d phr;1se:-- ,
employed in thei r recngn ized

En g lish m ea nin gs. :rncl

com bin ed :iccor d in g to t h e Fn gl ish id iom ; in brief. nirn.:c t c xpressiun is sy nonymt1us \\· ith _;w1d 1~·11.i;lisk
133

lt

3-1

I

CU.lf!'USIFIO. \ " . /.\"fl Riff:: TOR!{.

lltll t •' lJc Sllj lj>llSL'ci f111 · ;i Ill< >11lt'llt t Ji :il ;i \l'r itc r of
J·:ng·lish c 11mpos i1ion 11'<1uld 11 st· ( ; rl'L'k, l .:i t i11 , ur J.' rc nc h

J,.;

,,

I .) 5

US..I CF.

ge n t a 11 d c u lti ,·atccl

people .

T h ..: s:1m e

r ca s<) ll S th: it

preve nt :1 11Ti t e 1· (If E ng li s h from c rnpl• >y in g (;r ee k a nd

f11 r th e ex press i11 n 11 f hi s t h• 111glits; ln1t m a ny a yo ung

L:-tti n ph r;1scs a r c of eq ual ll'e ig ht in pr"hibitin g the

11-r 1tcr 1s t e m pted lo dispby hi s k11 "11·k ·dgL', 11r p it'. CC o ut

u se "[ a n y exp res si o n th a t is nut in c;uo n

his meager 1·uc::ibulary, hy the intr11d 11 ct io 11 of fnn.: io·n
b
11·1J1"< ls :rnd ph rases wh ich sh"uld h:l1·c 1w p l:ice in E ng-

u :-; E

lish ll'rit ing .

h 1rtlll' r, t hLTe

is a pre1·:iil i11g- te nde ncy

:1111011g 1n 1tcrs til a ce l"\ ;1in « l;1ss to i111md u L'e into th e ir
11-riti11g the sb ng :i nd 1 ul.'-:·:1 ri s111s 11f th e d :1y .
•111 ir L',.; kss 111c n t:tl effort t11 s:1y ... I Iv got

;1

Jt rc-

cal l-d o wn

fr11rn the super," t k m t o s:iy, "I le 11·:1,.; rqn-. 11Td by th e
s iq >t:ri ntc 11 dc 11 t...

"It is a11·fu lh· h 11t t11-d: i \' ," a nd " 1

-

.

GO (IJ >

USE.

is, th e n, th e tl:s t ol g "od En g lish.
49. What Good Use Is. - J\s \\'l" h ave bcfn rc learned .

words :i re hut a r bit ra ry symb1>ls rep r esent in g icle:-ts. and
ha ve o n ly
T h e se

the

m e:rni ngs

ll'hic h

c ust o m

g i1·cs th em.

rn ~; inin gs :ire subject t() co ntinua l variati o1~.

( )111

lan guage it self is not fixed, bu t is pe rpet ually cha n gi n;.:an cl g ro11·i11g;

new wo rds arc comin g- into u se, a n d 11ld

w o rd s arc bcc·11m 11 1g o bs<,Jc t c.

Th e

lan g u age o f a 111·

"r

'1011 't thi n k m u ch 11f th1>sL· sort t•I. l'', "'J>I"~ ... :irl· l "< )lll lll U Jl
t' Xpressions; yl'l th e y h a 1·c n11 reL·11g ni1ed sta n d in g in

p er i" d

is r q;u i:t tcd

ti m.._._

,-\ cco rdi n gly, a word is in good u se :1 t a ny timv

the b11gu:igc. :rnd t ht·ir us e c:rn n(lt he t•>11 :-; tr t> ii g ly co n-

whc11 it i,; :icceptcd

1lc n rnl'll.
Other 11111 rcls :i1 HI ph r:i"L'" :ire lia hk t• • t'i"CL'Jl
111, ll'h1ch , :tlt lwugh 11111 t'•111t:1ini ng lh t.· .'-:·l;1rin g· faul ts

w ri k r s a nd spea k e r s of t h at time, an d is su u nd e rstoud

11f th11sc <jll< >tc d :tl1111·,-. :1rt·

c i:111 s,

Pjll'J1

t o tT it ic is m .

To in-

s ur e c11rrL·d L' .\ jlrL·s:-; i11 11 it i,.; l'l"itknt th:it 11·l· n 1i 1s t h:in:·
:-;11rnc tes t ., f ll"h :it is g 1111.I J·: 11 g lis h. s11 111 c sta nd a rd by
ll'h1d1 we may g-:iuge o ur 11"<1rds ;in d phrases.
4 8 . Good Use, th e Standa rd. -

JI to be un cle rs t uod is

b y t he nil ti vat ed p eople
in a

th :i t

ce rtain se n se by the b es t

thru11 .~· l10u t th e c uuntry; o r in t he langu age of rh ctori ;1.

\1·11 rd

is

in g ood u se wh e n it is in pre s e nt ,

nat i, in :tl, :rnd r e pu ta b le u se.
50. Present Use. - Co nsid e re d with refere n ce t o OL1r
own tim e, a w11rd is in p r «s1 ·11/ 11 .re wh e n it is inte llig ible
t •> th e people o f to-d ay.

It m a tt e r s n o t wheth e r it be

:t 1nite r 's first objec t, as it s h() iild ht'. his l: rn •ru:1 •··c mu st

as o ld as " m a n " a nd " b oy, " ur as n e w as " t ekphunc"

be su c h that h is readers will i11Hk rsta11d it

a: Ji~

un ck.r-

a nd .. m o t o r -m a n ; " it rn ;1tte rs nu t fr"m what so urce it

Ac c11rdi11gly he m11st us,: \l'() rds th a t a rc

is d e ri ve d , whet h e r it be " q u ad rupe d ' ' in>rn th e L a tin ,

fa mi lia r to t he r eade r s of t11 -cby, ra t her t ha n words of

"yacht " fro m tht.: D u t c h, "t:iboo" fr o m th e Sou th Sea
Js la nd s, or " mob," a n a h h rev iat io n . So far as p r ese n t
us e is c on ce rn ed. o n e word is a s g ood a s a no th e r if it is

st :mcls it .

the fo urt ee n th o r fi ftee n t h ce ntu ri es;

Ji,; th(l.-.;L: t h :tt a rc cn mrn o n t11 t he

his m ircls m 11 st
l·:11 g·li sh-spea k ing

w"rltl; :1ml, fi 11 ;t!Jy, hi s la 11g11; 1 .~L · 1n11.-.;t h._· th a t vf int cl li -

i11 t clli;,;·iblc t u th e p eople of to -d ay.

1

·1l.1f/' (IS/ l'/t!.\ .. / . \ "/!

li'l/l:/ .t! !i'/ c·.

l'S.·I CC

I \ ·<· :il\\'a ys thou ght iil' might h'lon;; to ;1 c'<irry-all of linr
f<>lks :1s crnne ridin ' I>:· a IH'l' k or so 'fo re you Lrought
1·1>ur thin,'..;s dn wn. I can 't tel l why l look t h:1l noti on,
hut I di d. :incl 'Z ias thought the s:11ne . But then there 's
:1 g<>nd 111:1n y high-llyers tra ve llin' ahuut tu Sl'e th e We b,.,tc r pl:icl' :1n ' "o CJ11 ."
.. l war a-bla c k heri·yin. t lur hcin ' o nly a fc11· Id ' yi t,
;1 11 I \\'Cnt f11r :m· furcl er 1·it fr o 1n ho111 e : an' ez I ke m
u ut 'n the 11·011ds 01·<·r }'";· I 1·icll'ed - "r yi t l 'l<>ll'ed ]
1·i(' ll'cd - - th e ll' itcli -L1 <·e thrqug·h a hun c h o ' ho lll')' l1Jc ust,
th e k-:1n·s l>ein' dr:1pperl :1· re:1dy. th ey hc in' :1h1:1 ys the
fu ,.. t ,,· tilt' yc:1 r ,'..;it b:1re . .\ 11 ' stidd in lea1·i11' it ter be, ]
,..ot 1111· IJ1ll'kl't cl lll·rrics :1t thl' foo t o ' :1 tree . an· s tart ed
d1 >1111 -the ,.,1,>pe tnclcs thc l>lulf, ter rn:ike sure an ' view it
L·hr <>' t he tre <'S ... '
C 11,1 1' I.ES 1-:i : H J·: RT ( ·1< ,1 1•1" >CK : 7'/11 · I/ 'ildt J ·i1t'e.
\\ 'e lleL·cl !l<>t, hull't'\·er. ;.;·o to rL'lllc>le districts for our
lot·:dis n1 s ; 11·e fi nd th e m
Till' i\ew FngJ11HILT

num ernt1s yacht in;..; tL'rms,

:-;uch , t"•r exa mpk, arc the

jibr, lad· , :11H l t·11t1nl kss "th e rs.

!\ l:111·ycr's h r id. with

its le g:tl phrasL·s , "r :t phys 1c i:t11 's re port o f a c:ts«, conveys

11"

i111pr L·ss io11 to the ma jor it y "f t1 s, an cl t h L' 1w11·s-

papc r :1n·o t1nl of a h;1se-hall or :t golf g :1m e is alm 1st :is
0

obscure t " th« ordinary reade r :is it ll'11tdd lJL· if writtl'll
in a for e ign la 11 gt1age.

The use of t echn ic: il terllls is

permissibk ll'hen on e is ll'rit.ing for pe ople who 111 Hk rst: 111d them , hu t in ordinary <'X prL:ssio11 th ey should hl'
used Yc r y spar ingl y .

3. / I 1(~li1· i.1111.r '"'d / I 1111rict111i.1ms . - I 11 :1 11 En gl ish spcak ing c<>u 111rics th<: people 11sc csse 11tiall y tht: s: 1111 c
langu:tge : hut with diffe rL· nces i11 social

n1st<>ms a11d

pulitical s y stems. wi th different ol·c upa tions , :rnd with

11·he11 he thinks, the Suuth-

new in vent ions arisin g, sl ight differences in dicti11n :ire

LTlltT rn-/.·/111s ; the former p crls 11p, and h:1s a Jes/,')'

ineYit:tblc.

h.,rSL', he .ff11s,·s t hi ngs

known in England, a11d lik e wise words C' llll1l111111 in Eng-

hi rL· .-. a

lt'r1111,

II' he n

he \l lllkrs t :rncls them ; h e

while th e \\ 'cste rn er hire s a n.~·:

The ti11

\\ 'o rds th at originate in Ameri1 ·a arc u n-

"r writi~ig, ll'e should cu 11 fi11L· 1111rse ilcs, ;is far as pos-

land ar c n11t f:miili:ir in Am e ri ca . The Fng lislm1an
knoll' s n othing "f 111 0/or- 11w11, !obh)', sla111f'cdr , n r rabhca r, while the A merican is eljually ig n o r ant nf .l'tol1'l',
!11gga.1;r-<•a11, nr jis!111w 1(£;·1·r. In England an dt "i 'tllor
beco mes a lift, :i druggist is known as a d1n11is!, a ncl a
f'i!dJCr 1s a j11g. The question of whether or not we

sible, to words of nationa l us e.

s h o uld use Americanisms ()r Anglicisms is qn e oi no

f'tlli of th e E :ist become s the f711d.:d as we go \V est,
:rncl in l ike rn :i n nc r a qu:1rtcr o f :1 dolla r passes c urrent
:ts / 71 •,1 bits. anti so <ll l.
\\ 'hik it is µ:11ing too f::tr to
insi st

"'

<Jll

the e.\c lu ,., ic>11 of all i<>c:tlisrns from our speec h

'/;d111ira! l·Viirds . -

Jus t as all sect ions have their

localisms, so :ill t r:1dcs, pr"fcssions. a11d c lasses have

';

Ji11'1' a ncl rrf!, slar/1(1arrl, !11fl:

s <>m e 1:x tent L'Ve r ywhc re.

\<>

.i;·1ffJ.1fJ

their Jl<'Ctili :tr tn ms , 11·hich, in the main , :1r<· unintdli;..; ible t<> the pt1blic :1t Lirge .

great

conscqu1.:nce.

In

the

few cases wh e r e we a re

calle d upon to d ec id e, it is safe to say, that , as Americ ans, we should use the w ord that is in n a tional use in

:-

•,

140

U S. I CE.

C0 .1! /'<JS/ ! JO.\ . . I.\'/) RI I ! :'f'Ult'JC.

ou r 0\\'11 co untry . otherwise 11·c might l>c unin te llig ible
t <> our 11e1gh b<> r s :llld open l o thl' c harge or affectat ion.

52. Reputable Use. -- \\ 'l'. ha1·e only to g lan ce at thl'.
nc ws p:ipc rs of t o-day to find m :u1 y words, which, tho ug h

n a tural death, b ut some m time rece ive the s:rn ct io n
of good use.
J i·kf'l1t>11c a nd liiC)'rlc we r e :idopted as
m ::ccss: 1ry, but electro c ute :md automobile an; s till o n
tri a l. Th e untra in ed 1nitcr shou ld be ca uti ous in the ·

l!I H!c rstoo d hy the lll :lj<>rity of

use of 11cw 11·ord s, a n cl sho u ld neve r in\'C:nt them himself.

readers lac k the st:1mp "r :q1prr>1·;i J frilm ou r best \\'r ite rs
:ind spL·:tkL'r.S.
They :1rl· in p r esen t, :rn d pcrh :ips in

53 . Doubtful Words . - \ Ve ca n he: reaso n:ibly certain that the g rea t maj o rit y <>f the words which w e use

11:1tio11:il use; b u t they :1rv not in go11d use, hec::tuse

arc in g ood use, but occasionally it is diffi c ult to apply

The Lt ult. of employ ing

th e t est, and w e :ire i11 do11bt as to the propriety of
u s ing some word . In our limited reading· of r e putable

l hey arc

1hey

Un clo u btedly

:lrl· nut in rL'J H1t :1blc llSL'.

obsuktc, loca l. or t ec hni ca l IL' rms is no t to be compare d
11· ith t ha t. oi adr 1pt i11g· ll'•1rds ll'hi c h an.: c nmmo n in t he

authors we have n ot found it, a nd it may, or may n ot ,

pa pc rs ::rnd spt:ech <,f th e d:1 y. :111d which hear the ma rk s
u f illitcr:tey.
'·No i 1wi11· for ) fa rt"·, "Th.-~ ]{<>St
. u ns.

cases is t o substit ute anoth er word of r ecognized stand -

had :1 ,_.,·11,/1 lln the

1

':u11 c " .· " ' J'l 1··'-- .str11·y
i· s•
.

~

•

~L

; tl
·

!.· · ".
I

(

"The C hinese arc /i/11jj/11~·,' · :i r e ;1 few of the cxp;·L·ss i o 11 ~
found in ;1 l'L'. Cent c clition ,,f :1 d:1il:· 1wwsp;ipn. Th e ir
use c: 111not be ln<> st ro ngly cr1 1Hlv11111 c d.
\ \ ' c should be
c:1rdul th at all ou r wo rd s :tre in gr 1ocl re puk; for n : put ahk us e I S th e 111 ost i111port;1nt rL·quisit c 11 f good use,
and is fixn l l>y SjlL': 1kns :ind 1nitns .. 1· L's t:il il i.sli u l
re put :1t iu11.
T he use of :1 11·1 ml h_
1· 01w :11 1t hn r o n ly is n<>t s i1rfi c ie nt
to make it i·qi ut :i blc.
Jn 1·;1i11 ("har ks Sum1 H.: r plcadt•t!
tor a 11111Ti1111 inskad of t11111t.ra lio11, and J\brah :im J .in col n 11Tot<.: 11 bo/is/1 111n1/ for a/1,1 /itio 11.
reputable use (111 ly ll'ht•11
ll'rit crs and spe:ikers

:1

number of

A

ll' o rd

is

in

rcprese nt :i t ivc

ti1 1d it a nccess:iry a cljun c l t o

It is thus t hat ou r l:ino·u:i
.-ce t->"Toii·s·• t
t ht·1r 1·oca bulary.
M
,.....,
~111d new ll'(Jrd s cum c 1·1 1\(J t1-.···.
J\1
t
1
·
I
~
OS
(I
l ll'lll ( 1·IC : 1

be in 11 :1tio na l us e.

The u s u a l adv ice gi1·e n in s uch

ing· ; but if th e first see m s to meet 1Jur needs pa rti c u far ly ,
some inclulgenci.: may be allowed.
\Vt.: m ay h:-ivc recourse tu tht.: d icti o nary, th e gr t.:at store h o u se of En gl ish
u s:-ige, and :1s :1 last reso rt to our 1Jw n tasl t.: and ju dgm e nt. Cood se n se will naturall y prompt u s to a d opt
th e wel l-forrn ed name of :l tH.: w idea, such as 11111/<1r-t11tn/.
or d)'11t11110, and to reject t ht.: s lan g and vulgarisms <1f th e
da y.
E.\l·'. l(\ ' l,.:ES.
1.
\\'r ite :1 p:1r:1gr:1ph 0 11 11·h;1l you think co rrect expre ssi on to b e. saying why it is so im po rtant in good 1niti 11g.

L ook ove r th l'. folloll'ing pa ss:1gc, c riti cise th e ex pression .
:1ncl re-11Tit e it in good E11g!i.>/1 .
Just us la ug hed in tr iu mp h.
•· Oh, I tell ye , \Vatt's 11'ay
up in !he pi c tur 's ! He'll be a r ri;'lar to wn man ' fore lon g . 1
rec k"n , dand iti ed. a n ' s nipti o us ez th e ne x' 0 11 e. marr yin' one
o' ti>l'l\1 1i 11il ied l0\\'11 g- alls e1. \\'e;ir s tr;iw hat s st iddier s un-

r 4~

1·0.1/ /'0S/l'/(!.\' . /. \ "/!
l1011nct ., , -- thnu g h t!ii' \. d11 lnt1k tcr
I e\TI ~t' l'. "

R!!F/"<! /, '/('.
Lt ·

·1,11111

;1:-: tlims y ;111' 11 0-

l 'nu11t l ' ;lt tle ('/. ;111 y

,,
l >ct inc obsole te ll'ords. locali s ms. and tech ni ca l
\\"rite (Hit ll' ll nb ,;o lctc ll'ords that you find in the
t e r111 s.
poe try which yuu ;1rl' rl'ading.
J\la k c a n o t e o f some of
th e 111 01 e co mmn11 i<>L1 lis111s m \ o u1 sec t 10 11
Brin g to the
cla s s :1 d oze n t cl·irn il ;ii exp rcs.s io11 s fro 111 th e occ upa ti on
11 lt>"t fa111 il i:1r t<> yo 11.
.l · Rc -11-ritc tl;L. foil<>ll' i11g p :1ss; 1gc i11 m o d e rn E11 g li s h:
A110 11 ;1s 1...:i11;.: Arth ur h e;1rd thi s lie'"''" g re atl y displeased,
for h e wist well that th ey might not againsay their vows .
J\hs ! said I...: in~ 1\ rtlim unto Sir Ca1Yain. ye kwe ni g h slai n
mt with the a1·<>w :t1 HI prom i-.c 1·e ha n : m:1de.
1.-nr thro ug h
you ye h:11·e hcrdt 111c nf t he Li ir e,.:t felillwship and th e tru est
,, f knightlwod that 1·1·er were '<'Cl\ toge th e r in any rea lm
nf tl1e ·world. 1.- n r w he n they depart from l1ence. I a m s ure
t h ey all sh :ill nn·c r meet more in th is wnrld. f<1 r th ey sh all
d ie ma111· in the quest. ,\nd s o i l fu n :thin k e th me a littl e, ·
fu r I h a.1·e lo1"C d them a s well as ll\\' li fe . wl1<·ref<>rc it shall
g rie l'e J"ill· ri .c.:lit sore the dl' p :trtition (, f th is ft: llo ll'sh ip. F or
I l1:il'C h;1d ;rn ,,Id c ustom l<l h :i n: th em in m y fellowship .
l.: c: 1d :1 c h aptn i11 th e King J a111cs \-ers io n of th e Bibl e,
<>r ;1 ph y "f Sh ;1kcspc:nL-. :ind :--elect the ohsolc t t· wo rd s.
.:;. \V hy is rtj'1J/1t/lll' 11sc th e mos t i111port;11 11 r equ isite
of good use 1
l\lakc a list of 11Till'rs and s pe:iker .~ of tlt e
pr e se nt d:1y wh<>lll yo u think \11 be of esLib li sh e d r e p11ta ti rn1.
T e ll 11' 11\' 1·ou s" rL"ga rd th l' lll.
5. [.(Jilk 01.-c r' th e d :1i ly p;iper. n o:c ll'iia l ll'o rd s and
('Xpressions yo u find tll:lt you think are n ot in good u se.
·l\bk e :1 li s t ()f th ese . bring t li e 111 to th e c lass. ;1nd g ive
r e :1so11s t o justify your "Pinion.
(,. 11 011· shou ld 11·c trc:it n ew ll'nrds ? l> o ubt f ttl ll'mds?
T:1ke some n ew in1· c nti ll n . lik e th e ele c tri c c:ir or the
;1utrn nohile; m ake :1 Ii .s t of all 11nrds wh ic h h:11·e co m e
i11 t1l use in l'• >1111 ecti"n 11 ith it.
\\" hich of th ese words do
yo u thi11k 11ill s urvi1·e? Cin: yo ur reasons .
7. \\ ' h :\l ll'llrds in th e f"llml'ing- ,.: e lec tions ;ire no t in
g ood use as here employed. :rncl 11 hy

l.,1
··.ii
I!

Us.-11;1·:.

143

a. Nn w Cud r un asked h e r l1owe r -maid e ns wh y th ey s:1l
so j oyless and downcast. " \ \/ h a t h a s co me to you, th a t ye
fa r e ye as witless w omen . o r wh at unh eard -of wonders l1an:
b efal le n yoL1?"
.
Th e n answ e r e d a waitin g- lady . hight S w a l'lod , " J\n un tim e ly, an ev il clay it is . and o ur hall is f ultill e d o f lam enta ti on."
Th e n spak e C ucl rnn to he r li:rnclmaids, .. A ri se. fo r we
ha ve s le pt long; go , wake Br y nhild , a nd let us fall to our
ne ed le wo rk and be m e rr y."
" Nay, n ay.' · s h e sa ys , •·n o wis e ma y I wak e her. or t alk
with h e r · for manv da y s has s he drunk n e ith e r mead 11o r
win e ; s u;e ly th e wr'.< th o f C od h as fa ll e n upo n h e r. "
Tlt c; n spoke C uclrun to (;unnar, "Co a nd see h e r ," sh e
says. "and b id h e r know th a t I am g ri e ved with h e r g ri ei."
' 'Nay,., says Cun n ;1 r , '' I a m fo r bi d to go set: h e r or to
sl1ar c her we:d ...
Neve rth eless h e w en t u nto h e r, and s tri ve s in mail\' wi s e
to ha 1·c spe ec h of h e r. but gets n o answe r whatsoeve r ; · th e re fore h e gets him go n e and 1i11ds Hog ni, and l.Jicls him go se e
h e r : :i nd he said he w;1s lo th thereto, but went, and ga t no
mor e of h e r.
•
Th e n t h e v gn and find S ig urd , a n d pra y him to v is it h e r;
h e answerc(J n a ug ht thereto, an d so nt a l ttrs ah ..d e f1>r th at
ni ght.
·llut th e n e.\t rhy , wh e n h e c an> e b orne f ro 111 hunt in g ,
Sigu nl w e nt to C ud run , and SJ' ake -;, I 11 s uc h wise do ma tt e rs s how to m e, as thou gh grea t
and evi l things w il l b e tide from t his t roub le and 11p he:11·in g .
ancl tktt Br y nhi ld will s ure ly die. "
Cud run answe r s, "() m y lo rd. by g r e at w o nder s i,.: she
en c ompassed, s e ven da y s and s e ,-e n night s ha s s he slept ,
and none h;1s dared wa k e h e r. "
.. N av , she sle e ps not , " sa id Sigu rd , " h e r heart is d e alingratl1 e r ~vith drc:1d ful int e nt aga in .s t me ."
T he n said t; ud run , w ee p in g. " Woe w o rth th e whil e f<>r
thy death t .~· o and see h e r: a' nd wo t if h e r fury ma y not h..:
aba ted; ~ive li er g-o ld and smot h e r up h e r g ri e f a nd ang er
th e rewi th! "
\\l tt.l.IA ~I J\1oHHI S :
T'/1,, Stflly of llu Voi.1·1111.J:.r and , \ //,/1111.1:.r.
/1 . /\s th us the kin g w i th his for e st e rs fro lic k ed it am ong
th e s h e pherd .s, Cor ydo n came in wit h a Ltir ma ze r f ull_ of
cide r, and p r ese nte d i t to C e rism o nd with s11 c h a c lown ish
salut e th at h e 11egan to sm ile, and too k it o f th e old sh ep h erd
ve r y ki ndl y, d r inking lo Al ie na and th e rest o f h e r fair maids,
am ong ,;t wh o m Phoebe was the foremost. A h ena p led g-ed

.-7.

~

I.. 1
I

«J.1//'!JS/F/O .\" .·/ . \ ./!

' -14

U S .·/ 1;F.

/ 1' //F/'llN/1".

Ilic k1 11g . :111d cln111k t" l\osadn ,o t h•· «:t rot1sl' we n t r o un d
11-. 1111 him l\l l ' h ucl,c . ct ·. :\ s t he y \\l'r1 · il111s d r inkin g and
1.::1d1· '" ~ " to c h m c h . r:11nc in 1\ l p11 t :u1u'. "l'J!:t r .: lkd a ll in
t:l\\ 111. l!l ,ignif1· tl1.1t Ji,· \\ .1s fo 1-,;,1ke11. t ln his h ead h e wore
a µ; ai·l:i lll l ,;f ll'J i lo ll' , l1 is IH>t il c li:rn g·l'd In · his sid e wh e r eon
\\' ;i s p :i i111.:d 1kspa ir . a11d 0 11 his shn:p -h onk ht1 11 g t wo s o n ne ts,
:is la li c l-.; pf hi s lu1·cs and l11rtt111cs .
' J 111 ,.\ J ..\ :-;, f.11IJ CE: /\'r1.~·11 /i11d.

, . ·· I :111 1 :if r .1i d. Sir.· · "' id

i\l:in 1H· ri11g . t 11 rnin ;.; In wa rd s

l 1i1n , .. \ 1n 1 1n:t y l ie (lllC , ,f t \11 1!-- 1' u n li ;1pp y pl'r so ns w ho,

tht ir

dim e 1·« ·s u11: tl 1k t•1 p e n .:tr.il c th e ,1;i rr r ' l'ht: r cs. :rnd to d is«e rn ti 1.: r ci 11 the d 1·n1: 1·s ol hc-a1-.· 11 :it a d iq;i n ce . h a ve the ir
il l' :trts l,;u-red a g·ain:-.l

t "11 1l\

hy }'rl·j ud H"l' ;in d rn isp ris ion."

ic t ill11

··Trii l1·." s :i id S :111 q 1s\ln. ··I <>J'ille " ·i 1h S ir l sa :i c Ne w ton ,
k n iµ;ht. :·uHI u1111rl 1ik lll :t s lcr of his 111:1je,1y ·s 111i 11 11 tha t t he
(p rett: 11 d1-<l1 sc- ie11u.: o f :is1 r,, lo g1· is :iliogetl11· r 1·:i i11, frivolo us,
:111 d 1111 ,:iti, f:icton· ... An d h1-re h e r c p r1st•d h is o r ;i c u la r j aws .
.. l{e:illr ... r es u inecl t he tr a n ·lkr . .. I am sor r y to see a g en1lc 111:i11 u·f 1·ot1 r k :trn in i.: :tnd g r :tv ity l:t! Jo r in i.;- t111 ck r s uc h
s tr :111 gc l d inc liwss :in d <i<-l u si<•11. \ \' ill yo u p l:i cc th e bri e f, t he
mod ern. :111d :i s I n i: 11· " " " t he 1·crn ac 11Lt r nam e o f l s aac
Ne \\ ll 11 l i11 o'ppos iti n 11 ·to ti1c .t.: r :1vc :t:ld so n n r o u s aut h o riti es
"f J>:trio t, l\onattis, l' to lc.:lll y . I l:ih·, E zlr r. Di t: ter ic h , N a ibod,
11:irfurt. Z:ie l, T :t nn s te tt e r. /\ g ri p p a. I l uret us, i\I ~ g i n us, Orige n . :111d J\ q,o li ?
ll o 11< 1\ C hr is ci:tn s :rn d I l c a llt cns, a nd
J e ws :111d <; en t iles . a nd poets and j'hi los oph e r s , u n it e in
:tll o wi ng- tlt c s t:tr r y i n rlu ences? ··
•· (i11111111111i.\·

,·rnir -

i t is :1 g cnL"r;\ l er ror. " :111 sw cr ed th e

i n fl .. ,ilile I lnmi n ic S:imJ1s<111 .
··>:ot:-.1) ' ' r l'pii l'd tl1c~111111~ En ,!. :, li :-.hm :111 : ·· it is :i. ge neral
:i11d w cll -g r o t111ckd h el id ...
1

"It is t.lic l" t'SO llrcc

(I f

c he:1ter s. J..:11a , ·C' s. :i nd cn1.('11(· r s.' '

said

S :11np ... c111 .
... l /111.\1t X 1111 11/0//1 1 11 .\ 11 111 .

Th t· : 1l~11 s~

11 f ;u 1\ 1hi 1 1~ 1l 11tl1 n o t

:tlir11g .1 k 1he l:iwful t"e thl"l'<-<'f."
.
I l t1r in this di scu:-.:-.i l)ll F lL u q~ ow ;-1 11 w :1:-1 :-.n nlc w h :1 t like a
\\'c11Hll ·11 L:k ca u.~ li t in h is u wn s pri1q.:, c.
I I t· t u r 11ccl his f ace
.il1ern:1te l v from the one spok.:,ni:1n lo 111..: 1>t l1t·r. and began,
from t he ·gT a 1·i ty ll' it h w hi.- h i\ l:11 11n• r i11 g- 11lied h is arh·ersar y,
a nd t he k :1rni11 g w h ic h h i.:disp l:11·ecl i11 th1· c·11n t ro 1·e r s)".lo g ive
h i m cr1 ·cl i t fllr lic in g li:ll f 'erin t1"s. :\ .s f11 r \ leg, ~ li e fix ed h er
hl'w ilcl ne d eye:< u po n the a si r o l11_:.;rr . <> 1T l"j H111·e r c d b y a j a r gon
m o r " m yste r io us t h a n h e r own .
·
\\ · .11 .Tt-:1\ Sr '<l TT r;"Y . 1!111111o·i11![.
0

11 •

0

d. ,\n d wh e n w e m a d e pa rt \1f a draf1 of f1it1· t o Ji ll out the
I f t:d 1 I

tnuk

1111 1

11uder mt.: w i ng :1 11 d s'. .1 1\\'cd

lllll

li cJw to

s nrn gg lc m j11g in th e h r oa cl li gh t nf d ay p :tsl the sn r c h i ng
se r gi.:a nt of nur inc s ; :ind h e t<1<1k t u t h .11 h :11 1cli l1·. l iu 1 - ~ 1 I .
:l r e :tl ll1:tn o ' w ar w a s a wil clt:r i ng- lic d :t zz le lll e n l to ll lll:
' T ll'a s c r oss-e y ing to u l\1 1 St11 ·lt 1ltat he s pen t the clcal of 11 1.
t im e a -f,tlli 11g th ro ug h .-o:tl ho le s :rnd lt;i!t" h e s :111d l.1 d <kr ·
w ay s , a l l li y mis t.tkl' ... th :tl g reen l ie 11". 1s - an d 11 1a kin g
fri e nd s c1-.: r yll'ltcri.: in t h e liowels 11f thl' , 1,i p l>1· ut. 11·i1l1 i.:11
i nµ; h ow 011.c e h e l1.1cl ri sk e d tit. li fe to s: tl'c. l ite c .q 1t :r i1,-,
h !l r s e f r11 11 1 li c ing dr y sin n kt·rl .
1\ nd I tl 1<1t1ght I ~" " 111, ·
w a y to .' t >lll t.: s p1.; ci;d di :-. 11 e n :-.; 1tit1 1b

fn11n uld · r :1r rant t lin'1 1J..:,l 1

()' S h a y.
/\ nd I too k t1m a \\' :ilk - tll n 1b .,,f 11 1. ln s t rc-.
, 1,. J11 c-rl
11 111 t lt e air pt111111< and ~ lc:tn1 - p 11111p' :in d lt a11d -p11mps :tnrl
h yd r :1u li c kl-- p11mps. :i 11d .l i e f:rn -g .. :H .ind till c r -ge:i r. :t 1HI t11 r11 in g- ~e ar :

;11 n l (()t1di n .... c r s ;ui d

i ct..: - l l1 ;1kt.· rs

and

rur t _\'

:-. ni. tl l

e n g in es her e a n d th e r e; ll'i lh th e \\' in cl 1cs :i nd c : q>~t : 111 s :11 HI
cl1·11 a 1111)s, :111cl ;1 , h -h uis ts a 11 d , ho1 -l if h :111cl r:1ilw.11·s . :1 11 il
d ~· c k - pl: t ks :i nd h :t ncl -ll'h cc ls , :11 1d w:i1.- 1-1ight clo •>r s :11 id lt oltl,
a nd l) 1itton1s
n 1c t ell i n .~· urn \\'h ;t t c :tch :tncl en.! r y ont· w .1:-. f11 r
1\ nrl I c .\ p11 s tuL1 lL'd ti> 11111 ho w l h l' g r ce 11 - ll:t 11~1· cl r e d -p :t i11t.-il
pipe n1·..rh<':1cl .- :i r ri1«l ll':tk r . :t1H I t h1· ycllu\\'- fl:rn g-l'd li l11r J•i; •«
c ar r ie d stc:1111 f r nr n 1hc d tJ11k .:1-. :1 11 d t he b l:i c k -!l:in :.:l' cl g;·.11·

p i p e c: trri t:d p r c:-.:-.cd air. a nd liH:! r ed ll .1 n g~d ,_:; rc e 11 pi pe 1..': t1'. -

r ie d lt rdr: 111licky, and tl 1e s p r:1ki11g t ube p :iin tc d yc llu\\'. t11<•k
w hi spe r s a ll u 1·e r t h e s h i p : :incl I s l111 ll' ed 111 n 1we 1111· tl1i.- l1
hat c h e s :rncl s 1:1 rt ed to te ll 11r11 11"h :11 c ac lt o n e wa s fo r . J: 11 t
() ' S ha y took l<1dr i11k . - s :i y in g- 11" 11 l l e :11·e 11 would fo rgi 1·e 11 11 1.
\ \ 'e ll .

h :i 11IC'rl off a11cl forg-nt "f 11111.

Fnr l

see 1>1· the

sig- ns t h :i t t lH· ship w;i s to l· r: 1w l ; 1w ~1 y l1y m oo 1ili ,l!.hl. a1ld n1e

t" s cr1·c lll C li c k :it t hl' ll' hc e l :i t rn id 11i :.: h 1. s ,, I h ol' c lu :rn rl
s 11 1m: d in m e l1:1 111111 ick h .: 111·.:e n in c f:11·01·i tc b c alll s . J\11d
t hnc w:ts litt le ( ·1: 11·.: n <T . fn r ty fvl' l 1,.··loll'. ly in g· lio x, ·d 11p 1111

t h e h :1rd l'l'llH'll l o f h1 ·r n11h i d e l•n l to1 11 1 \·V i lli li e r i 11 11 e r h u t t n 111
f 1,r u 1. ~ k \' - 1 1C1t l\\'(1 f l'l'l a!Jo ve u 1. 11o sc. ;u1d li t. I L'e l .tg in he r

n : r1 i1·:tl l(ee l :incl t11. h e" cl l i:rn g- u p aµ; in :i1w t h e r l' t: rli .- .tl pl:it e.
c :li led :1 lon ;: i1 11d i11 :d .
C 11 E,TEI\ Jl ,11 1. t·: 1· Ft-:ic\ .11.t1 : / J1,· .\ji iri l 0/ / /11: ! ' if"·
~ - Jn th e f11 l l0\1·i 11g se11 l e 11 cc .s C<) IT <.: <'t t h 1· prn 1·in c i:1lis rn s.
coll oq ui:ili sm s. :rn d ot her fa ul1 s (Jr ll' hi.-h thi s ch:tpil'r
tre:its :
1. /\ f le r be in g: illc ked up in t h e c lose t fo r a n h ou r T n 1n111y
l1 e g a n crl' in µ; t li :11 l it· ll':tntcd ou t
:!. Nelli e \\' cnt l 11 t o \\ 11 a li u ur a g u .

·'

UJ. 11/'0SIT/ O X

,i

.1. \ D

1'

RHF:TO/.'/ C.
!' U lt' / /' J .

!

:;. Sim Tompk ins is t he n rnriest, m easli est m a n I eve r saw.
I l e s11s1dciflned that thi ng s wcr en"t ri g ht.
5. Thi s ye r e huss is all the one I have.
(,. YOl 1 go h ome a11d te_ll \'Our p a w to keep yo u th e re.
, . I don t rem cm ber of 110 such house as yo u tell abo ut.
S. /\rc h1e says h e w:-ints :-i s11re 'nou _
g h w:i go n n ow.
<;. I l e we nt by wa1· of the nn·cr-to -bc -fo r •"o tt e n ro ute
thr o 11 .g h the Chilkoot ! 'ass .
"
ro. The land h:is hecn so long 11n tilled th a t it is gro win g up

I!. IN /J. l /,'/S. JI S.

147

•I·

CHJ\l'T I-:R V JIT.

to :-.untlnwc r s.

1 r. T h <" h"y ' c nd e th one ar-rnw to seek thl' o th e r .
12 . :\ lr s . lhrkrH.:.'s is a great con1·crsationist . l)l[ t h er masterpie ce in the wa1· nf talk w;1, he r disc11s s io11 of evo luti on
with l'rof. l\ l av ·r.
13. I rc c ko1 i that wol\'es arc no lo no-c r found h e re.
r.1. \'nu will get t ir ed totin g th:1t ail d av.
1 5. He nr y h ad a 1·e r v disli;11;11/ appea r.a nee as h e enter ed
·
·
tlr <.: h :i ll.
' ''· Th e :111cl ie ncc b eca m e 1·e ry mu c h e nthus ed d11ring his
speec h.
17. \.\' e had so m :iny apples this yea r that we th oug-ht we
n e1·e r sho u ld g et sh c t o f them .
1S. 11 is g r c;it a111hitio1 1 \\';1s to lie :ihle to or:ite well.
' 'I· john's father told him to h a rn ess t h e ho rse :i nd start
for tow n in stanter .

zo. \\' c co 11ld h:i rclly undcrst:ind the p:i tn is in whi c h th ey
spokc .
~ 1 . Th:i t w:is a pa rl ous sie~e.
~~ . The deer we r e cnnlined in a n:irrow draw.
__ , S h e had hidd e n th e m eat in a littl e c a c h e at th e hack
of th e ken n e l.
z.1. l n th e co urse o f tho~c sh :i rp e ng-:igeme nts the c ommand
had .-;o m c how Ilee n li c ked in to shape .
25. \'ou kn owcd bett e r t ha n to do what I h ad so exp r e~s l y
fnrhidd e n.
·
z!,. The y were terribl y ;ifec1 red and the cap tai n was unable
t 1.> r ev ive their cuu ra ge .

l' U t< IT\" .

11,\l <ll A t< I SMS.

54. The Application of the La ws of Good Use . Th ough t he canons of good use a rc, t u a ce rt ai n C\te11t,
applicabk to all the directi on s g i,·cn in l'art I. f.,r the
develo pmen t of the theme, these dircct i\Jn s a t bl:st :tre
flex ib le. \ Ve follow them hec1 use th ey s tate co ncisely
t h e methods by whi ch the best speakers a nd writers
have attained success. They bear t he stamp of good
usage ; yet we might dis rcga rcl th e m and sti ll write cu rrect Englis h. But in o ur c hoice of words and in gram m ati cal co nst ructions we ha ve no s uch latitud e. I !ere
we arc rig idl y gm·ernccl by th e laws of good u se, wh ich
arc not t o he violated if we arc to spea k and t o write
with correct ness. Violati ons nf I hcsc laws of g"od u se
in spok en or writ te n discourse m:iy he summ ed up as
fol lo ws: the use uf 11·o rd s not l·:ng-l ish, th e use of word,;
in a sense n"t Lngli:-d1, and the use of cu nstru cti<>ns n<>t
En g li s li. These arc tcclrnically known as liarl>:1ri,;rns,
impropril'tics, :i nd solec is ms, co nve nie nt ra th er th a n
a rbi trary t erm s of des ig nati on.
55. Barbarisms . - A barbarism 1s th e use uf a word
not Em~li:'lh, that is, a wo rd tha t has 11 0 good stand ing
in t lie lan g uage beca use it is not in prese nt, reput able,

'·

.,

lj,'

CU.1 / !'(}S// "ftJ .\

:t!Hl 1nti rm: d u s e.

/ '{'I.'/ / ' J ·•

. l. \ "/J !" llFF<l l"1 C.

O IJ solcte \\"<1 rcl s, lol·:t!i s m s, t ec hni cal

terms, fore ign \\'orcls a nd ph r :1ses, s Lm .~·, a nd the common v ul .:..:·ari s m s of th e chy. :tr e ha rli:1ri .s n1 s.

Jt is impos-

sible lo e n um n ale :il l the 1·:1r ieties of ba r ba ri s m s th a t
w e lll e d , b u t :1 few " f th e m m:i y lie po inted o ut, m ore
fo r the pu r ptJsc· ,11· s lww111.:..:· thc·i 1· l·h:1r: 1ne r th a n a s a n at-.
tc n1 pl t o 111 :1ke :1 co mp lete cbss ifil·:1L1<111. Th is \\'i ll en a bl e
tis l•> rcc 11g·ni 1.c lll••re r e:i d ily till· n m1 rn <1n e JT< •rs of s peech
:llld \\'rit ing, :111d wil l m: 1kl: us 111<11«..: (·:1 n.: f ul in :ivoiding
s11ch L'ffor s . Of ubsoktc mirds, loc:tlisn1s, a nd t echni cal
lL:rn1 s e n u ug h h:1s b een s:1id in t he precedi11 g- c h a pt e r.
Furo:~.-11 l f ;,rJ,-.

I .

g·11:1ge

-- J\ It h11 ugh the ba s is , 1f o ur lan-

is 1\ng lu -S a:-.. .1 n, it

has gro11·11

b rgcly li y th e

:1d 11pti11n o f \\'or<ls fr om other la n guages.

\\'ith new

que 11 t

u s e of

/:. I NJ; . I l i'! S .l!S.

hac kn ey e d

for e ig n

ex press ion s,

c hidly

Fre11 ch, by s umc w r ite rs u( the day is t() be espcc i:1lly
co nd e mn n l.

The authur wh11sc e vents JXtss "ff with

l e/at ; \\'ho t al k s of 11j}i1ir,·s d' amo11r : ll' h" d "es this ur
th a t b y a «<111/>; wh u t akes th e 111 / l i 1·r of a ma11; wh 1•se
m e n a r c /1/,1s/, :1 11< 1 \\' hose 11·11111 c 11 ;1re ot .(n111,/i- ! t1il!'llt',
- con v ic t s him self 1Jf ;1ffl.'l·t:1t iun , a nd d ec l:1n.:s h im s df
unabl e t o co mrn :rn tl t h e r e,.,ources of hi s IJ \\'11 t ong u e .
Happily t h is f:1ult is 11ot prevalent :1111011 g pupil s, :u1d
li ttl e 11 l.'ed be s;1 id we re it 11 o t fur th e Lict t hat 1ww
a 11d t i1l.' n a them e- writ e r, with a s 111 a tt er i11 g of I .;1ti11 ;md
Fre n c h , dra g·s i11t o hi s c"mp«is it irn1 so rne 11·.,r11 -u u t phrase
un de r t h e im press ion t h :1t he is :id d i11 g to the effcct i1·cn css of hi s wo rk , 11·he n in r e a lit y he is tedio11 s:

1\

i111·enti o ns, new :1rts :rnd s c ie n ces. and 11 e w ide:t s h o r-

bn g u;1ge suffic ie n t to gi n : u tterance tu the th o ug h ts uf

r o ll' c d f r11 111 ot he r t1 :1tit111 s, the re h:11·e u s u:ill y com e th e

Milt1rn ;111<1 Sh:tk es p earc ou g ht cert a inly t u supply th e
n eed s ,, f t li e 01« li11 :1ry w r it e r.

11 :1 111v . ; by \\'h il·h th ey \\·ere firs t k 11<111·11 tll t h 11se 11 :1ti"ns.
Th11 s, 11·e :trL: i11d c lit cd t " the 1\ 111 c ri c1 n I ndia11s f., r i't l!t oc,
:<'1.(-.-1•11111, !" 111 1rl111:, •I." :111d Jll<'1·«11si11: 111 th e Sp:111i s h fur

" ·'," " " l'•ll!i-/1 . ou·("'• :111d s/11 111f1·J,-: t" I h l· I 1: tli:111 for
1111111 1r<'1ti, ti11 111 1, :111d 111:111 y 11H1 s1 c:tl lLTl1h; Ill l lil.' Dut c h

..,

.\ /,11~~r.

·-· On e o f th e m ost r ommr111 fo rm s nf bar -

bari s m is s l:in g, t he i11 clcga11t a nd ntlga r speec h wh ich
o ri .~i11 : 1 tcs i11 l11c:tl k1pp c ni11 gs , thrnug h t h e IJ:tclin :tgc 11 [

t he s tr l.'et , " r i11 t he 1·it1 qic r;1ti1e l>itl c rn es,.; of a J>OlttiL ·: il
cont e st.

Slang is ofk11 n 1111pac t, s ug ges ti ve, :t11cl for -

f11r _J'lldt l :111d .l'/(11'/' : t" th e 1: rl·tll'h. l .: 1ti11, ;in d Cree k
r.. r i111111 111cr:11Jk \\'()rd s . Tlil·,..c 1ro rds h; 11·,. iiccum e

c iiJ lc, :111d f 11 r t h;i t 1-c r y r v:ts.,11 lc 11 ds C() lo r t o l' o lloq u i:1I

i11 c 11rp.. rat u l i11to o ur

di scours e; b u t it ;1h1·a ys ,.;av ors of illit e racy , a nd ha s

b11g 11;1 gL·,

reg:1 n lcd ;ts :1 p;1rt 11!' it .
fr o 111

ot hLT

; 111d

m:1y prope rl y IJe

T he pr:tl'l ice uf ho r row iiw,..

l:1ngu:tgl's, Ji , 1we1·e r, is ;1!11·;1 y s

haz ardoti s,

s ui>j e cti11g th e writ e r Lo th e ckt rg·e "f a ffe nat i., 11 , : 111 .J
s h o ul d h e ldt to aul Ji ,, r s 11f cs t:1 i>l ishcd rcput:1tio n , ll' h 11
111 :1y ventu r e

S()

lo s 1q1p ly :11 1 ulll·iuus need.

Th e fre-

place in dig nifi e d l:rn g uage .
li ve f1 >r a bri d

11 0

Must of th e s bn g w o rd ;;

tim e un ly, h ut oec1s ion;.ill y <•n e com es

into g o11d u ,.;e t" supply a perman e nt n eed . Sud1, f.,r
in :-;t a1H·l', a rc lVltii;, l !JJ) ', ) ~ 11tl.'1·c, fio1:1firr st, /11111(11 111/Jr-,
lt 111J1h1n;, filf 11/cr , and s110/1. T h e objec tion s t o s la nt; a r c

..'"

C U.If / 'US/ 11U. \ .. I .\·; J 1"1 I I: TUA'/ C.

that it is vul ga r, i11c.:kga nt, slwrt -lin:d, a11 cl l ik ely to
irnpn\·erish and debase our dictiun by k:tding us to rely
11 pn 11 th<.: L':Jtch-phrases of t he d:iy.
It should never be
permitted tq disfigure serious C<Hnpos it i•llt .

1\ s ,,.c han: before not ice<l, our
Lt11guage gru\\·s by the i 11 t r"d uct io n of new words from
v:triou .-; sou rces . Some l'<im e fr, )(11 new ideas or new
inve nt i< 1ns, suc h :ts bi,:rdc ancl !dtfl1011c; uth ers, like
m o /; :llld /111111/!11.'{-, spring up t n meet a popular need;
c Prnnw1Te f11rnis!ics man y; a nd many which at first are
pcculi:1r t1i s"me occupati()n, cnme into general use.
New words in :my l:rnguage :tr e in cvit:tblc a nd eve n
desirable; liut the y sh<iulcl nut he coin ed carelessly, to
sa \· L~ th e trouble uf thinki11g o ut a fitting expression in
the a cce pt ed voc: tl lt1l:try of the hn g uage. The e xige nc ies of exp r ess io n mu st d et e rmin e wh at won.ls s hall
l f the n t: w word suppl ies a real
com e into a Luiguage.
nenl. it ,,·j jj s" o n h:11·L: :t recognized s ta nding; thus,
t1•j>1 ·;, •ritr-r, /lt{l//l n11a11, :rnd d_1·11t11110 ha1·e C<>llle int o good
use . Hu t m o re o fte n _s uc h ,,·orcls :1re the i11\'ention of
n e ws r: tp<.:r repurters , an d p;trtakt: t: ith e r of the nature

3. ,Vc7e 11 i 1 rds. -

of sla ng , like frr!.. 1-, so1t1j>, .firtl, and .~")', or arc incorrectly fo r med, like 1110 / 111N<'<"r , 1·/t-(/rr1otlt', :ind fliu.1cope.
Us ually such w<1rds arc sh ort-li,·cd , and dis;i.ppea r fore ver
t" he repbccd hy \•thcr and b ette r expression s. The
<11·d i11 :iry writer should lie c;1u tious :1hnut usin g ne w
m1rds; i[ une is n cnlcd . it m:1y sakly be ld t to the
liL·st writer s to give it a st;111ding in the language.
4 . . \~ ·7e l ·i11·matio11.1. - - Some latitud e rnu st be allowed

J' U li'!F!.

!> . 11"/!.INIS.l!S.

I) I

in the form:ttio11 of ne w words fr1>rn words that ha\·e
alre:uly come into goou use. \Vh c n on ce we adopt a
n ~i rn c for a n y new id ea , 1H.:w formation s fr om it naturally
follow; thus, when the n o un, lt'IL-pl1unc, came intu good
use , it was folluwecl by the verb, /u tdcf'lt0n 1-, and the
adjec tive, ll'hflt£11ti(.
The noun, bir)'clc, ga ,.e us the
verb, t o bi1ydc, th e adjecti ve, bitydi11g, and anoth e r
noun, /1it)'dist. But whatever ma y b e th;,.: need of S i ll h
wnrds, th er<..: arc serious ohjcctiuns to the many vul g; 1r
fo rrnati u 11s which arc substitt1tcd fur expressions :tlre:uly
in g-ond us e ; e. g ., wt1!!.:ist, sl/(lcist, to lour, lo pn!ti!,. l"
sprint, to r1tll111s1-, to b111;![lari.: c, to s11i!'idc, 11 ,·(1 111 /11111·,

,'I

"

st·t i/lj> , 1u 1 / 11 7•//c, tro11scri11g.,-, cxj>osl; and a hos t of
others w ith whic h th e newspape rs of th e tLty :ire filled.
5 . /]/;/in «•itzlio11s. - J\ common offc.: n ce against g1J< 1d
Eng-lish is the use of abbrev iated form s as words. S o me
11 f th ese f"rms have 1.:stahlish<.;d themse lves in th e lan"tt·'I'")
1..·,.'-' ,.'- · t"'" ' ' 1·11/1 for c:tbriolct, lurck f11r ha ckney., coach, ;•,111
h

a

for v:uigua n l, pn111// fur penultinutc,pro.1y for procur:t\')';
hut th e greater part ()f th em mu st he cundenrned as
barbarisms.
Su c h, fo r instance, a re : i11(og for in l'C1J,;nito, j>/1 0 /0 fur photograph, plti.:: fur physiognomy, ext1 111
for exam in ation, gy m fur gymnasium, 'j>lw111· for tckphun c, ad for advertisement, do( fur doc tor, fard f"r
partnL·r , golls for gen tl emen, and ft111/s, a trad~: n:imc
for pantaloo ns, the last twu heing- especiall y vulg ar.

,,

',

,

.. i

.~ l

'

.1

CU. 1/J '(}S/

}/(!.\ . . 1 .\D

j,'/{ l c· ruN/C.

J·: \ E J{CJSES .

1. ~h n\\' "liy the 1:1\\'s uf g"orl 11 se ;i re ;1pp li c:1bk to til l!
1•rin cip lcs of theme dc velo p111 l! nt :1s gi,·l.!11 in l'art J. Why
do we follow tl1l!s e dircct i<>n s' J l ow do th e bws uf good
11 se govern u s in rn1r cho ice qf \\'Ords?
~. \\' Jut ;tre the c011111 1on offences again,t good Ei1 gl is h ?
l>y wlut 11:1111 t' s are the se offrn ces kn<>wll' ( >f wlut val ue
:i r e th ese 11;111H.:s?
3. \ \ ' h at is a barbarism ' ;\lcntion so11H.: ,·arictics tli;1t
we often nH.:e t.
Turn to th e exercises "f the pre ced in g
d1 :1 ptt:r. and point out \\'h ;1t you th ink to lie l >:1rh:1risms in
th e illu str:1 tiu11 s gi,·en.
-I· !\lust a \\'<>rd Yi obtc :ill the rcq 11isit1·s .,f good u se
tr > i>c a li:irh:tri,.,111)
;\ r1: li:1rlL1ris111s 111nrt: frequent 111
"i'<>k1·n or in \nitt.: n di scnur." c ) \\.liy) \\° here m;i y \\' C
111os t frcqu c 11tly li 11d l>:trhari, 11 1s in \\Tit ten cl1sco11rsc?
~· Lr >ok ll\Tr the d ;1ily p :1pc r ;u1d 111 ake ;1 list of thl!
I i:1 ;.harisms fr1u11d.
r•. l .ook m·er the fullmring passage, and note the barh:iris n1 s if there are any.
Cornmcnt u pon any words you
think not t" he 111 goo.d 11 s e and substi tu te proper words
f1 1r th e m .
" Th e ro pi ng of h ear. mountain lion, and eve n deer is a
f;n-nritc pa,time of the ;\ri zn 1i:1 co wbo y, and al the sa me tim e
affords a tes t r)f his ;1cc 11r·a cy with the rnpe and the speed and
:1cti\·it y t>f his horse. I le s e ldom misses a 'throw' when
the :1nim :tl is within rang-e, hut in the ropin .t.: ()f bear not on ly
rn11st the cowbo~· be succe ssful in placing the noose about
the bear's neck. lrnt he must draw it t;1ut before the wily brute
shakes it olf.
•·O n this occ:1sion tl >c lio1·, f,.flo wcd tl 1cir q11;1rry through
nH:sq11i tc shrubhcn· , and scvcr;tl t imes " ·hen it a p pe:1red on
an open they tossed the hssn :tl1o ut the an imal".s ne c k . Th e
he;ir as fr cq 11cntl y stopped . ol1tainecl a little s h c k. and neatl y
threw tiff the noose with hi s 1i:11r. Tl 1c cnwl"'Y' suffered th e
disgrace.: of I Psi n .~ their ;11ii111 al, tlirt~ C lariat~. :ind their l <'mJH;r,
hut th ey rct1irned tn Saff"rcl. a sm;ill co nrn1un 1t\· in the mrn1n :a ins, wi th fc,1ir skins a nd a w<>n rk rful ar r011 1it of a herd n f
Ari zona b ea rs. Cowboys from the surrounding hills are com pl eti ng a r odeo, and ar e ga th ering fo r a l1ig bea r hunt. Little

J' U/"/ Fl ·.

Ji.·/ !.'ll.·I NIS.11.~·.

·
,,. for th e cowboy , .as I :1. ru le,
ammun1· t1on
\\.1·11 lie ·''·ik e 11 "-> ]on ,.,.
J •
who stoops 1., shoot a ],ear is r ega rd ed :1s 1w lii.'ltc 1 t 1.1n l le
1lO·11r eturns
w
· wh o rcve l s 111.
·
· icl .th e vac1u,·ro
hunter
pot -s l 10 t s,· · .11
•.
.
1 ..
without having ,ucccssfully rupc<l se \·er a l b t:ars wi
"' in
d is~r ;\cc. '
. The foll()\\'ing \\·onb and phr:tses arc frequently
7
·
Su\.,,., ti tute ;1
f<>ll lHl i11 the d ai Iy p:1pe rs :rncI m :1gaz 11 l 1:s .
gu<>d l·:11 g\ish express io n for e:1ch.
tc;rra Jirm.1.
arti,tc.
en dcshal,illc,
ad lilJit11m,
faux pas.
m:il de mer,
L1cik prinCCI"·
cntre 1H)1l S.
Cclat,
1nul turn in p ; 1r\· ~ 1 •
!11)11l ·dc -pl11rn e,
rai so n d'etre,
verbatim.
ta pis~
cn11p,
clc sct: nsu:-. avcr11i 1
fu r ore,
a!T:iire d'arnuur,
c:1su s hell i,
clistin~11 c ,
on dit.
1

soi rCc .
:-.an~ Jrnid.
qui Yi\'c,

;1 pro pus,

nCc.

entrCc.

sub r os;i.,

;"\ la c arte,
matine e .

s. 1·:x;rn1inc the following words,;1ndd,·t<"rt1li1;c 1" ..hic ·.l1.ir'. ·
iii )!;llOd u se . \\"h ,:n in d u 11bt , refer t11 a s tand:tr< «11 t1n11.1 1: ·
par ; 1 ~ raph i.st,
) re,id e nt ial,
1

r efe n :n clulll ,

kopje.
rcu >n cc nlr,Hl•1.
1
co rra .

donat e,

liancCe,

p~rven u ,

tony.

lJoulcvard,
pena li ze,
memento.

spi r it uc l.
illlprompt11 ,
hnycotl,

e n th use,
l.lpis,

si esta,
~ul)LTn;1 turi:1l,

ckc trn c utc,
pro,·cn.
preventat ive,
faddi s t,
jag.

orate,

s ked adrlk.

cab lq~ram ,
p;ott en,

n1u~wun1p,

prot CgL~ .

re pnr tori ,ti,
sw e ll.

·
1 \) re\·1a
· t1·n 11 s. ;lll ( l dett: rn1i1w
Examine tile fnl\ow111g
;1)
wl11ch if a n y, ;1 r e 111 good 11sc.
sub. fo r substitute,
chu m. for c h am!Je r -f<-11""·
· enc l c 1>1,
··~ urio s. fnr c uri os iti es,
super, fnr s11p e rrnt
·
C\'cl e , for l1i cyc le,
sup e. fo r supernum e rary,
'v:1r,it\·, fo r u111vcrs1t y,
1)ro f., for prnfess()r.
'ch; 1nie , for exc hange ,
perk. fnr perqu1s11<:,
·
' neath. for b e nea th,
c.1p. fnr ca pt :un.
sp ec. for spc.: ul atio n,
b ik e . for bi cyc le.
CJ

1 o . Correct all v iolat ions of good English in the fo\l [I\\'ing se nten ces:-

·~I

C<i.ll l'USIFl 11.\· _/ , \Ii l<'l!FJ'<l li'l c '.

,1_._ \.\ ·e to ured S pain ;rnd cyclc·d through J.:u ssi; 1 ueiore we
on o ur I 11d1an trip .
.-· \\! c arc pleased tu hea r that the prince was nut troubled
w1 th ma! de m e r .
. 3·. A cco rding tn tli c present ce n sus , there has hccn a J
.
in g rn c rc:isc in the p opulat ion oi many of the cit ies. ' rnmp
·l · Newp '.; !·t ';~agog· <ll:rr th e doings of the sm art set.
5. l\ !1 ,,. J ish s entcrtammcnt was tl1c first ulow -o ut of th e

l' R OI' NI F !' l '.

I .If/'!.'()/';,·; F !'/ ;,·s.

155

<Icc1c 1c d

~ca

son.

(,_ ·1: 1.1e r ace began with a d i11 g-dong· mile.
7. E;ght l11cyclc rs pcdal_lcd to S:tlem yesterday.
:->. \\ hen th e I lan·ard p1gsk1n chasers came upon the field
th ey P!·escntccl a new line -up.
9· 1. l.1e h~rd " ·o rk jars the Harvard mc11 j ust a little.
, .10 . I he I rcss Cl11l> \\'Ill hol cl a grand cycle m ee t ·it C l
I
l"vcr .1'.ark .. Some gnod sprinting- is expec ted.
,
iar es
1 1. .I he< «H·c rnor dulls l11s co w-ho\' tcws and i>uls on ti
uf a miner.
·
"'
·
iose
1~. i\rc h c ry d"':s nut. scern to 111ate ri :tli zc among us .
. 13 .. B11s111 cs s_ 111 c th1Hls arc hccommg· more and more im )O rt.111t 111 pol1t1cs, and i\lr. Hro"'n is facile.: pr in ce j)S in t! ·
employment.
1e1r
' ·l · .li e ~ave out ominous si~11~ of :t proc: li\·it\' to g·o 0
oratori c al ra mp age.
.
n an
_' 5-_ There was something so in toxicati11g· in the so und of
111" "?'ce and 111 thcplaud 1ts of his claq11e urs that he was 01
1
1
tie'
ei g-c of a l11qu;1 c 1ous pg-.
i<>. _1 '.1 l11s i;enr~ i\lr. Sothern is a ch;1 rrning: actor.
17. I he fools m the audience found th at they h ad been
mnnk eymg wtth a bu zz-sa w.
' ~· 'f:1e home team (fnotballi w;is hc;t\·il y penalized.
. •.>· s _e,c n subs were pl1l in. but they co 1ild not get into the
sc'.."nnt« g-e owing: t11 th e light-footedness of t h e h ;i Jf. backs
-O . . If the •tmpire \\'011lcl bench some of the pla}'C rs he w~uld
<In a good work.
: 1.· l 'ope n o w ho leis the pr e mier place in tl1 e c lub for·

row1n o-

: : . ':i"J1e cops dashed f,,rth and pinc hed the ptw ili sts. It
frequently e ve ntuate s that \\':JV.
"'
. -.» '.l~h.crc a r e no politic." :ilio11t trusts; they co mpel their
'm plo~
to pony 11p for hnth p;irti cs.
. = -l~ I olitics, makes str :rn .~·e bed -fe llows: witness the a nti111npt" 1alists, l.opulists. rn11g\\·11mps. ;rnd s ih·e rites supporting
t ie same nomme e .
:5 . I-l e wired his clicnt<'le to go short o n railroad stocks
and to bull the incl ustriab.

;cs

CJIAPTER lX.
PRO l'R I ETY .

IMPR O l'RIET TES.

56. Propriety. - J\11 writers must be cardul not only
to use good English wo rds, but ::dso to use each wc>rd in
its proper sense; that is, they must ubser\'t; the ru k·s
of j>rojwil'IJ'· Herc again good use mu s t ht; t ht; gu ide'.
for we us e words properly when wt; iolluw th ~ usagL·
of the best autho rs .
Swift's maxim, "proper words
111 proper places," tersely t;Xpresses th<; id c;a 1,f pro pri et y.
57 . What Improprieties Are. - Many :t writer fai ls
to con vey his meaning becat1s<; ht; is careless it1 the USL'
of his words. \Vh e n we use a word in any sense not
r ecogn ized by good use, wt: use it improperly . Such a
misuse of words is known in rh eto ri c as an i111frofrit'ly .
The name is unimportant, but th e fault itself is pr<~ \·a­
lent and st:rious. It is comparati vely easy to a vo id
the use of barbarisms, but a writer who would avoid
im proprieties must have a large vocab ulary, be brnifor
with th e m c:tnin g s of h is words, and painstak ing in th<:
ch oice of them. Few pt; ople :Hl'. thus ha ppily t:quippt:o
for writing. To the majority words are but co unte rs t o
be handed a bout with little comprL:h ension of th eir rncan mg . Most people, mee tin g a new word in the ir read -

1·0.11 1'os1 no. \ .. 1. \ "fJ "'111:"1"1!/,'/( ·.

111 g, conjecture tllL' lll Ca ni11 ,:_;·

rr"lll

the

l'!l l Jlc\l,

but a vaguc idea of its r cal s ignifi r:lt illn.

/'N O /'/\!;,·

:111d h;l\·e

\\ 'he n they

attempt tn use it, they make all sn rts ,,j mistake s, so m e
ridi c ul"us and others se ri ous. hut :tll t e nding t o
duce ;un l> iguity :ind obsc urity "r thou.:.;-ht .

pro-

r 1•.

I.JI I' R U!' N I 1:- 111-: s

1

57

than t o atte m pt t•J ust.: lo n g words c:1relessly or 1gnor:rnt ly .

59. Classes of Improprieties. -

Tu e n u rncr:i.tc all the

impro prietie s whi c h we rnt.:ct \\'OulJ be im poss ible .

\\ ·e

F ew of us

may, h1111·t.:vcr . roughly c lassify some of the more corn-

l·;rn :1tt:1in perfect io n in thl' usL· "r 11«1rds, but if wt: a rc
L·ardul to d isc rimin :1te, 11·e skill a1·"icl l h e more gla rin g
i\ ccn rd c1T<1rs whi c h r ob our l:tnguagL· of dcti11itl'11css.
in _g ly, 11·t.: lllu st st udy ot1r 1<1c:thul:t r y 1rith thL· aid of a
di«t1<1nary . a11d m:1ke ours e h·L·s f:1rnili:1 r 11· it h th e a!'cepted
sign ifictt ion of words.
58. ~auses of Impropri e ties. -- l mpn •pr it.:t it.:s :inse

rnon e;1scs t hat co nfu se th e mind of the in expe rien ced

rn :1i1 1ly r1·om t \\"!I C\USt.:S, carelessness
i\s an t.:\a mple •>f t he fo rrn n

:llld

.,f " can" for "lllay," "most .. f11 r ":i lrnost," "q u ite"
I g noran ce

usuall y manifests it seH in the u se o( lt• n g \\'ords wlJich
the 11-rit er d"t.:" n()t t111derst:ind.
11·ith
:is

\V e a rc a ll famil i:i r

the mirth -prnH>kin.:.;- h lt1ndt.: r s of Mrs. M:tl:1prop

t•1

cnnf u st.: "illi tera te" :i nd

L· ili11u s"

;inti

t 1.:.;- 111n1 s,

or

"s u pt.: r fic ial."
"rt.:prt.:he n d •·

"ol> liter:1 te," ·• s upcr-

' ' cnntagi11us" a 11d
and

"comprl'l1c nd";

··conbut

m:l!ly of us :i r e liablt.: to crr.,rs 11·h ic h are rcprehcnsiblt.:
'111 ly ill a less cl cgTce.

Frequt.:nt I y w e meet •·transpire· ·

in the sense o( "happen .·· "r f11ld " affed " for "dft.:ct ,"
;in d

even

Maca ulay

To :i.vo id
C1 Urseh·l's l•• the

a 1J ce."

USL'S

This c lass ification

1s

one

simply o f cun1-c-

ni cncc, h :i.scd on the reaso ns fo r 11ur lia bility t u co nfu sc
ct.: rtain words.
1. N1 «>1 ·111/i/,n1tt' i11 f_ooks a11d .\01111d.
SC1m e timcs twC1 words louk or su und so inuc h alikt.:
th at th t.:y arc mist aken fo r cac h other.

ign o ran ce.

we m; 1y instance the use

for "r:tther." •· g ue ss" f11r "think," l'tl'.

writ e r.

"o liscn·ation .. for "observ-

su c h mi stakt.:s it is bette r t u c onfin e
s imple word s "f 1\11 g l11-S:1xn n C1 r1 g 111 ,

i\!/11111s.
Access, Accession. A «ffss ml'ans ( 1) admi ss io 1; ; (2 )
a wa v of e ll t ran ce.
At",.ess1iJ11 means ( 1) an addit ion;
(z) tl1e co rni ng in to poss<.:ssio n o f a rig ht. Th is is the
h;":ll se llse uf th e wo re!. \\'e gain "aaess to the P res1c1:ii1." ·• ,i\n <1drssi1m u [ tc rrito ry is advantageou s ."
.. Th<.: a cc,·ssio11 "f King j a m es to th e th ro ne ca u sed unl'.:-ts iness."

Advance, Advancement. A ,/7•m1«1' is th e ;1c t o f lllov ing
fo r ward; mh-1111re111c11!, t h<.: a ct of being lllO\' ed fo rward.
•·Th e arh-a11re o f th e arl!l y wa s ra pid ." ·'His {/{h ·a11re111n// in th e se n ·ic<.: wa s s low ."
Acceptance, acceptation. A r.-eptm1re is th e act o f accepting ; as." th e aff<'jila11re o f a no minatio n to offic<.:." A.<n:j>lal io11 m eans th e se nse in whi c h an exp ressio n 1s
und e rstood; as, " This ll'as th e co mm o n a.-ceptalio11 (If
th e ter m. "
Allusion, illusion, delusion. - A //11sio11 refe rs to so m ethin g not e xplic itl y menti one d ; a refe re n ce to a thin g.
/ !!11sitm refe rs to an e r ro r of Yision; delusion, to a n e r ror
uf j11dg111cnt. .. The al/11sio11s of Macaulay are u(tl'.n ub -

: !i

1 ;·

11:

158

CU. J//'OS! T! OX .' L\'/J NllF/"11/1'/ C.

scure." " The mirage 1s an il/11si{l11 ... .. I le labored und er
a rle/11sio11."
Compliment, complement. - Complimml is :in expression
of approbation o r praise. c.t1111p!rn11:11t is somet hing that
compl etes a d eficiency . "1 le r ece in~ s m:111y t0111pli111ents
from his friends." "The Sta ll: has furnishl:d its 1m11p!e111e11t uf soldie rs."
Council, counsel. - C<111lloi is an advising body . Cu11llse!
is advi ce, or, in legal l:rnguagc, a lawyer who givl:s advi C'e. "The governor',; a11111ol gan: the men good r(}1111se/."
" Th e 1·(}1t11sd fo r th e dde11da11t th en addressed th e court. "
Enormity, enormousness. - 1~·llor111i(1• refers to deeds of
unu su;1 l h11rro r ; e11on11011s11<·ss, lo thin gs o f unusual size.
" Til e: 1·11or111i(r o f th e cri 111 e s h"cked the pc:ople." "\Ve
ha rdl y rc:a lizc the e11or111fl11s111 '.l's of t he bu ildings at t he
l'a r is exhi bitio n ."
Observation, observance. - Ol1srr7'alion me:i ns the :i ct of
observing or ,-ie wing. or it m:1y mea n a remark. \\'(; speak
of ·• th l! "/!scn:atirm of the stars .. , ur "of m:1k i11g some exce ll ent obse rvations." 0/1so-7·1111t'1' means thl: k el: ping of
a la w o r r ite : as "thl: 11/1.1-,·1-: •1111,-,· of th e Sabbat h," .. th e
o/1sen·.r11t'e o f a c usto m."
Recipe, receipt. - /1'Ni/'1' is us ed in th e sense of a fo rmula for cook ing or for medicine. R ereipt is also used in
the sense of a fo rmula for cook ing, but mo re o ft en as the
act of re ce iving; as, •· l a111 in ruojt of your lettn "; or
as a n acknow leclglll e nt of p;1y111ent : as. "1 luve a raeipt
fo r th e money pa id."
Signification, significance. - .\·1:i;11ifimt1i111 refe rs to the
me:rn ing of a thi ng; .•/![11ij1;·,111r,-. to it s i1nporla 11 ce. We
speak o f the .. sig11lfimt1i111 of 11·o rcls," ·' thl! s~·![11 ijim111·e of
an act."
Statue, statute. -- A s/11t11r is :l ca rl' ed likeness or image
of a li ving be ing. A s/11/11/e is a !all'. " The sl a /11/e pro,· id es th at th e stal11e of \\'as hington shall not he defa ced."
Union, unity. - U11iu11 ni ea ns th e jo ining of l\\'O or
mo rl! things; as,;, a 11111(111 of th e states." {!11ity n1ea ns

l'N O l'N/l~T J '.

"oneness." .. har lllony. "
p a rag raph."

nrPN O! ' RIFT!ES.

159

" There s hould be unify in a

Ver/ls.
Accept, except. - 7i1 ar(r'jt m ean s to recei\'e or take
something offe red . \\'e "aff1'j>I a g ift." J i1 e.\'Ct'f'I mea ns
to make an excepti on of, to excl ud e .
" 1 It: was t'Xcepterl fr om th e ge ne r:il bw."
Accredit, Credit. - Ju 11a rerlit means to invest with
powe r o r a uth ority. "J\'l r. Cho:1te is the arrredited re presenLHi,·c o~ th·.: United States to th e Co llrt o f St. James. "
J i1 ,.,.,,di/ n1 e;111s t11 bel ieve. " l can lurdl y t'rt:dit you r
Sl:llt:lll l" llt."
Affect, effect. - 'li1 af1;d is l<> inAuc nce , to proclll ce a n
cfkct upo11 , o r to seek. to a i111 at.
" lit.: was greatly
11/J·dn! hy the news." ''So me writers ajf ,.d a liter:uy
s.t yle ." Ji1 1:/ft:d is to bring about, to accompli s h. "·The
pri sone r ('//('1·/r',/ his esca pe. "
Construe, construct. - Ji1 m 11slrue is to interpret , to
show th e 1nean ing of. T he speaki:r 's wo1:ds we re m11s!n11·,/ in the wro ng sens<.:."
l i1 co11str11d is to build .
"\\.,'. 1·1111s/r11d a huil (l in g o r a scntt:n ce."
Convince, convict . - Tu mm·i11t'e is to satisfy hy argulllt' nt. 1;1 mm •;d is to prO\'l! g uilty. " 1 a m a 1111 •i11it'r/
that th e p risone r was guilty, but th e re was not ,.,ufticie nt
cv id e11n· tn ,-11111 ·id hi111 ."
Estimate, esteem . - Ji1 l'Slimrrte is to j udgl! the 1·alu,·
of. •· l 1·s/i111alc: the cost of a house." To t~sk1'111 is to ha 1·e
a hig h opini on of. ".L ,,_,.//'mt my fri e nd hig hl y."
Purpose, propose. - li1 p11rpos1: is to int e nd . " I p11rpose to go to town to- mo rrow."
J·;, p r oj>tJs1: is to s llggest. " I frop11.1·e that we go to town to- morrow ."
Prescribe, proscribe. - Ju p /'l'scribe is to lay d o\\'n :t s a
rul e of acti o n, (J r to direct :is a re medy . ' 'The directo rs Jrt'.1·0-iht·d t he course to be t ak e n. " " The physi c ian
preso-i/11',/ a dose of o il." T o frosrri/I" is to osl racise , o r
to con<le n111. "Cice ro was prosrri/!eJ "

'l

P ROI' /1'/ ; ,· T J ••

Cri .lfl'l)S/ l'/0 ,\ . . I.\"/) NJ! 1~1u 1..1c

I.Ill ' N i! /' I i'!;;/"/ 1,·s.

Persecute, prosecute. -- Jii f'<n ·,·m/e is to
lic st"t in ;lll :rn noy i ng 11·:1y. ·· The R r1111 :111s fcrsem led the
Chri,.;1i:111s . ·' J;, fnist•mfl' is lo folluw ,,·i1h a vi e w to
a cc(l 111pli,.,Ji :1 thin g, or to proccnl aga in s t a111· o ne a ccordin g to hi\' . " T he: 111:111 fm .1'/"0tlr•d l;i ,.; purpu;e faithfully."
' · 'j "ht.: l:iwyn jr11s1·01k,/ tli e cri111inal. "

parti1li~l' for

Almost, m ost. - '. ·l l11111s/ is us<'d in thl' sense of nearly.
a ,.,upe rl at1 1·e. Jt den otes t il t.: g-rcatest n um ber,
qu:111t1ty, "r degre e of :111ythillg. ·· ..J/111osl c1·c ry hody had
ldt t hc ha I I.·· "Jl!i•s/ 111e11 :1 re hone,.,t. ··
Credible, creditable, credulous . -- Cro/1/1/,, is th at which
m:iy lie bclit.:1·cd. Cn·dila/1/c is that 11·hi c h is deserving of
es teem. reput:tblc: .
" Th t.: story scen1s ~lardly rredible,
alt hot1gh th e act 1ras Ii igh ly ,.,.,.,/i/,,/1/c·." Cr erlulous is that
ll'hich i,; too easy of belief. eas ily illlposed upon. "Cred11/011s people m :1y accept :1 rr.: porl t ha t is n ot tret!ible."
Decided, decisive. · - D coJ1·d nH.:ans stro ng . positive, unq t1 es tion abk; tht1 ,; 1n: 111 :1y have" da iderl o pinions" about
many thin gs. lJaisi;·,; means that ll' hi ch settles a point
at issue. "'Tht: opiniu11 uf a judge is rlt"<"isfre."
Exceptional, exceptionable . - .E.1.,-1'j>l1(1111!1 111 ea ns n ot ac- ·
cnrcl i11 g tu rul e . l :·.,.,..1jl/if)111r/1/e lll eans l•pe n to critic ism,
o h ju·t iu nabl e. "J l e is :111 r'Xo'j>liona/ man whose conduct
is nut ,;n1 11 c 1im cs 1·.1·«'/lio11rr/1i< ...
Human, hum a ne. - l/!11111111 is th:it ll' hi c h belongs to
"l/ i1 m 1111 n:llurt.: is th e sallle eve rywh ere."
m:1nki11d.
l .7111111111c m eans kind or c omp:1ss ion:ite. "He is a lwmmu
cit izt.: 11. "
Official, officious. -- 0//i,-i,r/ mc:rn s bt:longin g or pertainin g· tu an uflicc. " ! le 11:1s able t1J pe rfo rm his qfficii:tl
d uti es ."
OJ!irio11s is used in the..: sen st.: o f unduly for\\' :ird , 111 ccld leso m c..: . '·The 01·e rsee r perfor m s his duties
i 11 a n 11/!icio11s 11·ay ."
Partly, partially. - 1\11·/h• m c:rns in part , partially,
ll'i t h p:irti:ility, :1lth o11g h s<1 111 c 1ny good authoriti es use

Uften t wn w" rd,.; re,;c1111Jlc e a c h u t h e r

Jl/0.1/ .1s

par/fr. " Thi s is f1rrtly tru e." ·'Th e judge
was accu s ed o f a c ti11 g parli1t!~1' . ··
Sensible of, sensitive to. - We are smsi/ilc rif a n y th ing
wh e n wt.: arc a\\'a re u f it. \\'e a re sen.rili7 ·i: ' " :1 thing when
we are affected b y it.
We are sensi/1/t' 1if an ope n d oo r ;
we arc .1,·11silin lo t he co ld air that co mes from it.

111

b11 th so un d

and meaning, thus d<luhly c onfusing th ...: mind .
M11111s.
Act, action. - An 11d is a thing d o ne.
An adio11 111 orc
p rope rl y rcft.:rs ti> th e p rucess of d oi ng . \\" t.: say, ··I It.: is
incapable of such a n a d." "Adi(l11.1· speak luud e r than
w o rd s . .,
Admittance, admission. - A dm iltam·,: m ea n s pt.: rin iss ion
to e n ll'.r, actua l c ntr:rn ct.:. .- / d111ission is a !so used in th e
sen:-;e of pt.:rmission to e nt e r. but in : t broader ,;e 11,.,c.
with less <ktinit c n css in res pect t o space; :1s, ·· 0:11
a,/111ill1rllr"<' to th <.: uflice." '• ,·f d111is.;i1m lo tht.: li arliur ur l u
a pee r:1gc ." Arl111 is.,.io11 also m c: rns the pri ce paid f., r t·n ·
t r:1n ct.:; hut 111 ore cu m111unl y r1i/1111~;sirm ha s L'(Jl ll e tu he
use d in :1 ti g t1r :1 t i n~ sense as :111 asse nt to :111 arg u111 e11t ;
as, ·· Thi ,; 11ilmi.l'.>"i1111 l"" t. hi111 the argu111c11t."
Avocation, vocation. - - .· / 7·(1(rt/i1111 1nt:a 11 s :1 111i1 wr JHLr~uit
in distin <; ti o n frrnn a reg ular c a llin g o r 7'!1mlir!11 . ··Te a c hin g is his 1•or"alio11, p hotog ra p h y is his ll7'r!/"11/i1111.· •
Complet e ness , completion. - Co mpl ett.:11cs ,., i.'i the st ate
of being co lll plete.
Cu111p!dirm is th e ad of c 01nplct in g.
\\" e s pe ak o f the ·· m 111/ldi(l11 (Jf a lit1ildin g,"' :rncl '
"the 1m11f'ld1·111·ss of a col lect io n o( bu(lks rir rt.:lics.··
Emigration, immigration. - - h"1111:1[r1rlio11 is nw1·in g out
fr o m a co untry . lm111i:;F<1/io11 is m ov in g into a co untry.
Thus. we spl:ak o f" 1'1111:i;rr1/ii/lr from .Europe , " a 11d ·· i11n11i
g ra!ion to the U nited ::it:ltes."

PRO!'RI ! :'Tl'.

('(J.J / /'(!S/'l'!!I. \ ' . I . \ '/I Ill! F'l'ON/1·.

. F~_lsene~ s! fals_ity. -:- h rl<o1c.'-' rn c:111" ~,· ant of ve ra city,
de ce it, pl 1l1d; , .111d 1111 plrcs J,J:1111 c . \\ e speak of "the
firl<o11•ss u f a 111 :in ·s he:i rt... hr!J·i(i· i;, nun-conformity
to tr 11th. usu:dl y without a Sll "'''e;,lion of lJ hr1ie · -1 - "'l 'I
·I ·
f ·
"''='
• , •s ,
ie
_/11 .<1(1 ' <l hi:-. :ngument was ap1J;lrenl. "
. Relation,_ relative. - N d 11tio11 is 11 ;,ed in a se nse o f family co1111e 1·t1<•n. but ab" in :111 :ibstract su1se o f connect ion Ill g e n e r:li: hence rd,1/h·t is prcfer:1h le when we refer
to :1 111 c 111ber o f the family.
"I le i1l\'it ed h is rdalinr to
he prese.nt , althuugh his rdali1111s with them were not
plc:isa nt. '
Requirement, requisite . -- N 1·(111ir
,·111,·11/ '" -.o lllc t I1rng
·
re,
q u i rc: cl by a person . N<1;1mt!e i-. s o mething re quired b
th <.: 11 :1t ure o l th<.: c:1se. "I I t: 1r.1s n ot able to co lllply with
th <.: Ft'tjlltr1
":\ t>"OOd cducat·
··
· . 'motl.r ."f his emplo)·er. "
' 101\ lS
:1 n·1;1ustlt: to soc1:1l a ch·ancc:mcnt. .,
I ;.,.;,s.

Lie, lay. - hi: na::1 ns to r..: clinc le ngthwise, to :issume
a n:cumbe n t po,;1t1on.
It is :111 intransitive 1·e:h. /,ai• is
th e c:1us:il n:rbof !ti·. a nd rn e:rns to c au se tu !ti -, to pi ;1ce .
l.a_i· is a tr:111s1t11·c n :rh. "\\' t: Iii· do"'n to sleep." "We
/<1_1' di >\I'll the. book...
TIJL• princip:1 I <·rr• >r :111wng un educ:1te d people 1s 111 the u-.e <>f /.ry fur /i, · in tire prese nt and
1 111perk~t te nses. \\'ith :t little c are the se can be properly
d 1st 111 g11 1s lwcl.
Rise, r11ise. - A'ix1' :t11d nn:r,· lw:1r the same re lation to
e: 1c h o th e r as do Ii.: :t1 1d /,rr. .lt'1:•·<' is the primitive verb
and is intr:111siti1·e. ",,u,.
" ·. 1s
· t Ill' c:1 t1 s a J ver I> o f rise :incl'
is transitive. " The building ,./,.,-.,, " bt1t "the ca rp~nter
n 11:r1·s the bt1ilcling.''
Sit, set. - .'-;it and sd are two \·e rb,.; whi c h have the
same re latio ns :is !ti· and /11 1', r ir,· and ririse. .. \I've sit
clo"'n," but .. \\'<.: sd th e c hair '. cl()lrn.'' "\\' e st•/ t I1e I1en ,"
hut" t he h en sits .. : h ·n ee \\'e sp<.::1k nf .. :1 sitli11g hen ," and
not of "a s1:r/1-,~;' he n."
Arise, rise.
1"1:r<' ha,.; co me to be used in a Jit c rnl
selhl': as. ·: I k ri.rrs from hi ,.; sc·:1t... .-1n :rr: is rnnre o ften
used t1;;t1r:tl11-cly, :1 ,.;, "Trut11Jle " ro.r, · ;11t11>11g the peupk."

/,l/ !'RUl'RfL' Tf L 'S .

Ad/rdi7'1·s 11 11rl .· l dn·r/1s.
After, afterwards. - ,. /flrr sho uld he used :b :1 prcp,.si tion; 1:/tcn<'<tnls, as an adverb. " The sun c:i 111<.: o ut a.flcr
th e rain." •· ,-J.fk1'1t'•anlr we we nt to drive. "
Continual, continuous. - Ct111ti1111al i,.; used uf oft-r<.:pealcd acts; ro11ti11111111s , of un interrupt ed action . "Th e
speaker was :innoyed by (l){//i1111al int c rrupti ons." .. There
was a mnti11111111s uproar during the eve nin g."
Deadly, deathly. - Deadly is used of an yt hing th :1t
causes death ; rlwt!tly, of anything th at re,;unl>k ,.; de:1th .
\\'c spe:i k of :i " rlmd/y poison, " and of :i .. J<"1t!lr~r pallor."
Haply, happily. - rli1f6' is no w nearl y obsokte in prose .
lt mean s by c h a n c<.:; as.•· I-/1rpl_y some hoary -headed sw;1in
m ay ,;ay." .Happily me:1ns by a happy c han ce. " Jli rppi~1·
th ere \\·ere 110 ckhys."
Healthy, healthful. - Jfc,r/tlry· means to h e in a st:1t<.:
of good hea lth .
]/,•a/11!/itl means to prud!rce he:i lth ,
\1·ll()lcsome. .. ,\ /t c, rltltjitl diet 111ak es a /11-.1/t/1y 1n:1n. "
Practicable, practical. - A ihing is pr,1</it'if/,ft that can
be clone; it i,; f"'tdim./ wh e n it is not thcoret ic:1l. ' 'Good
ruads are pradic11hli:." .. 11 is ideas :ire pr11dio rl. "

3. R csnn/i/111/ ff in Ali-a 11i11g. -- Somd irn cs t \\' <J wor Js
an: su nc;1rly alike in 1rn:a ni11g- th :1t th e y :ire c"nfused .
This is , p erhaps, th e.: rn"st frc.:qucnt cause uf impropri eties.

Nouns.
Ability, capacity.-A/N/i(J' means the power o f ck' ing
anything. C11p1uit1· me:ins th e power o f conta ining an ything, th e P"wcr of rece iv in g ideas, th<.: extent o [ spaQC .
" Gener:il Grant h:1cl tht: 11hi!ity to le;1cl :Hmics." "The
hogshe :id h:is a rapr;rity o f a thousand gallons." "The
crowd filled th e room to its utmost mparity. "
Balance, rei;t, remainder. - Jl11/<111t'1' is a co rnm e rcia 1
term, and mea ns th e differe n ce lJetween tw o s id es of a n

~

-

.

1:
'.I

'"''

.I

,'

J'R nr It'/ FT) "

UJ/ /'OSI/JO.\" . I XJ J RI I!:· !D!.'!C.
:l(Tll lll l l.
Ji't'.C/ :111d l'<'lll1lli11/t-r :He: 11Ji:1L i I ·ft . f , ..
" c " t c1 .1 pa rt
1s t · 1k ·n
J " .1 · .
, c .
' '" i s a ll h >I«.: .::c11c r;1I tcrin t li,111 101111i11dcr;
1
11
rc p rcsL'11 t _: 1 b rg-e or a s 111 :11l p:irt . :111d is applied lo

it

:'Y

11c 1s <>1J s (1 1· tl11 11 ~s .
l1'011ai11./,·r "\.: ncr: tll . r, . '"' ..
" "' :di p:1rt. :lllcl is :1p1 ilil·d t<> t hin •7s
\ \ ' .)
c pl1·estf.ntsl a
' I
.,
f
,_. . '
e "jlt' :1 ' 0 " ( p
I <1 1 " " "
..I ". f t Ile jk «ljllc . ' ·rnd " tl e
· " an. :H·u iunt . .. "tii e· / .1.i
1011,,1111!1·;- ( ,j th e h"ur."
• '
1e
( '/,lll rt l dt' I h\\ li.1t \IC ,\I C. n· h .
Charac
ter
"
. ' re puta t l· 0 n. /,1 /1,,11 '" 11'1 :1L 11 c :11111c:1r t•• j,,' l<> <•t1c·is
I
' e rth"
lt
. "\\ c.1d 111i1
/, ' " " 1<l<r ,,f l .i1ll'"l11 ." .. l .n rd J' I
''
~
.
' " H; rt' Ii. is .t .:.!""d n·h11t1~/1011 :1s ; 1 ~cnL"r ; i I..,
.,
r "
Custo m, I_iab_ it. -- ('11.c/11111 111":1 1 1~· tl1"' f 1" "1u1·nt l'L'j le titi on
:l<'lj'j : IL IS 1'!>1111 11: 11·1-.
;;,,;.I I .b . .I
. (.11 ,., l<>il l ('C>lltlllllCd
.
•
"', s ll";\( I y :IS t•> d L•\'elo p :1 tcndl 'IH '\' ti) jll' l'lll :\ll cn c1· . i• i .
l IL' l ' lcl' l 11f 0 1.1/,1111 ' llHI i
. . I i1'11t:1ry, <>ftc11
.
l s
hl
ilc
.. J
. .
. .
,.. 1111"
u11 co' ntrol'.
. .
.
l 11 :ls :t O t J'./1 111/ ,,f t li e I 11di:111 -; tn ... I
I .
1·1ct 1111 s . '
.. . \ inan 11 1;11 .
·
. st.1 P 1_ 1e1r
:1u1ui rc th e /Jci/11/ of 0 11111111 _
\)

rl : Ill
·t

l ':1tin g . '

1

F em a le, w oman . . . ;.;-111 ,,;.. is t h ..' <>p po sitc <>f 111 11 /c; it
use< I :is the fcn 1i11i11e .,f :111i 111 :ds 11 1 •"e ncn l
IV111111 1
Is the fc n1 :tlc ,,f tl1 e lrn111 :u 1 ki nd
l t · .~1 I · · I~ · ·
"
1 .. II . .
·
·
is · .tc' o l co 11rt csv
u.. c. 1 I.1f 11<1111; 11 1 :1 . k111'1lc
. . . \\'.e ~ Ii1n1 I<I ~:1 i· .... a 7<•01111111 is,
·
\\ ,ill [(;( <>!' t ltl' jll1s1 t1n11." lll' L " :l /,-. 111 ,,k " ·
h

Ma jority, plurality. - . l /,11~ •ri~1· is th e "Tnll' r ' ·t f
\\'hole llllllllic r. 111 .. r1; t l1.111 .lnlf
1"'1 .· ; · I ,11 Cl
. , ti·
. .
' .
. 11111// I ' lll C:lll S
nnI'1e. .. ILin on e, tit ·· ,.."Tc a l<'r n111 " 11c. l....l l H I I".' li.st'( ! Ill
. ·1.
a .' iii .. " ~"' "'". .. r ,.< >t..
'.
dI'"· t it 1t.. 1 '"11se
.
l S II ·I.
II( II <•n c ( " llldl''. .c, _1"c c11·c s <>l'l·r 1! 11>., c r"' ·L·i1·nl by a11othcr, an d i ~ not
11c (.( """·ll
.. ' lll Ore than . two
I'! il y :t 111•1
. . /fl /'//}'
· ' ll'i1<·n t IIll.. e' .llL
a11C i< ates ..." I li e 11111;; 11 -i( I' "f th i.: pc <i 11k :ire i11 hvo 1· of
1, ie 111t·"1'
t1 rc •
.. ji\I I.....:11111· t I1 l'L'Ce ·11·c cl 'l j>l11r t/1't 1· 0 '(
' .
t
'
' ·
vo i.:s
• ' 1·" r j\ I r. !"1ro11·11 :111< ! J\ l r. J"' i" s.''
· . 11
f :111 1111!11·id11:d
. .
f.P erso
. n, party : _. ./",
'. .."' u / 1.s
'< '< 1 "
· }'irr/ 1.
"
. L u 1111pan y 11! 1nd 11·1d11:tb · ln iL i 11 I ., ,.. I I
'
•'
111 :1y i>l' n . f I .
. . .'
' ,_.I anguag(· j>1rr/1·
.. \\ '
. . Ill.
th. jl<.: 1S\llh C1<i)Ct'l'll\ '< I Iii :111 :wr ec lll e ll t
iii! Is th :1t j>r r .co11 \\' lt f) lli lie 111 l'[ I ., .. T h ."' , , . 11'.
C.l llj'1trl)' \ \:I S 1it:turi(IU S."
e . ' l: j ll l ) I-

I.l!I' R OI ' RI l o Tl ES.

Series , s uLcession. - .\ st ri1·s is :t 11un 1hc r of t h i11 ~'
fo llo wi ng unc afte r :1111<1 lie r and mu t uall y rc bti.:d b y
some law. .':i11r«Cssio11 is used whe n th e re is 110 s uc h rela ti o n . lt d e notl.:s o rd er 11i C>ccurre n ce o nl y. :rnd d ocs
n o l impl y co nn e ct io n . \\'e spc:ik of "a Sl'/'1/·,· o f b ooks "
and " a s11fftHio11 of c1·e 11t s . "
S tatem ent , assertion. - A s l11/011 c11/ is a form a l se tting
fort h of facts o r op in io n s bearin g o n a subjec t. An 11sso ti1111 is s i111 ply : \11 :1flir m :lliu n or a d i.:cl:i r:ition o f f:i ct .
" I k left th e sl11/,·m 1:11I of his case to hi s cuu 1be1. ·· " 11 is
11sso·/it111 \\· :is sh"1vn lo he fals e ."
Team, carriage. -- J;:,1111 is prope rl y used "f l11" or
11 1<1 1«; ;i.n in 1:1 ls worki n g toget h er for a ce rt a in e nd. IL
clo l's n o t include th e «arri11;;t:. Th us , 11·1.: m ay spe :1k "f
" :t tram of h o rses o r oxen ,". o r .. a base-ball le.r 111 ,' ' \,11t
\1·c m ust n <•t s: ty that we hir e a h1Jrse and lea111, 111 ca nin g
:1 hn rse ;rnd 1«1rri' t.'{t'.
Verdict, t estimony . - .\ ,-,·nlid is a cl i.: cis in n n f :-i. nu 111 li l· r o f 111c11 :ll't ing :ts a ~ingle body ; ·thu s . ,,.c m ay s pea k
1lf "the ,-,·,-did uf th e jury," o r "th e 7·o ·did o f tltc
publ ic.''
J: -.cti1111111y is : 111 exp re s s io n o f llpi11io11 "r of
kn o \1·!edgc by an indi vidual u r :1 numbe r of indi vid11 :1b
11 "t a cti ng as a bod y; thu ~ , " \\' c lis ten ed tu th e 1<·s/i 111011y uf the wi tne sses ...

:t
I

I)

Admire, like. - - ,./ ,/mir,; 111 e: 1ns to r(';.:;:1rd \\'ith 11·01 Hkr
o r ~ urpr i sc. to m a n ·e l. J t s ho11l d n ut lie I i:--\'(\ in tht·
"ensc.; "f !/!..,. , th :-i t is . of be in g pleased. ·· I ~ h"uld Ilk ..·
lo g<> to th e \\ 'n rld' s J.':1ir, a n d to ttd111 ire th e 11·" rks o f a rt."
Allude , mention. -- · \\ 'c a//J11!t: tn :1 thin g ll' hc n we rc kr
t" it in dir e(' t\ y. " 1· i11" ~ li ~hL 11-. 1)'. \\· e 111 0 !11{111 a th ing
11·h c n we 11 :rn1 c it d irectly. .. i\ la c:t nl ay 11 //111/cs to 111:-in y
thin gs 11·hi c h th e reader d ues not und c r ~la 11d. · ' .. I l e 11f1·11 l io11s sL·1·c ral l' nl e rpriscs in w lii c li he is c nga g l'd."
Calculate , intend . -- J i1 "'t!o t!alt m e:rn s to co n1 p utt:
111 :1thcrnat ically, tu adj ust. J t ,, 1i .. u ld nut he used f"r

1G6

CO.l!l'OS! /'/ ON A .\D N/IETOR!C.

in/,:n 1/, 11 hich llH: ans to h:1n .; a lt·rtain p u rpose in view,
•· l inlc11tl to t:ikc a 1·acallo11 , and 111u"t ,·11/ot/11/c the expenses attending it ."

Carry, bring, fetc h . - ];, ,·,11-r1• nit.:ans t" take alOng
in going; /11 /1n/''' 111 e:111 s to t:1l;c :il ong 111 co ming ; to
f ckh 111 eans to go :ind bring. It j,._ not so 111uc h used
as _fo rm nly. "The pupi l ,·,1r n ;·,/ hrm1 c his book; he will
hr111,',' 1t 111 the morning.· • ".h·td 1 m e the di c tiona ry."
. Claim, assert. - 7 ;, dai111 nH: ans to d c 111and as one's
ng h.t: ·· \\ 'e _d11i111. the pri1·il e;;c of spea kin g at a llleetrn g. or '' \\ c dt11m 11·hat the l:tw entitles us to." To
11.1".<<rt is _to ni :ike :rn :1ssert i" n. to say so n1 e thing- in th e
Li ce of 1nipl1L'd d o ub t.
"Tht: crin1 i11a l asserts his innocence.' '
Confess , admit. - 7 ;, t1t!1111/ is 'imply t" :1cknowlcclge
a th111g 111 whi c h th ere i,._ no idc.1 of 1,J. 1111e or con fess ion .
/11 ,·tJ11ji·.•s is to admit a fault or a "Ill. \\"1.: admit th a~
11ur arg111111.: 11t is weak. Wt: i'o11j{·.•» t l1a t we h ave dune
\vro ng:.
Discover, invent. - J;, t!i.r,-o; ·t,. is to ti 11d su 111 ethingt h: 1t already exis ted. •· (\.Jumbus t!1~•1 ·11;n·cd A me ri c:i. "
Tt1 i11;·01/ is to find srn11e t hi11g- wh ic h did not previo us ly
t:xist , lo crc:ll · hy so n1e 11e11· crn11b in :1t iun o f mea ns,
tu fabr icate. ·· lkll i11;·01l«t! the tek:plt1, 11.: ."
Drive, ride. - - / )ri;·c a11d ride :ire often 11 sed intcrch :1nge:ibly, l>t1t th L' re is a gn1wi11g di sti nc tiu n between
th e two . . \\"l· drh·,· in :t c:1rri:1gc; we nJe o n hors eba ck,
en o n :1 h 1cycle. l hi:·1· "<•t· 111s to lie 11arruw i1 w in its use
while ,.;,/,:seems to h;11·.: :1 brn:1dcr use .
"'
'
Learn , teach. - l n olde r l·:ngl ish k 11n1 :ind /,·,rrh we re
used in th e sa me sense. 1J11 t in mode rn English !t:111"11 ha s
co 111 e to m ea n to a cquire kn o wkdi.;.: ; lcad1 , t• J impart
kn011:Jedge; an d thi s d1,t111 ct 1o n 111ust b.: m:1 ck in good
l·.11g lish to-day. \\'<.: ktrdr ot he rs, but we must /ea rn for
0 11rse k es.
Love, like. - .1.m·c :ind /iJ.·,·: th ough o ft e n ca re lessly
used t he o ne fur th e o th e r, differ greatly in force a nd in

I'R Ol'R!E 7T. J,1//' R Ol' RIETI ES.

167

kind. We Irle or lm ·r a fri end according to th e in te11"ity
nf our feel ing. \\'c lil.:1', neve r lm•t , a thing, such as an
article of food, wh e n we are si 111ply fond o f it , or are
pkased with it. l ./17 'C implies a st ro ng affect io n fo r a
pc: rso n ; Ii/;,-. " i111p ly a prdc rence for anythin g.
Lease, hire. - 7;, lc1 1sc me ans to le t by kase and nut
to hir e: by le:ise. 7;, lrire 111 e :111 s to obta in th <.: 11se of
for rt: 111 u11e ra ti o11 . \\"e li:t 1J·t· a ho use wh e n we let it, not
wh t.: 11 1H; hire it.
May , can. - \\'e us<.: 11111y in asking- or in g iving perm1s,;1on ; we 11 se m11 to d e no te a possibility . "Jl/ 11v I
borrow yom pe nc il ? "
" C,111 yo u perform th e task
:tllo tt c:d tu you ? "
Stay, stop . - S loj> me:i ns s imply to come to a ha lt or
rc:st; .•/11.r 111.::i ns to r1.: m ain fu r any le ng th o f tim e . '· \\' e
sl1irc1/ at the seashore all summer."
•·Man y pt.:o ple
s/,;f'f'cd to get a drink of wa ter fro m the o ld wdl. "
Transpire, happen. - Tn1J1 .' firc mea ns to ·le ak o ut
throu g h unn o ti ced c hannc:ls. lt should n ut be used in
t lie sense o f /111/'/'Cli.
·' lt lr1111.1firtt! that there w:1s t rouble a t th<.: mee tin g ,"
hut c 1·cnts d o no t tr:t nspire; th cy happen.
A J/cdi-;·cs t/Jr,/ ,1drcr/1s.

Aggravating, irritating. -- ,\]th o ugh at th e present cby
rr.;'.::ra1 ·1 1/i11g is sometim es used in the se nst: o f irril11/i11;..',
ih pro pc r meanin g is making heav ier, o r worse in so111 e
way . \Ve may speak o f " 11g;,'nn•11li11g c irc um s tan ces "
a nd o f " irritt1li11,, re marks ."
Apt, likely, liable. - Af't im p li es a n habitu a l te nd e ncy to
cl11 a thin g . o r a read iness in d o in g it. "\Ve are apt to
think that th e world is growing m o re imm o ral. " .1.il.:cly,.
implie s a probabil ity of a n y kin d. "\Ve are lrl.:cly to succeed if we pe rseve re." J.ia hlc implies an unpleasa nt prob;ib ili ty. ' 'Whe n we cl o wro ng- we are /iahle to be punished."
Apparently, evidently. - Af'jJ11re11t/y is used o f th a t whi c h
see m s, but may no t be, rea l ; e1•ide11ll)', of that whi c h both

r68

CO.Jfl 'OS/ TI O.'..'

,i. .\./J

RI/ F TO R/C.

S('e 111s :ind is rc:11. ·' Tl e \\'as rrffaro1/(1· :i m:111 in the
pri1 11 e of li fe .·• .. The su n is cridmlh• th e gre :it so urce of
he:lt in th e \\·mid."
Both, each, every. · \\h e n wc spca k o f tw o pe rson s m
thi11 gs a s ;1 c tin g toge the r. t h:it is , as ;1 pa ir. \\' e use:: bot!t .
" H11lli me n \\"C l'l: noted fo r the ir ho nest\' ." \\' hen we
s peak o f tw o o r mo re pe rso ns o r t hin gs se1; ar a te ly , th at is,
consider th e 111 one by one . 11c use <'11d1 .
.. R11c/1 boy
den ie d th a t he 11":-is :it falllt. " \Vh cn ll' C speak of tll'O o r
more persons or t hi ngs as formi ng a gr1ll1Jl, ;rnd d o not
111 .1ke an y i1 1cli1·icl u:d di st in ctirn 1. \\"C use r;·1· 1:r. "The sun
r ises c;·ny d ay ." F ;·oy cl in:cts atte nti o n to th e gro up :is
a whole ; «11d1, chielly to the ind ivi d ua ls composin g the
g rfJU p.
Mad, an g ry. - 1l!nd propcrly m ·a ns in sa ne , a nd is not
co rrect ly 11 sed in th e se nse of 1rn~'' 'J" " Th e co ntin11:i l use
o f sol\\ e d ru gs 111 a kes me n mild ." .. l l is re 111arks made
L

lll l'. rlll.J..:1: 11. "

·II

Mutual, common. - Afllt11t1! is im prope rly used in th e
sc nse o f co mm o n ; it 111 ca ns r r~ c i procal, pe rt;1 ini ng alike
to bot h s icles, sh:ll'i ng alike; thlls 11c may s pea k of
" 1111!1111 1/ lr)\'e ." "a 11111 / 111!1 insurance cn m p:rn y."
A a nd
B 111:iy be " 11111 / 11>1/ fri e nds," !Ju t C cann o t be a 1111i/1url
fri end o f :\ and 11.
Quite, very, rather. -- (j uitc lll l':rns entire ly; it is not in
good use in th e sense nf rat he r or 1·e ry.
\\' c ll\ ay
say, " I am r;11 1/e s ati sf ied ll' ith h is c xphn a ti o n ," but
no t. "I le was r;11ilt' seriou sly hurt ," meaning •· J le was
r<1ll1t:r ser ious ly hu rt."
Oral, V'.!rbal. - Ori[/ is used of spoke n wo rd s ; 1·e rba l
of \\' P rei s e it hc r s po ke n or 11-r itt.cn . \\' e s pea k of an oral
e xerc ise in di s tin c ti o n fro ll\ o ne th :1t is 7i •r illm. We re ad
a 1·1·r ht1! re po rt o f t he p roceedi ngs :it a ll\ eeti ng.
Splendid, Elegant. - Sp!mdid mea ns bril liant. cb1 zz ling,
gran d . \V e ma y s pe:1k of a " .rplmtlit! pa lace," o r a
".rf'/eJ1tlid vic to ry." F !t::;1111t me:i ns n.: lin l·d . c harac terized
IJy good tas te; as, " Her 11 u nncrs were deg1 ml. ''

PR U !' NJ /:..' T V.

/JI !' NOJ' R/ ET/ l:.'S.

I'rcfo.11/1/111s.

Among, between. - \\/h e n we refe r to mo re than two
pe rson s o r thin gs , \\' e use m111111r;; wh e n we refe r tn tll'O
onl y, be/w een is th e proper wo rd . "I le divid e d the candy
11t11 1111g Jive uoys." "Th e rela t io ns beh<1ce11 the U nited
St ates a nd E ng la nd a re cordi a l."
At, in. - Bo th al a nd in arc used to d e no te th e place
wh e re. \\!he n th e p lace is v ie wed as a me re point , t1t
is used. Jn makes p ro min e nt i-he id ea" within th e bo unds
of. " " Th e boy was at school e ve ry d ay, a nd wh e n he
wa s i11 sc hool, he wa s studi o us."
By, with. - B y is mo re prope rly used to den o te th e
age n t; 11•ill1 to d e note t he mea ns o r instrum e nt. " Ri c hm o nd was take n by G e n e ral Grant witlt a la rge arm y ."

4 . Sli all ::t ncl w ill.

S liould and would.

ThL: mi s t:1k c s th at arc mad e in th e 11 sc of s/;a/I an <l
will, s!to11/d :tnd wo11/d, m ay be regard ed ::ts im propriet ics. So con fu s in g are t hcsc words t o ma ny p eop le
th at th ey seem t o req uire spec ial treatm e nt.
Shall a nd will. - M :rn y grammars t eac h th ;i t s!tn/I and
1eil/ m:1 y be us ed inte rc han geab ly to fo rm th e future ten' c
o f a \'l:rb ; as," .I s!tall o r will co me."" Yo u slwll o r zNil
co me," •·I le sltii/I o r w ill come," e tc . This is no t tru e.
T o fo rm the future we sho uld use slwll in the first pe rso n.
and 7(1i// in th e second a nd third pe rso ns, s ing ul a r a nd
plural ; thus, " T s!tall co111 e," "Y o u w ill co me ," .. H e w ill
co me ," " \\'e s!t all come," " Yo u w ill come," "Th ey will
come. " The alterna tive form expresses something m o re
than futurily .
Th e distin cti o n be twee n th e two words will be be tt er
und e rst ood if we con s id e r th e histo ry of them. Sfwll
and will orig inall y ha d no conn ecti o n with eac h o th e r.
They we re se parate ve rb s, eac h having a mea ning of its

~

. ,.

l'R OI' Nf;;: T l ·.

C0. 1ff'OSJ 7HJ. \ . . l.\ .!J !i'JIFF<ili'IC

170

mvn. .VLt7 //, i111pliecl an obligation, :111d 11;1~ nsed in a
se nse 111u c li like that o f our 1nird ·• oug ht ; " will i111pli ed
nilition , and C< >1Te ,..po 11cled to the Latin " 1·0 !0 " and the
h ·e n c !t "vouloir." ,\ s th e English Yerh had no future
forn1 , s/1rrl/ was used as an :rnxili:iry to express future
act io n . :111d later 7i'ill 11·:1" s u b .~tit ut ed fur s/1al/ in t he second and third pe rson s . pro lnbly ;1 s a m:itte r of cr >11rtesy.
/\ s auxilia r ies they lo st t heir o ri g in al 111eani ng. a nd now
e xp ress ,..i1nple f u t urit y . \\ "he n othcr\\'i~e used , th ey s till
retain tra ce s of the ir or ig inal me aning ; thu s, ·• 1 will
co m e," means" 1 a111 ll'illin g ," or .. 1 "'isli to co ni c."
S(l 111L·ti1nes will i111pl ies a pro mi se or :1 d c te nnin:1tirm.
•· \'011 " or .. he .rl1 1rll coi ne" i1n plies a co 11 1mand o r a threa t.
•·Thou .r/ta// 1wt ki ll .. is a c rnnm:rnd.
To <'X Jlrl' ,.. S futurit y the fo llu\\'in g ruks 111ay be give n
for the use of s!t,1// and 1uill:
I n pri11o}rrl d'"'-'·t's use s!ta/I in the first person , and
7l'ill in tlH.: seco nd and t hird p ·rsons, s in g 11l:ir and plural.
ry
I n .rn/!ordi11,rle d!1 11..-cs sit,;// is gene rall y tlw fo rm lo
b e use d in all pe rsons : hu t if it be a case o f indirec t disc ourse, t hat is , a noun cla use intro du ced by " that " after
a verb o f" saying " and the like, use th e auxiliary that
ll'<>Uld he p rope r if the s<.: nt l: nce were turned into direct
dis co ursl:; thus," 1-lc s:1ys that he s h a ll g<J," .. lle thinks
that y o u will go."
.\· 111 q111·stio11s us e .rl111/I in th e first perso n. and in th e
,.. ecu11< l and third p t:; rSllll .' us<· tli <: :1uxil1;1ry that is ex pec ted in the answt:; r ; thus . .. Shall yn u go to the th e ater
to-nig ht ?"•· Wil l he b e at ho m e " · hen l c a ll )"
Should and would. - ;\;; s/1(Jlt/,/ and 1,..01t!d were o rig inallv hut the pas t ten ses o f s!t,r/i :111d u•1il, we should expect thl:m to follow the sam e rn lcs.
111 general this is
tru e, hut in additi o n th ey h al' e ce rta111 us es o f th e ir ow n.
S!t o11/d is somet im e s u sed in its o ri g inal se ns e o f
"o ught. " as, " V\' e s!to11/d do what is ri ght.;, " \.\' e s!to11/d
d o unt <J o th e rs whaL we w<Ju ld th ;ll 111cn slto11/d du unt o
us ."
.Should is ~ilsv used in a co nditional sense as the

i.lll' N O i ' 1.'l l c· Fl 1,·s.

I/ I

e qui va lent of "were to ; .. as,· · If it s!to11/d r:1in , 11·e s h:ill
go just th e s a 111 e."
.
.
I ViJ11/d is sometimes use d to expres s lul.Htual a c ti o n.
•· I le wo11/,/ often exp re ss hi s o pininns. "
/.Vim /d also expresses ;1 ll'ish; as , .. l·Vo11ld that he Jud dil.'.d in his infan cy ."

60. Idiomatic English. -

En glis h,

lik e

iothcr

gtta gcs, h:1s rn ~ 1n y c 11nstructio11s a nd cx pn· ss 111n s
li:1r tu its c H, kn o w n as

bn JlL'.l' ll -

ii/111111.1 .

Th ese idioms ca nnot he

translat ed litt.:rall y into 11th c r

langu:igcs. and man y of

them will not bear g r:t mm at ic tl a11:1lysis.
manufact ur ed exp r ess io n s , bu t a r c

They a r c n o t

thl' g r o wth of the

so il; and alt hough t h q · arc t h e resu lt , p erhaps, of L·a rc lcssrn:ss

1.

or of illug ic al h ;thit , th ey arc, ne ve rth e less,
hy good u se, antl a rc am(Jng the strongest

sanctioned
and

ml)st

chanc t c risti c

"How cl o yo u do?"

features

of

the

bng·ua ge.

·'\\/h at is th e m atte r ?" "to fall

aslee p," "to lo(Jk out," " to be out of o n e 's h ead," " t o

play fast and loose, " arc com mon idioms o f th e d ay .
Suc h idi o m s L'Xpres s icl e:1s as n o thing e lse can do:
th ey ar c ofll'n figurative, always brid and full of m e aning. and thL·ir use g i,·cs tu dis c ourse a freshn e ss a11d
nat iv e , ·ign r that would oth er wise be wanting.
A li st
of idi om s in good use.:: would include the foll o win g : · --

A s trok e of luck.
T o ge t rid o f.
T o jump to a con c lu s io n.
LI nd e r th e c irc umstan c es.
N o w-a-days .
To c :dl to acco unt.
T o take.: advan t age of.

T o be o f age.
Full many a.
On hand.
To be b e nt upo n.
T o c a t c h cold .
T o turn th e tables.
Uf 111i11 e (:1 fri e nd o f min e).

nJ. 1/! 't) S / F/<J.\ . . / .\ ·/) !.'lll:/'cJ N /C

172

6x. Unidiom atic English. -

I mp"rt a nt

/ '!.'0 1'/i'I F /' I ".

as

l·:n g lish

idiom s an.: in g ood discou r se, th1.:y a r e n o t to be conf used with those comhi11atio11s

of m irds that v iolate th e

1.1//'!.'1!/'N!I·: l '/FS.

l

7)

'vVh y n ot> I s th e re :111 y wa y Ill which t h ey 11 1:11· he
roug h ly grouped? \\' h at re a so n s c an yo u g ive fo r .y(Jur
liab ili ty to confuse c e rt a in 11·o nls?
3. lli s tin g u is h 111 111 e:rn1ng betwee n th e fullu11·i11 g :

genius of the language, t hat is, the En g lish fas hion of
combi nin g

words ; such as , "\ \ ' h:i t fur a m a n

is h e ?"

"l :u 11 des irCJus \CJ e n te r :1 h 11si11 es s ho u se ,"" Th e w indow
g11·l·s 11po11 the l>:1k<J11y.·· .. \' .,11 nuk e m e to feel tir ed,"

" I f l· ldt hi s sc:1ts :il J"l'l'., " l11 r "he kit. hi s dw e llingplacc :1 h"\'l".. Sul·h com Iii 11 :1ti<>11s 1JI. wo rd s a re n ot in
good use, :md , t lw rc fnrc , :ire imprnpr ictics.

Th e s e im-

prCJpr icties u su ally r esult frum :111 attem pt to tra n sla te
a fore ig n language into literal En glis h, o r to a d opt
fo r e ig n

st yle, in 11·hi c h

the

constru c ti o n s a nd

11:1titJ11s CJf word s :ire differe nt from

a

co mbi-

\\'h ::it th e En g lish

l:111 g 11 :1ge :i! !1Jws .
'' (_! u ' :1\·ez-1·01i,.; I " :i n d " C umment
1·111 1s P"rt cz-V <HIS 1 · · :ll'l' ;.:·ood Frl·n c h id io111s, b u t th e ir
Sl·n .se is C•Hnp il't ely }.,st if
l iteral
;.:·ood

c ;erman idiom; lrnt

"\\!hat kin d o f

.. r

trying t1J

m

<>I

<•f

\\'l'

lll : lll

wh id1

Ill

is h e ?..

tr:insht c

introd u c ing

1\·"nls

try t • • tr: ui s ht e th e m in to

.. \Vh:1 t f1Jr :1 m;111 is h e?" may be a

!·: 11 ;.,;- lis h

I·: ngl is h

WC

sho uld

\ Ve mu st b e w :l!'e, then,

any f1 ireig·11

langua ge

lit e ra ll y ,

intCJ "ur E11 glish :111 y idi 11 m at ic
11·e

ha1·e

sa y,

f11 u11d

m

use

s tu dyi11g o th e r

lan g uages .
I .
\ \'hat do you ll lL': lll liy .. prop r ic t v "?
I ro w do
you deii11t.: an irnprupril'ty > \\ ' lt y a r e imp;·o pri e ti es h ar mful / 1-l uw ma y th ey lie a1 ·1Jided ? \ \ "h at are th e c auses
of imprupri e t ies?
:!
ls it poss iule to c lass ify i11 1propr ie ti es d e linit e ly?

ad va nce, progress, and pr"g r ~s s1nn.

:ilte rn ative and c hoi ce .
coup le an d pair.
d e pot a nd ra ilway s t:tl io n.
rni ~ r ;i tion and 1.;n 1i gT; 1tio n .

wo m an and lady .
man a nd gen tle m a n.
house and h o me.
loan a nd le nd.
part a nd porti on.
am ount and numb er .
s c ho lar and p up il.
co ll ege and unive rsit y.
sewag-e and scw e r ag-t:.

h abi t and prac ti ce.

han ged :rnd hun g.
g rant :u1d g in:.
a llege and mainta in.
dc.: c lar <.: .111d ass er t.
c.:x p ·c t :ind s uppose .
d t:c iin ;1t .c and d e sirm'.
ti y a nd Hee.
·
r e pa ir and me nd.
b eg in and co ml11L'nc1 -.
se ttl e and loca te.
conte mptibl e and contemptu o u s.
each o th er a nd u11e :1nn1hn .
c leve r a nd pleasa n l.
less a nd fewe r .
11.,ted a nd 11 n t o riou~.

·I · ;\l:i kc St lll ellCCS ill u,,tr;1ti11g the Cll lTl"l"t u"e .. r
e :1 c h <lf t ill' precc tli 11 g \\'O rds .
S· ]11,.cr t th e p rope r ll'nrd i11 e;i c h of tli1 · f11\l11"·i11 g
sentences :
1 . l\lr. Hrown is l rnildi n ~ a bea utifu l (ho11s<'. h<Hne ) in
l\rnuklin e.
o. \V ii i th e (par ty. pe rson) who fo und :in 11m lJt" e lla in the
U ni " n (dep<>t. s tati on ) ret urn th e s am e t" th e .,fl ice ,,f th e
Compan y?
.3 · Th e (test imon y, verd ic t ) of hi s to ry is th at C hri st ian ity
h:1s d one mu c h for the (adva nce, adva ncemcnl l o f c i1·ili 1.:11i .,11.
.1. Th e r iv er at thi s po int i..; a (se ri e s, su ccessi o n ) 1>f rap ids
whi c h 11L1kcs it d iffi c ult for small b oa ts to pa ss.
5. Th e Cove rn o r in his Th an ksg ivin g proclannlion as ks
th e peop le to abstain from th e ir us ual (vocations, a 1' oca ti on~~
un ·rhanks g ivin g- Da y.
~
6. \\' e are pl eased to (sta te, s ay) th at th e ne w C ity lla ll
is appro ac hin g (comp le teness, comp le tion).
7. Th e s;1vages fell upon us so s udd e nl y th a t tn a tt e mpt
r es istance wo uld h ave b ee n th e (ac t, act io n ) o f a m adman .
s . Tl1 e (obs er va ti on, obsen·:rnce) of a few ru les o f h ea lth
wi ll p rolo ng life man y y ears.

Ii4
I•

,;l
:I

Iii
i!
11
'I

'iI

'

1!

/ ' R OI' Rf;,· TV

C0. 11/'!IS/T/(I.\ ". /. \"/ ! N/l/:·10 N /C.
•1. Two
(p ropns:ds. p rnpos iti ons l we r-..' s 11ln11itt ctl fo r
c on s id e r at ion at the List nw e ting:.
ro . Hi s (c har ac te r. rc 1111tat i(; 11 ) amo11" hi s fri e 11d s is that
o f a n honorabl e busi n ess 111:111.
"
1 1. H °" was deepl y (e lfe c ted , aff ect1.: d ) br what s he had
told him , IH rl it did not alter his reso lutio n . ·
1~ - The: king· co11ld n c 1·er be persuad ed to emp loy that
(dt:script 10.n, l51n <~) ol llLlll Pell \·e ring- in his ca 1npai~ ns.
1.) .. J\n 1n1·1ta1 1on 11·:1s (g:i1·en. extendrd) to him to co me
:111d v1s 1t th e m w h ene ver it .s u ited h is rnn1·enience.
1.1. I le was g r eatly 1:1.gg:r:11·at nl. init:1lcd i hy th e 0111.co m e
of th e aff:ii r .
·
15 .. T he part y w:.1s 1·en anxill11s to o cn1pv the (ba la nce
r e m ;und_e r) n f the trm c 111 !reac hing:. d is cove rin g) th e farthe1'.

r;1n .~e

of. nlounta1n~.

16_. Th e teac her con fessed that h e was :i very (ap t, lik ely)
p11ptl, b u t added that he troubled her greath· . b ec ause h e was
s" (apt ,_ liabl e ,_ lik.e l/·) l<> get int• l trn11 hle .
· ·
17. !-.ve r y (rnd 1nd ua l. perso n ) in th:1t 1·ast assembly wa s
mov e d to s y rnp at h v with the speake r .
. 1 ~ . i\ ly friend i\lor r i"1n (cons id er s. thi11ks) the piano the
k ing· of 1nst r u11 1ents.
. HJ. Two months before the e lec ti on we (p r edicated , preclwtcd) the r es ult s w l11 c h our news columns announ c ed ycs terclal'.
(1.

Cu rrcct th e

i111 prop r it:ti cs

111

th e

fo ll ow in g-

p:ts-

sage s : . L
"Si r. " sai d a man to ll r. l' a rr. ·•I k\\·e a ro n te mptibl e
op1n1011 of yo u ." .. Th:1 t d(lcs n ut surpri se me," r t' pli ed the
I >oct or; " :di yo11 r o pin io ns :1re cn nt emptihle."
~- A ge 11tkm:111 w h o h :i...; lr.1rl exccptio11alile o pportunitie s to
oliscrn· tli e tre nd of Jl< >litic: d f,.elin g i11 th e wes t. s t a tes th a t
tl wrc is n o doubt that the l{qrnhlica n c a11didat e s will b e
.- kc tcd .
.1· J\ g-re:it pa rt o f the cong regation ldt th e c hurc h afte r
th e s e r vice, but th e b:tl:ince rema ined tu t:dk ove r th e se rm o n .
-I· Several years h:\\·e tr anspi r nl si n ce I 1·isit ccl the spot,
a nd I 11 11 dcr s tan d th e re h :1s b c t·n : 1111· m1111i>1.: r o f c ha11 ges .
5. I lieg to a c k n owl e d .g c the :wccptation of , ·our book. I
have 0 11l y pa rt iall y c x :1111i11 cd it. hut I admi r e "it ve r y much ,
:i11 cl propose lo spend many a spare ho1 1r in r e adin g it.
(,, "Ca n I lea ve th e room? " .. No, yo u ca nnot, unless
you want to st o p a fter s c hool."
7. \ •V e engaged a co u ple of m e n tu t:tk c o ur b aggage to
the depot.

! 11! /' N O l 'RI L' Tl ES.

l

i5

8. S ur h w;is the \·ink- n re uf th e sto rm th a t n one o f th e
p assenge r s l1opcd the vessel co uld o u tlil'e the ga le.
9 . \ Ve h ;1d a ni ce tim e yesterday; th e wea th er was n ice,
th e lim c h wa s ni ce, and n ·e r yt hin g was n ice.
10. I\ soc ie ty for t h e promotiu n of goud c it ize n s hi p has
latch· het:n in:rngu r ated in Ho s to n .
1 1. I han' excep t io n a l1le oppo rtun it ies fn r making good
in1·es 1111 e nts. and c la im to g in : s atisfac tion.
12. I confess th ;it I h ave n eve r atta in ed a g reat quant it y
of perfcr t i• lll in th e a rt .
13. I\ disp:11 rh from l.11nd on sta tes that Sir Th.,mas L ipton proj1oses ill issue a n ot her c halle n ge fo r t h e cup.
q . The st r ike of the coa l-min ers, wh ic h it was c l:ii med
would tr anspire yest e rda y, failed t o materi a li ze .
15. The :uh·e n t of so large a corpo ra t io n in to thi s loca lit y
is ; 111 u n look ed -for facto r in the s itu a ti o n .
16. It is hop ed tha t th e g- uilt y pa rti es will be a pp r e h e nd ed
durin g th e ba la n ce of the week.
17. Th e loca l dramati c co mpa n y scored a d ec ided su cc ess ;
th e play was ele g a n tly staged , and th e pa rt s we r e splendid!\'
tak e n .

7. Di st in g ui s h caref ull y betwee n· ' shall " :rntl .. wi ll,"
"shou ld" :rncl .. \\o ulcl . " Ci1·c rul es fo r t he u s t· o f" shall ,.
and .. will" in exp ressi n g- future nc ti on _
J\lt:ntiun a n y s pec ial u ses o f .. should" an d ·'wo u ld.' '
I 11 th e following sen t ences in se rt th e pro p e r fo rnt s . - -.. s lt :tll " o r .. \rill. " .. s h o uld " or " would "·
1. You (s h all. will ) k now to -murrow th e re s ul t of th e g:rn1e.
-· \Vh e neve r sh e di sn h eyed she (s h o ul d, wou ld) l>e
pu11isl1 cd.
.l· 11 e s:1 ys he (shall , w ill ) h e pr ese nt at th e meeting-.
-I· I I e say s hi s broth e r (sh: dl. will) lie pr es e nt al the

n1 ee ti11 11·

5. ff we (s h ou ld, would ) v isi t th e sce n es of o ur c hi ldhood .
we (sh ou ld . 11·011ld) line! m a ny c han ge s.
(,. Th e tim e is c omi ng \vhen we (sh a ll , w ill ) ha1·e to go
so rn tw h e re else fn r o ur coa l.
7. He pro mi ser! tha t ou r t runk (shou lcl. w ou ld) be h e r e IJy :six u 'cloc k .

s. l >o you think 1·o u (shall. will ) go with us to-mo rrow?
9. (S h ;i ll, will ) I send yo u th e lett e r if it (sh o uld, w o uld)
C<ime?
10 . (Should, would) yo u lik e to co m e to d in n e r , ii yo u had
th e tim e?

"'

C<J_ l// ' (I S//'/11.\" _/ _\-/ /

r7 6

N/ /F/'(I/,'/(".

S _ Co rrect \h t.: follu 1r i11 g se nten ces. if n ecessary
1.

! 1',.

•!

!

'I 1'
11 d

l, l!
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d
.; •I!
iI •l.

I
jT

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~-

I a sked he r \\'hethcr she \\' OUi d com e a g-:1in_
I f he \\'i ll com e to-d a y. sho ul d n>u be willin g to see

him ?
:; . On r cct.:ip l o f thi s . you will immediatel y r e por t at
headqu arte rs.
4 ... l'ercha n cc 1 ll'ill h e the re as soon as you. "
5. \V e r e we \\'r it i11g- ior the 1-:nr::lish public, wt.: ll'nu lcl g ive
it but a para ;;-r:tpl >.
6. 'vVhom s hall th e I Jc nrnc:rats 11 o minatt- ; :1sks :t dai ly
pa pe r .
7 ... I ll'ill s11n 11 er Ju,·c a he;1rd gr" ll' o n the p :tlm of m y
li:tnd t\1:111 h e shall g e t 1111e 011 hi , c heek. ' '
·' · T n - 1110fTO\\' ll'C will ullc r r.. r ,;:1k all of o m s tock o f
neck ti1·s :it r edt wcd r:tks.
'I · I 11·01dd lik e to go t\l l< •\\' ll. :11 1d sh ould do s t> if I
co uld (
10 . Sh ould th e y 11 ol :tg r«<' to th e pro pos al s, 11'ii:1t wo uld
I do ?

'J· \Vrit t.: se n te n ces in ll'hi c h c :t c h of the f(J \l n \\'ing wo rds
is e 111pl oyc d foll o ll'ed by th e p r epos iti u n whi c h it t:1kes.
l n th <.: c as es uf th e \\'li rd s :lft c r \\'h ic h se,·e ral prcpos iti o 11s
:He gi ,·e n , wr it e se nte11 ccs il ltt str:iting th e prt>pc r use of
the word ll'it.lt each uf th c nt.
1\ blwrrt.:n t.
J\ hhorrclHT.

/\ cc1, unt a hlt.: (lo . fo r).
J\cquicsct:.

A dmi ssio11 (/•'· i11l1i).
Ad v: tn ta g-e (11_/; 0 1•a ) .
i\~ree ( 11 1110 11,[;. i11 . lo. 1t 1 /t /1 ).
J\111liitio11s (11fl«r.ji11 ·, ·~/J.

J\ nsw e r ( (11 r. 111 ).
J\ttend (1~1 . 11fi"11) .
\lar g:i in (/i1r, .,,,///1 ).
C :tll (al,_/;,,., i 11. "")C areful (/If i11).
C oin ci d e .
Ctl ntpati h le.
C olllplain.
C 111 1 r1 1r nl.

C<Jll lll'\'I

(I,,_ 7,-1//1) .

/'!-.' !) / ' NIE Tl·.
Partia lity (jrir. to) .
!'l e ased (al, 7,,///1).
P oss essed (liy. of. wit !t) .
I 'revent.
J{ejo ice (a l , i11).
Reproach (willi , /11r).
R eq ui s i le.

1. 1! /'N O ! ' NI!:'/'/ !:'S.

1\ gg- ra\·;1t c .

U eg rad e.
1\n ta~un ize .

L11durse.
Appro1·e.
l<cc kon.
Caleu late.

7/

R e ward (!'}',/Or, wit/1).
Se c ure (rrgni11s t , _Ji·om , of) .
S ignificant.
Vexed (at , w itlt).
W eep (a l , for) .
Yearn (for, tow a rds ).
Zealous (for, i11 ) .

1 0.
v\'rite senten ces illustrating th e co rrec t use
lo wing wo rds.

Cha racte r.
Li111it a tion.
J\ vocatio n .
l'rom in en t.
IO: es ide n ct.:.
l ' l11r .tlit y .
S it e.

I

,,f th e fol-

Loca te .
Prove n.
Propose.
\ -Va nt.
J 're ced in g.
Immin e nt.
J'oste d.
Adv a n ce 111e nt.
Compl e ment.
l.Je c is i\'e.
l< emain der.
Inv e nt.
Palt:nt.

C orrespond (111, 11• ill1 ).
I IL" lic ie 11t.
l Jcsiro 11 s.
I )iscu ur;lgt.:.
I ) isti11ctiun.
Jo:mulu us.
J-:q 11:11 (///, 7,-/1/t ).

L :-.oner; l lc.
( :ric,·e (<1/._Jiir).
I rn rre.
J11ill (///, 'i<'il/1).

.,, il lcd (/1y. 'il'ilft).
l .ist1·n ( Ji1r. /o) .
l\I a s ter \· (1•/ 117Hr).
~I ilit:it~ . .
N (' \'essi t I' (11/: /;11 ).
( JI •jn:t i11i1 (1/.1:·,i i11s/ . /11).
ll pp11si IC".

:'

17S

CllJ\l'TER X.
so 1 .1 ·: c1s~1s.

I'

SULlo.CIS.l!S.

CO. l/l'USI F/(},\" . .J .\ .IJ NJ/I:· TONIC

62. Solecisms. --·- The employment of expressions
th at viobtc the bll's of English grammar is the most
distincti\·c m:irk "r the unlcttcrl'(l m i11d, and is tbere1« •re to be :t\'<1idnl \Yith th e greatest care.
Such
11 1 1 .~r:u nm at i cal e\Jircss 1<111s, or errors in syntax, are
tl'<·lrnic:tlly kn1i11·11 in rhetoric :is solais111s. Theoretil·ally the pup il wh1> h ~1s come to the stud y uf rhetoric
111:1y lw s 11pposed to h:11·e mastcn:d the principles of
sy11 t:t\ :111d t•> need 111> further d rill 111 correct gramm:1tical cxp ressio11 ; practically 11-c arc all so much
influ enced by the careless speech "f the day that
ll'e ofte11 fall i11to constructions that arc 1111t in accord
ll'ith the pr i11 ciplcs of Ln.~lish speech. ··Grammar,"
s: 1ys Uc <.Jui11cey. "is so little of a pe rfe ct a ttainment amongst u.;;, th at, with two "r three exceptions,
we ha1·c llL'\·er seen the 1nitcr. through a circuit
of prod igiol! s reading-, II' ho h: 1s 1111t sometimes violated
thl: acc id ence of J.:nglish .~r: 1111111:1r."
It is \\' Cll, therefore, to fix in the mind some 11f th e spec if1c and comm on
errors, that 11·c 111:1y h e 01 1 our )-'.ll:lrd against them .
" I IL: d 1i11't,"" "Y"tI was," .. l see n," are such cr ucle mistakes th:it it seems almt•st unnece ssa ry to caution

1

79

pupils against th e m, and yet just such solec isms arc
continually s urprising us in the speech of those 1,·h()
should k11rJ1v better. It is possible to give here only
a few of the more important' instances of g rammat ical
errors whic h occu r in the speech or in the writing of
the careless and the ignorant. Bearing in mind 11·h:1t
the sent ence 1s as it has been clL"fined on page S6, the
pup il should take care 111 his ll'riting t•> be s ur e th :1t
cvny word has a definit e g ramm a tical relat ion in the
senten ce.
63. Nouns and Pronouns.
Errors in the use of n o un s and pro no uns may iiL'. ccn1siderul undL"r two heads, er rors of case a nd err"rs t>f
number. J\s nou11s in English have 1·ery little il'lflL"ction, mistakes in the cases an.: not fr equen t ; but as
pronouns ha1·e rcta in cd their infl ect iona I fonns t<l a
greater extent, the possibility of using them incorrectly
is mu ch greater.
M)//llS.
1.

.1::-'rrors i11 CcTSe.

Tlie / 'ossessi7 •e.

1n using the possessive case great care must be exer-

cised in p utting the apostrophe whe re it belongs. The
possessive si ngu lar is formed by adding ' · 's" to the
nominative ; thus, " lad y 's," not "lad ie's," .. Di ckens 's,"
not "Dicke n 's." But a proper noun e nding in '' s" may,
for th e sakt: of e uph o ny, take the apostroplw alone; thus,
"Snc r;1tes'.''
The possessive plural is formed by adding
th e apostrophe to th e nom inative plural whe n th e latter
ends in "s," but ot herw ise it is form ed like the possessi1·c:
singular; thus," boys',"" men's," "childre n's."
The possessive case of compound no\lns an<l ex pres-

·~..

1 80

t D J!l 'O S / !JO.\" .·!. \D Nll ! :IUJ.'/ C

s1on s used as co m po und no uns is fo rm e d hy addin g Lh e
proper s ign of tht.: possessi1·e to the t.:nd o f th e co m1)(;t1ncl;
th.us, " bro ther-m -la\\' 's, " "\\"illi;im th e C o nqu e ror's. "
\\h e n we have l\\'O nouns in tht.: p osscssi1·c c;1se, ont.: in
appo s1t10 11 w ith th t.: o th e r. the sig n of th e po sse ssive is
usu a ll y put wnh th t.: st.:co nd. but ma 1· be used ll'ith both·
thus ,
cl o wn to Slllith th t.: groce1\;," o r .. Go down t~
:::im1 t 1is th e g roct.: r' s ."
Jn usin g th e possi.:ss i1·..: f•mn of suc h cxprt.: ssi o ns as
'· so n~ ebody _e lse" o r" :rn yhody ebe ," ll'e may sa y" so meb o d y s t.:lst.:" <Jr " so 111eb(1 d y c lst.: \ ,"' " anybod y' s elst.: ," or
"any bo d y e b e' s" The ru k s o f ;::-1am1ll ,11 f;l\or tht.: lirst
of the two forms, but good usa ge se em s to ha ve ad o pted
!ht.: s eco nd .
If sevc r;i l n o u ns in th e possessi1·e ca se qualify th t.: sa me
n o un, and are conrit.:c ted by 1111,/. the posse ssive s ign may
b e used 11·1t!1 tht.: last o n t.: n nl y ; thus. " M e n , wo men ,
and childre n s shoes. "
But if co mmon possessi o n is not
im pl ie d, o r if th e posses s ive 1Yo rd s art.: jo ine d b y so llle disjun c t iv t.: te rm , the possess i1·e sign must be use ;! ll'ith eac h
word . . <>ccasi o nall y the se nten ce 11·ill be m o re e lt.:gant if
pos s ~ s s 1 o n. rs e xp ressed by th e use of th e pre pos itio n
.. of . a nd 111 so m e c:ises by bnth th e prcpo siti n n :rnd the
rq(t il: 1r po sse ssive C:lS(' ; th us, "I l o w do yo u lik e that
nc\\' ho use o f J o hn 's ? " Th e phrase " of I ohn 's " is a
nT<•g ni zc d En g li s h iclirnn.
·
Th e possc ssi1·e c: 1sc 11111st not he 11,;1:d as coe xt e nsive
\\'i t h th e L_atin g eniti 1·t.:. ,\s a g en e ral rul e, th e possessi ve
cas e 111 l·,11gl1sh sh" uld d c n o tt.: mvn t.: r>hip o r possessi o n,
and sh o uld not b e :tppli ed to ina11i111atc ohjt.:cts. We 111 ay
sa y " t he boy's. boo k," but n ot '' th e c it y's ind e btt.:dn ess, "
fo r tht.: latte r is a so rt o f perso nifi cati on o f "the city, "
\1·h e 11 n o su c h pt.: rs o11 1fic;it1 o n rs m tcnd ed. In su c h cases
it is ht.:tkr to use th e o hj ec ti1· e cast.: with " o f. " \Vt.: may
a !so say " th e !'re sid e nt's rt.:ce pt io n " whe n it is th e .Presid e nt wh o rece iv e s , but if so 111c o ne r eceiYe s the Pre sident
11·e s ho uld sa y .. th t.: re ce ptio n o f th e Pres id e nt ;" tha~
is , if a no tm refe rrin g lo a pe rsun be u:>ed s ub jec-

·:Co

SOL J:'C / S M .S.

18 1

t ivt.:ly , it m :1y b t.: put in t ht.: posscs-; iv c c a st.: . hut if it J,e
11st.: d .,1Jjecti1·e ly it must b e put in the nhj e ctive case with
"of. '' Thu s \\' C m ;iy s pc:1k o f "Irv in g 's 1·is it tn ~t r:1t f.,rd, " hut nu t o f "th e strik c's b eginning." or \\T 111:1y
sa y . ":1 go\ll l s tor y of Lin c oln's " (one that he told ) ;11 1d
'· a g ood s to ry o f Lin co l11 " (u nc told ;1bo ut h i111 ). T he
obj c cti1·e g c 11iti vc w:is :111 :1dmissililc constru c ti"n in t he
:\n g lo-S;n• >ll , hut it h ;1s no w beco 111t.: o h so ld t.:.
\\'t.: 11H1 st di stingui s h c iref ull y betwee n th e 1-c rl i:tl ll< •lln
in .. in g ·• :111d t he p rese nt p:irt ic ipl e in" in g.· · Th e fr1 r1 11er
is use d :is :i noun and th e latt e r a s an adje c ti\·t.:; c<>n scqu t.: ntl y 11·he n th e 1·e r b al n o nn is u sed th e s ubsta11t11·t.: 11·hi c h
prcn:d t.: s it , :111d \\'h ic h i,; u sed as th e a cti vt.: agL·11t . sl10 ul d
h e in t ht.: po,;sess i1· c c:ist.:. Thu,; 11·t.: rn :iy s :1 y, "\\·e lookl'd
for hi s c rnnin g.' ' but su c h co mm o n s e nten ces :i s " T he
probability nf him helping them was sm:ill,'' arc not c•1rre c t. ' ' I l c lping " as h c rt.: u sed is an :1clj ecti1-e m ncli fying
" him ; " co nse qu e ntl y th e se nt e nce has no m e:rnin g: !lilt
if \\' c think of .. he lpin g" as a 1·t.:r bal n o un , as th e m e anin g
sho\\' s it to be , and chang e" him " to " hi.~ , " the s t.: nl c nct.:
b ecom e s c le:i r .
l'n111c11111s . ·Mi stake s are fr equ e ntl y 1nad t.: m tl1t.:
us t.: o f th t.: no min at ive :111d th e obj ec ti ve c ases. Noun s
1>r•:SL' nt 1w di flic u lti c s in this re spe ct, but as pron n 1111s n ·t;1in their infl ec tional forms, \\'e ar e liablt.: to bcco mt.: careless in th e ll SL: nf th e two c ase s. i\ftt.:r prepos itions \\'t:
should i> e espL"c iall y careful lo us t.: t.hc ohjec-ti vt.: f"rn1.
\\ 'e 111 ust say " bet \\' et.: n yo u and m e,, . n o t .. bt.:t \\' ee n yo 11
:1nd / ." " an i111·it:tti o n fo r you ;ind m e," not ' · :1n in v it; 1t io n for yo n :rncl /. "
It is srn n c till1 L' S di1ll c 11lt tu d ec id e \\'hi c h e:ise o f t he
pron o un to use afte r th e ve rb l o /1,', but if \\' C rt·n1e111 hc r
that th e n :rh to/,,, is fo llu ll'e cl by th e s:1111 c c:1s1· :1s tl ut
\\'hich preced es it, \\'t.: shall have littl e trouble. Th11,; 11ht.:n
th e pro1HHl1l full O\\'S tht.: t-inite ve rb it shnuld he in th e
11 0 111i11ativt.: c as e ; as ," lf I \\' e re I!,,,'' or "if 1 had b ct.: n
/i 1• .•• \\°h e n it fo ll o 11·s th t.: int-initi1·e it sho uld usually h t.:
in the o b jcc t i1·e e;ist.:, :is· .. I s upp(Jst.: d it to be him. "

t'.

.,;
!.

'

.

.
{

18 2

C0. 11 FUSI /JU, \ ' ./,\"/J N II F /'U RIC.

l/!10 anti lf"/1 // m . - 1':1·en th e lll<> ~ t card11l write rs and
spea kers o fte n f1ncl d iflicult:· 111 d ec iding promptly upon
th e prope r G ts e o f th e re Lt ti n: :rnd th e interrogative.
\\'h e n 7<'11 11111, eit her re l:iti,·c o r i11t c rrugative , pre cedes th e
\·c ri> of \\'ltich it is th e oh ju·t . tli l· na tural te ndency is to
use th e non1i11atin: i11 its pl.t ee: thu s, " 1/ 7 /to did you see
J:i,,t ni ght 1 " o r .. I le co uld JH >l rem e mber uilto he had
given it l o," :ire typ ic:1 l ex :111 1ples <> f the use o t w h o for
1.- 111/1111. < >ccas ionally th e \·c rh tJf th e s td lo rdin a te clause to
whic h th e pron n un IJclo ngs is 0 111ittl'd. k :l\·in g it d o ubtful
\\'ltcthcr :t Ji nit e n·rb u1· an i1 1ti 11itin; is to be supplie d. Jn
;.uch c as e s it is 11su :ill y i>ette r ti> :1ss11m e that the om itted
, ·e rb is an inhn iti\-e: ihus. "\\'c left the \' ;1luab les with
l\lr. Blockk:y . 1, •/111111 \\'e tltriu g ht (l o be) :t thoroughly
h rrnest man. " is l1cttcr th:111 "\\ 'e ldt th e va luables
n·ith 1\1 r. Hlocklcy, 1,•htJ \\'C t ho ug ht ( was) a thoro ughly
h n nt:.~1 man."
., Hr1 ·11rs i11 .1V11111/11·r.
Jl/i1 1111S. That no un s i11 En g lish us ua lly form the ir
plur:tls in "s ., h as bccu m e ;;o impressed upo n o ur minds
tha t \\·e a re apt to as suc iatc :111 n o uns endi ng in "s" with
tli c plu ral and all n1 1u11s not ending in "s " with the
si11g111:1r. This gives ri .'e to 1n:111y e rrors. \ Vt: must re111l:11 i11cr tli :1t lll>l all 1111tt 11s fo rtn thei r plttral in "s."
Nrn111s o f f" rc ign o rigi11 11s u;tlly n; t;1in the plural form
\\'lii c h tlwy lt:iv e in tltt·ir ""'n l:i11gtt;1 _i..::c : thus , al1t11111i,
rtfJii. ,111t1!r:ffs. ,/,J(,,_ f /1,·11,111101<1. ;111d /, 1/11!'1 111.\: a re plural.
( )11 the othl'r hand. \l'e hal'L· 1n:1ny n<iu11s e nding in" s"
,,·h ic h :ire singul:1r , fo r 1:·x:t 1nple, 110 ..s, m o 111s (il n instrurnent ). :rntl f11i11s.
N1 1u1b i11 .. i,·,, ... s ud1 :is ethics, 111atlu711,1fi(.1', folilit".1·, ;rnd !t1.li,-s ;ire tt s u:illy trL· :t te d as singular,
\\'hilc IJ,-,11/r;11arli'rs, 1111·11.r!t's, :111d ,, /m s :ire tre :1ted so metim es as singul:tr, sn111eti111es :1s plt 1ral. .. The lJ nited
States" is prope rly reg; rnkd a s s in ;.:ul:1r. :1lthuugh some
\T ry good auth o ritie s tt se it :is plur:11. < ·r,Jlec ti ve n o uns
m:iy b e rega rd e d ;1s ;,ing ul :ir or plur:1I :1ccu rding to th ei r
;,ignill c 1ti(!ll.
J'ru1101t11J-. - - .-\ pronoun m1 1q :i g-rc e \1·i1h it s ante ced e nt

/11~> ti1rn, "" Nobody sh o uld prai se l11111 selj.
vVh e n th e ante cedent consists (Jf tw o o r more nouns in
th e singul:ir , conn ect e d hy and, expressed o r 11nplt e d , the
pron o un s Jwu Id h e m th e pl ur :tl ;_ ,,.ht·n _ th e n o un~ a re
separat e d by (Ir, 1111r, or an y o ther d1siun c t1 ve, the j)l f) lll H lll
should h e in tile ;; 1n gtt lar ; thus, " Jam es, J o hn , ;ind \\ _tlli .1rn
are 0 11 1/tc:ir wa y to ;;chonl ," ;in d " Jam es . j ohn , o r\\ il\ 1;i n1
is o n /11·s way to sc hool. '' lf the :rntcc.edcnt is qua\il1 e d
by ca d 1 or r;·r·1)· the pronoun should be lll tli e _srng11l a r.
Such e xpressions :ts all)' /Jiil', r,1d1, e7'f'I)', ol/1<·r, 111J!/1rr,
a 11y/;orly, r• ·ci ) ·horly, and 11oh1>il) ', when used ;is :1nteccdc11ts ,
r equire a singubr pron o un; tl111s , .. I las a11)·!101(1• :1 pencil
in /11~, p oc ket? " .. J:::1 ·ay 1111e has /us troubles. "
Eadt i1!/11' r is us ed wit h refe re n ce to two persons or
thin g s, 11 111· 1//10!/1,.,- ,,·it h refe re nce to mor e th :m . t ,,. <~;
" The gut:sts g a,·e one '"'"Iller mem e ntoes of th e o ccas 1011,
is prefe rab le to "The guests gave ear/1 otha m ementoes bf
th e o cc;ision." So m e ve ry good a uthonttes , however , use
th em in terchange:ibl y . Eith r r is one of _two ,. any i.s 011 c
of a 11 y num be r. ./\1o 'tln-r and 11011c are dis t 111 g u1 ~hed in th e
saine way. ./\i/J11c is also used 111 th e plural '. ·'.u111 ber; :1~
"No11 e an.: so l1lind as those who \\'ii\ not scl'.
J.f//11d 1 :·11HI fh,rt arc often c onfou11dt·d h y i11expcrie11n ·d
writer;;. Tlte ge11 e ral rule i.-, to use u•l11d1 as cxpl:in:ll'.'ry.
th;it is . to i11 tr~i dtt ce a 11 e w f:tct , and tlllll :i s restnct1\·e.
th at j,,_ t<1 limit ;in idea already exp re;,~t:cl. I n '>ther
w o rd:'. "hen <111J " i h the pcr'>{,n .d prtin.,u11 it r,r tli<_>. ( .tn
be ;,uh~ i ukd f, .r t he rt:lati\·e. lhc 1;·/u<h. Th us. ·· I le
t ook all the \,.,_.\.;.-, "hi<.h \\er· <;n the a\ ,ic;_· · llu::.in-, ~hat
h<:: t(~Jk a\\ the Q..:,,_),.~..~- a nd h .;t t hey "er e <111 t he t.lu l~:

h 11 if '": ~-"._ · ·He t<'• 'k a \\ t he h· ···;. .h.n '" "'" en l ;'.c
u b \e." . "" l~eJ.n tlut he t•X>k (•n\ ~ tho-:-< b<•·ks \ut \\ere
<in he uh\c. In ,.. ,me C:l:-c '. h ...•\\eYeL e uµh .. n ~ dem.ind ,
t he u~e 0 { -;, ·/;i.-h in :-te.Hl. of / /;. 1/: 1h11:- .... Th.it t-><.--..)k wh ich
yo u ~puk e nf ·· ,,n unds better t h;i n ... That book t h:.it Y"u
~poke ,,f."
f'/1,1! is pre ferabl e afte r S11111r. •n:r. ,1//. t he
intcrrog:11 in· ,,,;,,,, and th e s up·~rlattves uf 11·e1ght , m e~1::.-

~ ~;--:
~:

SOLE CISMS.

(the noun \\'hi c h it repre sents) in number: ,:· Let each t:ike

6
~.· ~ ~
)

'
,.

. :I

".

r

.'

)

!.

'·
c i

·.,

(,

.\.Of.EC/ .'l'.J/S.

·0.11 I' US! II(),\ ..·I,\"/! Ii' 11 ! :"f'O !"IC.

ure, and val ue; "the verl' book that l \l'i shecl," " the
largest river th;it 1 saw ," e tc .
64.

The Parts of Speech. -

The u se , ,f one part of

c;pccch fur alluthcr is a raul l aga inst 11·hi ch iL would seem
that

no cautio n is ne eded, !Jut c1·en a "liberal ed uca-

t ion" m ay not keep a 111:1n from us in g- the noun s11spi,·io1t for the n .Tb s 11sf'1·(/, or fro111 c;:ty111g, "It seemed

Ii/,,·,- the time 11·1H1ld 11c1·cr <:" me,'' for " It secnH.:d
the t im e would 1H:1·er ,·11rn e.
:t ,.; imil ar ki11cl ;11 ·e

11s

if

C <>untk,.;s (ll h er e rrors of

tu be f<>lllHI in the m>rk of th e half-

cclucatcd \'.·T ilers of the day and g iq; it th e sta mp of
dlill.:ra cy .
. · l rl;~·dir,-s 1111,/ Arlnr/1s. - -- Jllo.rl. ll'hi ch is :111 adjt.:ct ive or
;111 intcnsi1-c, is frequt.:ntly u~ed fo r the ad1·c rb 1ilmo.1! (see
Sec ti o n 59. 1 • .'\ djec ti vcs and .- \d l'crbs, for the di sti netio n
l'. d11·t.:e 11 _mos/ :ind ,i/mosl) . This fault is espec ia ll y disf1gt1 nn g 111 such exp ress ions :is, .. I mos! alll'ays take a walk
before i>re:1khst ," o r " l :im mu.I'/ dt.:ad. I am so tired ."
The adjL·ctive ,i;·1}{Jr/ is ofte n us ed fur the adverb well, as,
•· I arn feel ing ;;110,/ " for .. I am feel in;.:- 7<•dl."
Th e adjectil'e real is used for 7·o: r or l"l'1rl~1 · eve n by
t h n.~e wh o :H e ot he rnise careful in their s peec h ; for
<"X:!lllpic," \ Ve h a d a 1'<'1 1/ good ti111L" ... ~ hould lie .. \\' e had
:1 7'1'1)', o r :1 n·11/~ 1 ', good ti111e."
Th e p red icttt.: :1djecti1·e is uftn 1 used for tht.: :1ch-e rb , or
t 1i,_. adverb fo r the prt.:di cate :1djcct i\'C. h ·c1 1 c ulti vated
pL'1·sons :ire someti1nes in d o ubt ll'l 1ether 111 use an :1d jecti1·t.: nr an adverb :1ftt.:r Cl' rtain \·er bs . \\' L· s:i y properly ,
" I le s ee m s h:1 ppy." b11t no t, "I It.: 11·mkecl luppy," and,
" Th e ti o\\'t.:r sme lls S\\'eet," ll1Jl. " Th e il<>\1"Cr smells
s11"Cetly." 111 genL"ra l we n1<1y lnve less clillicu lty if we
re m e mb er that th e q11:1lifyi11g 1rnrd 11lwn rderring to the
subject of the \·cr l1 s ho uld be a11 adject ive; when re-

fcrring to th e \'erh. it should be an adv e rb , t.1,rns, we s:1y.
.. l l e loo k ed a11· .,-v " and " H e spo ke 11111-;n!i'.
In th e se n ten~~', " l l e feels badly ove r th e affair,' '_l1 11d~1·
is preferabl e to bad, as th e Litter mi g ht g1vt.: rise t<>
ambiguity.
.
_
Vi·r/1.1 1111 ,; Vi'r /la/.1.- Th e indi cative mood is often u sed
wh e re the subjun ct ive is preferable . Th e d i ~ti n c ti o n b e twl'e n the indi ca ti vt.: :-ind s ubjun ct ive bas been lesse ning_;is
t he L111«u :1ge bas lost its in l-\ec ti o n a l form s. Th e hmn l'd
\\'ritiiw,.,o f th e n ews pape rs h as co ntribut ed furth e r to t his
r t.:s ult~ but. good write rs :ne ca refu l to avai l th e 111 se lves
,,f th e subjun c tive to express s hade s of_ m ea ning t h:it
ll'ith n ut it are n ot e:1sily ni:1 cle clear. \\h e n a senlcn (e
or a subord i in te cb u se ex presses d o ubt , a wish, 1ndec1s1nn,
or a futu re co ntinge n cy n ut a quest io n , its verb. sho uld he
in th e s ubjuncti\' e. 1\ co nd itiona l c la use \\' hlC'h _is n ot
future and n ot contr:i ry to fa ct, is, h Ol\'e\·er, Ill the rnc\1 c at i\'e. 1n the sen te n ce, " If I 7UffC he I sho11 Id ' n ot fu1 Ii>\\'
that plan," th e ve rb o f the subordin ate c\:1 11 se 1s properly
subjuncti,-e , since the u1 nd1t1<1n Is . con trary t11. f: 1ct. In
•·If that 1<•1 rs kno\\'n to him he did \\'lsely 111 co nt1nun1g h1~
marc h ," it is assumed that the co nditional c l:rnse is tru e.
and the \'t.:rb is therefore ind icative.
The use of th e perfec t i1ili11itil'l· aftcr tlw p:1~l ll'11~e .,f
the finit e VL'. r b is a very co n11110n e rror. The l'"Y 1,\io
say s, " I ho ped to ha \·e grn;: ··· re all y decl:nes tl"'.t ,l_w
h oped atter it \\'a s too late .
1 he ~enll' lH '<'_ s h1> uld i>L,
I
hoped to go," sin ce t he te ns e o f the 1nll111 t11·e mu s t_ lie
det ermint.:cl hv its rcl:i ti on to th e trn1 e .,f the p rm c 1pal
\·erb an d it is h e re a fu ture rel:itio11. Th e n:rl> 1111xl1!
may of course take tht.: perfect or prl'~e11t i11ti11!t i \·-~· " "
sense require s. '· I k 011,!_'.ht tu h e 111nre c:1ret11I. .. \ "'1
oug ht to have looked after. hi111." :_•re both cnrre <'l.
\)11\
th ~ e rro r o( us ing all auxil1 :1ry \\'Ith 1111xlit. c1·e n :111lll11 g
educated 111 en, is a commo n fault. " I l e hadn't ought to
h ave d one that ," is ungrammatical. because 1111g/i/_ 1tse lf 1c;
a hnit e ve rb and c :111uul take the auxili:iry /111.!. \\hi< h lli. 1)
lw used only \1·ith the p:-irtic iple.
0

'. !"'

''.4

/'·~

1·u. lll' US/ll(}X ../,\°/} lt'/l/: / 0 lt'IC.
0

Cen e ral proposi t io ns th;lt make no distin ction as to
ti111c shou ld be exprc::-sed in the prese nt tense, a nd whe n
th e s1;tt e 111ent (Jf the tru th is i11 a subo rdin ate c lause the
tense of th e prin c ipal n ;rlJ d oes no t affe ct that o f ' the
s ubordinate verb. .. ( )11 e of the lirst c he llli ca l facts we
lcan:.ed \1·as th a t water 1:r co m posed of oxyge n and hydrog e n , is co rre ct. although at hrst th ought the past te nse of
th e pri11 c ipal c Liuse mi g ht seem to requ ire a past ten se
i11 the suburcl i11 :lle clause.
( :are must be uke 11 to disti11gui sh be t11·ce 11 the present
:rnd the futurt' tenses. \\' e ofte n sa y urcl essly, "I sltrr!!
/,,. h;1p py to a ccept y1n1r i11vit:1tion. " whcn we m ea n , .. I
11111 h;1 ppy to a cce pt your i1w itat io n.·· or· · I r q~ret th at a
pre\·1uus e 11 g age lll c nt 1,•i/I pr,·7·c11t me fro111 IJei ng p rese nt ,"
when 11·e m e an, ' ' I regret th;1t ;1 prc \·io us engage 111enl
pr,-;·01/s m e fr o m be111g present.··
!\ n :rli is s ingu l; ir or !1Iural a ccu rding to the sense of
its subjt·c t: .. Th e c h:1ir111 a n and the sc -rct;ny 7<Yl"I' c hose n."
· ~ Th e ed it or :rnd p(let 7i •,rs gin:n a recept io n ."
In the
t1rst of these sentt:11 ces th e ch :1ir111a11 ;rnd th t: sec ret a ry
arc t wo d1stlllct perso ns , and in the s1:co nd the editor
;111d po et arc <>Ile. h ·eq uc n tly a singular no un is fol11>11«.:d b y ;i plural e xpre ss io n, qualifying o r pare nth e ti ca l,
a 11 d the tendency is to makt.: th e ve rb plural to agree
\\' it h this e xpressio n . This, of co urse, has no justific ation,
but ofte n it will b e found better t" e hangt: th e sentence
s o as t• > ;in> id th e sugges t io n o f pluralit\". sin ce a se nten ce ll'hi c h at lirst ;.ee111s to lie incurrcct is unpleasant,
e 1·e n thougl~ .;1 st:umd re;Hling sho ws that it is gra1111n;1t1 c al. ·· I he w1;.h of 1ll ;111 y otlwrs 1r;1s 11·hat inliuciwe cl hi1n ," .. I l e nry I.aw, ll'ith a 11un1hn of his fri e nds,
h;1 s f1 >rn1 e d a lll'W telephone compan y, " arc co rre ct scn1<-1wes . Th e second . ho 11·e\·c r. \\"(lllld lie bette r in this
fo rin : "I l c nry Law and a 11un1 1Je r of his friends hai·e
for me d a ne w tt.:lcp hu ne cn rn pa ny ,'' u nless the wri ter
wishes espec iall y tn e n1pha,.; izc th e :--11h" r<linatc relati o n of th e fri ends in th e c11tc rpr i;. ·. t"11ileLtivc nouns
arc folluwed by plural 1·crb;. 11·he n th e thin gs for

whi c h th e no un stand s a rc tho ught o f as separa!I' parts
o f t he wh o le. ··Th e army 7<•r7:i s lo w in takin g posi tion ."
and •·The army tu a man Wl'rt: dis,;atistied with th e
ar rangements fo r di st ributing the plunder," are bot h corre c t.

65. Redundant and Incomplete Expressions. .
By a rcd11 11da 11! ,-.rprcssio11 w e mean an expression t h:1t
is n ot needed to compl<.:tc the se nse ; in oth e r \1·ords, a
11 11
·
e .x1)ress1on 1s i110J 111f>ld1·
supe r fl u o us e xpress1011.
1'
when som c word , >r words are olll itte<l which are ne cess;1r y to compl et e the co n structi o n o r th e sense.
/\ no un like ··man" o r •·boy" whe n refe rrin g to a
cbss should not h;wt: th e article 11 before it , e,.;pec1ally
after th e e xpressions /.:in,/ r!f and xoil 1if. \V e say pro1wrly ,
•·That sort o f man, " no t .. That so rt (Jf a man ," Uf" . ·· I le
is rn it wo rthy th e name (Jf gentl c m:rn ," n ot "l l e is not
wo rth y th e n a m e of a ge ntl e man -'.' ( >n th e oth e r h:incl .
th e omiss io n <1f the d e tini te o r th e 111deftn 1te aru c lt: 1s o ftc::n
th e occas ion of ambiguit y. \ \'h e n sc1·e r;1 l wo re.ls 111 th e
same constru cti o n refe r to persons o r thm gs which must
be co nsid ered se parat e ly, th e ;1rti c le should b e used befo re
eac h . l n th e se ntence '• It is //t r: ho pe of th e statesman
a nd o f //1e scholar, " it is clear that th e s tateslllan and th e
sc holar are not one perso n, ;1s mi g ht be properl y und e rstood if the sente nce were written witho ut th e second tire.
;hus, •· lt is th e ho pe of th e s tateslllan and sc holar."
Likew ise we should say " I have a history an~! . a geullletry ," otherwist: we should unders tand the l11sto ry a nd
"t:ometry to be o n e book.
,.., Wh e n refere nce is mad e to a c b ss as a whril e a11d ;1s
distin c t fro m o th er cl::isses, o r to a parti c u lar o bject rep re
se ntincr the class , th e d e finite arti c le should be used, as ,
0
.. The clog is my favorite ani111 :d; " but the n u 1111 s 1111111 :rn d
wo1111111 are used witho ut the art icle.
· Ie 1s
· use d as an ·,1l)~tra c t n o un , it 1s
\\'hen the partt· c1p

.'

"·' .
I ' '

..

i,.

.,

J

·I

('0.l!l'<IS!IJOX .I. V J> !1'/IF/"O N!C.

P 1~~ceded by .the delinit e anick and fo ll o\\'ed l)y the
ptepos 111011. 11 , but 11·he11 used :1s a gerund both arti cle
a'.1d prepos1t1011 are o mitted .. thus. "The reading of books
11111 not necess:\rily. res ult 111 c ult11re." .. l lpon he:IJ'in o111y na111e he recognized 111 e...
"
Many of the co mm o n IJl'epo<;itions. such :is"" ;11 ;"· 11p
t1 i ·,·r , etc., are o ften used :i.s :1dn: rhs. after 1·e rb s'. and ar~
ie dundant, thus, "The tir111 failed "/'·" "\\'e will d o this
later ""• " :rnd "The que,.,tin11, if 1:x:1111 in l'll i11/11, co uld lJe
eas 1lv :\nswered ··
Tl1e. use of 11;,,; before a re l:itin: pronoun is superfiuous
1~·!1e11 ,.1t . ~loes no t. con nect . the r e lati1·e clause to a precedint, 1elat1ve . c lause hal'lng lik e rela ti on to a co mm on
a1.1te.ced.en t, as Ill th e fol lo\\'in g sentence; "The picture
H.: 1nmd t:d .H.q~ of an old l·lenush p:11nting in th e parlor
(If Dorn1111e \an !:icha1 ck, 11111! ll'hich h:1cl bee n brotio-ht
o v.e r from l loll:rnd :it th e tim e of the st:t tl e ment." bln
thi s c ase the sentenn.: is irnprnved hy leaving out the
1111,/.

'J'he use of a d1iuble su li ject is :111other fault of re dundancy found 111 _th e " "' rk 11f carekss \\' rit e rs. as, "Th e
h(lfse , she \\':ts ll'lghtened :incl r:rn :111·:1y." The d o ub le
"ubjeCt i.s :1 co mm o n constructio n in th e English of lll' O
and thrc e cen turi es :igu. In th e King J:i1nes ve rsion of
the H1hle, \\'e t·i nd "The wo man 11·hon; thou gav est to
he with m e, ~h e gave me of th e tree. ;rnd I did e:1t, " but
such a co nstruction ts no ln n.,·er i11 '"'"cl us.
The f:1ult o f emp loy ing a 1~ir:1se ;,r a d ep~·nd e nt re lative
cl:t us e. as .a. s ente nce. h:1s be e n n1it iced in a preceding
c h.1pk1.
I he m e xpe nen ce d 11rJtn should guard against
tins f.iult. Son1ct 1111 es the re lat1 1·e h:i s nc> uther a ntecedent
th:rn !he genera l rn e:rning nf th e pr•·< ·e din g- c lause, as in
· "I
,tlk
.. _followm"
·
,,., ·'. " I"'
); tl11"s n11
s i:1p t I1e c1·inn e r party was
u 1.o ke n up, whi c h tro ubled our h11,.,t l"..: ry much." This
us.1ge has. the san c ti o n of som e good \\'rite rs, but the genera l practi ce of th e mo re careful is ag:1inst it. The fa ult
ca n 11sual ly be re med ied by the s imple cle1·ice o f addiiw
:in antecedent fur the rebtive. thus ... LJy this mishap th~

S O l . l c'!JS, l!S.

dinner p:uty 11·as hrnken up , a result 11·hi c h troubl ed o ur
host 1·ery 111uc h."
i\ fr e qu ent and 1·ery unpl e;isant Liult of some writ e rs is
that of omitt ing a ne cessary part uf th e verb. This usually
o cc urs when two distinct auxiliary ve rbs are 11sed with Oil<:
participle tu co nq.ilete thern both. Ji the :1uxiliaries tak e
th e s:une parti c iple after thern , this will d o; but if th ey require diffe rent participl es, this constructiun 11ill 11ut answer,
;is in this , " l 11e1·e r have and never sh:il\ do th:it. " Evid e ntly. as th e sentence is expressed. ti/I is u nderstood with
l1r17'r:, an absurd co nstruction.
Th e se nten ce should read.
" l never ha1·e dune and neve r shall do th at." This fault
of o mitting im purtant wo rds assumes m any forms , often
peculiarly vexing because o f the diffi c ulty of supplyi n g the
n t~ ces sa ry words ll'ithout makin g th e sentence st ilf; but
s uc h a sente nce :is th e one here qu oted is e n ough to de stroy a sen s iti,·e read e r's ple asure for m;iny pages.
Uther words, such a s prepusitiu ns , adverbs, and ,conn ectives necessary to th e const ructi o n, are so m1.:t imes
u rnitt ed: " If yo u want su mething d u ne , wri te /\ your
friend.' ' "\'ou loo k vny /\ pleased ." \\' e c:1111H1t he
t<"' ca rd u I in a 1·oiding suc h errors .

66. Connectives and Correlatives. - - The u se of conn ectives Ill an impropcr sc11sc may easi ly obsc urc the
tho11ght , or give a shaclc of m eaning not int ended.
The ru le of English speec h , that two n egat ives mak e an
alTi rmati ve, is v iob ted by the writer who uses nor for or in
:i c lause th ;i t alre:1dy contains a n egativ e. " lie co uld not
be co n tent to go nor to stay ," sh o uld h e," Ile co uld no t
lie conte nt to go (Ir to stay ," since the "nut ' ' modifyingth e prin c ipal verb is a nega tive fo r th e whole sent e nce. 1f
we expand the infinit ives to finite ve rbs in a like sente n ce.
" I le w:1s not will ing that he s hou ld go or that he should
stay.'' the same law holds trn e. ( >ccasionally the force o f
the negati ve will be ex pe nd e d in the lirst clause, when the

'

',!'

"I

ii

COilf!' ()S / Tf()X A. \ ·JJ Rlll:: T U R! C.

I;.
iii.\i
II

1.
l.i
i
\:

secon d m:i.y requ ire 110/. " He did no t go at tlire e o'clock,
a s he had intended. no r did he start that n ig ht."
The correct pairs o f co11junc ti 1·e parti c les ur co rrela tives
a re 110/ 01111' - /I/I I 1t/s(}. o'tl1t·r - or. 110//10· - n or. etc.
l t is :l ~o mm o n e r ror 11·it h 1·ou n~ \\'riters to use /111/ as
t.h c co rrclati\'(.; w it h 110/ /lllfr. , H11/ 11!10 is the co rrect expressio n . s in ce th e first of th e two co rrelat i1·es , 11(} / only,
implies that th e re lati on hc t\\'ee n the cla uses o r phrases is
d is tin c tly n ot clisjunct il'(: in suc h so rt a .s to req uire /;11/
:i!o n e . " l I e kn e\\' 110! 01111' " ·h:i.t should he dn ne , /111 / also
how he coul d do it." illustrates this 1·e n· \\' e ll. the second
c lause being in th e \\'ay (J f additio n to t.h e preced ing an d
requiring 1111d rath e r than /ii//. if the 11/1 / 011~1 · were rem oved a nd c ho ice had to be mad e het\\'ee n th e l\\'O.
Jn the s:i. m e w;w 11·c ,..hou ld use o'llil'r - or , :i.nd neitlier
- m1r.
It is in co~ rc c t to s:iy " I l e no't/1,.,. kn o ws or ca res
wh:i.t becomes of him ," and " It is nut rit/1a :igreeable
11or co nvenie nt for m t: to go with yo u. " \\'e s ho uld say
rather " I l e 11eilho· kn ows nor c ares wh :i t bt:comes of
him." and •·I t is 11,;it/1.:r ag re ea bl e nor co nl' e ni e nl fo r me
t o go wi th yo u."
IFitlio11t and 1'X(t'J'/ a rc prepos itio ns. and s ho uld not b e
used for the conjun c tio n 1111/es.r. " I ca nn o t do thi s witlio11/
your he lp."•· J ca nn o t do this 11111«.,j· you he lp me ," illustrate the distinctio n in us e bt:t wee n them.
A s is preceded by so in al l ncgatil'e stn tements, otherwise hv as. J t s ho u Id nc1·c r be used for t/rrr/. The fo llu wing: s e nt e n ce illustrates the cu rrect use uf the two
wo rds: •· lt is as good a.1· co uld b e expcl'ted , but not so
good :i.s you promisul. " Th e f:wlty us e o f as fu r that,
a n ot unco mm on mis take, is sl11111·n in this se ntence :
'· l do n o t kn o w as ll'e h:11'l'. any re a son for bt:l iev ing that. "
The use o f as as a rclatiH: pmn o un foll o ll'ing s11rh in
th e same c l:rnse may be 1wted .
Careless writers ofte n select th e wrong prepositi on for
th e sh:i.d e of m e anin g ll'hi c h they wi sh to ex press. T erm s
indi c ating co mparis on employ different preposit io ns to indicate diffe rt: nces in till' mann e r o f ma kin g th e co mpari-

SO!.!:' C/S.lfS.

son.

Th e 1·crb to i'11mfrrrc is fo ll o ll'e cl hy th e p re p os itio n

1,,;1/1 to s ho 11· di:grec uf exce lle n l'c , and l1y l o Lo show re -

s e lllhlan ce. .. J le co mp;ned th e Capitol :it \\':1sh 1ngton
'i<'illi ot her g reat buildi ngs of the \l'orld." :· \\' e m1 g-ht
co rnp;1re :1 g reat ri,·c r sys tc 1n lo th e arteries o t t he.hu m a n
IJ ody ." The 1'C rb to 1/J/Ji-r tak e s wit/1 wh e n th e dtlfe rence
is a 111atte r of o p inio n , - "1 must con fess t h:i.t l still
diff t: r 7,,,//1 y<•U in tli:it m:1ttc r," - and fro111 o r 111111111;.;
11·he n it ha'i to d o \1·ith :1ppe aran ce o r with f:i L·t. .. In pe rso na \ c ha r:1ctt: ri sti cs th ey diffe red g rea tly 1T1l/ 011,:; th t: m seh·es. ' ' .. The v differed .fn1m eac h o th e r a s 1J1u c h :i.s
broth e r :rnd si;ter ca n ." Th e acl jec ti1·c il!/fi·rrn l s ho uld
b e fullo 11 ed l1\· jim11 and not \Jy tli 1111.
It is to h t: ~t: nH: mbe re cl tha t /1,;hee,;11 should be used only
in relat i<>n to tll' O objects, th oug h buth of th ese m ay ha1·e
th e plural fo rm. .A111/111g s ho uld be u sed when th e ~ ~Lt ­
ti on to be exp ressed h:i.s to do with lll o re tlnn tw o . • I he
prq>os iti on 1!(( is fn:que nt ly used in co nn e ct10n with .fr<111t
o r '!/ " I It: j umpcd 1!.lf .from th e liox .. 1s a co ns tru c tl <in
th :1t is b(lth a\\'k\\'ard :111cl in co rrect. On e prepos 1t1 on 1s
s uf1 ic ie nt , and it ma y be said that , in g-e ne ral , wh en two
pr <: pos iti o ns are uscd properly togethe r o ne o f th e m 1 ~
rc:ill v :1n ach·n b. as in " 1 It: c 1111 e down fr om the hill.
Ai'i'o;·di11;: to :i.ncl ot he rs of lik e c hara c te r are phrase prepos itio ns , and not se\'eral prepo sit io ns used toge ther 11·1th
th e ir ~t:pa r ate 11\ ea nin g-,.;.
. .
.
'J'h n!' is :11 w th e r f:t ult in thl' use o f prc pos1t1 o ns :ig:i. rn s t
whi 1·h it is m c1 re ditli n ilt to ~ua rd . a fa u lt il\u str:1t ed in
thi s ,.,e nt t: n ce : .. \\ ' he re did ) o u take th e paclc1ge to?"
If 'lil'l'i' , ;ut :Hh·erh. c;1n11 o t p ro pe rl y he th e objec t of a
pre po sitio n . A substa ntiv e s hould h e s ub sti.tut.ecl; o r the
sl' nte n ce s hould be re-writt e n wllh the um1ss 1o n of th e
prepos itio n "to."

67. Miscellaneous Errors.

.

An obsc ur e vicla ti o n of th e rul e th a t two n ega ti ves make
an atlir mati ve is th ;1l in vo lve d in th e use uf 1111/ ll'i t h the
wo rds /111n//r , sr11r.dy, a nd /i11rr·~r. "Th ey we re hardly ab le
t ime ," t:xp rt:ssl' s the diffi c ulti es cxpe rienct.:d
to get linc

;m

~~~~·· ·:::-t'·-·~:.:;"-·

.

·J'h:_:.

!

11

. d!
1<)2

CU. lfl'OS/TJ1>.V .IX/J J.'IJF/'1JN/C

in co ming: and the 0dditiun <•f :i n L·g:itin.: ... 'l'lH.:1· were not
h:udl y :1f>le to get here on time·· d ~: ni cs th L· diffic ulti es instead of m:iking th em more cmph:itic. :is the ll'riter intends.
1\11 nt he r co1 n1n on L'rror is th e use of //1,111 after s uch
ll'ords as !t.rrrl~r and _.. ,,,,·,·dy. 1:,, r cx:1 111p lc : ·· ,)i·ari'l'~I'
had the clo uds clearl'd :111 :1y t/1.r11 the s1111 c;1111 c out."
T/11/11 i111 plies corn p:ni so n. :rnd rcqu ires :1 n ad jcr·t i1·e or an
acln·rli of comp;nisnn hcfnn.: it . \\. <: nuy propt:rly say,
" 1 \1i1 ·"""110· 1"1d the l'i<>uds clc:1rcd ;ill'a)' ll1r111 th e sun
c:11 ne ou t. ' . .-\ ca reful di,.,ti11 ct ion sh11uld h~ 111:1dc between
t.hc con1p:1r:1 ti1-e :rnd tlic s11pcrl: 1ti1 c deg rees of c01 11pa risor1. The c1Jmp:1rati1·c clcgrl'.c is used 11'\ie n t11·0 pe rsons
(Jr things arc co mpar t:rl. :111d the supcrlati 1·c when more
than t1ni :ire ni1 11 p:11·cLI. \\'l'. nuy say " ( >f two ev ils
cl111nse thL· le ss ," :rnd ·· < >f sc1·er:1l e1·ils c hoose the le:1s t. "
\\ 'e ,.,ho uld hl: e qua lly c arcf11l t" ;11-r.> id gi1· in g l·o 111 pa rati vc
:rnd superLiti1·c fur111s W :1d jcctil'l:s :rnd acll't.:rbs tl1:1t are
i nc:1p:1i>le of compa ri srni. Su c h acljec ti1·cs :b dt'r11/, pi:1ja t,
1111111111111111.1. and i11."1}1ll«r/t/,· cxp n.:ss absolute q11:1 lity, and
arc therefore in c:1 pa blc uf dq.~rn·. It is ridi culous to say
that one thing is rl<'rl rk r o r mr>n' fr·1f'd than :111other.
\\'h :ll 11-e nic:lll is, th:1t one thing i, 111111-,· 11r'1ll ·lr rlc1rrl o r
J/11 )/'t' ll/'llr~1· f'r·1fid th:in :111(1thl'L '
.
Th e pr()nouns in .•·,·(!. su c h as mys,·((. !ti111sr(f. l1<'l'sdj,
t/11•m.l'e/ws. "ho ulcl nut he used for the CCJ1Tcsp1inding pe rson al pr.,nouns. \\'e n1:1 1· S:l\' co rr ccth-." l\ly brother and
I 1\' cnt <lilt f"r a \1':1lk." n;,, .:l\ h · !Jrotl;,.r :rnd m1·s1·lf went
out fur :111·:1lk." The pron11u 11 in· ..-,·l,/is used pro1)crly either
for emp hasis or rL·ll .. xin·h-. th:it is, referring to th e subject of th e clause in 11·hich it st:rnds.
\\' c ma y s:iy. " l
111yself s: t11· the a cciden t." and ·· !le g:11·c him ,,clf up to
th e :rnthorities."
T he adje c ti1· e pronouns !Iii.• :ind !//fl/ should :1gree in
nu111her ll'ith ll'h at th ey limit or represent; thu s ll'e say
"Th:1t kind of people" 1J r ··Those kinds of peo pl e ," and
"Tint "o rt o f thing," not" T hose sort of thin gs."
\\' li e n /11 is used as :1 p:1rt of th e i11liniti vc no wo rd
should intcn·e ne hctll'ee11 it and th e 1·erb ih .. lf. The use

S()/JCfS,lfS.

I

93

of the" c left infin itive.'' :is it is called. is g:im 1ng ground.
but the sa nc ti o n of good use ca nn ot do all'ay with th e inhe rent all'kwarclness o f su c h se ntences as the follo11·ing:
"1 l e to ld th e scout to carefully reconno ite r a nd tu
pruniptly repo rt." \\' rite rs of th e better so rt do not yield
tu the temptatio n to e mploy su c h loose phr:1sing.
!'Lice th e wo rd 1111/p :1s ne:n as possi bl e to th e \\'Orel
wh ic h it rn ocliti es. "ii e o nly would lend me the book,"
ma I' be interpreted in t 11' 0 ways.
.\dl'crbial phr:1ses sho uld h e c:ireful ly placed.
" I le
might hav e gone on his bicycle, ll'ith g reat p rop ri ety. or
with his carriage," is an instan ce u f ca re less arr ange ment.
A pronou n s ho uld refe r plainly to its a nte ceden t. ln
the tw o folloll'ing se nten ces th e re is room fur d o ulit as tu
thl' m ea ning: "I le sholl'e cl me a bo x in his d e~k ll'hic h
he ld man y treas ure s." "John could not·go to his lirothcr
bec ause he had ve llow fev e r.''
•
J\1·oid cunstn;ctions in ll'hich th e subj ects differ in per·
so n ur number. "Neith e r \ ' OU 11.ir l a m respo nsi ble,"
~hould l1c ".Ne ither of us i~ respo ns ible.''
:EXERC ISES .
1 . Define a ~entc n ce .
What d o you thi n k to he the
impor tant po int to he co nsid e red in th e d e finiti on? Why
ca nn ot any gro up of \\' o rds co nstitute :1 se nt e n ce?
2 .
l >e li11e a solecism. Wh :it d o you u11dcrst:111d by
"an e rro r o f co n stru cti o n "o r ' ' an error of syntax " i ])u
solc c i .~ 1n s properly belong to rh etori c?
\\ ' hy should they
be g ive n in a c ha ptcr of rh e to ri c?
3· \.\'h :1l d o yo u me an by infi ec tion ? or .what d oes
th e infi ccti o n o f nouns consist? H ow does this co mpar e
ll'ith th e inH ec tion ci f pronouns and of verbs' How d oes
the inflec ti o n of no uns in En g lish co mpa re with the intl ectinn of n o un s in othe r languages with ll'hi c h you arl'
acquainted?
4. \Vhat e rrors :ne we liabl e to mak e in us ing n ouns
and pronouns ? \\'l1 y is there mo re liability to error in

'1

·'
,,,.,

:

'1

"'

U >.Jfl'USITJO.\" .·I .\ "I) NII E TORJ C.
u s 111g. pronouns th:ln i11 11sing n n11 11s > J !<1\1· wn 11 !d your
:111s.1\u .ippl) .to the use of .\·erl>s > \\hat do you m ea n by
.1 1e dun cL u1t lXprcss1un ? An incomplete expressiou?
1
S· \\Ii.it
is the regula r rul e 111 Engli s h for formiiw
the pl11ral 11u1t1'1er of no uns I
I lo\\' do you account fo~
su c h ! > ~ur:1ls as m1·11 , rl11'/dro1, 1'.ffll. gase and mire/ Bring
'." _the cL1ss :1 li st of n o uns that are used o n ly in the plurai,
.ilso :1 1 1.~t of nou n s ending in" s ,. th :1t arc singul;ir.
G. \\1th the h el p <1f the d 1ct 1o nary \ITite th e plurals of
th e f"llv\1·1ng n o uns: --·
stratum. ('t1rri c u l un1, :rn irnalcul e. ind e x, :ilu!llnus, m at helll:1t1 cs_, b c :111 , pheno111e11 0 11. c he rub. dictun1, datum necropolis, e rrat un1 . lan· :1. \·e rtcbra, maxi 1nu1n, rad ius
sL:me n , . spe c trum , hypothesis, analysis, :tid e-d e -c amp:
focus . 1g n 1s -btuus. oasis . c ri sis, adde ndum .
\\ ' rite the poss<:ssi1·e case . singula r and plural , of:
f.1n) , _lady , m ous<:. ox, man, w oman, \\'itn c s s , princess,
thief, Di cke ns. Jn ncs. llu rg-css. brothe r-in -law. \.\ ' rite th e
po ,.,sess11·e ca s e o f: .J"n cs t hc gron·r. l'rinc <: of W-1 ! ·
II o ug l1ton, J\•! _.11 i 1·Ill<"\: Co ., m:rn -of-11·ar. S1nith and Th o mas,
' es,
\\ 1 illi :11n the Lonq11ernr.
. X. 1\kntion the different kinds of pron o uns.
Make :i
list of tht: pcrsonal pronouns. giring the no111inatii·e and
the ohJ<:Ct1ve c ase s. singular and plur:il, uf ea c h . Disllngu1 s h b d \\' ee n 7<•110 and 10//11111. w/111 and 1el11dt, w h o»e
and of wh1d1, 1•..f11d1 and lh11/. M e nt iun the pronouns in
s,·(f. :incl te ll ho\\' they shnuld be 11sed.
9. \\ 'h;1t _is the difference bt:tll'ce n an adjective and an
ad1·e rh ?_. \\ liatd o you unrlerst;rnd hy co mp:1riso n ? Why
sho11ld some adJ1oc t1\·es :llld ackcrlis ht: m ca p :1ble of comp:1nson /
I l o w would you di ."1ing11ish het\\' te n a ve rbal
nuu11 and a pre s en t parti c ip le?
1 ?· \\"rite the prin c ipal parts of the followinrr 1·e rb s:
awal\C, bear, begin, bid. burst , cloth e , dare, d o ."eat, Ae e,
Hy, go, l ie . lay. sit, see, take. go. drink. si1w. rise throw
\\' "
.
,...
,
.
. 1 1-_. , rit e ~er~tences us in~ th e p:lsl tcnse and th e pa st
p.utH _1plt. of e :i c h (lf the foll o \\'1ng 1·erbs: bear. b id , d o,
eat , g 11·e, clrn 1k. Ii..: ( reclin e). see. cli1T. SI\ i111. se t.

. ?-_

195
1 ~ - Correct the er rors in the fullowing ,.,1.:11k11Cl: s, :ind
be prepa red to gi\·c reasons for your cor r..: c tirn1 ,.. .
1. /\ i\l ississippi teacher writes us savini.: that ;it
1hc
Cou11ty institut e a 1\lllllhcr of the teach ers a g reed t•> eac h in vest five dollars of their own mone y in a libr :1r y for th e ir
schools.
~- H e wished to h ;l\·e been present but he kn e w th at he
had ou g ht to sta y at home.
3. 'IN e were most there.
·
4. This kind o i an expression is ca ll ed a substant ive.
5. They d o not want to do th e work nor to ha\'c an yon e
else do it.
(1. The jury was of widely diff ere nt opinion s in rega rd to
th e testim ony of the last witn ess.
.
7. They did not know :is th ey would com e until ju~t before
starting;, :rnd so wed id n ot expec t th em.
0. l t looks like the y had not yet found o ut th e prope r
m e thod of mixing-th e ing;red icnts .
•). vVe found th e ne w play different than w..: li:vl e xp ec ted .
10 . Hilar y jumped off of th e car while it \\'as r c t in m o ti o n.
11. Th ey did not know \\'her e the book \1':1s :11.
1 2. That picture lo() ks lik e you do bdnr..: yo u h ,1\T co m bed
your h air in th e nwrni11 g;.
11. \\'h en th ey first tried to cross the bridr:e th ev found it
wo\iicl no t supp o rt th em without it was re pair ed.
1.1 . \ Ve were surprised :it th e doctor coming, for l\l a hc l h:id
been well for ne arl y a wee k.
.
· ~· Th e_mastertau~ht his_ boy s ot he r thin g s than were· to
b e to11nd m books. 1' rom him they g;ot the stor y of .-'.\ rnold
v<>n \ Vink e lri ed h11ldini.: ai.:ainst his bre as t th e .'\ ustr ian
spears. From him. too . cam e their knowlcdi.:e of th ..: cuc koo
laying its eggs in the nes ts o f othe r birds. \Vi1h uu1 he h ad
inspired them to tind ,.,·e r new pl easures in wood and ~tream.
thev would ha ve missed th e best joys nf th e ir boyh ood.
16. If h e wa s not known we ll h e re l think he would ha\' e
little difficult y in m a kin g th e a rrang eme nt.
17. He said that th e laws uf the universe were immutable.
18. Th ere were but seve n of us ai.:ainst a sco re o f the
e nem y, and as we looked at eac h o th er - fear sprang into tbe
fa ce of e\'ery one.
19. I-! e exp ressed the wish that the earth was e\·en larger
than it is.
o. H ~wl ey and I had a rgued the matt e r for lwo hours .
2
and now as we loo ked ;it on e another we kn e w tha t ll' e \\'cre
uo ne :tr er a con clusion th an b e fore.

I <)Q

COJf /'(} S /f'/OX

/i'// /~'TON! C.

. I. \ D

.2 1. J le .wi s hed th e s ucc essful can cl idat
I
w. ts not w1llrn g to work for him o pe nhe to Je he , but he

co~1~i)1~~l~ fiJr~i~~f~ ;;~,~~ ~aN1e

micllan cf .count ies were broken

\ Vords of conclnl e nc e 0 · . .
I ...
.
r eadily to the lijJS o f
I ve r .m ot ic r s n11sfo rlune come
sympat iy.
- ·l· \V hen she was told that it
was him her con cern in the
matlc.:r end ed.
2 3·.

•

0

25. The y were ve n· anxi ous to c I
had ch o sen.
·
·
ilnc out wh o the committee
. " 0 · l-l e ve r y warmly express ed his lik in r' for
I
rng t 11at 1i c 1:refc.:rrcd it to ;1nv oth e r animal
a io rse, say 27. l l e cl 1cl that among- ·all ti
. ' ·
seemed IJcst to him.
··
ic p roposed plans whi c h
. 2 ~· I l e was rea l irri tat ed h v our aJ>JLlr e nl
.tcc o m pany hun . .
unwillingness to

l
.dz• J. Th e re were 11 1>t h:trdly ani· J>COJ >ic.: I
cl ' not li;1i·c no perfo r m an ce .
t icre , anc so th e y
• .)O·
J\11 ;il o nl{ he h;i d s us pi cio n ed th ·1t J·1r· s 1·r,·e · cl
1uc1n ;; tr u e to hrm
•
·
11
was not
3 1. Ther e. a r e ,;ot h;i.rdl y ;in1· lca 1·cs left on th e tree s
32 . //1~.'~ the pn:: tttest wat c h I mnst ever saw
..
~ J· . . e, ic not l?;n·c me the rose rwr th e g-er~·nit; ni.
-f> ~· 1 he J 111 Y· were composed lar•'cly 'of fri·e icl .
<lc e nc 1ant.
"
' s of th e

-:~ · Jh:I work wa s !llns t done b efore he came
-' . . li e l a snrt o t an cxplarnti o
' .
. .
ever y o ne co n ce rn ed .
.
" I\ as un sa ti sfa c tory to
37 . Th e ro11 nc il has :q:: r eed 11 10
.
ordi n anc e an rl will \nss ii ti. .
I n a . proper form for th e
3·'· To f11liy lln< ~ r< t;ind iis e.i·c.:ning-._
11111st givt! it c loser a tt~·n ti on. the s1t11.1t1on Ir e knew that h e
. . \<J. \ \l e prcs111n c it is th tc Jarg-cl , t
1 f
li g ht e r is forbidd e n tn Ji ,, ht t h: 1-. } 0 t ie art that th e lalllp
1
1
to do~<! b y tire com m i ttc~ ap p<~in ;~'; '1!~- ~;;fn~~~ ~~ i11 str 11 c ted
') ·
4o. l h e r ecent c rus ·idc nnd e b , ti
ag-;iinst the merc h a nts- ~[ that pl · ) , ;~ women ~f Eme rson
th e younl?: bovs ci ;irettc Ja , _.ice ..e 111g- or g-1v1n1?; away to
imi tat e d by th'c "Oog-<l, Jo(Jt. ' l, pfcrs ;ind c 1g-ars mig ht well be

1

, ...

t--

u

cs o

011r town

4 I. I he re k1s L1cen co n sider - bl
·
1 ·
account of th e street lamps ~ot h~in ~ 1f: \mp arnt rec e ntly o n
42 . .He planned to ha ve studie((J ·1 ~H erll. t<t1 ln da rk!·. n1glb1ts.
un avo~dabl e hindran ces pre ve nt ed.
,
a ' e ear ier, ut
.43· fhe commanding officer h;idn't 011 'h t
11s
men
so
carelessly
.
!;
to have exposed
I
4-1· Th e hrid g-c across the · ·
. .
· ·
plet e ly rebuild it seem~d morer~,c~ " ·' s. snl llr;itl that to co rn nomr c .1 t i an to rep;ur tt.

SOL!O C! SMS.

1 97

.15. Th e horse s w e b o ug-ht we re sn ·tine a driv in g- tea111 .is
we c 1·cr o wn ed. b11t the y were not as eas ily m a na g-ed ;is we
we r e ass 11 r ed thev wo uld lie. ·
.\l'i . N eith e r y<in o r I ar e prepa re d to settle that q11 es ti o n.
47. I le.: s;iicl that he wou ld look af te r th e !;OVernmcn t' s
int e rest in tl1e matter.
40 . H e sa id that h e Jud saw th e robb in g wh e n he d<>n e it.
4'J· T h e w;1 lk s o n the nu in stree t we re a lm ost irnpass;tbl e.
th e y b e in g- so crowded .
50. \Vh e 11 th e y don e su dil°ti c ult a thin~ :ind wh ic l1 no o ne
expe c ttd th e y wo11ld do.
5 1. The ll uc entaur was th e Dog-e 's b o;1t , whn went out in
it to drop th e rin g into th e se a .
s~ - Thous:l!lds of lllliL tl oes, unit ed in one grea t here!. s <•
vast a whole that th e eye.: co uld hard ly perceive its imrnc11,it y.
a s in ~l e cr eature in ~ee n1ing·, was g;uin~ so uthward.
S.1 · No body c:in hav e an ad equate id ea con ce rn in g :in y
p l: rso n o r th in g wh ic h th e y can not s ee and come in tu co nta c t
w ith.
5.1. U nd e r su c h co nditions o ne wo 11lcl not e xp ec t t h e
marr ia ge r e l:ition to re ;ic h ve r y hi g h e thi c al ground, nor id eal
d o m est ic and soc ial c ondition s .
55. /\re ward o f .:'1 0. ::io will b e paid by the trusfees of th e
H ig h S c ho o l for the arrest :ind co n v ict ion of the persons
who hav e i> ec.: n. o r 111 :1y in tl1e futur e, br e ak in to the 11 igh
School buildi ng . or who e nte r the sam e b y ste ;i lth.
5 (1. Th e i> ri cl g-e w:ts s ;iicl to be ve r y d a n;;e ro us, whi c h w;1'
s11t1i c icn t uc1 ·asi o n fo r n 11 r t;iki ng; th e o th e r ro ad.
57 . l\1 y m e mor;incla on thi s matt e r is at the l1n11se.
5S. Th ere stood a tall. spar e wo ma n, her h :1ir st rc :i kcd
with ~ra y and lirn1 lin e s ;ilH•ll t lwr n1011th .
5'J· 11 e says tli;tt he don' t und e rstand why yo11 we re so
:1.n g ry.

l•o.' If I w;·1s you. ! 'cl not pe rmit it.
1. 1. Th e tw o men were nrn c h alike in th e ir pulili r c h a r a c te rs. but in privat e li fe !\!orris was the m os t ho no ral , Je .rnd
stra ight ro r ward .
6z. \ V e did not g o to see him as the doc to r said he felt too
bad to receive 1·isit1)rs.
6:;. We thou g- ht we would g o across h y some tr ees l ike th e
squirre ls do.
~
fq. H e come up to me on th e stre e t ;incl apo lo g- izecf
1-.)lubl v.
65 . if yo u will furgiv e me fo r g et tin g your e rr and th is
tim e . I wi ll be mor e carefu l hereafter.
1.1, . l. 11 cy is so p rompt in answering- le tt e rs. Th1. se who
on c e write to her alway s want to con tinu e th l: c orr e spond e n ce.:.

CO.If /' OSI T/01\· •. / i VJ) RI! E TO/UC.
(•7.

Tj/L~-

FOR.lfS OF DISCO UR S E

I 09

I Ir cxpL1incd tli c m:itt er so th C\' let him , .. 0

1.~. Be rtha s:iid that t he d~coratiuns "· ,~re "J·11 ~t per f ectIy

hn·c ly .

("!· I Lird work onl .\· brin gs SllC 'Cl'ss ;it List.
70 .. l n d o 1n;; ;is he d id he follo\\' cd nu t ci nl y )·uur advice
I rn t l11 s ow11 \1·1 shcs .
7 1: I " ·ill pa y :'25 for the d c tcctio11 and e vid ence sufficient
1<_' <.O n v1c t the pe rs on o r persons wl111 stole or killed
1
L nglis h bu ll tcrn e r, color white, :111<1 " ·ca ri 11 ,. a p lain le·1th1
co lor , we ighs a bunt 30 po und s. and :111s11·crs " to th e 1n 11' e fr
1\1 ack.
' 1 o

CHA l'TER XI.

?

.7~ '. J\.'.' o tl'. er fin · 1r ill c;it cli 11.s s1 111H· night. in th e ver
pL1L e \\e .ire n11t lookin g- for. :11 1d thc11 :ill we C:lll d o is ·t· dy
olt :u1d s('c 1t bur n.
s ,Jn
7.J· \\ 'c arc he.1rtil 1· in f:11·or of. a11d will do :di we c ·
~1 11 " ·e:1k way. lo 11:1\'L' the. C<> 111 i11g session of 11,c J egi sl::: ~~
c 1~ ..11 t .-1 l.111· w 11lt /tc;in· J111c s a11d j ;iil j>l'naltics for ever
pc1 s1rn 11·ho shoots. c11traps. or kill s prairi e c hi c kens at
y
sc:isun of tli e \'t'<t r .
· ' a ny
7·1·. Th e \\':ills. \\'\'l'l' tinted 11·ltitc a nd th ere were whit
c u1 lalll s to th e w 11 uj,, 11 ·s
e
7~ · :1:1i e c.ilm hl11c ,.,·,;tit 0f ltc:t\'Cn i.s do t led lw s tars
7~· .lh~ sc apples_:i re not ;1, ri 1•c :is tltosl' ll't: 1t :1 <1 ye~ tc rda '·
71 · .'
1111ns nl. tl"' .c:tsi lc !o .. ked like 11·c 1iT re told , bt~t
~n ..lo ok 1n g, :' " f1n m 11s l11 ghcst pn1 111 ll'e s aw a mu rc encha nt·
"' :: p 1ospcc l th :."t we lt:id licen led to expect.
, s. It look s lik e 11 w01iid rain.
1
7 1· \\' e turn ed th e 111 a ttcr o ver lo Dixon S: Co., who we
ha d rc:i son 111 licl ic1·c in c1·en· 11·ay re li;ilJlc.
So . 1 _
do not remembe r ol scc.ing- any s uc h buok as )'O U
speak ol th e re.
·~ '. · l 1wi sh I k 11 c w 11·ite1·c that July maga zin e went to .
. - - \\ 1tl1 0 11111111 t:il-: 1· tl1 c 111111at11·e 11 1 tltc ntatler there
11 0 '1 011~ of us hc 111 g- ahk 111 c::i rry it thro ug h.
'
JS
~ .l· I.he re 1s th cho1· ll'iti1·1t I spoke of.
• ·I· l t 1t be ;uh·1s:iblc. :is 11 ce rtainh· is we 11 ccd delay n.
0
lo 11 gc r.
'
'
85 . .l'.e!orc ig- nitin g: a jl' I 11( hnl rngc n it will alw ays be we ll
to .m ak e cc1 t.1111 t hat 11 1s J1 (1J mixed \1·ith ox 1·gcn.
sr,, \Vlt oeve r w1sltcs '" li:i 1·e seats on t f1e ope ning ni o-h t
mu s t g e t th P1 r l1 ckc ts at 1111 cc .
· "'
f S 7. '{'l:e.1.)l cas ure of all presen t. reflected i 11 co untl ess ways
ro m I H. sc.1 nf fan:s '1do r 1· t liem. 11·c rc cnou" lt lo re a
tlt cm fo r thc trouhle tl1<·1· lt :id t:i ken
.~
p y
·'"' · _\Ve did 11nt knnw irlto tltc in st.rnrtinns had bee n g iven
(<J'. nn 1. _11 ho we s lt n 11ld ""'k ln r 111fnrm:ition.
09. I hey were real p k:t.scd li y tltc lt11p e of re lease.

1

1t;

68. What Distinguishes one Form of Writin g from
Another. - In treat in g of the various qualities th at make
writ ten di s c(lurse L'ffectivL', rhetoricians ha\'e found it
co nveni en t to assumc an :ir!Ji t rary divisi o n of all 1Hiti11g
h : t1 · i11.~ lit<..:rary c haracter into :i number of cbsses, such
:is /:~ 1fosili1 1 11, , /1 ;f1t111ni/atio11, D cscr ip!io11 , s\ 'arratio11,
:ind Crilicis111. It is tl •>t 11fte 11 that any com positio n
bcl11ngs whully tu any onc of t h ese divisions ; !Jut disc ussion of them is made thL~ e;isi e r liy s u c h di1·isio11, in asmu c h as the qualities th:it a rc esse nti al to a go11d
argument arc not those required fo r good descripti on o r
criticism. Briefly, exposition is an explaining o f somethin g, and in it the m ost impo rtant quality is clearness.
Arg um en tat i11n differs from exposition m being :in
attempt t o e xplain convincingly something about whi ch
there may be cl iffcren ce of opinion. Descriptio n co n-cc rns itself with making c lear th e appea r:incc o( som e
mat c ri:il thing, a nd is distinguish ed from t~ xposition
largely liy th e fa ct that the ttsc or operatio n of th e
thing desc rib ed is not expla in ed. Narration gives a c1

Tl1 e

Funn ~

of I >i :-;cour sc:: .ire tli st.: ussc::<l furth t: r in Part 11 I.

200

C0 .11/'US IT/ O,V ,- /,\"/) Nllh"TOR/C.

o f a seriL·s of happL· nin gs, and the fundamental
necess it )· 1·s•.- ti i:t t lh e e\·ents s I1all be \·i1·idly presented
and th a t th e order of oceu1-re n ce shall be mad e clear.
Cr iti c ism is the expression " f "Jlinion co nce rn iiw lit er.
.
b
a1_·y <Jr artistic produ ct ions, ;rnd <>rdinarily attempts to
g ive th e to ne of the prudul'tion cr it icised and to show
sufficient reason for the up ini u ns expressed.
C<1t 111l

?9·

Description. - In ckscribi ng a ny thing, wh eth er
an1m ;1te or ina nimat e, the ll'riter's o bj ect is to cum· cy
tu the mmd ol the read er a mcnt::d picture suc h as ex ists
ir~ his O\\"ll mind . This ma y be d une by g i1·ing det ails
ol _tlie thing dcscrii>ecl, d escription by i 111 -c11 t 01]', by
tc!Jmg how 1t a ppears fr" m diffnent p11i11ts of vi e w, the
lnr;•di'F's <·ic;,•, ur by <iln.:l ling upon so me c hief ch a racteris_li c of the object. th e .f1111rlt1mntlili imaJ:r. This
last is t h e m1_· thocl ord inarily t11 be employed. Things,
as well a s people, have a certain indi\·idu:d ity .,f their
o wn; a nd this i11di1·idu:tl ity it i.s that distinguishes them
in our min ds from oth e r like 11bjects when ~he details of
form, size , a nd col or are no lon<rer
,., rem e mbered . If,
afte r ha ving see11 a nd re;1d a new fa ce ill a pa ss ing
crowd, we wish t o describe th ;il Lice to some o ne else,
we might s p eak uf the kecll eyL·s, the straight lips, the
aquiline llos<.:, g i\·in g s uc h ckta ils as our memory gathe r ed fro m so h as ty a s urvey; but the fa ce would be
'.)Ctt1..-r visuali ze d for th e rc;ick r if we shn11ld ca ll it a
I.ace of eagle h a rdn ess. This w<>u ld prcsl'llt 11ur th oiwht
ff .
b
more e ect1vely than it cou ld be presented by the
g r eatest fulln ess o f details.

TH/c.." FOR.1/S OF JJISCOURSE.

20!

" It wa s growing gray in the wo rld. Th e d a wn covered
with pale light the outlines o f the walls . The trees
along th e wayside, the build in gs, and the gra vest o nes
scattered he re an d the re b ega n to issu e from the shack .
Th e road was no longe r quite empty. M a rketmen wen.:
mov in g to ward the ga tes, lea din g asses and muks lade n
with vegetables; here and the re movcd creaki ng ca rt s in
whi c h ga me was conveyed . On th e road a nd alo ng bot h
sides of it was a light mi st at th e ve ry ea rth , whi c h promised good we ath e r. P eo pl e at some distan ce seemed likc
;1pparitio ns in th a t mist ; Vmicius stared at the slendcr
fonn ( >f Lygia, whic h b eca me mo re silvery as the lig ht
incre ased .. ,
H I-:NRV SII-:NKll•:w 1u: :
Q110 Viulis , tran s lated by ]1rn~:~1JAJJ Cu 1n 1N.'

70. Exercises in Descriptive Writing. - A s in. tlw
for egoin g , d escr ipti on that must have so m e loca l culur
in it is g enerall y b est treat ed by giving detail s, but th ese
should be s11bordi11atcd to what we m ay call_ he re the
atn1<1splwre of the pi ct ure. Employing tha t m ethud,
write a descripti\·c essay of not over three hundred
words oil one of the fo llowin g s ubj ects . O u nut think
out th e details you employ in d esc ribing th <..: obj <..:c t.
See th e thing t o he described in yot1r own rn11Hi, and
t e ll what you se c. Do not tell wh at you know only and
cannot sec in the m e ntal pi ct ure. I .iterary, as distinct
from t echni ca l desc ription, seeks t o conv ey something
visualized in the mind of the writ e r to the mind of th e
reade r; a nd as the things m e rel y known arc not a p ar t
of the writer's visualization, they cannot be effective in
1

Permi ss io n of I .ittl e, Brown & Co.

''·

.·'

i'

202

I

'f)
)~

1·

'I

C0. 1!/'<iS!f"!O. \ ' . / . \ '/J Rlf f::TO !N l.

T!!F FORMS OF f)/ S('(l{!R S E

the picture :1s rcpniduccd ill th e rn i11d 11f the reade r.
:\ot:e w ith wh a t clea rn ess cac h detail is pictured in
the q uo tat iu n fr o m (] 110 I "a dis.
\ \I c arc not merely
t<>ld w hat was, b ut we arc m:tdc to see the very lig htfillcd gr:-iyness of the morning. This g ray ness is the
fu11 dame11tal thing that g i\·cs ch a ractcr to the picture.
The d eta il s are s uliordi11atcd to it, and yet have added
s ig 11ifi c: tll Cc because of it .
1.
,\
s no\\';;to rm.
_. . \ 11 old mil I. ). A deserted
lwu;;c . .J. . . \ garden of roses . S· .- \ f;;dory , 6. An
ice-b<>und ri n :r. 7. . \ Sni:i n c:i r:iv :111. S. :\ C hin ese
p:1gocLt . 9 . . \h ig hland i'a ke. 1 0 • .- \ railll'a y station at
train -time.

Oft e n on ly a few details a rc g in :11 ill ordcr that those
o f greate r pro m in ell cc may ll ot lose the ir d ist in ctness
in a mass of thin gs CJ[ lesser m1i111 e ll t. O n CJn e of th e
f,iJJowing subjects writ e 11 01 less t ha n two h un dred
wo rd s, d e s cribin g by ;.;i vin g cl1i1f dc!ails. The p oi11 t of
-;·/c;u from whi c h a subject is cons idered must al ways
be illflu e ntial in de tcrmining what a rc t he c hi ef d e tails.
1. The cathcdr·: il clusc.
~ - The rag man.
.3 ·
bt est thing in hats . -I · T ill" \·ill;1ge hand . 5. J\
win dow :H Christ 111as. 6 . 1\ p:1inting by - -. 7.
o ld sc hool-house. 8 . An Ita lian fruit -vc ncler. 9.
lihrary. 1 0 . The teac he r's des k.
1 1.
The gi rl
g iggles. r 2. A grovc of pop Li r,., .

·,,

The
store
The
Th e
vJho

Frequ e n t ly a pa ragraph 11f <k s niptinn o pe ns with
an express io n g i\·ing a fun da m e nt<tl image..: o f th e thin g
t o bt.! d escribed. Thi s nLty he i11 th e \1·ay uf compari-

~03

son, namin g somet hing whi ch th e th in g t o be d e s c ri bed
is lik e, or a simple adj ecti ve phrase ot: descr iptio n, o r any
oth e r expression se r vin g to co n \'cy bri e fl y and fo r c ibly
th l'. p:trt ic ub r impre ss ion of t he thin g d escribe d whic h
is in the writ e r's m in d . D etails may th e n follow, if
full e r d esc r ipt io n is desirable, hut care mu st be take n n ot
to o blite rat e or d im the furnl ;tm c ntal image.
l>i l·k cns,
desc ribin g J \1hn Jaspe r whe n he has r ece ived t he m essage from Edwin Drnud b y th e mo ut h uf Mr. Crc wg iuu s , ;tft cr Edwin ])rood's dis::tppea ra n cc , says t hat
Mr. Cre wg inus "saw no t hing but a heap o f to rn and
mir y c lot h es upon th e fl oor .··
/\ny addition t<> t his
would in e\·it abl y weaken the reader' s sense of tht.: com plete ll1 L~ nt al pr11strati1m wh ich ca m e upo n John J aspcr
w he n Mr. (;re \\·g·io11 s had m ade his ;rnn o un cc mL·nt. But
in th e foll<>win g fr o m Ste ve n so n·~ J"rc11s11ro· l.da11tl the
d irec t descr iptiun preced in g th e scm il·olun is mat e riall y
h elped by t h c deta ils t kt!" follow. Th ey st ren g then
the cffcct <•f tht.: funda m e ntal im ~q.~t.: in st ead of obl it e rat in g it.
J\ ta ll , strong, heavy. nut-bruw n man ; hi s ta rr y pigtail falling m "t: r t ht: ;, hou ld t: rs uf his so il..:d blue coa t ; hr~
h;rnds r:tg;g;ed a nd sca rrt:d , wit h bla ck, br"k e n 11:u ls. and
th e sabl'. I: ~ ut ;1 c ross o ne c heek, a dirt y, li\·id white.

In t h is mann e r write

l)J"lC

hundred and fift y words or

m o re 0 11 o n e uf the followin1-( subjec ts .
1.
Th c c hurc h s pire. _. i\ Norway pine. 3 . Some
111uss-cove recl rocks. 4. !\ h 1urth 'of July processiun.

;,

i1

I

I

CO. lf/1 0.\/ TI O. \ . . f XII !.'!!!:'TO !.'I C.

Till'. FON ,l! S OF !J!SCOURSI:'.

d1aracttTS sh<>uld he fL·\1·. and each should han: a definit e a nd easily und c..:rstood rl'btion to th e st()ry. l nc ide nt s
sl1 lll1id lie dc \·L·l"pcd in tlw 11rdcr of th1: ir occu1-rc11t·c, but
when they :1re compkx, and in1·oh·L· thc d11ings of sen:ral
JlL·rsons ;1t the s: 1n1e t illlL'. u inside rat ion lllt1sl he gi ve n
to the rl·hti()Jl 11f Ct ll SL' :111d t·ffe\'t . the c 1use prL:t·cding
th e dlt·c t.
72. Exercises in Narration. -- /I 'ritln1 !:'.rtTrisc. -On two ()i the followi ng su bjects ll'ritc pa rag raphs of
250 to 300 words ea c h.
Jncludc s uc h description as is
required for the und c rstandi11g of the story, but mak e
t·at·h a simple narrati\'l' fr eL'. from chara c teri zation.
Cr it ic ise huth dictio n and sty k, a nd he prepa red to say

· J ;ts poss 1·11
raptt
) e, ."~L> th:1t the s t ory shall be the thi1w
o vf
first im purtan ce.

206

ll'hl'.thcr o r n1 !t, in Y"ur opinion, th ey arc in k<.:eping
w ith the theme.
1. A tire.

,,

An April Hood .

3· :\

race for life.
5. J\ day's

-I · \\';1 shingtnn 's journey to the l"renc h furts.

uut ing.

( 1.

Th e :i rri l'al or the tn:iil.

On ea c h of l wo "f the f11lloll'ing suhjL:ct s write a n:ura til'c o( 250 tu 300 words, i11trnd11 c ing 1111 c t·haracter
:ind one only.
Uo not attempt to 111;1ke tuo many trait:;
of c h:tractcr :tppare n t, hut let the few that th<.: narrati\'c re quires h e c learl y JKtint ed. Close indi1·idt1a li zat ion
of charact e r in a narrat in: te nds t o d elay its action.

207

1 . ,\ raft in the flo od.
, A dange rous leap. 3· Tht.:
drealll of Eugene Arani. -1· 'l'hl: prf1digal son. S· \\' hen
J\lhc rt lea rned to 111ilk. G. Lost in th e woods. 7· Pursued I1y 11'1!1 ves. i'i. A race out side _1 he II' incl ow . . 9 · . 1\
girls ' party. 1o. L earning t" ride a bi cycle. 1 • . Conung
liolll c rro111 th e pic ni c.

73. Exposition con ce rns it self with nplaining sumc..:thin ir and differs from tksc ripti o n in ha\·ing parti cular
''" to th e u ses to wh ic h a t hing is to be put, rat her
r eirard
t h~n to its appearan ce. In e .'\ p• •si t ion c learness is th e
To make
fir s t, pnh:qi s also the bst, ·l·on s idcration.
anuther urnkrstand a m;whine, a d ev ice, or a nicthrnl
of d ui 11 g anythin.~ of any sort, is at th e best JlC 1t an
easy m:itter. Mu ch c..:vide11tly depends o n th e orde r of
treatment, but what that ord e r s h .. tdd be tkpends upon
th e th e m e .
In ex po unding th <i prin c ipl e employed,
and th e meth od of applying it in a m echani c:il contriv;uicl', the m o re important things, or those first in
tim e, sh11uld g e nerally com e first ;i nd the details after\\' ~tn ls ; but in exposi tion of more abstract id eas tha t
o rde r ma y b e r el'e rscd . O nly ca reful consideration of
th <.: r cl:ttion of th e various parts to the whole can 111 any
case d e te rmine \\'h at is the prope r order.

Cr iti cise the stor y fur its empl11y m ent of s hort and long,
complex and compound sentences , keep ing in mind
\\'hich of the se forms b est prnduc<.: the effect "f hurry
and mo1'crnent.
Make th e :ict. ion u( th e narrative as

"] t is safe to s:iy that the electrolyti c process of refinin g
co pper is now applied to betwee n on e- ~1alf and one-t~1~rd
of a ll th e copper produced m the Urnted Stat es.
I he
e lectric process separates th e gold and si lver that may be

I

I

I

( ( 1.1/ l ' c)S/J"J().\ " ,·/XI> NII / :" rc>N! C.

:?OS

pres<.:n t in the cnpp<"r. :rnd rkpns its the c<1ppc r in rr state
\1f g rc:1t purity. Tn acco lllpli,,It thi s , the unref1ncd cop per
fru111 the s n1 e lkr (J r lksse 111er c"n\"<.:rll"r is cast inlo great
pbtt.:s or anodes. ll"l'i ,:;:h i11 g three hund red pounds or
nio rt.: ; th ese :llludcs :He suspe nd ed in tanks cont a ining :\
so luti< >I l "f coppe r sulplutc. <1ppositc to cath odes whi ch
:nt.: :1lso CC1Jlpl'r pl:1k s. hut \Try th in and co nsisting of
p11 re 111,· l:"l I.
"T he p ;1ss:1g« of t lic "k,·t ri. : t·11rre11t in t lt u prope r dirert iun <'T;1du:ill y tr:lllsfvrs t Ill' copper frolll the :rnode p late
to th: c athode pLite. 11 ltile :di inipu ri tic:s arc: left b e hind .
Th e go ld and sil1·cr 11hich :Ht: pres,· 11t in th e unrefined
copper fall, during the process. tot he bottolll of th e tanks,
and arc aftern·:ircl culle c lL'd and sep:iratecl fro m eac h
other. Some idea of th e i m pnrta nee of th is met hod of
copper re lining is gi1·c n hy the fu lloll'in g f:i c ts relat ing to
the ,\ naconda Coppt:r i\ l in i11g Colllp:1n y's lVTont:rna n.:1i 11 ,~ ry." -- T/1 i: C(ls111opo!it1111. h .: bru:uy. 1 ~97.
Obse r ve

t hat

this cxpbnat i11 n t:1 k es up the larger

as pl:cts of th e C-:1se fir s t, and g i,·es the rc:1der a firm
gr; 1sp (Jf

eac h

ddail

hl'f<>re pr!Jeeecl ing t<1 tl1e n ex t.

Obsl~ n·e, too, th;1t t llL' :1rra 11 gerne11t

"f these clctails is

such :1s to m ake clear the rehtitlll !lf eac h to the wh ole,
so that afte r each st q > of the l' .\ pl; u1 ;1tin11 t he mind has
a clc; tr u nderstand in g of t h e ekctrnly ti l· appa rat u s a nd
the l'kctrolyt ic p rucess sn f:t r a s th e exp lanati o n of it
k1s ,c:,0 11 c.
/\ n exposition SCI de\'d"\h.·cl is coh e rent, a nd
Ctlheren cc is essential in eXptlsiti"n, :is it is in all disco urse.

That it is lll <lre impo r t:11 1t in cxposit iu n than

i 11 other forms of \\'rit ing. hn11·c1·cr, must lJc clear wh e n
11·e remembe r th:1t :1 de\·icl', 111· a pr<>t' ess, u r :1 scientifi c
.C:. L'iler;tli 1.al iun , is

not

l'Xpl:tined

f"r us unt ii \1·e have

T l! I:. FON,J/S 1) / ·· /IJ SCllUN.\'F.

1l

'1:

20<)

gT:1spl·cl the sig11ific:1 11 cc of th,: separate parts 111 thl·ir
re lation s to one anothe r and tn th e whole.

74. Exercises in Exposition. -

0 11 each of two of th e

ftlllm\·ing s1 1bj c c ts wr it e 2 50 to 300 words of exposititlll .
T :1kc care to have no more d esc ri pt io n th:111 is 11 ecess:11"y
l«lr ('lc: 1r explanat ion.

lh: pre pared to justify the 11nlcr

uf trl·at nll'nt you adopt..
1.
/\
wincl111ill. ., 1\ twin -sc rew steam e r. 3 . Th,;
m:rnage men t of a rrrilr<1:td . .J. T e nnis . .S· \\' hat cun su tu tes gn:at 1H:ss. 6. Th e intiu .. nce of geog r:1p liy o n
histo ry. 7. Th e religion o f th e Egyptians . 8. 11 ,)11·
mo1.lllta in s :ire for med.
9. \Vhat ca uses \'olc:ui()es.
1o. The 1-.tl ue of an education. 1 1. \Vhat are go"d
111 :111ners. 1:?. Th eosop hy. 13. The fo llies of <:1vi ,;ti:111
Sc ie nce. 1 -+· I low to e ntert:ti n a guest. 15. The 1-. ilu l·
"f a gymnasium.
16. S ucct.:ss in life.
q. l l uw t"
dt.:serve friends . 18. Th t.: future of scie nce. 19. Th e
constr uction of a c:intil eve r bridge. :?o. The dangns uf
.. scu rching .. ,

"Th e social ,.;cttlements are very yo ung ind eed. c\ s
cu m p:ired wit h th e ot he r fo ur age ncies, th ey ILt\'e ll !J
num t.: ri cal pa rt; but th t.: ir growth ha,; been so rapid of
la tt.: - ahn"st fri g htf ull y r;1pid - tliat th ey may be said tu
have passed t he expe rimental stage , at least in t hi s sc.;ns.:.
t hat th ey have plainly co me.: to st ay . The settle ments
h :rvt.: n1 :1cle mi stakc.:s, nat ur a ll y. Th t.:y have a ll owed th.:m selves, in some instances. to he in ve igled int o too much
almsgiving, in ot he rs to beco me too mu c h e nam o re d of
see ing th t• wheels g1J roun d , in o th e rs to e ng age in prost.:lyting, in still oth e rs to com pro mi se dangerously t he ir
independence by acce pting di c tatorial finan cia l suppo rt.
Th ey :ire pecu lia rly li able to such diametri ca ll y upposed
failings as me lodra m a ti c over-intense ness an d cold dil <:t t:rn te is m ; an d they h a\·e no t always, it must be confessed,

.i
I•

' t

· t.

1:

:1

'·

'f

,,

i

;,

'.! I 2

CO. If !' OS I !JO.\ " . I . \'f) R I IF f"O A'll.

TllF

would l:1kc c:ire of thems e h·es. 11 . Th e re can be no
ind us tri a l proble m when.: eac h is ca p:ible of sulvi ng his
uw n indi v idua l proble lll fo r hi111 sel f.
l : AVII> STARR J o rmA N, in the h 11lrpmdo1/, ] Jee. 29, 1898.

Here se nt e n ce

1

co ntain s the s t atem e nt of th e thin g

for whi c h the write r is co n t e nding-, a nd this statement
is mad e more clea r a nd d efi nite in se nt e nce ~.

S e n-

t e n ce ::: is :rn illu st r:ttin: fact sl;1kd :ts a presumpti ve
ll;

"

reason

for

s e nt ence

as a c1u.~e for sen t e n ce
:t c: u1 se

r.

Se nt ence 3 is a fact

slated

f.

Senten ce 4 is :t fact stated as

fn r sc 11 lL' n cc 3 .

Sc ntn1 cc 5 is a fa c t stated

as :t cause for senten ce 6, 11·hich is itself ;1 L1 c t s ta t ed as
a c:t u sc fo r st: ntcn ccs 1 and 0. S t:n t t: n cc 7 is a fact
stated as a caus e fo r sc ntt:n cc 5 and se nten ce 0.

Sen-

t e n ce 9 ' is both a fuller state ment of se nten ce 8, a nd
al sn a fact s tated as a cause fur st:n t e nce 8.
r o and
r.

I I

Sentt:nccs

a r c fa c ts s tated as c:1uscs for s e nten ces 8 and

No te throughout thi s paragTap h that, while s o me

slatc m e 11 ts arc made which mu st rel y upo n th e r eader's
1·ol l!11 tary asse n t, those that might fai l of that assent
;i re SllJ>jlllrt e d liy <>l he rs ll'hi l·h b ea r t" thelll th e re btio11
uf c:r u se s o r of reason s .
1.
Hut , howe ve r co rr ec t in th eo ry . s uc h views, it will
lie s uspec ted, a rc, ;tfte r all. rernu te and impr:icti cable. 2 .
I l(lw, espec i;tlly, ca11 11-e hope to bri11 g o ur intra ctable
d e 111 oc r:icy upo n so high a grnund nf prin c iple? 3. J ca nnot enlirely sy n1 µat hi ze with ,,uc h im pressio ns . 4. Hi sto ry clea rl y indi cates the fa ct that re publi cs are mo re
du ctil e than any other for m o f government. and mo re
favorable to th e ad mi ssion of hi g h-ton e d prin c iples a nd

FU!i'.J/S i IF /l/S('O U R S ! c'.

2 1)

the se ,·e rc r m ;-ix im s o f gove rnm e nt. 5. The co nfederate
rep ubli cs o f Cre te, and. thc dau g hte r repu bl ic of Sparta,
we re no o th er than studied :i nd ri goro us syste ms of d irect
pe rsona I di sc ip lin e u po n the people, in wl.1i c h wea lth :ind
e;ise we re in now ise so ug ht , but ste rnl y reiected. 6 . And
in 11·hat mo narc hy, or Cl' e n d es po t ism , o f th e \1·o rl ~l , whe re
but in plain rep u blican R o me, th e country of Cato a nd
Brutus, is a censor of man ne rs an d mo rals to be e ndu red ,
"'O in " forth with hi s n ote-boo k, and for any breac h uf
~are~ tal or ti li :d dut y obse r ved , fo r sed ucti o n uf the youth.
fo r dish o nor in th e fi e ld, fo r a clr111k1n g-ho ut., o r e\' cn
lu xuri o us rn:inn e rs, infli ct in g a c ivil d eg r:i cl at io n upo n th e
hi "hl' s t c iti ze ns and 1n agi st rat cs 1 7. The l1eg111 n 1n gs , too,
of~H 1r o wn hi story a re «,f th e s;-i rn e tc mpc r;rnH.: nt_. :ind s uc h
as perfe ctly to sympathi ze with the hi g he;,t prtn c 1ples uf
"< •1·c rn111 cnt ? S. 111 d cc d , 1 ki·;e felt 1t to he 111 th e h1gh ~st. <il'g ree auspi c io us . that the g-ro und 1 vi11di c:i te hefure
you re qu ires nfJ revo luti o n , being. itself th e true Am e ri ca n
g-rn uncl. 'J· May we no t a lso di scove r e vc n no w, in th e
wors t forms o f rad ical ism :ind po l 1t 1ca l ckp r;i vat 1011 am o ng
us. ;\ sec ret ele men tal for ce, a la w of re puLli ca n fcelrn g.
whi c h, if :tppealecl to u 11 hi g h and r.igid prin c iples , wou ld
yi e ld :i true respo nse? 1o . We fail 111 o ur con se rv:iU vc
attempts, m o re b ecause o ur prin c iples are too lo w .th;rn
becaus e th ey are too hi g h. 1 1. A co urse of adm1111 st. r:iti o 11, based o n th e purs uit of wea lth al on e, th o ug h bad 111
p rin ciple anywh e re , is es pec ia ll y bad 111 a rep ubli c .. 12. lt
is 111 o rc co nge nial tu th e spl e nd o rs ;rnd stately d1stine t1nn ~
o f 1n n n a rc hy . 13 . .It co ncc ntr;1 tes th e whol e :1tte 11t1 o n ol
th e nati o n upo n wealth. ' -I· It requires 111 e;1 s ures to he
debat ed o nl y as th ey he;1r u pon wea lth '. 1.5. It produ ces
tl11 1s a mo re e g regious n<1ti o n of its d1 g n1t y co nttnuall y .
hot.h in the mind s -o f th ose 11·ho ha1-e it and <•f _ th ose wll<•
have it no t, and thus it e xasper;ltcs c \·e ry bad kel 1n g 111 :1
re public. til l it reta li ates d est rn c ti o n upo n it. .1 G. H11t
a sy ste m of policy b;1sed o n th e hi g h ;111cl im pa rti a l prin c ipl es of ph il osophy, nne th at. respects o nl y nia nl y bodi es.
hi g h t:iknts , great sc ntime 11 b a nd actions, o ne th at valu e;,

!

TH 1~· FOR.Ifs OF /JJ ..... CuUR S E .

CU.l !J' ()S!!'/01\ . .· /.\ ·!) IU! FTO N!C.

2 I

5

excellen ce o f pe rso n, whet he r found in th e pala ces of the
ri c h <ir th e huts o f th e poo r. ho ld in g a ll g ild ed idlen ess and
softness in the con te mpt th ey d ese rve - s uc h a syste m is
conge n ial to a republi c. 17. l t would have attrac ti ons to
our peo pl e. 18. Its philosoph ic grounds . too, e;1n be
vindi cated hy a great 1·aricty of hold argume nt>. , and th e
mora l absurdit y of lwlding \\'ea lth in hi g her est im ati on
tha n person a l 1·;\lue e;111 I.Jc p!:tyed ou t in the fo rms of wit
and "atire, so as to raise a 1·., ice oi acc la 111 a ti o n, and ove rll'hL·l 1n the 111 c rce nary sy s1e1n with utter and fina l con-

only the close t e xture, the inwrought d epe nde n ce of
part upon part, in good argumentative disc(l urse . It

t t-' lll j)t.

furnished by hi st o r y, :llld is effecti1·c in m :-i kin g a c•>n l·lusion from hi stnri c:-i l fa ct s p rob:1ble, but pr(Jbable (Jnly.

lh lRAU·: llt's 11 N1-: 1.1. : Ji ·11c / Vi·,t///1 or !Vut! •:/ 1\Ti1/1(111s.

l lcre th e SJ>L'ak e r 1.s :iq.,:·uing t kit .. republi cs a re
more du c tile," etc. , as in se nten ce 4. Se11tcn ccs 1 a nd
2 :ue int roduct<>ry, stat in g th e views or object o rs t\J hi s
<>pi ni o n , and senten ce 3 is a senten ce o f transition t o
h is ow n tho ug ht. Senten ces 5 an d 6 give specifi c
instance s in t he w:iy of p resumptive proo f th a t like
1Ts 1ilts s h o uld follow in our republi c. Senten ces ; a nd
S arc fact s stated as a ca use f\Jr senten ce 4 , and sentence
<) is a fa ct stat ed in th e f1 ir rn rif a rhct1Jri c:-il questi<Jn as
a ci. us e for sente n ce 4 . S e n te n c e 1 o is a fa ct s ta ted
as an effe c t iro m senten ce 4. am! so in the mind of the
rL·:ul er imply in g the tru th of st· 11 t\·1icc 4. Sc nll'n t·e s r 1
:lll d I 2 :tre Lids s t at eel :ts d TCl'h f J"Pll1 Sl'nt en CL'S I 3,
14 . and 1 5. Se nten ce 16 is a f:tl't st:1tc d as a cause
f11r se ntence 4; ;i nd sentcm·cs J 7 :ind 1 S :tre facts
"t:1tc cl as ca uses f11r se n ten c e 16, :llld t he refo re :d so as
ca use s fo r s e nt en ce 4.
l) [ co urse a p:-i ragrap h is n ot s u flic ie n t to ill ust ra t e
i ully th e (() Ur se of ;1n c hbor: 1t e ;1rgurn c11t . It C:l l1 show

s h o uld be k ept ca refull y in mind that s u c h a rg ument as
is contai n ed in sen t e n ces 5 and 6 o f thi s qu <•tatiun is
n ot of th e

most co n v in c in g sort.

Arg um ent

from

analogy must :1lwa ys be un ce rt a in beca use of th e imprnbabilit y of h avi n g in b oth cases exactly similar c" ndit i11ns.
lt is, however, the s<lr t of :1rg um ent rnllst r e:-idily

'·

76 . Exercises in Argumentation. - O n the fo ll uwing
outline write an essay of 500 Wllrds, t ak ing ca re t o leav e
no doubtful sta t e m e nts without some sort of support m
the w:-iy uf ca uses, reason s, or proofs.
Europea n co untries s hould ma intain smal le r ar mies .
I. (Cause .)
vVa r is the soldier's busin ess , a nd the
soldier is in cl in ed to look upon the p rospect o f wa r with
fa vo r. ( Rea sons. )
2. ( Effe ct.)
Th e mi litary spirit is a me nace to th e
peace ful int erests of a n at io n. ( !'roofs. )
3. ( Effect a nd Ca use. )
A sta nding army increases
the c han ce of war. ( Proo fs.)
4. ( Effect. ) A st:1 tc of war is a reversion to barbaris111 , impedi ng th e progre ss of c ivilizat io n. ( Proofs.)
.
5. (Ca use a nd Effect. ) Armies are e xpe ns ive, and entail
g reat indebtedness . (Specifi c instan ces.)
(>. (Causl' :rnd Effect. ) Creal military armaments t;i kc
the st re ng-t h of a nation fr om productiv e ente rpris es.
( Re ason s.)

On th e following outline write an essay o f 400 w o rcJs,
takin g

ca re tu have th e essay properly connec t ed

in

r,

;,

::!16

CU. l!l'OSJTJON AN{) /\l!E TO RJ C.

THF F OR ,1/S OF DJSCOURSF

thought, and prope r ly parag raphed to show d ivision of
t h uught.

\ Vrit•~

it

as

if for a read er very strongly

opposed to th e opinio n s you arc tryi 11 .~ to e nforce.
the essay a ti tle .

Give

'l'h t.: 1Zt.: publi ca11 fu nn of g-c1n: r11111 ,;11 t is IJ<.:S t titt ed for
'
d eve lopin g m:rnhn()d.
Effec t. 1. .'\n intcr<.:,.,t and s li;irc 111 publ ic ;iffairs
t.:nlarges th<.: i11divicl11al's st.: nse of re,.;po n s ih ility , and with
1t de1·elops hi s h<.:tt<.:r qualities <, f ht:ad and hea rt.
Cause. ~- Suc h an interest is p oss ibl e. o nly in a
republic.
l'resu m pt i \'l: proof. 3 . :\ comparatin: ly :ine m a nh ood
has been see n to be clevelopt.:d in republics. [Sp ec ific
in stances.]
Effect. 4 . The sense of persona l fre edo m is in itself
e nn ob lin g.
Cause. 5. Th is sen se of fr eedo111 is not p<is .~ible under
a m on:i rch ic al o r an aristo c r:1tic fo rm of gov<.:r nm e nt.

In

;1rgumentative disco ur s e it is usually important to

217

. J t is fn r its ow n good that th e state pays for th e
3
education o f its c iti ze ns.
4 . The h igh schools seek m ain ly t<> g ive t he s tud e nt
c ultur e.
· · in,,tru c.'i · Trnining fnr c itizenship does not co n sist 111
t ion in th e 111:1 c h111ery of guve rn111 e nt.
.
(i. Y o ung m e n ;ire apt to a cce pt th e educa t w n the
st:i te giv e s them w ithou t ke lin g that th ey o we 1t anythm g
in return.
. The hi g h sc hool m ay b e m ade to sl ren gt he n t ht:
7
st.: nse of re la tionship a nd d ut y tn the su te..
8. High sc hools th at d o n o t d o this fail to acco mplis h
what we may ju stly expect of them. Co nclu:;1o n .
Outline four of the follow in g su bj ects in suc h iashi o n
as to m ake a n essay upon any o n e of th e o utlin es a series

of aw
um e nt s of in c r easi n g fo r ce.
0
a rra nge t o 11 avc 011 e
n a turall y in to a n o th er.

arg um e nt

So far as n.oss ible
clcve lo 1)

r eadily a nd

Indi ca t e rcbti o ns of cau se :incl

e ffect , or ot h e r rel at io ns whi c h yu u dis cer n between the

p resen t th e ;1rg um e11 t s in th e o r der uf their im po rtan ce.

p:-trts of th e o utlin e.

Th e individual fo r ce uf eac h arg un ~cnt is strengthened,

t o so m e definite conc lu s io n.

Be sure to ha ve your outline lead

if it is in eac h ca se a more cnm·in c ing argument th a n
t hl' oll L' imrnl'lliately prn·L·ding it .

Rl·-arrang«: th e 111 att:-

ri :t l in the ()lltline below so as to secun: this effect o f
climax, a n d \\'rit e on the uutline as so arranged an essay

oi 500 words.

Civc th e essay a title.

High s c ho o ls should g i1-e more particular at te nti o n to
t ra ining fo r c iti ze nship.
1 . Th e sec urity of a free people is in the intelligen ce
with whi c h th ey administ e r th ei r affairs.
2. Educatio n m ay train the s tud e nt away from th e
duties o f citizenship.

1. ll n itt· cl St a tes s(' n a tors s ho uld h e c hose n in "<Jlll e
o th e r way t li :111 by th <: kgislatun·s of th e States.
2 . The in c rease in th e propor t1011 of people li 1·i11g in
c ities is a m e na ce to o ur Am e ri can civ ili zation ..
,)· A boy sho ul d n o t c hoose hi s life-work uni ii a ft e r he
h as fini s hed his hi g h-sci1 ool co urse.
.
.
4 . In th e e stim;ition o f future agt.:s L m cu ln will IJe :l
greater m a n than \Vashingto n .
.
. .
S· Mary, Q ueen o f Scots, was more s mn ed ag:un:-.l. than
s inning.
6. Evil te nd e n c ies in youn g p eo ple a re best overco m e
by intiuencing the m to an inte r est in bette r thm gs.

!'

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I,;
CO, Jf/'OSJ/'JOY ,-/ Nf) NJl/:'/'0 1.'I C

218

.i · Th e no\'el. is an in creas ing ly i1npo rt a nt litern rv
ve hi cle fur th e artistic express ion of a ll so rts of truths and
theories.
8. I~ curfew h\\' is en: ryw he rc d es irable .
9· l•.x:11111nat1ons arc not a s at isfa cto ry test 1lf a student's sc ho larship.
1o._ So111l'. manual training s hould be i11dudcd in th e
teacb111g nf a h1g h-schno l co urse.
1 1. The rig ht to \ otc ,hnul d n<lt be g rant ed to th ose
who c1nnot rv:1d.
1:!. l'ountry life is the best fnr a grn\\' in g boy.
_ 13 . .No m an s hould be appointed to office beca use of
hi s politlcs .
_1_--1-. 1 lig h-sc hnnl pup ils s hould keep th e mse lves info1 nied u pon topics of cu rre nt interest.
JS· l t is wru11 g to h:1z;1 rd m onev upo n anv g'a llle of
chance.
'
Upo n two of the .o ut lines you ha\·e made writ e essays
uf 350 words o r m o re eac h.

Be prepared to justify the

proportionat e amount of spa ce gin: n to each arg um en t
p r cscntecL

C riti c ise c;ich productir 111 c irdull y with re-

ganl ( r ) to logical c11 nn cct iu n of thrn1 g ht , (2) to co nt ent
o f the sen t e n ces a nd proper subordination o f clauses,
;i nd (3) to the a cc 11ra te ~ind fitt in g use o f w ords.
Jt:XFRt'IS I·::--: .

_,

v\lhat are the cJisti11 g ui siJi 11g- l' ha ra c teristi Cs of th e
diffe rent lit e rary fo rm ,; u f which this c hapte r trea ts ?
. ' _ Brin g to th e ch.~s •·xa m ples of eac h o f th ese di stinct 1\·c fo rms, and be prep;1rl'd to s;iv whether c·.·ic li 1-· <>- - .
t
I
I
'" I IS
ll<> • a gooc exarnp e C\ f ih k ind . ;rnd \\'IW.
3_· \\'hi.c h of these 1·:n io11s fo r111,; o( discourse be long
m o re. pa1t1c 11larly to th e lit era ture uf fee li 1w. and whi c h to
t,hc l,1t e rature of t ho ught , and why) Jn whi c h should you
ex peel to find the g reate r number of A ng lo-S;,ix o n words?
. I.

Tl!/:' FUR. l!S OF / J/SCOUR SF.

219

Of classic:il \1-ord s) \\'hy? I s thi s tru e in the c:1se of th e
exa mpl es yo u ha ve found for exe rc ise 2 )
4. Tell , in th e case of eac h o f the distin c t forms o f discourse, whi c h o f th e following litera ry laws is th e most impo rtant a nd why: Selection (t he proper c hoi ce of d etaib
tu lie treated ) . Unity, Coherence, l'rnpurtiun, Cli max.
5. Bring tn cla ss examples of e:ic h uf these fo rms, and
co rn ment upon tlt e1 11 wit h referen ce to eac h of the~e lit l'rary b\\'s.
(J. Should yo u expect tn m :1ke a descripti on vivid by
gi\· ing a ma ss of deta ils, or by p rese nting a few impllrtant
d e tai ls of like o r harm o niuus s ignifica nce? Wh y?
7. J.'incl in a newspaper o r in a ma g;1zinc what yuu
thin k is a poo r e xample of one of the for ms of discu urse,
a nd be prepared to explain \\-hy you think it i,; poor.
8. Bring to the class a n exa m ple of n :irr:1 ti on th :1t ]us
distin ct r:1pidity of move me nt, a nd anoth e r that has n ot.
Be prepared to show whether it is m o re chara cterrzatiun.
o r m o re explana tio n, th ;1t delays th e second . In whi c h
<lo yo u find the shorter se ntences?
9. \V rite five topic sentences e:1ch fo r five of th e fol lowing subjects, a rr.a nge t he m in proper o rd e r , gi\·e th e
whole a tit le, a nd say which of th e for m s uf discourse
the who le composition wo uld be an ex:imple of wh en
writte n in full.
1.

Th e qua li ties that go to n\ ::lke a g-ond niu:-;ici an .

-· \\'h y haYe n\ a n y nati o n:-; mad e th eir
J· Th e d1aracter of l da int he /' rin rcsi .
.\. \ \'ha t I !->aw on my trip up th e ri ver.
5. Th e old hull\cstead .
Ha,.on ancl Shakespeare.
7. The ct ecl ine of Spain.
s. The Spanish A rrnada.
9. Lo n gfe ll ow's" l'salrn of Li fe ."
10 . C:r~ndfa t h e r's clock.
I I - Jl O \\'ll by the (J't: ek.
1 ·· At hom e ln a nlo \· in g-wag o n.
1 _J. A sold ier's life.
1.1. A burial o f dc::td in baltle.
I S· T he 11litlni ght sun .

I verst!?

ti.1st lit e 1;1ry t'ffurts in

<>.

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220

C0.11 /'/JS/ /JO ,\ . .·I J\'/) NII F I O N I C.

1o . Jn whi c h of lhe se1·er;ll fmlll s r.f dis cu urse s hould
e xpe c t to line! par:1g raphs co nt;1inin g the mo re defini_te top ic sent ences? \\' hy? In \\'hich ll'Ould pa ragraphs
without top ic sente nces be th e_ more fre qu e nt? 'W hy?
ln ll'lrn: h sho uld yo u e xpec t to hnd th e short e r, m o re direc t and s im ple se n tences? \\ 'hy ? In whi c h th e longe r
:111d mo re mvoh-ed se11ten ces 1 \\ 'hy?
1 1. \\.ha t s houl d yo u say of a d esc ripti"n re quiring
three minut e s i11 th e rc :1di 11g 1
12 . \\'rit e a crn npositio 11 on o n t of th e s ubj ects for
whi c h )'ll ll wrote topic SL' nlt: nces und e r Exerc ise 9.
13. l>o yo u thin k a 1urrative rt:c<rnntin g a series of
in c id e nt s li;11·ing n 1nely t he rel.1tion .,f seq uence in tim e,
or o ne g 1\'lng 111cHlents \\'hich de n·lop one frn111 t he other
11·ith th e relati o n of c au se and effect. ll'ould be the more
int e re sting to th e reade r ? \\'hy'
1-1. Jn :u g um e ntatinn s ho uld yn u in ge ne ra l think it
be st tu :rn s wcr poss ible object inns .,[ yum reade r before
jlruceeding t u yo ur 0 11·n :irg um ent o r no t ? \\ ' hy ?
. 15 . \Vrit e :11 1 e xpns itiun of sp methi1 1g in \\'hi c h you are
in te rested, and 11·h1c li yo u und ers tand.
16. Cin.: :111 a ccu u1ll of so111e re t'e11t h:q >pcning in

J'/IF (.!. U .·I L JJJl.:-'S O F . ·I

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Cl.Ei\l<'.'>l·:ss.

77. What Constitutes a Good Style.
The prin c iples o f c<>rn.:d I-:nglish have bee n ;tmply
treated in the precedi11g ch:tpt <.: rs.
Bu t curr<.:l'l cxprcssio11 does not cu11stitu h: liter:i.turc. C onsid e r, for in stance, t Ii<: foll<>win g passage: -Th e re ll':ts :1 hu s h :rnd stilln ess about th e late Jul y a ft e r11 00 11. Th e llnud -tide c 1111 c up against th e ro c k s wit h a
faint munnur. A moti o nless je lly fish t-l o ated in th e
c lea r 11·:Jte r c lose to th e shore. The sun, disappe arin g !Jc·hind th e t ree s on ::iouthpurt !sl:rnd , tou c hed th e ir tops with
go ld. l;ar awa y, ho 111e w:1rd-bot11H.l llshing boats 111 0\·ed
sloll'ly al u ng. J;a int viol et -g ray clouds hung o ve r th e
southern horiz o n ; abov e , th e sa.Jmon-co lo re d sky shaded
to pale blue , growing int(! d eep bl ue o ve rh ead . Ac ross
the still waters the air ca m e with a so ft sea fr a gran ce.
The go ld o n th e tree tops c han ged to bronz ~. th e n russet. The sails in the d ist an ce took un a yell1Hv tinge .
The se a colo r d ee pe ne d into an ex quisit e blue, with g le:.1 111 s
of pal e ye ll ow. Just as th e s un se t, tin.: red rays shone o ut
from Ra111 lslancl Lighth o use.
E111TJI A. SAWYER: Jlfirry D1111t•n111.

As w<: read this passage we instin ct ivel y feel that th e re
1s som ething m ore in this than correct ex pression. The
words are good, simple Eng lish words, the sent ences
are well formed. the paragraphs are prope rly developed;

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O)Jf l'US I TIO ,\ . . / .\.J) NII F FONI C.

'·'
I

but all these thin gs do not acco unt f()r I he effect that
th e pa ss::ige produces upo n us . There is s<>mcthin g here
that quic kens o ur e1111Jtions an d g ive s us ;1 sense of
:cs tlwti c pleasure. This, 11-..: say, is lite rature . \\ ' ha t is
it, t hen , that con s tit utes lite rature?
\Ve may clefi 11c..: likr;1turc a s th e..: prese11Utio11 o i thi11gs
rc..:::il ur im agi 11at ive in such a w:ty as t<> mak e thvm in t ell ig-i ble, int e rest i11 g, a nd pk·a s in g to the rea d e r. Th e
litcr:try va lue of any comp.,s iti o n dept:ncls not on what
it co nsi st s of, hut o n th e dft:ct that it produ c es. No
goocl writ e r is cont e nt t o writ e c orrel'l Fng lish s impl y.
I le des ire s tk1t hi s w rit in g shall ha1·e lit e rary m e rit, and
:ts fa r :ts poss ib le g ives it ce rtain qu:ditie s th;1t will
appeal t 1i th e i11t e llectu:tl. e muti unal, and :i·stlwtic nature
uf his readers. Th ese 11-e call the qualities .,f a good
s t yk, and th ey nuy be su m med up u11der three heads,
J .et us consid e r
C learn ess, Emphasis , ;ind Fleg:rnce.
th ese qu::ilitics in turn .
78. Clearness. - Uc:trness 1s that q u:t lity of s t yle
whi c h appeals to the int e lle d , and enables a read e r to
und e rstan d a t h i11 g :1s the 11Titer un ck rst;t11ds it.
It is
the first requ isit e of all disc11urs1._·, and e1·e r y <)th e r qua lity
should he..: s:tcriti ce d t" it. Ambiguity ;lJld obscur it y
cannot be tCJle ra t e d, fo r what is u11i11tdligible might as
well be unwritt e n . At th e same..: tim e . it is e\·icl ent that
ck:t rn ess is a r e lative..: qualit y, dependent on the..: kind
of composition, and o n t he cbss of r e;1 ders addresse d.
C learn t:ss is more eas il y att;1in ed i11 simple narration than
in desniptio 11, and descript i1111 in t urn presents less diffi-

n1 1,· I}_( . IU l/FS UF , / 1700 /J SIT/.F.

c t1lt y

111

th is res pect

tkm exp11siti o n nr

-.., .., ,

- .)

;1rg u111 en t.

J\g·:t i11 , ;t style pc r kct ly clear t" sc hc1Ltrs may 11 o t lie so
t o jJeCJple kss i11t c..: lli gL' llt, o r t<> c hildre n . ln our w ri ti ng
11·e must , then, be g·o1·c r11 e cl sollle what by th esl' t WP considcr;1ti.,ns, ;i nd i11 judging t ht: sty le of an y pr<>duct i"n
we lllUSt tak e in to aCC<>Ullt the abilit y <>f th ose..; ft>r whom
it 1s i11t e11dcd.
79. Clearnes s : how Attained. - - Th e re is 11<> dcfi 11it e
1:111· g<>1·c r11i11 g ckarness . Ma11y things c rn1triliut e t o it,
c k :1r thi 11k i11 ;.; lwi 11g ch id a111011 g th e m . Clea rn ess of
es pressi<>n pr es up p.,sc..:s cka r11 t·ss nf thollg ht.. T he princ ipl es i11 tl1 c..: precedin g ch:1pters k11·e ha d to do in gre;tt
nlt'asllre \\'ith tht: proble m ()f sec urin g clearn ess; but as
one of th e qualities of ~t g ood styk, it r esuh·es ~t se lf
brgely int o a matter ()f c hoi ce, lllllllher, a 11d arrange ment
of wPrds an d phr:1ses. l'res id e 11t l.in culn 's G.._-t t y s burg
i \ddress fur11i slws :rn excelle 11 t illustrat iu11 of what con stitutes a clear styk.
It is a moclel of clear thinkin g
and c lear c .\ press in11, ;t11d may well be m e mori zed by all
of u s. \\ ·c 111 :ty also quo t e as a11ut he r ex:tm pl c a n acco unt uf .. th . _· Hl:1t·k l lolc ,,f C:tleutta,' ' fr o m Lord
M:1hon 's I l is /111)'

•I_/

F11.~-/a 11 d.

Th ey [th e pri ,.;uners] had bee n ldt at the di sposal of
the o !Ti ce rs "r th e g uard, who dete rmin ed to secure them
for th <.: nig ht in th e commo n dun geon of the fo rt - a dungeon kno11"11 to the En glish by the name of " the Black
ll o le " - its s ize onl y e ig ht ee n feet by fourteen, its a irholes only two small windows, a nd those ove rhung by a
1·e r:11Hl:t. Int o thi s ce ll .. . was it now resolved to
thrust 1.i1e hundred :rnd forty -live l•:uropean men and one

I·

c u.11 1· os1'l'fli. \ . . t. \ '/) N111,· ru1oc-.

Engli s h wo lll ctn , so me <>f thcn1 suffl'r in g- fr•>lll re;ccnt
wounds, and this in th e night <>f the l11d i:1n summersubtice, when th e fier cest heat \\':ls r:1ging ! l nto thi s ce ll ,
:tccordingly , the unh :tppy prisoners . in s pi te of their e xposttil:1tions, we re dri,·cn at lh c point of the s:1bcr, th t; last,
from the thro ng and th e 1i:t1T<m space , being pre;ssed in
with co nsiderable cliliic11ltr, and lite doors being then by
1nain fo rCL: closed alld lo d~ ed l1l'l 1i11d tit ·111. . ..
1\k:rnwhile, \Yilhin till' du11gl'Oll lite lw:ll and stench
had bl'COllle intulcr.ililc. I 1 ,,·:t'- cle: tr to th L· suffe rers
t ltemscl\-cs t lut. witltrn1t :1 change. fL·\\· if :tll)" :\lllOng
then1 would sec· tlw li;Jtt <•f :1111>1lwr day. So1ne :tltL·mpted
t" liur,.,t open the d.,or: "t hcrs. :is un :i,·:iilingly, again besought the soldiers l<l unclo,., e it. .\s thl'ir tli re thirst
i1t c1"c:1sed, :t111idst their st ruggles an d th e ir sc re:uns,
"\\':1t er I \\ ':1ter ! " l1ec 11nL· lh e gt;ncr:d ny. The office r
tu whose c rnupassi o n :\Jr. 11 ,,bwcll h:id la tely appea led
<ksired so mt; s ki1ts ni ,,·:ilL'r to be b rought to th e winclo \\',
hut th ey pron;d t"o largl; to p:t,.,s thr()u g h the iron bars,
:i nd th e: sigh t .,f t his rL·lid. so rn:ar :111d yet w1thhcld ,
se n· ecl only to inf uri: tl e :rnd ' 'ell -nigh 1tt:tdcle u the mise rable capti,·cs: they licg·:rn t<> tig ht a1td tr:u nple one
anuther down. stri,·i11g f(•r :1 nc:iri ·r pl:i«L' t" tlte wi11clo ws
:rncl fCJr a fe w drops of w:tt e r. Thc,.,e drc::1dfnl «01tflicts,
f:tr fr om e xc iti11g tlte pit\· of tlt e guards, r:tthn 111m·ed
tlteir mirt lt , :111d llt l')' lt ~ ld up ligl1ts t•> t he h:1rs with
f1e11di,.,h glee tu <iisn·rn the :i111u , i11g ,.,igltl 1t 1llrc ck:i rl y.

Fiii:' !Jl'. 11./llFS OF .I 1;uon .\/Tl. F.

Note in this passagt: the s im p li c it y of the di c tio11 , tile
abse n c e of s uperf·lu ous words, a nd tht: orderly a rran gem t: nt o f details.

Tht: n a rrat in: i,; clea rn ess itst:lf.

, I

80. Choice of Words .
Care i11 the sekction of w"rds is a lw:1ys necessary if one
wo uld writl' ckarly .

The subject h:ts bct.: 11 largely dea lt

with in Ch:1ptt: r \ · I .

Th e importan ct: of h;l\·ing a largt:

vocabulary :1t our co mma11d,

the fu n c ti ons of simple

/\11glo-Saxon words and of th t: lo nger worcls of cbssiL·
o ri g in , a n cl th e tho ught :md e n1 o ti o na l value 1if word s,
ha\·t: been sufficiently expbincd.

But a few otht.:r cun-

siderat iuns that sl1tlu lcl gove rn us in th t: choice uf. o ur
word s may be noted.

1n o rd e r to secure p recision th e

spec ial ist finds it n ecessary to emrloy t ec hni ca l t t:rms
a ncl symbols .

Ordinary words in the ir ordinary m ean -

ings arc at best \·ague an d equivocal , and abso lu te p r ens to n lit cxprL:ssmg o ur t h o ug ht s ca n11<>t be atta ined;
but \\' e s hou ld c huose a s fa r as possible th t: worJs that
m o st nt:arly express our m ea nin g , remembering th a t th e
precision nc:cessary to mak e a sc it: nt ific es say L·lea r would
make t>rdinary dis course unint e llig ible to th e general
p u blic.

\ Vh c: n th e morning ]m ike :tnd tlt e :\ :tho b's order ca me
to un loc k th e doo r, it hc1 ·:111tc 11 cn·ss:1ry 1-irst to clea r a
l:tnc: hy drawing out thL· c"qi,.,cs and pi lin g tht:lll in heaps
011 c:ic h sidt;; when , w:tlki11g n11e by ll ll l: tltr()u g h the
n :tlTO\\' ou tl e t . of tlt L· <>Il l' h1111dn·d :111d forty -si x pc:rsons
who li :1d entered th e: «l'l l the L'\'L' lli ng l1dore. 0 1t ly t wc ntyth rce c:1 1t1 e forth .. th " glt:1,.,Llic,1 f., rn1 s , ,.,:tys J\ I r. Orn1 e,
th:1t we 1«: e\·l'r ~CCII :lli\·e.

\ Ve s h o uld choose a ppropria t e w o rds, that is, words
suit ed tt> the th o u ght.

If th e thought be simple, th e

la nguag l' must be s.imple; if a compkx id ea is t o be ex pressed, a com plex means (Jf expressio n is r equired .

f 11

ge neral, to call fo rth strong e m o tion or feelin g-, to express simple ideas, a nd to narrate or to describe simpk

,,

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CO.J I l'OS!Tf(). V A ,\ ·/J /,'/! F TONIC.

thing·s, th e short, fami lia r, en:ry -day wo rd s :i re be tt e r ;
hut (or complex thou.L!;ht :u1d dignifi ed statement we
nrnst h:1n.: reco urst.: t o the longe r and less famili a r word s
fr.,m the L :ttin a11d th e Greek.
For in s tance, wh en
I n ·i11 g describes 1ch:tl> •ld C r;itH.:, he writes as foll ows:
"JI c \\'<l s tall, bu t c \cenl i11gly bnk, 11·ith 11;1rru11· sh"uld ers,
1.. 11g· :1rms :t11d legs. Ji;111ds that <Lmglu l a mi le out of his
slcc\'c·s, fcL't th a t might h:t \'e snn·d for sh11n:ls, a11d his
\\'h ok fr;im e rn<>s t loosely hu11g toge ther." 1 lcn.: Irving
employs al must entirel y th e fa111ili:1r w<>rds o f every-day
co111·e r sati trn; but \\'hen he is telling .. f hi s visit tu
\ \'cstminstcr Abbey, h l' tt sl's lar.~· ely a diffe re11t la11 g uage. Note th e c h:rn ge in th e u se o f words in th e
fullowing- passagt.:: " .'\ s I pa~ s ed the cloisters, som eti mes conte111pb ti11 g tl1 L' mingled p i\'lure o f g lory a11d
del·: 1y , :rnd s om et i111es e11dea1·ori11 g to decipher th e in sn ipt i11ns on th e t orn hstones, whi l·h f<>rm ed the p;iv e111e11t ben eath 111y feet , m y ey es 11·c re attracted tu three
li g ures rn de ly ca r\'ed i11 rL·lid. " The l:u1gu:1ge in each
11f th e p: 1ss:1ges is appr<>pri:1t c to 1hL: tlwught.
It is by
being car ef ul tn clw11sc ex:tc t a nd appropr i:1tt: words
th a t 11·c· ;1ch it..·vc brevity uf sta tc'nll' nt, it se lf :111 important
ckrnc·nt in a clear st ylc.
.\'t aifi« and C 1·11oiil !in11s. - C learness is o ft en
ga in eu by the su hstit uti on .. r specific f<ir g"<.:n e ral term s.
The ge neral tL:rn1, be in g a cbss-\\'o rd , from its very
nature produces a lc:ss dclinit e. and therefore a less
di s tin ct , impress ion o n .. ur mind s than · a specifi c or
in div idu :ll tt:rrn . Th e: spec ific tl'.r rn, though kss inclu-

Tiii:' QU.·I L!T/FS OF . I

<;oo n S'f'JIF

s1vc, is m<irc e xa ct. " ])welling-house" is mu c h ck: tr L·r
t" us than "building," a '' shm·cl," than an "ag ri n tl tur;t!
i11stru1rn.: nt. " ·•A mute, in g lorious l\'lilton" forms a
m o re distin c t picture i1r t>tt r mind s th :rn "S11m e heart
nnce pregna nt with celestial fin· ." Cen e ral terms arc
\':tluablc for their purpose; it w u uld h t.: wd l-11ig h im possible to w ri tt.: 1\·itho u t them; they su m up detac hed
ohsen· ;1t io n s ;ind in d i1·idual thin gs into a C()Jl\-Cni c nt
\\'hole:; hut we: slwiikl be\\'a r e of 11 s i11g term s m"r t.: ,::;cner;d than th e idea we have in mind . \\'e ha\·c only
to rL·;Hl ;1gain th e dc:scr iption o i "The Hbc k Hok of
C alcutta " ah11\·c t<J sec how mu c h \'ividness and clearn ess the spec ifi c t erms add to th e desc ripti o n.

81. Number of Words.
st yle m ay he d efici e nt 111 dearn ess b ec1u ,;e it is ex1\
cess ivel y cu nc isc ur beca use it is diffuse. The num be r
o( wurds th a t a sen t ence should cuntain is an im port:1nt
quc:s tinn , :rnd is dd e rmined h y a variet y of l'"n s id c rati ons. F am iliar to pics ;1dmit of briefe r e\press ion t11an
o riginal ideas.
Int e lli gent pe rsons require less e xplanati on th a n ig n orant ones. Som e people grasp an idea
m ore quickly than othe rs.
In genera l, a s e nt e n ce
sh o uld contain every word necessa r y to convey the
th o ught clearl y, but not on e word more. \tVhat eve r the '
subjec t cliscu ssecl, we should avoid excessive conc iseness on th e one h and, and diffuseness on the oth e r:
th e (ormer obscures the thoug ht, the latt er produces
t ed inu sness.

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CO.ll l 'OS!ll<l. \ ' . !.\ '/! !.'lll:·TON!C.

0 1J1is.ri/i1t of lVo rds. - Ove r-co nciseness usua lly ta kes
the form of omissio n of import:mt words, such a s nouns,
pronouns, or verbs. Brevity obta in ed in this way is
to be c•mdcmncd.
Thus, "There h:t\'e been things
eno ug h luppencd in o ur time" should be, "There have
been thin gs enough th:1t han; h:ir>pe ned in our time."
The sentence '' The gr:tv e of Robert Bruce was only
marked by two brn:id tlagstuncs, <111 which Hurns knelt
and k issed." is cldect i\·c i11 se \· e ral r espects ; but it is
m:lllc much clc:HLT by the interp1ilati•1n o f a fe w necessary words. \\'e should sec lo it. then, th:1t o ur scntenn:s conta in cn:;-y \\'orcl nccess: try t11 m:tkc th e mean in g
clear.
S1tf'n)lllo1ts Il'ords. - No fault is so destructive of
clearness as that o[ (}\·er-loading- a sentence with un11el·cssa ry word s and burying th e th o ug ht in a mass of
\'crbal rubbish.
This fault may take the form 0 [ a
repet itio n of the sense in different words, known as
lau/olog)'; the use of a superfluous word or phrase he re
a nd there, k11r11,·n :ts rcd1t11da11ry; or a general use of an
unne cessary number .,f \\·ords to express the i<lea, known
as 1;crbosi1y. Th ese f:llllts arc usually d ifficult to avoi d,
but we s lwulcl guard ;q~ainst them const a ntly . The
writer who says "The birds wer e singing th ei r bys of
th:tn ks ancl g ra titud e" is guilty of ta utology, for
"tha nks' ' and "gratitude .. express the same idea. \\'h en
Pres ident Taylor wrote "\\'c are at peace \\'ith all the
,,·orld :1 n<l the rest of mankind." th e redundant phrase,
"the rest of m;rnkind," m ;icl'c the SL'nten ce ridiuil(Ju s.
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Tht: polite iml iv id u;:tl who wrntc " Una voidable circumstances Pvcr whi c h I have no cont r ol compel me to forward to )'P U a regre tful dcclinat ion," certainly trespassed 011 good nat un.: ll'ith his verbosity .

82. Arrangement of Words.
It is har<lly necessary to dwell o n th e import a nce of
good ::i.rr:u1gement. \ Ve ;i ll ktvt: e xpe ri e nced th<.: d iffic ulti es of undcrst a mlin g written discOl;rst: in which the
wo rd s and phrases were badly arranged. The ti;1ily
pape rs arc filled with items and advertisements, whi ch
taken as they rt::td. ;ire littk s hort of ridi c1tlo us.
" \\ 'ant ed , a boy t o open oysters fiftee n years old," is
the fo rm of a recent advcrtisem1.:nt. In this ca1L', a
little attention to a rran geme nt wo uld Juve prevented all
a mbig uit y. Clea rn ess rel1uires that words a n<l phrases
that a rc related in thought shall be nc:1r o ne an o th e r
in expression, and that thusc whic h arc separate in
th"u.:..;h t sha ll be separa t e in expression. A littl e care
in this re spCL't will enable us to avoid ambiguity and
obscurity.
83. Unity. -- Nothing contributes more to clc:1 rness
of style tlu11 1111ity. Th e word. as it s dc 1·i,·a ti o11 im pli es,
si g nifi es 0111 ·1/f'.1.r. - <Jill' thought in a sentence, with al l
th e parts s ubordin ated t u t he main id ea; one topic devel<1pccl in a p:i ra~raph. and one ce ntral lin e nf thoug ht
th r ()ughnut the L·o111p11s iti on. Stress h:1s al ready been
h id 1111 this qual it y. part icula rl y in the chapt e rs relating
to t he par:1graph ;rnd the \\·h nlc co111position. but so im-

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C0.1!/' 0S! TIO.\ ..·I.VJ) NII F TOR!C.

port;1nt 1s it in all ll'riting th;tt it llla y be give n
cnnsidL'ratio 11 \1·i th n.:fc rc n(l'. to se 11 te n ces.

itka. The sc nl e n c...:: ''I t wa s a 11 old- fas hi oned \·hurc h
and h ad s t a in ed glass wincl(Jll's, " Wlnild be: mu ch im proved if written, " It was ;m uld -fas hio n ed c hurc h ll'ith

To han.: unity a snitcncl' mu st ha n .: but u ne thought,
so exp ressed th;1t it ll'i ll ;.:in: the re;tder the impression
of being one th ought. J\ sentence may not have unity
ot thought, o r ha\·ing· uni ty it may not give the impres-

st a in cc! g la ss windows."
The followi ng passages, take n frt1m a s in gk copy of a
r ece n t da il y paper, a r c ddicient in unit y: -

s ion o f unit y. In th e fnrmn cas e th e writ e r has tried
t<> put t"" mu ch . i11t o onL' sv1 1tl· nce, usuall y t wo or mor .
h L'll' roge n l'<> us ick:ts. (Jr hL: h:ts :1<1dn l a s ubordinat e idea
:tftl'r :1pparL· 11tl y lm11 g i11;.;· the Sl"llll'lll"l" to a close. For
c ., :rn1pk, :t 11L·11·sp:q1n :t t h:llld h;1s th e following items:
- ·· !\'I r . Haker, 11f this t .. 11·11, lll l't with a painrul acciucnf ·
List ,1·ee k; :11HI :tt th e s;une tim e J\Jrs. lbk e r Jay serj.
"11sly ill 11·ith ;1 fc1·LT ... .. Bu s in ess is b risk at the Union

I Ln·e you see n the wo ncl c rf ul po ll'e r pl a nt of the Hoston 1-:lect ri c Li g ht Co. , th e largest in the world and open
t o v isitors who fi rst s...:cure a pass at our Boston office?
1\ t a Liter (L1y a full d esc ripti on of the hall will be
given , toget her 11·ith cuts show in g the c harming int er ior,
whi c h it is promised wil l d e lig ht the eye, as well as the
se nse of he:1ring hy its acous ti c properties, whi c h, as far
as scien t ilic kn oll'lcdge can deter min e, arc to be ex cellent.
I l e 11·:1sn "t pa rti cularl y c hipper during th e meal, which
l\l rs . J ohson sat throug h witho ut once g ettin g up' a s usuJI
to see abo ut the coffee o r the cl es~e rt, o r so me thin g or
o t her, a nd she ,,·e nt ri g ht up sta ir s with Mr. Jo bso n when
th e dinn e r w;1 s lin is hecl.

! l ouse, \\'hi L·h, hy the 11·:1y, is un de rgo in g extensi ve rop:t 11 s.
U nit y ()f c·xprl'ss i<1n is 1·iol:tted by an unwar.
rantn l ch;mge 11f sulijL·c t.
For example: - "The tra.i
left us at :t litt le 11111u11l ;tin sl:tt111n , and we traveled th~
n·st .,f the ll' :1y in :t lwa1·y n1rn111l :1in ll'agon. " Now ,i(
\\'e s;1y ·• \\'e left th e train" etc , 11·c avoid a n unneccs..:·

84 . Cohe~ence. -

s:1ry c h: rn g...: <>f suhj...:l'l a nd prese r ve the unity of the .
".
sent...: n c: c.
Agai n u ni ty o f express io n som e times suffers . '.·:
frnm a want or arr;111.~·l'rncnt. F or example : ".I saw ·:·-;:
th e s unset walking <111 the r":td beh ind th e mo untain."

-~

Co h e re nce: is closely ak in to unit y.

Sent e 11 ccs t h;tt ar...: cl c fici...:11t in unit y a rc g e nerally i11 c"h e r cnt. In a c oh e r e nt styl e th e icleas follow one another
in a lugical o rder, and s how th e ir mutual relati o ns clearly.
Coh e r e n ce m ea ns slicking togct!tcr. In se nt e nces it is
la rgely a mat te r of a rrangem ...:nt. v\/hatev e r co ntributes

The se nt e n ce as \\Tit te n gi 1 L's a ridi c ulo us impression i -~
but if \l'C say, " J\ s f 11·;1s 11·alking o n th e road behind ·

t o unit y o f arrange m e nt co n tr ibut es to cohe rence:; in
paragraphs and themes as a whole it is more a m at t e r of
se que n c L:, ;i ncl the r c btion b e tw een the seve ral parts is

the rnt>untain, I sa\\' th e suns...:t," t he se nte nce becom s
clear.
U nit y of cxprl'ss inn is la c king wh e n the parts
a sentence arc nu t pro11nly s ubordin a t ed to the main

indi cated by some connecting- wo re! su ch as /w wc1 1cr,
accordi11,i;ly, t/11·n'}r1n·, e tc Th e following th e m e, writte n
by a hig h Sl' hnol pupil , illustra t es a style lac kin g in
both unity ancl nil1erl'llCe :

232

( ·u. l! l 'OSI T!U,\ '

.·I. \ 'I J N 11 F TONIC.

In the c a sket scene of th e lV!erchant (Jf Venice, the
o ne in which Hassanin chooses, seel!ls to be the most
interes tin g . We are all inte rested in Bass:1nio, fo r he was
one of the first c ha ucters · introdu ced . I le went to a
great deal o f tro ubl e to fit hims e lf o ut to s eek P o rtia, and
in ev e ry r espect set.: lll ecl wo rth y of he r. I l e also is in
love w it h Port ia, 1rhile the ot he r tw o who c hose we re no t,
hut we re o nly money-seekers, not ca ring very mu c h for
lier perso nally , but nnl1· fo r h er wealth .
I 11 t ht: d1onsin;.:· oi t fie J>rince of Morocco he turn ed to
the golden c asket. I k thnuglH on ly of th e liright exterior and did not loo k for what th ere w;is behind it.
11 o w o ften people ;ire judged i 11 a bout the same way I If
they a rc good -loo k ing. they a re thought to be good and
beautiful, yet ho w oft en , as th ey :ire better known, it is
found o ut that n o t they. but th e ir plainer co 111panions,
make th e bes t a nd tru es t fri e nd s I
lb ss:i nio 's cs ti111 ate of th" casket is that of a lll an , no t
look in g m e re ly at the.: g:1mly outside. but wishing to find
th e better and inner nature.
His cn111m c nt:; 0 11 th e
go ld e n c:1s k et imply•· that all i.-, not gold that glitters,"
hut behmd all th e show ther·c ma y he so mething- d ece iving. 1 l e also says the world is co ns tantly d eceived by
just su c h peop le.
The ,.,il\-i.:r 0 11 e hl' wn1dd not t:lkt: , :t.s that was the
m e tal whi c h is 11 secl h1 ·t11-e L·n men for buying and selling.
Jnstead he c huse th e plainest one, that which h:1d a dull
ex te riur, and w1J11 l'o rti a . I l<>w ofte n in o ur d a ily lives
we sec a s imilar c hoice re w:i rd cd !

EX ERC!SES.

i. How 1rnuld yo1 1 ddi11c cor re ct exp ress ion ~ \\°h a t
do you und e rstan d by lit erature? Wh a t distin c tion would
you mak e b e tween corre c t expre'>s ion and lite rature?
2 . \\'hat arv the.: qualiti1· .~ tl1 :1l u>11st itute a goud strle'

Tiii:' !J, UAL IT/l:·s OF A GOOD .S JTLE .

., " .

- .).)

To 11 hat s ho uld each of these qualities appeal in o ur
nature?
3 . H ow would you define clearness? Sho~ how dear~
ness is a relative quality.
How may we attam cle~rness
of s tyle? What considerations should govern us m the
choice of words?
4 . What do you und e rstand by choosing the," ex;ct
word "? Can we d o this absolutely ? Why not . V\ hy
is a scientific essay unintellig ible to the ge neral read.e r?
What d o yo u und e rst a nd by c hoosing an ' ' appropnate
word "? When should you use simple words, and wh e n
lo nge r words? What is the differe n ce between a genc.:r;d
and a specifi c term? \,Yhen may each b e used to good
advantage?
\Vhat rul e m ay he crivcn for the number o f words
" - s I1o u Id _b e avo1.d e cl'
What
in 5·a sentence? 'Yhat fatdts
;
fo rm does e xcessive conciseness usually take .
v\1 hat
fo rm d oes diffuseness take? Disting uish bet11Jee n tautol ogy and redund a n cy.
I I o w does each diffe r from verbosity? \\' hat rul e should you g ive for the arrangement
o f words and phrases 111 a se nten ce _?.
.
.
.
G. Study the d e fe cti ve co mpos1t1ons m Appendix C
with re fe re n ce to clearness, c hoi ce, number, a nd arrangement o f wo rds , etc. Be prepared to give reasons fo r any
c riti c is ms or comments that you may make.:.
7 . Bring to the class ex ce rpb fr o m ..n e_ws1 ~a pe r or
magazin e arti c les illustrating any of the p1111c1ples tn this
c hapte r. Suggest c hanges th at might Lie 1uade 1n thes e
arti cles with refe re n ce to c le arn ess .
.
8. L ook over the foll o wing passages and exp la111 wh erein they are c lea r. Comment upo n. the word_~ used and
their arrange me nt. I >o the s a m e with the ddterent pat~graphs quoted on pages 62 - 77 .
·
1 . It is a pi ous c ust o m in so me. Ca th oli c count ries. to
honor the memory of saints. by votive. lights burnt befor e
their pi ctures. The popularity of a samt, therefore. may IJc
known by the number of these offerinffs. On.e, perhaps. is
left to mould er in the darkness of his little cl1.1pel , an o the1

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m a y h:1v c a so litary la 111p to thro w it s blinkin g- r :1ys athwart
his eft '.l?Y; wl11 le •h e \\'h o~e b laz e o f a d orati o n is lavish ed a t
th e sl11 rn c _o f so m e bca t ll1 cd fat l1er of r e n o wn. Th e we alth y
d t:: l' Otee brin gs l11 s hu ge lu minary of \\' :I X ; tl1e c age r zea lot
l11 s sc , ·e n -bran c h ed c an d lesti c k ; and eve n th e mendi cant
p tl gnm is b y no m e an s satislie d tha t s u flic ie nt li g ht is thrown
ll Jl lln . t l'. e tlece_a;'e ~I , _u nless h e ha ngs up his littl e lamp of
s1n uk 1n g u 1l. l h e c n n scqu ence is. in th e e a ge rn e ss to enl 1gh te n , th ey a1·c o fte n apt to obsc ur e: ;i ncl I lt ;l\·e o cc asi onal ly s t: e n :1n unl 11 c ky saint :tlm os t s mo ked 011t of cu, 11 it e nance
b y the olh c 1ou s n css o f ill s fo ll o\\'e r s.
\\/ ,\ Slll :-><ir u:-> l 1< 1·1:-; c;: I ii. · S/..,./,/1 -1/"'J/.·.
- · Tlt c, p L1ce " ',as ll'Orthy of s uch :1 trial. I t wa s th e gr e at
h.tll o f\\ il li .1rn k u fus; t he hall \\'h 1c h had r eso und ed with
" :cla 111 :111on s a t th e in a 11gu r:11io n of thirt >· kin g·s ; th e h all
\1 h1L h l1:1d 1\·11n cs sed th e Jll .>t se n tence o f J: ac1Jn , a nd the
F•s.t ;ibsol 11t 1on Il l So111ers : t he ha ll w h e r e th e e loq ue n ce o f
St 1.tll o 1d had fnr :1. 1110111e11t a \\' ed a nd m el ted a v ic to ri o us
p .1rt y 111tiamcd \\'1 th Jllst rc s,·nt m cllt; lit e h :dl wh e re C h a rl es
l~. td .. con frontl'd th e l11 glt c c111 rt of j us tic t: with th e placid
c n u_r.1.g-c wh ich has h :il l redeemed hi s fam e.
1\ ei t he r m il it ary n or ci1·il po mp w as wantin g·. Th e ave nues
we r e line d. ;vrth gre nad ie r s. Th e s lr ec is were kept cle ar b
cava lr y.
l h e pe e rs, robed ill gold and e rm in e. were ma[.
~ lt : tl ed b y th e . heralds un d e r the g-a r te r kin g -at -arms. The
3udgcs , rn th e ir ve s tm en ts of st a le. att e nd e d to g i,·e advi c e
<_Jn p o ints o f h\\' . N e a r a hundr ed a11d s e venty lords three
lt1urths o f th e up1 >e r hou se. \\'a lk ed in s o le mn o rci e r~ fr o m
tlt c_ir usual p la ce ol a ss e m b ling- to th e tri b l111al. The jllni or
L>.1Jc>11 p1 c st:n t led the wa y - 1.o rd H c a t hti e ld . r ec entl y e nn o b led Jor hi s_ m e 1'.10!·a li le defe n se o f Ci b ralta r a g ainst the
lk e ts an d arn11 cs o l I· r:111 ce a nd Spai n . Th e lung proce ssion
was c losed i>y lit e D11 kc o f N t1 rfol k . r ;1rl m:irsli:tl "f the
r e .tlm , li v. th e g r e at d1 g:n1ta ri e>. anc l loy the l 1 ro th c r~ and s o ns
o f . th e kin g . . La s t nl :tit c:111 1e tl 1c /' rin ce o f \Vale s, co nsp;c li o u s !,y hi s '111 c JH' rs .. 11 :11>d ., .,J,Je l1c arin g .
f h e gTa y o ld wa lls ll'C- re ltu11g· \\'ith s c ar le t. Th e Jon ,
galle ~ i cs 1~· cr.e _c ro wde d i>y s uc h a11 audi e n c e as_ has ra r e !~
e x c it e d the f<:.u s 0 1 th e cm1 1h t10 11 nf :rn o rator.
!'h e r e we re
ga th e r: d toget h e r fro lll all p art s o f :i g re at . fr ee , e 11li g ht e ned,
and p1osp c rou s r e al lll. g r arc and fema le love lin e ss , wit and
learning, the r e pr esentat11·t:s u ~ _c , ·e r ,· s c ien ce and of e very
art.
I 11<'1.1L1s IL 1\f,\( ·,\t ' LA\':
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lf'arrc:11 l!a sli111[s.

_,. He_( Bi s m a rc.k ) s tr ides lt e a \'i ly in: it is h ut :i s te p from
th e d o 01 to th e spo t wh e r e th e sc arl~t po n fuli o is. wa itiiw
b

Tlf.E QUA /./T!/:'S O F .. / (;Q ()J> STVJJ'.

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for him, but th e weight o f th e ste p is wh a t fir st s trik es yo u.
It is n o t lassitud e, it is s hee r, ph ys ic a l b1dk. 11 c s tan d s s ix
fee t tw o . and hi s fram e is th e fram e of a giant. H e is broad
and squar e in t h e s h o uld e rs a nd d eep -c h es te d ; th e arm s ::ire
bi g ; th e legs ar e big ; and th a t p a rt o f th e b o d y 11 h 1ch is
in te rm e di a te b e tw ee n le g s a nd c h es t 1s l!l g, ye t n o t g r11 ss.
1-1e is as h eroi c in hi s phys ic al \)ro p o rti o n s a s in hi s c hara c ter .
Th e he a d is s e t on th e shrnilr e rs and a lmost in to tl11: n1 with
a sin g 1il a r so lidit y and c l"se n e ss. Tlte man is a ll o f :1 pi ece ;
bod y a nd mind , as it ll' e re , fu scd a nd we lde d t• ige th e r.
Faitltiul as are man y o f th e photog r aphs. I r e rn c mi>tr non e
ll'hi c h brings o ut strung-l y th e h e lmet -s hape of t l1e h e ad.
It is th e h e ad o f !' c ri cks; d o me-lik e in it s a n1p l1tude as
we ll as in it s c urv e . \\'itlt a bre:1dth at th e te mpl es whi ch
its l• l ll' e rin g h e ig ht c ann o t d isg uis e; and far O\'e rh:111 g in g th e
st ee l-g ra y eyes, whi c h loo k ""l as fr o m ca ,·e rns, dee p -frin ge<'.
with g r ay e yebrows . Th ere is n o reg ul arity o f .f e ature o r ol
c o nt o ur. Th e n o se is sh o rt and ca r e lessl y m o ul d ed ; th e
m o uth y o u must imagin e, fo r a gr ay musta c h e s h ades it; th e
j a w is die ja w - w e ll , o f Prin ce Bi s mar c k. and o f h im al o n e.
The stamp o f po we r, o f irr es istibl e for ce, is o n fa c e and
figure ; in to this on e human fi g ur e l1as N a t11r e for on ~ co ll ec ted
a ll h e r irrep ressibl e e n e rgi es, and subdu ed th e m to his O\' t r mas tering will.
(; . \ V. S~ 1 A1 . 1 E\': /h.1·11111u !.- i11 !l1t: R eicl1st 11.i:.

9 . C riti c ise th e fo ll o win g passages with refe re nce to
Cl e:1rne..;s. Study th e m cardul ly , and r e -ll'rite th e ni so
that th ey will b e c le :1r.
1. V ,rnit y is th e n ex t dan ge r to o ur d e mo c racy a cco rd in g to 1'1:o f. Ct iggs, who deftl y d e n o un ced im pe ri a lism
withn11t m e nti o ning - it b y s a y in g that it wa s to a 11swe r a
c har ge o f lac k of c oura ge that \\' e s t:lt.:c tecl a n t: n e rn _v and
co nqu e red him . and t< J ]Jl' O \ 'C o urs e lv e s c apabl e o f \\' Orld
powe r that we h ave g o n e a ro und th e world and a s sum ed
fouli s h r espon s ibi liti es, le av in g b e hind th e q11i<:t paths of
s e lf -d e vt: l•>prncnt that we r e le ad ing us to unparalle ll ed p o we r
and g-lor y by 0 11r own pat.hs, wh e n we we r e s o l vin g th e
int e ll ec tual prol1le 111 s o f c iv ilizati o n.
2 . A dis e a s e not ye t diagn o s ~ d by an y o c u li s t. and whi ch·"
seem s t o be c o ntagi o us in c erta in loc aliti es, a ffi ic ts " F ai r
Pla y' s " eye s . This v i s u~I v ic iousness wa s first n o t ice d .in th e
leaciin g co lumn of th e r r ee Pr e ss o f .J.ul y 25 th , th e e d itori a l
opti c, as th e re p o rtra yed , ha v ing a v1s10 n of. o n e o f o ur re s pe c ted c it izen s , 11 la th e C hinese Boxe r , fiend ish ly fe e clrng his
fier y, flaming furnace with frenzied ftline fuel.

CO .I! ! 'OS //'/1 !. \ · .·L \"/ ! NJ/ F /'<JN/('.
1 A wri te r in a rur a l e xc han ge says that he sa w" two men
sta rtin g fo r to~vn with a g ra1· horse and sle igh se ated upon
a box conta in in g- holes that had bee n m ade with a two in c h auge r going after a pig."
4 . Last eve n ing a runaway hors e o wn ed by John Welch
caused a good dea l of excitement. H e s tarted near the
Br ig h ton station and ran down \V estern A ve nu e. vVhen
n_ear the co rda ge works he ran in to a team dri1·en by J osep h
Lolby. H e was t hrow n violently to th e ground and rece ived
se\'ere cuts a lJou t th e head.
A docto r wa s call ed wh o
orde red hi s remo val to his Newto n hollle.
5. Th e you ng man did not wa n t natur:d ta le nt s; hut th e
father of him was a co xcom b. who alft: c tcd be i1w a tine
gc 11tl e m a n so unmcrcifollr that he C•Hiid 11n t end ure in f;is s ight,
o r th e freque nt men t1un of, one \\'ho was his sun, growing
111to m an hoo<l a nd thru strng l11m o ut ol the gay world.
6 . The c riti ca l pos iti o n of th e new free s tate, whi c h is
b e in g fo unded in Afr ica by th e kin g o f th e Belgians, is o win g
to its prese nt 1unsd1ct1on on the Co ngo, be in g an isl a nd and
to the ri g ht s it µossesses on th e sea coast to th e n orth of the
Con go being- coveted by F rance.
7. In orde r furt he r to ad ,·e r ti se nw IH1 siness. l wi ll send
m y ~ e w pipe orga n lo any one send i°ng- me i-75. pro1·ided I
rece1,·e fil ty names, th e same as g iven awav at the conce rt of
Ue cem ber the _;cl.
8. An Alabama paper. speaki ng of Florida. sa ys: There
are a lso n um ero us small lakes of pure water, till ed with fish
so me o f whi c h a re on ly a ie w rod s in extent, while o th e rs ar~
from two to ten miles lo ng.
9 . . W e are _beco min g alto ge th er too ho rse s h o wy. I am
afra id that with these small summer resort col lec tions of
fav ored h o rse fl es h , th e big, crushing Madison Sq11 :u e < ;arden
affair will have its te e th drawn, :rnd there will be 110 bit e
to it. There is always clange r of m aki 11!; good tl1in gs too
common.
1 o. Study carefully th e following- passages with reference
to the use of ge nera l and specilic te rm s. Re-write th e p:tssages, s ubstituting as far :is poss ibl e spec ili c fo r general
and ge neral for spec ifi c te rms . :ind note th e effect
produced.
1. Kain, rain , ra in!
Th e wind ro.\rs down the c himn ey.
Th e birds are s il ent. No t .i cricket c hirps . Closets sme ll
moldy . The ba rometer is dogg-e d . \Ve thumµ it. bu t it will
no t g·et up. l t seems to han: a n understanding with the

F!IF !Jf'. 11./Jl F'» OF . I

(; (lt>/1 sn·1. l.' .

..,

-

'
- ·'I

weatl1cr. Tiu.: trees dr iµ, s h oes are mu d d y. c:1rriagt:.111d w;tg o11
:ir e sp lashed with cl in . l'a tits a rt: soft.
2. Thev loo ked around 0 11 e,·e ry side, and hope ga1·e way
befo re the sce ne of desolat io n . lm me 11 se branches were
s h i,·ned fr om the lar gest trees; small unes were e11ti rel1
stri ppul oi their leaves; the long g rass w:is buwe::d t". th..:
earth , tl1e waters were whirled i11 eddies out ol the little
ri\'l1kts; birds, kav ing their n ests to st.:ek she lter in the ere'"
ices of the rod;s, uncdile to ste m th e dri ving air, H:tpp ed th ei r
wings and fe ll up on t he eart h ; the frightc11cd anin1 ;ils of _tl1:·
plain. a lmost suffocated liy 1hc i111p e tu usity of the l\'11 1<1 .
so1 1glit s:rlfcty.

and f1.H11Hl dcstru ct io11 ; sonH: .. uf tl1c laq.~t.:'.-.1

trees were torn up b y the roots; 1h e sluices ol the mo11ntai11s
we re lilied , and in11um c ra bl e t"rre11ts ru,hed down l, e 1.,rc th e
e mpt 1· g ull ies. The h ea\'e n s now ope n, a 1HI th e lig htnin g· ;u ld
thu11d er co11tc nd with the ho rrors o l th e w111d .
j . lu o ne corne r was a stag nant poo l of wat er su r rou11d i11 g a n isla11d o f mu c k ; th ere were severed l1 a ll -drnw11ed
fowls c ro wded togeth er u11d e r a cart , a mong _which was_ a
mist.:rable c re st-fallen coc k, d renc hed out o f al l life and spint;
h is dro op in g tail matted, as it were, into a single feather,
along whi c h th e wat er tri c kl ed fr om his ba c k ; nea r the cctrt
w:\S a half-d oz ing- cow, c hewini.; the cuci, and s tanding- p:i ti en tl y to lie rained on, with wrea th s of vapor ris ing- from her
ret.:kini; hide; a wall -eyed horse. tired of the loneliness of th e
,1a l1k, w:is po ki11 i.; his spec tr::d head o ut o f tht: w111d11w, with
th e r:1in dripping o n it fr o m th e caves; a n unh a ppy c ur,
cl1a i11 cd to a dog-house h ard by, utte red somet h in!-'. e ,·e r y
n<>1V and th e n betwee n a bark a nd a ye lp , - e ve ry thin g, in
short was co mfortless and forlorn , exce ptin g a cre w ol
hard -drinkin g- du c ks . ass e mbled like boon co mp a nions round
a pucldl e, and making a riotous noise over th e ir li quor.
1 1.

Study th e foll o \\' ing sentences with refe rence

~··

·'

. ;.fj

.

H i·

1,l

.,

'; ¥-

to

th e c ho ice, numbe r, and arrangement of words. Maki.:
:1n y correcti ons you think necessary , and b e prepared t u

g i1·e ri.::isons for th e ch anges.
1. \.Ve have rece iv ed a basket of fine grapes from our
fr iend \ V.. f,ir ll' hi ch he will p lease accep t o ur thanks, some
uf whi c h are nearly two in c hes in diameter.
~ - l'edal teg- um ents artisti ca ll y illumin a ted an d lu ltri catcd
fo r 1he infinit es imal remun e rati on o f five ce nts.
3· Il e e njoyed the universal es tee m o f a ll me n.
·l · The ho tel's nig-ht watchman e nab les gentlem~n to he
ca ll ed :t t any t ime, and adds greatly to th e co mfort and secu·
rit y of :di.
·

·""

,.\1 '

.;

,I

I

CO.lfl' OS/'11 0. \ .. I.\ ·n NI I F.: TON/ ('.

5. I l e promi sed l1i s f:itl 1cr li e \\'n1ild 111·1·n

Tiii e" 1_!( .·1!.IFILS (}F .I 1;uuLJ S TYLE.
0

255

fnrgct hi s

:ul\it'l.'.
0 . <Jn

a rri v in g- a t t he ~l ;itin11, li e ~lcpped from tl1 e trai n,
lou k cd abo u t for a c ab, hired ulll:, gu t into it. told th e driver
t" nlt>v e on, and rcacliccl h is ho11 sc 11·it ho ut ac c id e nt.
7. Madame 1. - gave a ,·nc al rec it a l las t eve ning- at
Stc i11 c rt I I a ll , a ss istl'd b y ;in o rc h e stra, whi c h p e rfo rn1 l'd ~ev ­
e r;d hi g-h -class scle c tiJlns and r.0 11 si d e ra li h· c nhan ccd th e
even in g- 's proceed in g s.

CHA PT ER XIV.

,

S. T o be di spose d uf. a m:1il pha e ton , property of a

TllE

QUALITIES OF

A (;()() Ll S T \' IY.

F.T.F.GANCE .

g-e ntl erna n wi th a n Hn·;-1hl e lte;td · p iece as g·ood a s new.
<) . Annual s;il c n o w 0 1i.
I lon ' t g-o elsew h ere to be c h eated
co m e in her e.
10 . S h e had n ot )T l li stened p: 1tic n tly to his h ea rt -b ea ts,
bu t onl y felt that h e r own was hea ting vi o lentl y.
11 . Tl1 c ann11 al anni vcrs:1ry of the landing- 11[ the Pil g rims,
ce lcln ated yea rl y , took pl ace a few day s since.
1'· It loo ks as if e x-l'res id ent Harrison might be aspi rin g
to a nti c ipate the '.-:iupreme Lo 11rt o n th e :1bso rbi ng question
:1s tu appli c al,ilit y of th e constituti o n to our 11<: w possess io ns .
1 ;. The s ec r et ar y of th e n ;l\· y disrn i- sc d fro m th e nav :d
a cad e m y last \\' eek , on rccrnnm vndatio n of tl1 c supe rintend e nt,
a cad et found g uilty of .. g oug- in ~~ .-· 11lii cl 1 is t h e slang- for
di s lH1ncsty in work , in this case the CJJ\'l"ing: as his ow n a
them e written l1y an otht: r ca de t, :ind nf false h u od .

-

Study th e following sclcc ti u11s , and cri ti c ise th e m
11·ith rderenn: t<) un ity and C(l h e ren c e.
R e- write e:1c h,
12 .

:111d sh(lw wherei n yu u h:11·e i111pron:cl it in thesl'. n.:spects.
1 . This is a m us t c harn1i ng: c hapte r o f th e s tor y, whi c h is
full 11f p le asant in c id e ut s, a nd wh ic h th e re:1d e r will fin d \\'e ll
worl l1 pt: ru s al.
.. . Th e place was approa c h ed th ro ug- h a pastur e·fie ld, \\'e h:id found it b y mer e acL·id e11t , - - and wh ere th e penin s ula joined the field (w e h :1d to c l i1n l1 a fen ce jus t th e re), t h e re
wa s a c luster of c h es tnut a nd hicko ry trees.
.l· \ Ve su g-ges t ver y seri,Jus ly and ea rn es tly that a d ep artm e nt of hum a n h ea lt h. with s pe c ia l attent io n tu th e stam p ino·
o ut of d an g-e r ous na l iuna l d ist:ases. Ii kc cons 11mpti un , should
r ece in: immedi a te gove rnm ent at te ntion.
4. O ur es t eemed co nte mp o rar y is loo kin g- for s ome wes te rn
m e mh t r o f th e leg islature ll'h O ll'i ll rise to the op p o rtunit y ,
:ind tr y to mak e a nam e for hiin s l'lf i11 fnllowin g- u p th e N a ord'x sugg·es ti on that nohocly c an r11ake a g n· ;1lt'r hit on l:ka•· 011 11 ill than . to suppo rt by pr:1 c t ic a l a ct ion the go n :rn or's
,·1guruus c: ill lur r ea l eco n o my.

98. What Elegance Is. -

Fru m what we kwc al r eady
i,

learn ed we rn :Ly reasnnahly c u11 c lt1Lk that o rdin a ry prilse

;~<

cu n cern s itse lf c hiefl y \\·ith cum·eying thou g ht , and tlu t

:~·

it s 1rnrt h is m easured b y the degr ee i11 whic h it 111:1kes

r

the th11u g h t distin c t a nd im p ress i1·c; that is, its tm• fun d:im l'. nt;tl qu :tlitics :1 rc clc:i rn cs s a n d c mph :tsis. Hut a
work (If l: tc rary art, be it pr11sc (Ir poetry, h as ;\ , -: ~Jue
b eyond its m e re wurk i11 g se n · ice.

J t1st

''

f'.. "
'

I·
Ii'

:is in selcl'lin g a

§
;

go11d h11rsL: 11·e lu11k n"t unl y t11 his w11rking Jl""'L·rs, b1tt
also t" his be:u1ty, sy mm et ry of fur111, g r acd ul c trri agc-.

{

,·,:1·

...1'\•'

and like q ualiti es ; so in litcr:1t ure \\'C l"''k fur s11rnct liin g
that ap1H::1 b to our :i:::sthct ie sense, fu r tha t :t:st h etic

(~

.

qu;tlit y of style, that subtik s"mcthing i11 a work of lit erary art whil·h rn :1k 1·s us feel delight in the W(lr\..:m;tn ship. lt is diff1nilt t11 say in simple, dellnit c b11 g u:1gL'

·· · \

.:·

f
'<

'"

~--·
1-;-,

just wh;1t thi s qualit y is, 1>r t11 find an y t e rm that 11·ill s: tl isfa c t o ril y express it .

~'(i

lt h ;1s bee n va riousl y call ed be auty,

g ra ce, case, :itH.I elega n ce.

l'erh::tps, if we rem e mbe r the

:~

r ea l rn canin ;..; of c!t~!{rlllCC, :ip;nt from it s v ul ga r :rnd loca l

' .~
~'
;,·,

'1!

:issociations, this word will exp ress bett e r th a n a ny uther
what we m ean b y the zcs th e tic quality of style.

~j
>.:
...

Ele-

gan c e is th...: quality t hat d istinguishes anything whi c h is

ri'

"·

~~·

r,.<:

'

~::

""

;i\<
"·

_:5(>

1 ·cJ.l//'(}S/F/O.\

./. \ "/! Nlll:/"11/,'/c ·.

T!!F !JU.·l l.IT!FS OF

. I 1;(1<1/1 S! Tl. F .

:>..;/
.f

carefully selected, and which is adapted so nicely tu its
uses that it s;ttisfics the taste.

Careful selec tion is pre-

ci s ·ly wh :1t intlu c nn.:s an auth o r \\'ho sL·cks to adapt his
style t<> his thou gh ts :ind cmntinns; it i:; thL· kcynutl: of
:1 s tyk th:1 t :1ppL·als to our :1·s thdic sense.

1:·11xa11ff,

th en, is the term by whi c h m.: shall cknominatc that
qua lit y 11f style whid1 pkas c s th e taste.

That \1·c may

.t:·d :1 l>dtcr c11nccp ti1111 of wh:1t it is, kt us c onsider

llllC

•> rt w" pass:1gL·s in ,,·Jii c h th L· qu:il it y is prrn11i1H.: 11 t.
The co ,·es :11HI indents . the 1>:1y' :111d ri1·er-m ou ths,
al o ng th e cu:1"1 uf i\l:ti1u:, :ire :1 p:1rt "f my e arli t: r llH.: m"riL·s. ,\ll th l' lo1·l'h· region sec111s to Ille sti ll a sorL of
f: 1i rrl:1nd , " ·hich. " ·he;l :1 li ttlt.: c h il d. was all 1ny U\\"ll, • . .
I c:;11 st ill feel the cool. s:1lt l>rl':llh th ere stea l in from out er
dveps , :111d sec it dr:1w a 1il111 :1cross tile st: 1rs. I ca n still
hear 1he e n · "f th e g reat "i11ds. with :-,torms u pun th e ir
wings swcq; in g in fru111 red" :111d ledges. ,.,inging th e ir high
d e:llh-song u f wreck :ind droll'11i11g ll ll·i1. Th e ra ft s, th e
,.,u11 -so:1kcd hulls and tarry ropes of the coast e rs , th e
I ig ht -111 >11ses. t ht: is b ncls - w h usc pri11 u:1·:il pi 11e:-, stoud like
d ;1rk se11t inels . and whose sc:H.: dges 1n: rl' fringed wit h
k1Hkr green of drippi11g birch :llld will ow - th e elf-like
s:1ils llitti11 g lu..: re and there. th e great ,h ip,, t:iking s un and
sh: 1d1> w :111d ~IL' :1 ling :11L1y like gr:1y ghC1slS, th e gluorn of
c liff :ind steep. the roll ing ft>gs pierced hy :1 red ll:ime o f
~unset, the vast tossing stret c hes of li1·e sun s hin e and
a z ure a nd fo am. o f ro"e :rn d sil Y<:r. "f 1·io lct 111i s ts \\'hose
di111 distances ,·eilcd a ,,till f:irtlwr and yet undis co vered
co untr y -- - all th ese r ·main in my n:c() llec tion, cloth ed
with ;;n atmosp here. ha lf drea m. half re:-ility. of vivid
hl· :111ty , that 1n:ikes th e wile! se a-region :ti ! to ni e that a
l:111d - l~w ked ,\ready <>r Tempe h :1 ~ heen to the fan cy of
poeh :rnd s in gers fro111 the e arly d :1ys t" th is .
I f..\IH:.11·:T l'1u-:s c orr S l'llF H>RD.

i.

r~

She 11·:1s cl,·acl . i\11 ,,l ee p so lie:111tif11I and c:il 1n , so fr· ·•·
fr o 111 tr:lC<' uf pain. so f:1ir to lnuk upo n. S he see n1ed :i
creature fr es h from th e hand of Cod and waiting fo r th e
breath o f life ; not o ne 11·ho h:1d lin.:d a nd s uffe red d e ath.
1 le r co uc h \\': l s dressed with he re and tlH.: re sn 111e wi11tcrbcrries and g reen lea ves . ga th ered in :1 spot ,,he h:1d been
used to fa1·o r. "\\' hen J di e . put nea r m e so n1cth ing th :tl
has lm·ed th e ligh t. and had th e sky :il1u\'e it alway" ...
Th e ~ c wer e he r 1ro rds.
She was dead. I >ear. gc ntk, patient, no bl e Nell was
dead. l le r little bird - :i poor. ,.,Jight thin g th e pressure
of a fin ge r wo uld h:11·e c rushed ·- 11 as stirring ni1nli ly in
its c:1ge; :-ind the s tro ng heart of its c hild - n1i~t rL' "" 11a~
mute ar.d moti on less for ever. \\ 'he re wer e the tr:1et:" u f
her e:1rly cares. her sufferings. :111d fatigues I :\ II go 11c.
S o r row 11·a~ cle:i.d, indeed, in hL·r ; l>nt peace a nd perfect
happiness were liurn - illl:1ge d in her tranquil lJe:ll 1ty : i~1d
prufc n1nd repose.

.'
f:
'
'1

'l

I kre arc two pass:ig\'s utlt'rly unlike in thcntl' :111tl
purpose, Ulll', idyllic, a c harmin g little pi c ture in words,
(lf the Mainc s e a -coa st as it linge rs in thl' mind uf the
author, the 11thc r,

:i

s h11rt extract from Di ckens's b c:111ti-

f11l s tory ,,f the dea th of I.ittlc NL'il.
passages, s eem ingl y

so

u1tlike

Ill

J\nd yet th L·sc

tlwu gh t,

quality in comnwn : they please our taste.

,; -~
'

.,'

ha\'L' o n e
Loo kin g at

the cxquisite adaptati11n of th e language to th e th o ugh t,
we fe e l that the authors ha ve b ee !1 guid ed by a fine
sense of the beautiful.
d1:![t11/1 ·1-.

Th e ir sty le has th e quality o f

I.ct us c unsidcr th e pass::q.~cs for a m oment ,

and sec, if poss ibk, how this quality has b ee n attained.
J\s we r ead th e m 11\' c r, w e are stru ck with the simplicity and beauty of thc th o ug hts, and then with the

.:
1

I

iI

:I
2

5S

l '<i.11/'US/I'/().\ . .- /.\ 'J i RI! !:'f'<IN! C.

s im ple :rnd apprnpri:tte language in

whi c h

!'/I F

th ey are

li ed

f_!(', l/.f!!!:'S UF , / <;11Ufi SI T !.!:'.

th e m e :ind

comple te

maste ry thcrcuf.

'.!5')

combin ...:s L·lc;.:·:111 n·

J

and ln·in g

with clearness, Ccorge Eliot, elegan ce with e mphasis.

the words see m tu be c h osen rathe r fo r e uphony and

O ur lite rature is ri c h in elega nt prose.

Th e sentences A"w sn1<1othly with ;:i rhythm

:tlnw~ t

p<ldi c . :rnrl they L'IHl in agreeable cade n ce s.

We

;i re l'• 1nsc1o u s <1f :t sL·n se of m e lody and <1f harm o n y as
we rc;1d th e lin es.

1 lcrc and th e re Mrs . Spu ff o nl has

100.

Elegance, how Attained. -

1:rnm o ur brid con-

sideration of th e tw o p:issages qu o ted we may eas il y sec
wh::it prom o te s L"lcg-a n ce.

</ T/1011.i;lt!,

Firs t, th<..:re should be H ca11/y

for it is ess e n tial t o beauty of c .\ pr ess i(ln;

em ploy e d a lig·ur:1ti1 e q lithct, o r a bit o f im::ige ry, to

th e n the wurd s s hould b<..: select.eel

rn:1ke h1..T pit'\ ure more \'i\·icl. or t u height<.:11 the e ffe ct.

th e ir 1:'11f>l1011y and Hca11(J' .

This further mini s t e rs ti) our plc:1surc.

is :1gn:eable to the ...:a r in di s Lin c ti<1n from wh at is h a r s h.

cl'e r. fr " m

Dic kens, how-

th ese

with reference tn

Hy e uphony 11·c m c:in w hat

th e natu re o f th e tho ug ht. d e pe n ds more

Eupho11i<1u s ll'ords :1rc usually th ose that a rc m :1de up "f

All

a su ccess 1" n of vo wels ::ind l iquid s, or wi th a 11 ahSL'll<"l'

upon th e s n10o thn css and h:1rm un y o f his bnguagc.

thin gs appc::il \() nur :rstheti c se nse, and thu s

co ntri bu te t() a s t yle that plea s es.

Such a s t y le w e c;:ill

uf g-11ttur:1ls.

T:tkL', fo r inst a nce, ::t sc n tc n c L· fro1l'I c:1ch

of the pa ss:1ges c it e d a ht!n.: .

.. ."\ll the lu1·cly r L·gi1111

d tg11 11/.

see m s t" m e st ill a so rt of Ltir yb nd, \\'hi c h , ll'h l· 11

99. Elegance as a Quality of Style. - l·:lcg::i n cc is
a d e licate:, as \\' e ll :is an artistic qu a lity of s t yle, and, ::is

child , wa s all m y <>11·n.

salt b re:1t h t h L'l'C ste:ll in l rn m "li t e r de e ps, :u1d sec it

11·e mi g ht L' .\pcct . is d ifficult tn atta in.

dr:1w ;1 film ;1cr•>Ss th e s t:trs."

It ('"n s titutcs

ur

;1

littk

I c; 111 still fL·L'I t he c11< .J ,
"Sh<..: see m e d

:i

nL· :1tu 1«.:

111uch "f the c h a rm "f 1:1n,:.:;u:1_g«:, and rea c hes its hi .~ h cst
f() rm ill jl()etry; fill' thL' jl• >cl, l' IH]<J\\'L"<l hy nature With;\

"r

f111L' Sl'llSe of fc1..·li11 g- and ;rn C.\q uisite apprcci:1tinn of

l he se t\n > sent e n c es th <..: wo rds h;:i ve b ee n c h l!se n with

fr e sh fr()m the l1:111d

(;od, and waitin g fur th l· hrc:1th

life; 11"t on<..: ll'ho had li ved and s uffe re d tk:1tl1. "

I 11

hc: 111t y . 111 i11 istL'rS t11 thl' t:1stL' "f hi s fel l"\'' men hy pour-

s tll·h niL·cty that :here is a lmos t an l'ntirc absen ce of :111y

in g· forth i11 so n g 1vh:1t hl' secs :111d feels.

s<>1111d that g r :1t e s h:1rshly

In poetry

()11

th <..: c:H.

C 11mbin1..·d

wi ~

h

1JL:: 1ut y , or L·kg:lllCL'. is the m <>q dist ing ui s hin :,; q u::ility;

c11pho11io11 s w1irds there s h"uld h e e 11ph1111i1 JL1 s : 1 rra 1 1.~·c ·

hL·n( ·1..· p 1•l'l ry is the hi ghest ;ind most :1rt is ti c uf litcr:ny

nwnt, th LTl'h)' prnrnoting- .\.1ll<'< 'l l1 111·ss ;111.! m11 sit ·:il 111111·.

ior111s.

"r R!tyt/1111, in th <..: scntc rn·c.

In J'l'tlSL'. L'kg·:lllre is 11(1\ s<> ug ht s o assidu o usl y,

b11t it is J' l'<>l11i11ent i11 tli:1t ll'hiL· h h:t s litcr:try quality.

It

is th e 1J\l t c1> lll e 11f lii g-h nilt ur l'. s1 >und t h11u'..;l1t , :1 clig ni-

I

'i

e.\p n :sscd ; there is not an unfarnili:lr \1·o rd, hardly one

bc;1uty.

I

1\ddi so 11

"[ rnor e than two syll:tblcs ; not a hars h-so undin g phrase;

ar c elega nt, Macaulay

JI

H y rhytlrn1 11·e nw:1n

rl'gular rec urr e nce uf acce nt ;1 s will p1«1du cc

;1

~111 · h

regul:tr

ri se :111d Lill of th<..: Vl!il'e, w h e n th e sc k ct i•11 1 is rL·:1d

. )'

200

:tl nll<l.

C0.1 !/' USl!/0. \ - .-1. \ D

The t wo se11te11ces cited abm·c arc g ood exa m-

ples ()f s m uuth n ess ;111d
1ironl\.•tc clc~;rn ce .
o f expression.
stand

Rll !:"T()R/C.

rhythm.

Fij;urrs 1f Spccclt

Bea u ty of image ry prom otes beauty

Mrs. Spoffurd's "prim eva l pines" th at

"like dark se ntinels" an: n ot only impressive,

but :nc alstl p leas in g tu our taste.

Fig ur es o f speech

adorn , as w e l l as emp ha size. a th o ught.

The last ele-

ment \\'hi c h \\' e shall co nsi de r is

l !11r111011y.
I t is, pe rBy harmony in lit e ra ture we
rne;:in the effL·ct prnd uc L·d hy \\llrds that ;:ire adapted
t() the sensL· . l L1rs h :rn d 1111p lc:1sa nt wunJs m ;:iy be
L'lllj>lnyed t11 1·cprcse 11t so ml'l hing d is:tg reea ble; long
\\' o r cls ()f slow :111d mc:ts ured s u u11d, t o r ep rese nt seri ous
thoughts; different fcc iing s a nd d ifferen t m ovem ents
111:1y h e m :1de more dfectin.'. by su itable words.
Whenc \·,:r th e la11gucige is :1d:q1tc<l to t he tho11ght and feelin g-,
t he cffe tt will iie ii :1rmon1\111,.;.
The \\'ht1ie accou nt of :.,
t h e death uf 1. ittlc ;\Tel l is :111 illu s trati o n of harm ony. -::;;;-=
J n· ing is frequently h:1ppy i11 his u se of ha rm oni ous
c:-;p rl·ss io n.
1\. ead ;i). 1t1 d, f, 1r instan ce, his d e scription
• ,f th e sudde 11 bursting forth of th e orga n, as h e s its
mus ing in \ Vcst min s t e r i\ bhey, a n d n ot<..: the effect.

haps, t he m os t irnport:1nt.

Suddenly th e notc5. of the dcc.:p-labo rin g o rga n burst
u po n th e e ar. fall 111g \1·1th d .. 11blc.:d :rnd re d o ub led intensity,
rtnd rnll 1ng. as it 11·c.:rc.: . huge b illows of sound. H o w well
dn their \·0 !11.ni c.: and gr:rndcu 1· ac rn rd w ith this mig hty
h uild111 g ! \\1th what J><' 111p do th ey Sll"e ll t hroug h its vast
va ults , :md h reat11e th e ir a\\' f11 l l1:1r111ony thro ugh these
ca ve s of dea th. a nd 111ak e th e .s iit-nt sepulchre vocal! And 11 0 11· they r ise in tri11111 p hant a ccb n1atio11 , heaving

J'Jllo· <JJJ, /L/7J LS UF _/ COUIJ S!Tl.F .

.:>o t

hi;;hc r and h igher th e ir :1cco rd a nt notes. :rn d pil ing sound
o n so und. - .'\nd now they pa use . a nd tlw so ft \"t>IC"C'S ol
th e c hoir break out int o s\\'cct gus hes uf mchoe ly ; t hey
soar a luft, :111d \1·arble a lo ng th e roo f, a nd see m to ph y
abou t t ho;;e lofty ,-aults lik e t he pu re airs of hcan: 11.
Ag:1in the.: pea ling organ he:1\-es its t ln·illing thund e rs, co m p ress ing air i11to m u,..ie :rn d rolllll g 1t fo rth upon the soul .
vVhat lung-d rall' ll cadences !
\\'h ;1t ,.,u \e n1n , Sll"(:cp1ng
conco rd s! l t g rows in u re and m ore d ense a nd p<111 c rful
- it tills th e vast pile, and sei:: ms tu pr the \'c ry 11:.lls the e:ir is stunned - th e sen ses are 0\'Cr wlwlincd. :\nd
now it is wind in g up in ful l jubilee - it is ri,.; ing frum the
e arth to hca\"e n - the ve ry sou l see m s r:1pt :1\\':! y, and
Hoa tccl upwards o n thi s swellin g tide of h:tr1ll o ll y.

Man y otlwr th in gs hel p tn makc an t·k ga nt s tyk.
G c lll:r;:illy speaking,

w h ate,·er l•r< Jn10tc s

l·k;1rn •: ,..s. '.l r

adds to the emplns is, is effect i,·c in prod u c in~ ekga n cc .
IOI.

V iolations of Elegance.

avn 1d ;m y tii ill g th;1t

, .1< ,Lt1L·s

l·: J,-_:.:>11 it

tlw l:11.,·s

as th e u se o f sb 11 g, a llcctnl

L'

1 l ' l (llir c·'-'

<ii:-:"'"'

L'\}Jrcss1w1s,

11 s t"

u..,1,-. --.u, ii
h;1t·k llcycd

phrases a 11 d qwJt a ti olls , ;1 se 11 s;1t i())1 :1l styk, s<> c11111m<1n
in n ewspapers. th e i11trocluctioll of ivhat is fri,·ol <111s ill t "
serio u s di sco ur se, of the \'l tl g;1r int<> d ig· 11il'ied c:-;pn· s "i"11 .
a nd a ll kin ds of "li11c 1\-riting," tk1t is, th e LISL'. of pretent ious terms fur s i111plc idv:1s.

J >ickt:ns has d"nc a

real s e r v ice t" lilL'r;tt11r L· by .sh<>\\' i11 g, i11 tl1 c pcr s" n of
t h e p11m p ous i\ Ir. i\1iL·:1ll'lwr, th e ridi c u lc111 s 11 L·ss o i" pre t e ntiou s I:rn gu: tgc .

' ' ' lJ lldLT thl· i1111 •rl'ss i1111 ,' s:1id Mr .

Mi cawb c r , ' th :tt y11 11r p e re grination s i11 this m L· tr11 polic;
have n u t ;is y d lK'cn ('\ t e n s ive, :md that )"ll mi ght h;t\'<'
some difficulty in pL·11ct r :1ti ng the :1 ,·c: llla of th e modcr1 1

C0.1!/' (IS/!lO. \ . ..- / / \/J 1"1/h.TOl.'IC.

l bhylon in th e direction of thl: City 1\n:id - - in s hort,'
s; 1id ;\Ir. Mic:iwher, in :t11<>t her bu r st .,f \(Jnfi d e n ce, • th:i t
)'

11

U

lllig ht lose yourself :_

I sh :tll bv h;1ppy to call this
()i the nearest

cn.: 11i11g, a n d i11st :tll you in I he knrmlnlgc

ll'ay.'"

Only a little les s r idiculuus is the writer whose

char acters "discuss th e morning repa s t " when th ey cat
their brcakhst, \\'Ji()" rel ire t•> their d o wny couch" when
they go tu b ed, :111d \\·ho "g:llher :-it the fcsti\·c ho:-ird"

I'll/'. (jl '. l/J Fl /:'.S () F . I 1;uO /J SITLF

\rnrthy for th e ir tk;;a11i"f' of style. Hrin g them to th e c lass ,
:llld c:xpl:iin wh :1l co ntr ibu tes to th is elega nce.
4. \\ ' hy c:rnn u t any rul e b e g iven wh e reby deg11 11fr: ma y
he: obta in ed ? U pon \\'ha t must the: attainment of ckganc<'
large ly d epend 1 Wh a t e le m e nts may con tributt: t o d!'gt111rc I
\\' li;n is 01pllllll)' I r/1yll1m I \ Vh:it do you uncler" t a nd by lt11n11011_J' ! I l oll' m:i y it be secured?
5 . Study the: follow in g selecti o n s, a nd co mm i;:nt 011
th e m with rdc:rence t o elegance, s howin g what clements
in t he m contribut e to thi s quality.

:111d " satis fy the i1111 c r m:111," prqi:iratn r y tu "li s t e ning
fc:tst of rl·:1s<> 11 :111<1 11nw of s<>ul."
\\ ' h; it cve r
;1t 1<:1n1 1b \1·e m:tke :it l'i< '.c: ;11ll"e "f styk. we mu st r ..: m cm'" :1

lll'r th:1t the fttnd:tmcnt;d pri1w ip lc to be ubse rv c d is to
ad; 1pt <>ur bngu age t o (Jllr th•n1ght.

1. \Vh :11· dn yni1 ttn<lcr .~ t ;1nd hy th e " ;1·s t hc t ic Sl'llS<: " )
•· lhe ;\:sthc:ti c qu:i li t:· "f style: ,.? \\ ' h:1t n: ll\l l'S Ill:\)' lle
g 11 ~-11 t" su ch a q11al1ty ? Try 111 cxpl:ti 11 why c :tch is 1u 1t
l'nt1rvly s:1 t1 sLi c t"ry .
\\" h:1t is the prnpc: r lltl· ;rnin " "f
d n,' rflt<r: ? \\lh:il nilg:ir ;i,.,,;11('i:1tio 11 s h:11·l· II" <.: :1tt:1l·hcrl to
the: \\'ord' \\'h y doc s it "cc 11 1 to be: the l1 c:s t 11·(Jrd fur
<1ur purpose )
'.' . l·:x1;l:1i1111·hy d(:,'""''' i.s the 111<1st ;nti .s ti c q11 ;1lit y uf
"tylc . . \\ hy sh o uld "" .'-~ Jl<Tt to line! it in it.~ hight:sl
lorm 111 poetry? _\\ 11 :11 1" !he pr i111;1ry o bj e c t of put:try?
J s t:lc.:;1111i"c a pro1111n c 11t qu: il 11y 111 prose liter:1tu rc ) ( ·:111
you 111c11tion ;1n y h"'•ks i11 11·hid1 thi s q11:1lity scc ll h t• , prc:cl"111111atc:? J\k11t1011 11thers \\'hc: rc th e: qu a lity is es pec ially
1wt1 ceabk, and ;.;11·c; ex ;1111pks .
3. L ook m ·c r sninc: of the hnnks o f th e da y . cspec iall v
hnnks of l1 ct1n11 , al s o the: "t11rics an d :1rti c ks in th e magaz m c:s , and se lect any tha t yo u think :ire: especially ilO.te-

1 . \\'c do not m:ike our O\\'n thoughts: th ey grow in us
lik e grai n in """'"' ; 1hc grow th is of th e s ki e ~ , whirh a rc of

n;1tl1re -- n ;1t11n~ is of < ;,ld.

o. 1\ ruinul ch ;u·actn is :is picturesque :\Sa ruined l":t~tle.
T he re are dark abysses and yawn ing- gulfs in the l1um a n
heart . which can lie r ende r ed passal>le nnly by brid g; in g
th e m <wc r ll" it h iro n n e r ves .
.1· l.011k not lllnurnfull y into th e past. l t comes 11 ot ha c k .
\\' isely imprn1·c 1h1: prese nt. I t is thine. Co forth to mect
the shad O\\"\" iuturc:, \\'ithout fear. a nd with a manly he:irt.
.\. 1\pril :Hh·:i nccd into J\1a1· ; a bright, serene May it was ;
d:t\"s of blue sky. plarid suns hin e, a nd soft western or south .
cm g;1lcs tilled up its duration. l. o ! the wood shook loose it s
tre~ses; it be came all g ree n. a ll Mowe ry ; woodland pla nt s
sprang up profusely in it s recesses, unnum bered varieties of
llln ss li lied i ts ho ll ows, m :i king a strange g ro 11nd·sun s hin e
nu t of t he wc:ilth o f its wild p rim rose plants.
S· It was a t·i n c a utum na l da y, the sky was clear and
serene. and n;it11 rc wo re that ri c h a nd go lden li very wh ic h
Th e
""e always a s~o c iatc with the idea o i abu ndan ce.
for est s l1 ~ d put o n t he ir sob e r brown and ye ll ow, whil e some
tr e es of th e tenderer k ind had been nipped by th e frosts
into b rilliant <h·es of orang-e, purple a nd scar le t. Streaming- fil es of wild. du c ks begai1 to m a ke th e ir appearance high
in the air; the bark of the sq uirre l mi gh t h e h eard from th e
g ro,·es of l>cech ;rnd hi c kory nuts, and th e pensive whistle
of th e quail at int ervals fr o n1 th e n e ighbo rin g stubble-field s . .~
6 . I will tel l yo11 what t he giv in g of k no wled ge is like.
Su ppose, now , tint th ere we re no s un no r s tars in th e
h eave ns, nor anything th at sh one in th e blac k brow of night;
and suppose that a li i; hted la m p were put in your hand,
which should burn, was teles s and clea r, amid a ll the tem·
p es ts that should brood up o n thi s low er world. S uppose ,

Al'!' J.::,\ D /X A.

Cu.11/'0S/TION .I i\"/) R///:"TORJC.
next that th e re were a th ousand milli ons of human lwi n gs on
th e c: 1rt h w ith you. e:ich h o lding in his h:ind a n unli ;, h ted
. ~.imp , hllcd \\' 1th th e s ame oil :1s 1·0 <1r s, and capa bl e of ~iv i ng
.1~ :111 1ch hg-ht. Suppu~e these millions shou ld co m e, <; ne by
011..-, to ]Oii. :rnd l1g l_
1t c:.ich his la mp by yours; would th e
1<>11 you o f any li g ht (
\\'ould less of it slii n e on yo ur o w~
path' \Voul ~l your lamp burn more dimly fo r li g htiiw a
thousand n11llions?
o '

(;· I l ow m:1y di:~'1111t"1' ht.: 1·io latcd?
\\ ' h at d o yo u
unc e rstand by '·li n e ll'ritin~ " ) \\ 'hat prin c ip k s h <;llld

we k eep in mind to an, id Iii;,~ .1Hiting ?
.· I ,<>ok ove r th e folloll'ing pass;1ge s . . l'o int 0 11 t wherc th ey
1 1nl:ite the q11a lit y of e lega nce. J~e-ll'ritc, o r i1npro i·c th e rn
w ith reference t <> this qual it y.

• 1 . • Th ese . im p.e c uni o us c haracters :ind
adve nture r s fur
11e,ek;
1~e.eks .haunt e d th e parliamentarv lllli lclings.
- · rhe 111 ,ls tet IS p la c ed there spec ially to in flue n ce - ir teJ~e C_tuaJly o nl y, ma11y tit ink, bu t .as truly morally.
'
• .>· I he hous e tit a t ll'as la te ly 111 t lte process of ere c ti o n
h .b b ee n destr oyed 1n Jt s c11t ir cty by the dcvo uri1tg element.
4: A_ . i:reat ma!1Y things seem in g ly r e la ti ve ly perfectl y
p 1,1111, ,11 c ve ry d 1fl1cul t to unra,·e l.
5· A petnhcd body of rotary m ot ion h as n o ;1flinit y fnr
i;ram111eous mat te r .
(,, Th e fri ends sp ee d ily called into r eq11is iti o 11 tlt c s e rl'i Ces
of th e f.un il y phys1 c 1a11. h11t th e disease ltact tak e n so firm .1
lt o ld,<! I h is syste1n 1ha t aftl'r a fe w hou rs () f ag-o n y hi s s piri\
w111ged its !li g ht rntn r c: d111s unknown.
l.
l re_ c am e nut wagg in ,g his ta d a nd making (' irclcs wit lt
11s IJ?d). not 11nl1ke a c it 111 JHll"su1t of liL"r appenda ge.
. x_. I h e hlu s lt111g- l1ricl c , lean ing on th e arm of lt tr fo nd
pa1 cn.t, p.1ssed up th e :u s lc. the: admire d of al l adm ir ers.
9: _1 h e p:itro ns of husb and r y. ltal'i11g- thorough ly c:x a111111ed .111tl1 c 111\·e ~1t11rns of g e nius to he found ll'itltin t i1 .
ma c hin ery h all. re tired to an adjo ini ng- depa rtm e nt to p a 1~
t ake of some l1qu1ci r e freshments.
·
·
10 . One boy was in a corn e r grin din g fur t lt c e xaminatio
whil e a n ot h e r trted to l.JOost him along ll'heneve r h e "~;
stu c k
"
11._ l\lrs. B rya n allows th at site is goi ng- to co ntribute te l
tl~e (,,m 111 0110 ·, hut s it e ts CO('k-sure the re will be 11 0 ladi es '
depan111 e ~1t 111 tha t s heet. I t ll' lll be int e r es tin g- to s" J10 .
she d 1s g u1 ses lt n femin in e Jist.
· ee
"

.u:d

.

(

'I

?·

APPENDIX A.
l'UNCT LJ,\ TION

AN D

TllE

US !': O F

C AP ITALS.

Importance of Punctuation.
It is scarcely necessary to point ottt how important
a part punctuation pl ays in the int e rpre ta ti on of written
or pri nt ed discottrse.
/\ rece nt decisio n of th e Supre me Court of Massachusetts, directl y affectin g hundreds of c iti zens, turn ed o n th e probably ca r ele~s u se
of a sem icolon inst ead of a comm a. Moreover, we
have only t o read a page of print ed matt e r, or a badly
p un ctua t ed letter, to sec how diffi cult it is to decipher
th e meaning, a ncl to feel how n eed ful it is t o have some
mecha nical s cheme tha t sh all shuw th e division nf
th ough t a nd th e relati<>n ship of th e different parts.
Just as in oral discourse we g ive greater expression to
ou r id eas, convey th e fin e s had es of mea ning, and make
ou r t h oug-hts a genu in e transcri pt of o ur fee lings and
sentiments by our inA ect io ns, o ur pauses, a nd oth tc: r
variations of tone ; so in written discourse we \ ry t o
p rod u ce t he same effect by th e marks of punctuation.
Hy it , too, we indi cate th e g ramm at ical stru cture of the
written language, di viding it in to se nte nces, and showin g
the vario us relati ons of the wo rds in a se nt e nce. Th...:

• f

I

I

II
I

I

~:

--·~

1 -<J. 1/l' US!!JUX

.·/.\°/) NllFTON!C.

import ;111 cc, th e refo re, nr careful pu1ll·tu:1ti1111 t·<inii1Jt be
ton stro ng ly impressed upon our minds.

Rules of Punctuation.
l'1111 ctuatio11 is :1 matt e r 1·
.,
o custom , and as stwh is a
gr. )Wt h. 1 he ac cc1 •tcd lllt.:I h<Jd of pu11ct uat ing :1 se nten ce
to-< ia)· 1s· n () t ti 1.e s:1111c as t Ii:1t lJf ;i h;ilf-n:ntur)' a~u.
FL·11·c r 111 :1r l-:s o f p1111ct u:1t 1011, L·spcci: illy co111 111:1s, arc
••
used :1t 1)r csc 11 t ' ti H..' kill Ien cy !ic ing to s implif)· punctual iflll . .
l
·1 l
.1s mu c 1 :1s 1111ss1 > L._ 1\ s it is e1·idc11t . tht-rcf"rc
l h:1t
.
.
.
'
. jHllll' lu:1t 1" n is :1n :1rt. r;1ther tlnn a S<' ic ncc, tht:
in 1lc'r
l·l1 (·.·1.··L·
ti lt: ll l:e( I Ot~·
'
. must h:11·e in mind in ···1
n1:1k111g the p1111l't11 :1 ti .. 11 C<>11trii>1 1t e to th t: ck: irn ess and
c.:ffect i1·c 11 ess of his sei ikn n .: s,
I
rat 1er t 11:1n "f c" nformi11 g ll! some L'Stablis h cd ru les. .-\t the same time, rules

;:111~1 i_11e'.·ely the stateme n ts of what in ge nera l usage,
.I< C•11d111g t<> CllllHllllll Jrnlg111c11t. h:11·e pr<>1·cd the
lll!lst usL·f u.I mvth()(ls IJf making punctuation ;1 lwlp to
tlw rc; 1<k r s. ll illlcrs t:111d ing.
Cu11f"r111ity l<! thl ·111 is
,'-:L'11c 1·: 1lly des1 rai>lc, :1 11d a k11!lwlui,:.:···
"'- tl1•·111
.,v
~
l.S llL·l ·L'SS;lr)' f"r c1 ·L-ry one wh11 wi ;.; Ji ...s
'
l" appc:1r 11the r th :111
rll<k in 11·hat h e 11-rit L's. 1 J 11 .:. : c 11 cr:1J it 1n:1y IJe said
t h:1t t lie
. writn s Il<lll I(I jllllWt11:1IL' :1s iiL: writL'S, r:1thc.:r
than ;lft c rw<ird s, :111d tli :1t nn punn11;1tiu11 lllark s huuld
he used f"r w hid1 a dcli 11i tt.: re:t s<>ll c; 111110 t be ,..,,,·ii·L'll .

,.JPJ'l:.'NlJIX A .

The Comma.

I. The cumrn;1 shou ld be used t o sepa r:1t e word s nr
phr:1scs used in series without cu11jun ctiu11 s tu L·unnect
th e m .
It bre ath es th e s pirit of co nfli c t. war, d es tru c ti o n, a nd
de:1th upo n eYeryth in g it t" uches.

I I. P art icipial :rncl acljcc \i \T ph ra ses, absol ut e L'.-.:pr<.: s·
s1ons, an d acll·c rbial phrases pla ced out (1f th e ir natur:tl
order, slwuld be sepa rat ed by commas.
J\ly ye ll ow-thro:it is :1 good hun te r, prowling keen -eyed
about t he edges o f th e sw:t111p o ut kt 11·here in,;ec ts abound.
s n :1t c hing the 111 from g ra ,;s b lade and le a liet, ur huntin!.!;
th em out o f the lc:l\·es.
fr()ln li g ur:i ti ons <> f th l' c:ipcs to th e hulll ples s inlch of
th e li:1ys, h e exe rts :i m :rnly fc ll o w-feeli 11 g.
•

I I I. l'arL·nthcti cal mi n ls a nd exp ress ions s hould be
set uff by cum mas, wh en the thoug ht relati o n is close.
The m:in w ho works upon :i rail way, " " J1111/kr i11 1;•/wl
mj>ar ily, :t111':1ys c: irri e,; th e ra ilway lJ r:tnd 11·ith hi111 , and
ca n b e identifi e d in :1 111 on 1cnt.

I\·. \\' .. rd s or csp ress ic ins in a11positio11, "r 111 th e \·ocati\·c t·ase, shtJu !d be set off by cum rn as.
1\t tilt' :tge o f 1i1·c yea rs V ic t" r had SL'e n !-':iris and
l{ u 111 e, ;111d had li1·cd at. va rious places in l-'r:11 wL· and
lt:il y, (111e uf thes e bei11 g n ear M o unt Vesm·ius.
Mr. Brown , n r es id e n~ of this c it y, l1:1 s Leen e l ec t ed~
presi d e nt o f t h e c o 111p:rny.

V. Th e conju n ct i"n m ay h:-l\·c a cumm:t hdorc it to
distin g uish it in its use from a pn.:cecli n g lik e n mjun c-

i
t

I'

268

A I' I' / :'1\ '/JI.\ . ..1.

CU. l! l'OS//'/O. \ ..·/ /V/1 NI//:' /'ON!C.

tio11, m o re limited in its a c tion as in th e case of the
second and in Rul e IV. above. '
Tell me, m ,v lll an, if this is
· Just
·
respec t such lt:adership.

VI.

: trH

I ho nest , and if you

"The ]Vfoqui lndi :rn s arc a remarkab le people ,'' ~: 1id
Professor Beec he r.

X. Th e (1111issioll "[ a word should be in dic:ttcd by :1
cc 11111n:1, exc ept \\'hell the meaning· is l'lcar without it.
l,.ame is th e lode-star (J( so n1 e men ; plc.::1" ure, of othe rs.

Relati\·e clauses that arc n ot restrict ive, th a t is

thrisc tlut add an cxpb11:1ti" n (1r :111 addit ional th o lwh:
111s1t.::id of narrowi1w
the rnc-u1in•"
of tli•·~ s u I)S t·an t1ve,
"'
o
•
,.,
should be ·set off by co mnns
It.
tl1
I
·
· .
e ca use 1s restrictive,
110 comma is needed.

Th is hook , \\' hi c h is a ran.: old \'olume, is Jiighl)' j) riz ecl

by me .

Th e book \\'hich you rt.:fe r tu h:1s lung bee n out-of.
print.

V I I.

Depend e nt cla u ses may or may not be sd
by C'()mmas accordin ,.,n- to the c losc
. "11 cs·s
. . <1!· ti le· 1-e Ia t 1c. 111.

off

. I/; i11r/,·l'r/. llto·I' l•r 11111·/lti11,;_• 1/1 /w, r/ 11 ..-sou(1/io 11 s Ji! lo a/jtd
/It, ·111111rl
of
· tli e e 111 u t'.1u11s
~. !>
I
: 1111111. \\'e 11 ecd not ·stn\·e to re]J t'"S
w I11 c 1 ag1ute us here.
·
. I V/t, •11 ii is rt'11".' 111Vt'rt.'tl //tu/ t1fr·r1/to/ ro11 /,1i11s n u 11ilrrwc11 it

will lie seen that 1t c:11111 <1l ~cn· e the fi rst function uf food.

VIII. Short

a nd close])' l·1111 11"c
l etl llH
· I e p e nc Ient
~
c lauses 111:1y be se1)aratcd ])). ti· 1e com ma when the
I
11eriod or th e ·semiu 'rn1
w ou Il I g-1·1·e a se nse of t oo g r eat
di 1·isio11.
I , there
W e tonk
. . ou r se:its in the L':lr ' tit", ,.."••II ,'"
. . so u1Hcd
was a I11ss111g of steam , and 11T \\' e re.: 11 /f.

IX. Short quotations sh()ulcl be scp:1r;tted from the
c1111tc.'\t by co rnm:is.

:XI. Nega ti1·e express ion s, used by wa y "f c 1111tr;1st,
ar c set off hy c11111 rna s.
The pol itic ians, not th e people, \\'ill b e ne tit 111· this Lt\\'.

The Semicolon.
I. I 11depe11dc 11t cbuscs, when long, o r tld ac h ccl sentences ha1·i11g close r elat ion 111 th.,u gltt, lll ~t )' Le se parated

by selll ic11lo11 s .
Jn th e :nbitr:itio n co urts th e l:rn· ye rs are n ()t' allull'td tu
repres1·nt e ithe r p:1rt y; o nl y th e p:trties th ernsches :ire
lte:trd.
J l.

\\ 'hell th e cla us es .,f a c"rn ]HH I1HI scll t ellce co 11-

t;1ill cornrn;is th ey slwuld he separ;1tcd by the s e rnic ulu ll .
J\rti .s ts o f th e first rank h:n ·e usuall y seen small indu n:m cnl !<1 p:1 i11t such thin gs :1s 1J1111 c l1<.:" of ilowcrs u r fruit s,
liutllc.:s a nd g- la sses of 11·i11e. and o th e r s till -life s ubj ects;
hut \/11 ll u 11 ltas justified still-life work for all tim e.

I l I. A cbuse g ivi11 g- a r easo n or a n cx plan :tti c11l, or
by a connective
w11rd, should be preceded by a semicolon.

s t a tin g a co lltrast, when introdu ced

Economy is no disg ra ce; for it is be tter to live 0 11 littk
th a n tu outl i\' e a great dea l.

l ·o .1/ l' U SI /'/ 1I. \ . . I . \ ·;J !.'!I le" /"O NI C.

J'/I F

!J f l .. l/_!Tl/o'S O F .·I

1,' 00D S IYLE.

255

l \' . 1\ SlTi es 1Jf e '> prl·ss i<ln s h :l\· i11 .~· ; 1 comm on dependen ce <>ll a precedin g· or :t c "11 c ludi11 g po rtion of the senten c e s hould be separa ted b y semicol o n s wh e n they are
cli s tinc t prop()siti11n s, or :tre ()fa c omp()uncl nature.
Tha t yo u \\'e re unll'ise in your c ho ice of fri ends ; that
you pern1itt ed Y<? ursel f to he inf-lu enced too much by
th e m ; t h:1t yo u did not rebuk e t hl'. 111 for open violation of
tru ,.,t . - yo u c:rnn ot \1·ell d eny .

CH J\ l' TE R XIV.
TllE

Q Ui\LITll~ S

OF A COOD STYLE.

98. What Elegance Is. The Colon.

I. J 11dq le 11 cl c nt c h llses \l'hich a rc t oo closely connn·tcd t() req llire th e pe ri od sh t>til d be s e pa rated by a
u .J o n \\'h e n an y 1Jf th es e c lau ses C<>nt ;1i11s a semicolon.
A lllan can scarce allege hi s O ll'll merit s with modesty,
mu c h lt:ss c xtol th e m ; a 111an ca nn ot so me times brook to
" UJ> pli ca k " r beg: :i nd a 11u111 bcr " f th e: like:: but all these ~
th ing s :m.: g ra cd ul i11 a fr icnd 's 111 u uth , which are blush111g 111

a

n1:u1 's u \\' ll.

11. J\ lon g or form ;il (j ll .,t::-tti o n s hould Ix: preceded
by th e Ct iJ" n .
The: re po rt o f the snc iet y cu11\'icted "the Priestess of
Is is" "f " :1 l"ng cu11ti11ul' d c"111lii11:1tion with other per"" ns to prnd11 cl' by "rd i11:1 ry lll l':111 s a se ri es of apparent
111 :1rn: b fo r th e suppo rt •,f t hc ' l'h eoso phi c move ment ;"
and co nc lud cs ll'ith th c,<e \\'u rd s : " l<'o r o ur own part, we
n.:g:ird her ne ithe r :is the 111outhpi l'. ce of hidd en seers nor
a s a me re nilg-ar :Hh·L·n turcss; 1\'e think that she has
a c liie\·l'cl a titl e to pcrm:rn c nt rcmembran ce a s one of the
must a cco 111plishcd , i11 gc 11i u us , and interesting impostors
i11 hi sto ry ."
I IL Th e c"l"n foll"wc·d ln- th e d :tsh 1s u sed after the
a ddress in a let !er.

ELEGANCE.

From what we hav e ::-tlrea d y

lea rn ed we m a y re asonabl y c onclu<k that ordinary prus<:
c o n ce rn s it s e lf c hie Ay with com ·ey in g tho tq. ; ht, and tha t
it s wurth is nH:::-tsllrt:d by th e deg r e<: in \\'hic h it m a kes
th <: th()u g ht distinct a nd impr<:ssi ve; th:tt i,;, its ti\'() fun d a menta l qu a litie s are c lea n1ess a nd e mphasi s.
But a
work of lit e rary art, be it prose or poetry, has a \·alue
b eyond its rn t: r<.: wo rking se n · ice . Just as in selectin g a
good h()rSl: we look n"t rnily to his \\'orkin g powe r s, hll t
al s o t" his b e aut y, sy mmetry of form, graceful carriage,
and lik e q ua liti e s ; s u in lit c ra tur <: we look fu r som e thin g
th a t appeal s t o our xsth c ti c se nse, for tha t a:s th eti c
quality u f st y le , that suhtile sumcthing in a wo rk uf lit erary art whi c h m :1kes us feel d e lig ht in th t.: workm a n ship.
It is diffirnlt t" s:1y in simple, d1.:R11it 1.: la11guag1.:
jus t what thi s qua lity is, or ttl find any t e rm th:i t will satisfac t o ril y cx pr t.:s s it. It has b een v:iriously call e d beaut y ,
gra ce, e a se, and e legan c e. Perhaps, if we rem e mber th e
r eal m e aning o f d1 g a11cl', ap::-trt from its vul g ar a nd local
associ:itions, thi s worcl will expre s s better th a n ::-tny oth e r
wh::-tt we mean b y th e a~ sth eti c qua lity o f styk.
El egan c e is the qmlity that distinguishes anythin g whic h is

C0,11/'0S/l'lli. \ .. /.\"/I NllFI0!.'11·.

/"/IF IJU.·ll.11'//:'S OF .·I i,'0(}/J SJ T JJ.'.

ca r efully selected , a 11 d \\"hich is adapted so 11 ic e ly to its
ti s ·s that it s:t tislles the taste.

Cu·dul selec ti o n is pre-

l·isely 11·h:1t i11 Auc11CL' s :111 :111thor 1rh() seeks to adapt his
style t<> his thou ghts and l'lllntinns; it i:-: the k ey 11 u t e of
:t style th:tt app e:1 ls t" nur

:t :stlwtic se n se.

l hen, is th e term by 11·hil'i1 11T s h:tll
qu:ility

"r

s ty k

11·hic·h pJ,·:tsL·s thL· ta s te.

_!.'.d :t hc.:ttcr C•>11cc pti•n1

1~·1i;i;·aJ1rc,

dcn11min:1ll: that
T hat \\"L' may

t•i ll"ii: tt it is, let us c o11sidcr o ne

<>r two p:1ss:1 ges in 11·hi ch the qu:tlit y is pr"mi11e11t.
The CO l "CS and in dents. th e h;1ys and ri ve r-m o uth s,
al o ng thl'. coa s t ,,f i\I:iine , :ire :1 part ,,f m1· ea rli e r rn e m<ll'IL'.S. ,\ JI th l'. lo1·l'. ly region SL'.Clll s to 111 e' stil l a sort uf
fa iry land , ll"hil·h, ll"hen a li ttle c hild , \\"as all my own . . . .
I c:i n still k c:I th e cou L salt breath th <..:r<..: s t<..:a l in from o ute r
clc <..:ps , :incl sec it cl r:111· a lilm across t he stars.
I c an still
hL·a r th e c ry of tii l'. great winds, wi th storms upon th e ir
ll"ings Sll"l'eping in from reds and ledges, singing th l'.i r high
cle :1t h-song of ll" rcck :ind dro wn ing tlll"n . Th e· rafh. th e
su n-s ():lkl'.cl hulls and t:1rry ropes uf the cu:1s ters, thl'.
light- huus<..:s. th l'. is l:rnds - wh osl'. prin1c1-:il pines s tood lik e:
d:Hk sl'.11lincb. :rnd 11·hose sl'.:1-ulge s 11·c re frin gl" d ll' it h
tc·11dn grel'.n of dr ippin_c; birc h and ll"illuw -· th e e lf-like
s: 1ils lli tr ing he rl' :rnd tlil·n-. tlw g r e:it s hips taking s 11n :in cl
s h:1d1111· :rnd Sl\·;il ing· :111":\y lik,· gr:·1y g lu1sts, tltt· gloo 111 of
cli i"I :rnd st n :p. th L· r1.Jli11g fo g s pi,·rc ed by :1 red ll a 111 e of
s u11sl"l , thl'. 1·;1 s t tossi11g '!ret ches of li1·e suns hin e and
:t l.ure :11HI fu:1m, of rnsl'. and si ll-er. of 1·i u lc:t mi s ts 1rhose
dilll cli s t:ince s 1·eilcd :1 still f:irther :111d yet u11di sco1-e red
co untry -- :111 these rem:1i11 in rn y re col lec ti o n, c lo thed
ll"ith an :11 111 0.s p he re. h:ilf drea m , h:ilf re :ility, of v ivid
be auty, th:it rn :ikes the 11·ild sea -rq..:-icm all to Ill e th at a
l:llld -l(l c ked , \ rc;i dy o r Tempe: h as bee n to th e fancy of
P"L'.l " :tn d singers fr11 1n t he l'.:uly d :iys tn till s.
l l ,\l<RJ r:T 1'"1-:suirr Sl'\Wl• c 11~ u.

Sh e 11·:1s clc-:1d.
i\11 s le e p so he:i uti fu l :rnd c:iltn . sn f rL·e
fro m t race o f p;iin , so f:tir to lo ok upo n. She sec m c:d :1
creature fresh fr<>1n t he h;rnd o f C od :ind w:iiting ftJr the
bre:i th of li fe; n ot o n e 11·ho had li1-ed a nd s u fferu l death .
I \t.;r co ll c h \\'as dressed with he re :i nd th ere so ni e wint e rh e rri es :rnd g rL'l'. ll lc:11'c·s , gatl1ere d in ;\ spot ,., Ji e h:i d beell
used to fa1 ·nr. "\\"h en 1 die. jlllt ne:H Ille so ll1 cthing th :it
has lm·ecl th e· light. :rnd h:id thl'. sky :il101·c: it ah1·a ys."
Th ese \\"ere he r 11·llrcls .
She 11":1S d ea d . I )c;1r. g<..:ntlc, p:iti l' nt. nobl e Nell ll"as
cl e:u l. H e r little b ird - - :1 poo r . s light thing th e pre ssurl'.
of a lin ger would ha ve c rushed - \\"as s tirrin g nimbl y in
its c1gc; and the s t rong hea rt of it s c hild-mistr ess 1ras
ll1ute and m o ti o n less fo r e1·<..:r. \\' h e re ll"ere t he tra ces o f
her e arly c ar es, he r suffe rings. :ind fatig u es! .·\ II gone.
Sorrow w:1s dead, indeed, in h l'. r : but pe:l CL'. and perfect
b:ippin ess we re b o rn - imaged 111 he r tranquil be:lllt)' and
profo und repose .

I !ere a r c two p :1ss:ig-es u ttl' rl y unlik e in thL'llle :l11d
purpuSL', o n e , idyll ic , :1 ck1rmi11g little picture in w o rds,

llf the MaiJH.: sea-l·oast as it li11gc-rs in th e m in d c1f the
author, thl· \lth e r , a shClrt ex tract fr1t1n Dickens's b ·allt iful s tory 11f th e ckath of l.ittk N e ll.
p: 1ss:1gcs, sel· 111i11 g ly

s"

u1ilikc

in

J\nd

t.hC>u g ht .

q ualit y in co mm on: the y please our t:.i stc.

yet
h:i\·e

these
0 11 e

Lnokin ,!_'. :i t

the exquisite ad:1pt ati» ll of the language to the th\lught,
11-e feel t hat the authors ha ve bee !1 gu id ed by a fine
sense of the beautiful.

dq;1111ci-.

Their style ha s the q q al it y o f •

I ,ct us c nnsicler the passages for a moment.

and sec, if p<issibk, h ow thi s quality h ::is bee n attained.
J\s 11•e rL'. acl them 01-er, we a r e stru c k ll'it h the simplic it y

~ind bea u ty

of th e thou g ht s, a nd th e n

ll"ith the

(f) .J/l'US!T! O.\' .·I . \ 'J> Rll l :'TOR! C.

si111pk :tlld ;1ppropri;1tc lan .~ uagc ill whi ch they ;i_re
c\Jircssed; there is 1wt a ll unfamiliar \\·uni, hardly one
of more than twc> syl labics; not a harsh-so unding phrase;
the words seem to be c hosen rath e r for e uphony and
iiL·:t u t y. Th e sente nces Anw smoothl y w ith a rhythm
:dmost poetic, :mrl they elld in ag reeable ca den ces. We
arc c11nscio tts of a sense of melody and of harmony as
we re:td th e lillcs. I !ere and there Mrs. Spufford has
emp loyed a tiguratin: q >ithd, or a hit of image ry, to
m;1kc hn p ict ure more \'i\·id , or to heighten th e effect.
This furth n ministers t o our plea sun: . . Di c kens, howcvc r, fr()Jll the nature of t hL: t bought, depe nd s more
up()ll the smoothness and harmony of his bngu;i_g-c. J\11
these thillgs appeal to our a·sthl'lic sellse, alld thus
l't> nt rilmtL: t u a st yle tha t plea ses. Such a style we call
d1 ~i: ·1111 I.

99. Elegance as a Quality of Style. - Elegan ce is
a del icate , as \\'ell a s an artisti c quality of style , a lld, as
we mi ght expect , is di ffic ult to attain. It rnnst itutes
mu ch of the cha rm of language, and reaches its hi g hest
form ill poetry ; for the pPct, en dowed by na ture \\'ith a
fille sellsc of feeling an d ;111 exq uisit e appreci;ttio ll of
lwauty, minist e rs t o th e t aste..: of his kllt1w m c..: n by pouring forth in song what he <;ecs and feels.
In poetry
beauty, .or l'lcgance, is th e most distinguishing quality;
hcnn· poetry is the high es t and m ost artist ic of literary
forms.
Ill prose, elegance is not sought so assiduously,
but it is promine n t in that which has literary quality. It
is th e outcome of hi g h culture, sound thought, a dig ni-

7HF (! U, l/J!IF S OF .·I

c;uon

S 7TLE.

~

5')

ficd theme and complete mastery th ereof. i\ ddisnn
:rnd 1n ·ing arc elegant, Macaulay combin . .: s cleg:rn('l'
with clc..:arness, Ceorge Eliot, elegan ce with empha sis.

O ur literat ure is ri ch in elega nt prose.
100. Elegance, how Attained. From ou r brief coll sideration uf the twu passages quoted we 111;1 y easily sec
what promotes e legan ce . First, thL:re should he /:owly
1>{ /lio11J;i1!, for it is esse11 t ial to beauty oi e\pression;
~hell the..: words should he selected with rde re11 L'L'. t"
the ir F11pl11111y an cl Hm11IJ'. By euphony \1·c mean what
is agTeeable to th e ear in d istinction from wh;tt is harsh.
Euphonious words arc usually those that arc made up • ,f
a su ccess 1c 1n of \'OWCls and liquid s, or with an absen ce
(lf gutt ural s. Take..:, for instance, a sL'lltc1ll'e · fr•>lll e:tch
o f th e passages citcd a hove..:. " J\ II the lo\'L·ly reg·ion
secms t<J m e still a s<Jrt .,f Lt iry l:tnd, \\·hich, ll'h cn ; 1 li tt le.:
child , was all my ow 1i. . . . I call still feel the C<>•.i ,
salt brea th there stea l ill from outer deeps, ~11HI sec it
draw a film acr"ss the stars." "ShL: seemed ;i creature
fresh from the hand nf (~od, and wa iting for th e hrcath
"f life; not one who had liv ed and suffered d c:tth." ln
th ese two sentences the..: words have been chosen with
such ni cc..:ty that there is almost an entire absence of :I ll )'
s<Jund that grates harsh ly on the ear. Combin ed wi:h
e uphcmious words there shou ld be euphcmious arr;111ge-,
m cnt, th e r eby promoti ng ,\111uo!l111css ;u1d musical l1o\\',
()r R!ty t/1111, in the se nte nce. By rhythm WL'. mean such
reg ular recurrence of accent as will produce a r egular
rise and fall o f the vuin::, when the selectiun is rcad

C O.l!/'(}S/!'/(I X

Tl /lo' (j_U, JLJ !JLS OF .I u'IJUD s n

·1·1 lL'

:iloucl.
j •les

./. \ "/ ) li'll!:I O !UC.

of

sm

.

t wn sc11len n.:s c itL· <I ~ 1
")o\·e arc "·ood e xamti
I
.-.
uu rnc ss :in c d1yth111.
I fr·11n·s i:f .\pccdt

1>1-, •m o t e L'iega n ce.

I' · 1 t

.

' <.:: u

Y ''

hi "he r :rnd hi g her th e ir :1ccorcLrnt n otes, :ind piling "nund
°';...,sound. - And n ow they pa use, and th e so ft , .',, in· s ,,f
th e c hoir break o ut int o s1Yed gus hes of 1n e l()(h- ; t he1·
s":ir ;duh , a nd 11·:ir blc a lo ng th e roof. an d se«lll ' 10 pL1)·
about th ose lofty va ult s l ik e the pure a irs , ,f heaven.
Aga in the pc :il ing o rgan h ea1T,; its thrillin g 1hu11 cler,;, cum press in g :1 ir i11t(1 111u s ic :111d rollin g it furth upo n th e s<1 u l.
\\'h :1t lu ng-clr:111· n c :icle nces !
\Vhat s11lc 1nn , swcep i11;..:
co n cords ! It g ruws m ore and mon.: d e n se and i'"11·cr f11I
- it tills th e vas t pi le, a nd see m s to jar the 1·ery 11 :ills th e e:ir is s tunned - th e se n ses are ove rwh e linnl. _.\ 11d
11ow it is 11 inding up in full julJil e e - it is ri s in g fro m the
ea rth to hea ve n - the very so ul seem s r apt aw:1y, and
ll ua ted upw a rd s 0 11 thi s swellin g tide u( harm ony .

1· -

im; ige r y promotes beauty
Mrs . Spoffurcl's "prim e , ·;iJ pines" that
st:llld " like dark sentinels., ·ire 11 t 1 I .
.
.,
.
·
•
u • 11 )' impressi ve,
hut 3 1e al so ple;1s 11 w to <>!Ir t ·1st"
1.-·ig.111-es. o f speec h
. . . .
,..,
.
' . ,___
ad() 111 , .is i1cll a s L'lll ph :1s1 zL', ;1 thotwht.
Th .. l-1 ·t I,
.

•>I eXJlrL'Ss111 11.

.

I . I

.

,..,

'- , s

e c-

111u1 t \I ' ll l' 1 we sh:1ll C<> ll si<ler is ff,11m1J1t J'
It j -I1.1ps,· ti le 111\ht i111porta11t
·
- ·
"• p e 1H)· ln rm
. . )'
llle;m I
.
.
.
Oil ) 111
lt e rature wc
t le effect procluc ecl hy i1-. 1rcls l'1: 1t arc :1cl:1pt e d
tu th e .se11sl'
II .us
- · -I1 an< I lll l J> IL':1sa11t word s nny b e
. .

Ill!J
- IY d1s
. ·1,.·1- . .. 11 .. ]
,_,
· • .-. CC, ! ) C , (ll]<e
0
<> I sl11w ;1 11d lllL"ts 11 r ·cl I
_
_
..
'·
c S<.>ll lH' t o r '-·p rese11t se riou s
t h o ught s ; d1ife r e 11 t feel in .. s a nd d1·rr .. ,· ·11t
Ill< 11 e rn e nt s
. ,
.
"
' c
m. 11 lie m :1de 11111 1-e L' fk c t i,·e h)· suit~ l) ]
1
\;
·
·
" c w ons.
Vhcn c 111pl o)·c d
\I'll!'( Js

.

t•1 rc11r cs
. ·c 11 t

LC

S(l ll ll'l

L' \ 'LT the la11.c;·u ;1gL' is ;1d ;1p ted t" the thought and fee lm o
Th e 1111 I
~·
t lw effL·, ·t i1·ill IJ,· h: 1r1111•11i t111s
.
..
"e acco unt ol
thL· c/e;1th of I .1ttle ;\,·JI is _:111 ilh 1st r:1li<>n of h: 1rm o 11 y .
fr , ·ing i,- fr eque11 t l)- lnJ >i
I
.
. ')' '" i1 s ll sl' .. f h :1n11()n iuus
'-'\I H'<'ss 1011.
l\ead :ilo lld f.,r 111 st ·111c . hi·.~ I
. .
.
'
' '
l,
·' < l'.S ( Tl pt 1()1)
••I th'-· s11ddc 11 IH 11 '.st 11 1, ,· f<>rth rf
ti . . .
1
:-.
lL 11 1 ,c;: 111, ;1s h e s it s
l11l 1s i11 g in \\ 'estmi 11st c r ; \ lihey. and J)l>l c the e ff ec t.
Sudde nl y th e n o tes of l he clec1i- l·1l><• 1111 '
·
:.. or,,;111 bu1 s t
P"" t IlC e:i r. fa ll1n;.; 1111 h d ritilikd ·in d 1 . I I I
·.1 nu__, rn
- 11·ing. as ·It \\ e' re. h 11••c 1> 11!011"
' 'f '' '"' I> ec I 1nt e n .s 1t y '
I
I ,· .
.~
· ' sn tn)( lo w we ll
f n I 1e 11 vol1 111 1c and •rr: i nd et1 r ·icc nr d
_. I I _
.
build in g! \\'it h 11·hat '1~01111' c1 ,, 1i1"). ,11-,-1"1'11 !1 - t11"1 m ig ht y
I
·
11" u"1 1ts1 ..1 ·t
\' <l ll Is, and bre ath e th e ir :Jll' ful
harni"n) ' thro7i n·J1 ·ti '~
"
ese
<"1ve
s
o
f
de
itl
I
k
, : l. a n c n1a e t 1w s il e nt St' pulchrc 1·c1ca
l iI:__
And n o w the y ri se ll1 tnun1ph a 11 t accL 1n1 :itio11,
.
heav ing
11

"
t "

Many <1 thc r things h el p to milke a n elega n t style.
Ge n e rall y

s peaking ,

w h a tc,·e r

pnmiotcs cka rn es;; . <>r

:tdd s tn th e emphasis, is elf cct ive i11 pr()du c in g c lc g ancc.
1oi.

Violations of Elegance. -

l ·:l c g: 111cc r c quirL·s 11 s to

a 1·<>id an y thi11g th :1t v iobtL'S the l:t11·s <>f g"<><H I t as t e , s u ch
;1 s

the u se u( sb ng, affec t ed

phrases a n d q u 11tation s ,

ex pres s io n s,

h ac k11 eycd

a se ns at i"na l style. S<> C<>llllll <> n

i11 n ew spapers, the intr"duct ion <> f what is fri ,-..J,->us int <>
se ri<>u s di ,;l·<>11r se, <>f the v ul g ar int11 di g 11ili L« i cxp r l·ss i<1n ,
a nd all kin ds

or

" fi 11 e w ritin g," th a t is . th e u ,;c of p r e-

tent ious te rm s fo r s imple i<k: ts.

l >i c kc ns h :1s d"11e a

r ea l se 1· , ·ic e t <> l iteral ure by :-. hrn1·i11 g, i11 the p e r s1111 <>f
th e Jl•>mp11us i\Ir. Mi c: twber, the ridictil 1• 11 snes,; of pre t L· 11tious Lt11g u ;1g·c.

"' Unde r th e impre ;.;s io11, · s:tid Mr .

l\Ii caw hcr , 'th:1t y •>ur p ereg rin a ti o n s in this m e t r<>poli s
h ave n o t ;1s ye t b ee n exte n s ive , a nd th at y<>u mi g ht ha,·e
Sf> lll C difficult y in pe netratin g thl: :1.-ca n a o f th e rn <>Jern

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262

CO,lfPOSIT!ON AND RHETORIC.

B~bylon in. the direction of the City Road -

in short'
said M.r. M1cawber, in a nother burst uf confidence, 'th;t
~ou '.111ght lo~c yourself - I shall be happy to call this
cvenmg,
, ,, and
O install you in the knowledge of tie
1 nearest
way.
nly_a little less ridi culous is the writer whose
cha·r~cters "discuss the morning repast,, when they eat
then breakfast, who "retire to their downy couch" when
they go to bed, and who "gather at the festive board"
and "satisfy the inner man," preparatory to "listening
to a feast of reason and flow of soul." Whatever
at tern pts we ma ke at elerrance
uf style, we must remem,,.,,
ber that the fundamental principle tu be observed is to
adapt our language to our thought.
EXEHCISES.

" r. What ~o you understand by th e "xsthetic sense " i
\ •v
"I i:i. t names
.
· the xsthet1c qualit)' of ·st)•le " •i
m·1y be·
given to s uch a quality? Trv to explai1J why ea. I .'
entire!
t. f
•
· '
'c 1 is not
.
y sa is actory.
Whal is the proper meanin of
dcgn11ce? What vulgar associations have we attache~ t 0
the word? Why does it see m to be the be ·t '
d f
o ur purpose ?
·
s wor
or

z. Explain why e/egn11re is the most artistic qualit of

style . . Why should we _e xpec t to find it in its hi ~est
form m poetry? .What is t~1c primary object of po~tr ?
Is e!cganc~ a promment quality in prose literature i Cy
you ment1~n any ~ooks in whi c h this quality seems.top:~~
do1:1mate. Men:10n others where the quality is especiall
no ticeable, and give examples.
·
y
3· Look ~ve r some of the books of th e day,' especiall
~.ooks of fiction, also the stories and articles in the magfzmes, and select any th at yo u think are especially note-

THE QUALITIES OF A GOOD STYLE.
worthy for their cle;;.anc~ '!! st;r/c. nring them to the class,
and explain what contributes to this elegance.
4. Why cannot any rule be given whereby elegance may
be obtained? Upon what must the attainment of elegance
largely depend ? What elements may contribute to t:!egance l What is euphony l rhytlzm 7 What do you understand by liar111011y? How may it be secured ?
5. Study the following selections, and comment o n
them with reference to dega11ce, showing what elements
in them contribute to this quality.
r . We do not make our own thoughts : they grow in us
like grain in wood ; the growth is of the skies, which are of
nature -nature is of God.
~. A ruined character is as picturesque as a ruined castle.
There arc dark abysses and yawning gulfs in t.he human
heart. which can be rendered passable only by bridging
th em over with iron nerves.
3. Look not mournfull y in to the past. It comes nol back.
\Visely improve the present. It is thine. Go forth to meet
the ~hadowy future, without fear, and with a manly heart.
4 . A/iril adva nced in to May ; a bright, serene May it was;
days o blue sky, placid sunshine, and soft western or south·
ern gales filled up its duration. Lo! the wood shook loose its
tresses; it became all green, all flowery; woodland plants
sprang up profusely in its recesses, unnumbered varieties of
moss filled its hollows, making a strange ground-sunshine
out of the wealth of its wild primrose plants.
5. It was a fine autumnal day, the sky was clear and
serene, and nature wore that rich and golden livery whi ch
The
we always assoc iate with the idea of abundance.
forests had put on their sober brown and yellow, while some
trees of the tenderer kind had been nipped by the frosts
into brilliant dyes of orange, purple and scarlet. Streaming files of wild ducks began to make the ir appearance high
in the air; the bark of the squirrel might be heard from the
groves of beech and hickory nuts, and the pensive whistle
of the quail at interval s from the neighboring stubble-fields.
6. I will tell you what the giving of knowledge is like.
Suppose, now, that there were no sun nor stars in the
heavens, nor anything that shone in the black brow of night;
and suppose that a lighted lamp were put in your hand,
which should burn, wasteless and clear, amid all the tem·
pests that should brood upon this lower world. Suppose,

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CO,lfPOS/T/ON _, /ND RHETORIC.

next that there were a thousa nd millions of human beings
the earth with you, each holding in his hand an unlight
lamp, filled with the same oil as yours, and capable of givin
as much lig ht. Suppose these millions should come, o.ne- b}'.
one, to you, and light each his lamp by yours; would they
rob you of any light? Would less of it sh ine on your own
path? Would your lamp burn more dimly for lighting ·
thousand millions?
·
6. How may c!egm1cc be violated?
understand by " fine writing"? What
we keep in mind to avoid fine writing?
Look over the following p assages . Point out wh ere the)'.
violate the quality of elegance. Re-write, or improve then(
with reference to this quality.
1. These impecu ni ous characters and
adventurers
weeks and weeks haunteci the parliamentary buildings.
2. The maste r is placed there spec ially to influence -in·
tellectually only, many think, but as truly morally.
,, .
3. The house that was lately in the process of erection
has been destroyed in its en tirety by the devouring element:
4. A great many things see min g ly relatively perfectly ·
.
plain, are very difficult to unravel.
5. A petrified body of rotary moti on has no affinity for ·
gramineous matter.
6. The friends speedily cal led into requisition th e services
of the tamily physician, but th e disease had taken so firm a
hold of his system that after a few hours of agonv his spirit
·
winged its flight into realms unknown.
7. He came out wagging- his tail and making circles with
his body, not unlike a cat in pu rsuit 0f her appe ndage.
8. The blushing bride, leaning- on the arm of her fond
parent, passed up the aisle. the admired of all admirers.
9. The patrons of husbandry, having thorou,ghly examined all the inventions of genius to be found within the
machinery hall, retired to an adjoining department to partake of some liquid refreshm ents.
ro. One boy was in a corn er grinding for the examination
while another tried to boost him along whenever he got
stuck.
11. Mrs. B ryan allows that she is going to contribute to
the Common«r, but she is cock-sure there will be no ladies'
department in that sheet. l t will be interesting to see how
she disg uises her feminine fist.

APPENDIX A.

APPENDIX A.
PUNCTUATION AND THE USE. OF CA PITALS.

Importance of Punctuation.
It is scarcely necessary to point out h_ow impo~tant
a part punctuation plays in the interpre~ a~10n of wntten
or printed discourse.
A recent. dec1s1on of. the Supreme Court of Massachusetts, <llfectly affectmg hundreds of c itizens, turned on the probably careless •use
of a semicolon instead of a comma. Moreover, we
have only to read a page of printed ma_tte_r, or a ~adly
punctuated letter, to see how difficult 1t is to deCJj)her
the meaning, and to feel how needful it is to ~~v~ some
mechanical scheme that shall show the d1v1s10n of
th ought and the relationship of the different _pa rts.
Just as in oral discourse we give greater express10n to
our ideas, convey the fine shades of meaning, and make
our thoughts a genuine tran script of our feelings and
sentiments by our inflections, our pauses, and other
variations of t one ; so in written discourse we try_ to
produce the same effect by the ma'.ks of punctuat10n.
By I·t, too , we indicate the o<Trammat1cal structure of the
.
written language, dividing it into sentences, and showmg
the various relations of the words in a sentence. The

.
266

C01l1'POSIT/ON AND RIIETORIC.

importance, therefore, of careful punctuation
too strongly impressed upon our minds.
Rules of Punctuation.
Punctuation is a matter of custom, and as such is
growth. The accepted meth od of punctuating a senten
to-day is not the same as that of a half-century ag
Fewer marks of punctuation, especially cornmas, __
used at present, the tendency being to sim plify punctu
tion as much as possible. As it is evident, therefor
that punctuation is an art, rath er than a science, th
writer must have in mind in each case the need "o
making the punctuation contribute to the clearness an~
effectiveness of his sentences, rather than of conform~
ing to some established rules.
arc merely the statements of what in general usag
and according t o common judgment, have proved th
most useful methods of making punctuation a help t
the reader's understanding. Conformity to them i;::i
generally desirable, and a knowledge of them is neCli_
sary for every one who wishes to appear other than;
rude in what he writes.1 In general it may be sai~
that the writer should punctuate as he writes, rather
than afterwards, and that no punctuation mark shoui'
be used for which a definite reason cannot be given.
J \Vilson's Trtt1.f1'Je 011 l'u11c:t 1u1tia11 i ~ the common ly accepted authority on t
subject among printers , and with 80mc exceptions the authors of this book ha·
followed the rule!i as there laid down. Bigelo w' s flflndbovk o/ P1utctuaiioH, a 'Cqn
<lensed form of \Vi Ison 's Trealiu, may be recommended as a convenient refefe'a ~
book on the subject.

'

APPENDIX A.

I. The cumma should be used to separate words or
phrases used in series without conj unctions to connect
them.
It breathes the spirit of conflict, war, destruction, and
death upon everything it touches.

II. Participial and adjective phrases, absolute expressions, and adverbial phrases placed out of their natural
order, should be separated by commas.
My yellow-tl}roat is a good hunter, pro~ling keen-eyed
about the edges of the swamp outlet where msects abou~1d,
snatching them from grass blade and leaflet, or huntrng
them out of the leaves.
From figurations of the capes to the humpless inlets.of
the bays, he exerts a manly fellow-feeling.

III. Parenthetical words and expressions should be
set off by commas, when the thought rel ation is close.
The man who works upon a railway, 110 mat/er in wlwt
capaci/;1, always carries the railway brand with him, and
can be identified in a moment.

IV. Words or expressions in apposition, or m the vo-

""~ cative case, should be set off by commas .
At the age of five years Victor had s~en Paris and
Rome and had lived at various places m France and
Italy, 'one of these being near Mount Vesuvius.
Mr. Brown, a resident of this city, has been elected
president of the company.

V. The conjunction may have a comma before it to
distinguish it in its use from a preceding like conjunc-

.

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268

tion, more limited in its action, as m the case of the '
second and in Rule IV. above.
Tell me, my man, if this is just and honest, and if you
respect such leadership.

I

APPENDIX A.

COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.

VI. Relative clauses that are not restrictive, that is,
those that add an explanation or an additional thotwht
0
instead of narrowing the meaning of the substantive,
should be set off by commas. If the clause is restrictive,
no comma is needed.
This book, which is a rare old volume, is highly prized
by me.
.The book \\rhich you refer to has long been out-ofpnnt.

VI I. Dependent clauses may or may not be set off .
by commas according to the closeness of the relation.
(/,_indeed, there be atl)'f!ti11g in /(Jm/ associatio11sjil lo affect
t!te mmd ef man, we need not strive to repress the emotions
which agitate us here.
. IY/ren it is rem:mbered that alro//(}l contains no nitrogen it
will be seen that it cannot serve the first function of food.

VII I. Short and closely connected independent
clauses may be separated hy the comma when the
period or the semicolon would give a sense of too great
division.

"The Muqui Indians are a remarkable people," said
Professor Beecher. ·

X. The omission of a word should be indicated by a
comma, except when the meaning is clear without it.
Fame is the lode-star of some men; pleasure, of others.

XI. Negative expressions, used by way of contrast,
are set off by commas.
The politicians, not the people, will benefit by this law.

The Semicolon.
I. Independent clauses, when long, or detached senten ces having close relation in thought, may be sq~rated
by semicolons.
In the arbitration courts the lawyers are not allowed to
represent either party; only the parties themselves are
heard.

II. \.Vhen the clauses of a compound sentence contain commas they should be separated by the semicolon .
Artists of the first rank have usually seen small inducement to paint such things as hunches of flowers or fruits,
bottles and glasses of wine, and other still-life subjects;
but Vollon has justified still-life work for all time.

'vVe t<;>o~ our seats in the car, the gong sounded, there
was a h1ssmg of steam, and we were off.

III. A clause g1v111g a reason or an explanation, or
stating a contrast, when introduced by a connective
word, should be preceded by a · semicolon.

IX. Short quotations should be separated from the
context by commas.

Economy is no disgrace; for it is better to live on little
than to outlive a great deal.

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CO.JIPOSJTJ{)J\' AND RHETORIC.

IV. A series of expressions hav ing a comm on de~n,
ence on a preceding or a concluding portion of the se
te nce should be separated by semicolons when they a
distinct propositions, or are of a compound nature.
That you were unwise in your choice of friends;
.
you permitted yourself to be influen ced too much by
them; that you did not rebuke them for open violation~ of
trust, -you cannot well deny.

APPENDIX A.

I. Th e period should be put at the end of every full
sentence where the interrogation mark or the exclamation is not required.
II. Every abbreviated word should be followed by
the period.

The Interrogation Mark.
The Colon.

I. Independent clauses which are t oo closely con
nected to require the · period shou ld be separated by a'
colon when any of these clauses contains a semicolon.
A man can scarce allege his own merits with modesty,
much less ex tol them; a man cannot sometimes brook.to·
supplicate or beg; and a number of the like: but all these
things are graceful in a friend's mouth, which are blush.·
ing in a man's own.
II. A long or formal quotation should be preceded ·
hy the colon.
T he report of the society convicted " the Priestess of
lsis" of "a long continued combination with other persons to produce by ordinary means a series of apparent ,
marvels for the support of the Theosophic movement;" '
and concludes with these words: " For our own part, we
regard her neither as the mouthpiece of hidd en seers nor ·
as a mere vulgar adventuress; we think that she has ,
achieved a title to pe rmanent remembrance as one of the
most accomplished, ingenious, and interesting impostors .·
in history."
II I. The colon followed by th e dash is used after the
address in a letter.

Th e interrogation mark is used after direct questions.

The Exclamation Mark.
I. T he exclamation mark follows interjections an<1
exclamatory words and expressions.
•
II. Sometimes th e distinctly ex clamatory word is but
part of the e xclamation, in which case it is f<'.llowed
imm ed iately by a comma, a nd the whole express10n, by
the exclamation mark.
Yet such was I I Oh, such was I I

The Hyphen.
Th e hyphen is used at the encl of a line when a part
of the word is carried over t o the next line.
The hyphen is used t o separate the parts of a c01~­
poun<l word, as snni-circlc, topic-sentence, and brotltcr-1~1law; but in such cases the writer must be consistent m
the use of the hyphen. If the two words do not form
a distin ct compound they should be written as separate
words. 1 f they arc used as a compound word, the hyphen

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272

APPE,VD/ X . A .

COilfl 'OSI T I ON AND RllETORIC.

Quotation Marks.

should he employed, unless t11cy have become so closely
unit ed as to form a s ingle word , like scmico/011. The
t e ndency. is t o unit e in this way many words which
fo rmerly r equired the hyphen.

All passages directly quoted are inclosed within quotation marks. \ Vhe n th e words directly qu oted arc
broken by comme nt of th e writer, th e fact that the interpolation is not part of the quotation shou ld be shown by
the quotati on marks. Long quotations of more than a
paragraph, if continuuus, should have quotat ion marks
at the beginning ·of each paragraph, but at the end of
the last one only. Titles of books, et c., may be put in
quotation marks or printed in italics as the ta ste of the
writer suggests.

Parenthetical Expressions.
Dashes, parent hescs, an d brackets ar e used to indicat e that the matter inclosed within them is in some
degr ee separate in th ought from the context ; dashes
indicate th e least degree nf sepa ration, and brackets, the
g reatest. The clash is ab() used to show a n abrupt
cha nge in th e thought.
But the _ c~ n gregat i o n - a fictitiow; a nd eternal person
- never d1v1dcs or breaks up his property, which constitutes a dreadful economical dange r.
I know -

that is, I think -

I

The Apostrophe.
The apostrophe is used
to indicate the el ision of a
end of a quotation with in
th e fina l s in the plural of

Capital Letters.

believe I can recover it.

Slow thro· the c hurch way path we saw him borne, Approac h and read, -

to mark the possessive case,
let te r or letters, t o mark the
a quotation, an d t o separate
letters aml figures.

Italics.
1talics arc used t o show emphasis, to mark foreign
words not yet received int o the lan g uage, and to indicate
wurds of special importance, such as titles and words
used i 11 :t special se nse.

273

·

I. Every sentence, every line of poetry, and every
direct quotation, except when it is brought into the
se nt ence as a phrase, or as a suborJinate part of a sente nce (see example unde r Rule II. for the colon), should
begi n with a capital letter.
·
" II. All names of the Deity should begin with ca pitals.
l hou, E ternal One, Almighty, Father, etc.
J ll. All proper names and adjectives derived from
them should begin with capitals. Boston, Harvard College, American, English, etc.
IV. The prin cipal words in the titles of books, titl es
of honor, official ti tl es, and the like, should beuin with
capital s. Composit ion and Retoric, A Manua~ of History, Gene ra l G ran t, Gove rn or C ra11e, Mayor Hart,
Major-General \Vh eeler, etc.

274

,,JJ'l ' FNDIX IJ.

10.1//'()S/T/ON / IX/> /,'//FTnR!C.

\!. The worcls No rth. South, !·::1st, and \ Nest, when
r derring to ce rL1in sections of the co untry, sh ould beg in
with capita ls.
"The South is n:covering from the
effects of the ( i,·il \\ 'a r." "T h e \Vest is opposed to the
rncasu re." \ Vhen l hese W()rds rl·f e r simply to direction
th ey dn not require capitals.
\ ' I. Na nws of political p:1 rtics a nd religious sects
sho ul d begin with l·:1pit:d ktters . Republican, Democrat,
'.\I ethodis t , Sec(lnd J\dn:nt. Ch ri sti :lll Scientist, etc.
\' I I. Abstract q u:ilitics w h en persPnifi. e<l, as in poetry,
sho uld beg in with ctpit:ils. " Let not Amb ition mock
thL·ir useful t<>il." "Ld Love clasp Crid lest both be
dn1wned .''
V I I I. l~he pronrn111 I a nd th e int e rj ection 0
al\\·ays writt e n with capitals.

are

Nl>TE. No exerc ises involv in g pun ctuati on or the use of
c:1pi1als are given, as the boob . maga zin es. and daily papers
at hand afford :1b11 11dant nut e ri :1l fo r the stud y of these
11 1:111crs. l\t inkrDls pupi l.s 1n:1y bL' cl irc ckd to bring to the
, ·J:1,.,.s :1 p :1r:1gr:q1h fnn 11 :1 h<>ok 111· a 1n:1gazi11e, and explain

I lic· Jllllll ·t11 :it iu11.

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~75

Al'l'ENDIX B.
LETTEl<-\\11< IT! NC:.

What Makes a Good Letter .
)e111g m ore
upon
art for the interest which th ey a rc to arous(:. Those to
fri ends sh ou ld h e \\Titten in an easy, con\'e rsatirn1al
vein, but ca re should be tak e n that in their toric o f
friendly familiarity they do n ot go beyond the actu:tl
intim acy of the correspondents. Tn o ur conve rsation
we mak e co ntinual adj u st m e nt of what we have to s:1y
to our understanding of the character and the likin gs <if
o ur h earers, an cl in our le tters a lik e adaptati o n to th e
int e rest a nd tastes of o ur r eaders is the thin g of m ost
importa1we.
Upon this th e plc;1sure of a personal c11 rrespo11de1ll·e large ly d epe nds, since tw\I pe• •plc l':lll rart·ly
have many inter ests in comrn<>n , and such c omnH>ll inll-rests must always lesse n as each is more and more
absorbed in the co nce rns of th e separate localities in
\vh ic h he finds h im scl f.
Litt k personal happe nings,
wh e n narrated with vivacity, give colo r to a le tt er; hut
the effective u se uf t he m requires lit era ry ski I I, since
th ey should be made int e re s tin g i11 the mselves, ap;nt

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CU.J!FOS/Ff(),\ " .·/ .\ '/ ) Nll!:'FO N! C.

fr"m the writcr·s co nnection with them.
Nothing in
the way of curnp(lsitinn could well be m ore dreary than
a let tc r w h ic h , without any kindli ng of feeling or of fancy,
rL· crn111ts pr()sil y th e in cidents nf the writer 's d a ily life.
Bu s iness lett ers shuuld lie :1s hr id as pussiblc, tha t they
may no t take too much of the time uf the rec ipie nt, but
they should not he so brief as to seem curt an cl discourt eous ; the writer himself shuuld ha\'e plent y of time
for the une to whum h e writ es.

Practical Importance of Letter-Writing.
~o

muc h of " ur cc>11m-ct ion \\·ith 11ur fellows we now
•
est:ibl ish or maintain th rough correspondence, that no
on e ca n afford to neglec t culti\·at ing the abil ity to write
a g1)ud lette r.
A word misspelled or used in a wrong
sense, :1 preposition emplny ccl nccclkssly, or a se nten ce
all'kl\·ardly phrased, may be enough to forfeit for the
writer the regard of one \\·hose fa\'C>r is of importance.
l \ statement n ot quit e c kar, or one which mak es two
int crprct ati()ns possibk, may p 1-c\·ent the complet ion of a
business :1rra11ge11ll·11t. or iatl'r may inuiln: the parties
to it in a l:iwsu it. Th e :1hilit y to present one's self effectiv ely o n paper is ;1 business qu:iliflL·ation of the highest
m ome n t, and is to he culti\·atcd nut less fur practical
tha n for soc ial and perso nal reaso ns.

The Parts of a Letter.
A formal let ter may he di\·ickd for conve nien ce in to
the full"wing parts:
The I lcad int:", The i\dd r ess, The

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S;tlutati1111, 1-lie l)'l)ll):, ·1·1"· ~" l :um1ilime11tar)' Emlin;,;-,
Th e S ig nature.

;ll id

The Heading.
Th e !/1·t1t!i11.i;· of

;1 kttl'r sh <>1 1hl begin well tn th t.: ri;.;ht
uf th e page, and an i11d1 <>r m11re frnm _th e t11p. l t
sh11uld g i\·e the name (If th e pb ce lrlllll \\·h1ch thl' ktt-:r
is \\Tit ten, fulluwecl by the dat e of writing, a nd _ma y c" n ~
sist of 'ine "r m ore lin es :tcL·ording- t" the m clt1 1at1un lil

th e writer , thus : -

Y3o-·0

l \YYI

1,

rn.A.\,_) ;)

i u.L lj-'

11,

'

I c100

0ct.f>o 'l ·. J!o \)j o./, ~O \JC.;.
\ ~) L\ 6 l1JCl G-o/u.J1.;
1

I

12 . 1~1 00

Oro-U. ,

~u . Jtt

i

CVY"V

\ 11 ,

I

90I

In friendly lcttt.:rs and snc i:d nntes it has rece ntl y
hec()il1L' a nis t om tu put th e pbrl' ;i nd the da t e at th e
e nd of th, letter, at the left hand , a lit tle below the
writer's signature, anJ tu write out the Jate, thus : -

2 jS

C u.l! !'OSI l/O. \ . . I XI!

NI I l:I(IH/C.

.·I /'!'EN/JI.\ ' J;.

This nist(lm, although it lll:iy oht;1ii1 s11l1le foothold in
polite society, is not tu lie recornnH.:nded, excqit in formal
notes of invitation, regret, et c.

The Address.
In formal or llllsin c:ss kttL'rs the /lddn-ss should
include th e name of the Jll'l"S• •ll to \\'horn the letter is
written, with the proper title, and the place to which
the letter is sent.
In letters tn rditi\·~·s or fri ends
the address is not used. \\' hen used. it should be put
;it the beginning of the letter, ;it th e left and a little
below the heading, or ;it the close, ;it the ldt of the
signature, and, if space permits, a little lower.

fYv0. C1.

i

1

t'

w·;xr~ ct / YY\ 1 Jt.
.
I I 5 Wt,;G ~)/l~/v

to he a voided.

J{A:) ,{~,

lLc,_.{;t~ 11 ·vcrt\;(1J YY\
Bo--:-:iA_-:{)-'YV,

I .

'YYL0,;2.1c), ,

J~, 10, 1900

'111/l,J/ iluv\ 1 rno,lh,uv,

QLfN'YV,

j~La/vl~f/OJ\ ,cl, Co-0v vv

U

sud1 a form as is in keeping with the relations between
him and the person addressed. Dear Friou!, j), ·ar
((J/lsin, flfy dmr Jlfo!ltcr, /)car Sir, Dear Jl/ad11111
(married or single), 11/y ·dear Jlir. Hn·wf'r, Cnilkmo1,
m:i.y be used according to the degree nf intimacy ex1St111g:
but su c h expressions as Ki1ul Friend, ofl~n employed Ill
;itternpting to create a rebtion that does not exist, arc

!Bfw ·w

VJ o.-'i..cf./c);l Ul"
· vv,

J>t.,

CGrvcVYV1~, ~.
The Salutation.
The 5«llutatio11, which is a sort of courteous introduction to the body of the lett e r, should be written on the
line b e low the address, and a littk to the ldt. If there
is no address at the beginning of the letter, the Salutation should be put one or two lines below the heading,
and at the ldt-hand margi11. The 11Tit c r should adopt

'Yrlo ht)/ .,
QA~. o, I 90 I.

JG,,(lcLU11, Pe/oJJ-0-cG'L;J-1. '¥' Co-,.,
113~s.6t.,
B~.

The Body.
The Bod)' of the letter contains th e subject-matter;
it is the Jetter itself. In familiar letters, where we give

i'.

1'.
I,

''
I i

i·'

',,

2So

I
)

C<J .ll l' (}S/ ! liJ. \ ' . I .\'I) /1'// /:'I O NI C.

inf .. rnw.tio n or r cc"u n t nu r e \·cry-chy ex pe ri e nces, th e
style sho uld be easy, nat ural, un a ffe cted , and co n \'Crsati.,nal in to ne. \ Ve s hould try tu wr it e as \\"C \\'ould
Ltlk to a fri e nd , but ,,.c sh<>ulcl a1-. 1id ove r-familiarity.
\ Veil-w rit te n letters aff11rd plc:ts:u1t n.:adin g-, and th e
le tters of suc h ll'ritcrs as J .oll'c ll , Em c rs" n. Carlyle,
Lanie r, a nd Stc1·e11s<>n ha1·e bec .. m c a delight [ul p:trt of
our lit e ra ture.
Hy due l·:tre i11 wr iti ng <>Ur let ters we
:il l m ay hnpe t•> m:tke them :t so ur ce u[ plc:tsun.: a nd
clclig ht to our C1J rresponclents.
Bu s in es.~ letters sh111il d

be m"rc fo rma l. Th ey should
lie brief. direc t, and cou rteous.
Th ey should state
clearly the business in h:tn d, and should not be m odeled
:t f te r a t e lcg-ra ph ic 111 essage . J 111 por t: 111 t 11·ords should
n"t b e o mitt cd, and 1111n ecessa ry abbrev iat ions sh o uld b e
:11·oid ed. I t is best to write 011 only one s ide of the page.

The Complimentary Close.
The cl11se of th e ktt e r is <k term in ecl largely by th e
1-..:bti o ns th: 1t C.\ist iJd11·cen the w rit e r and his cor re'-'1'11nde nt .
ViJ11rs rnt1·r1/i1/fr,
) ·011r o/J,· rli,·111 .l"t"/"7'1111 / ,
) ·,1111s /r11/y , I ~ ·1y lr11/y )'1111rs . :ir e L'Spcc iall y fitting ll'iien
it is desired t u bc 1-. ir mal ur 111 show rcspc:ct. .\i11,-,-rd_1'
_1•1111r.>, 1l!u.1 / corrli 11lly _1'1111r.1. ) ·,111r /o -;_1 1111;· so11, ctc., i11dicate m o re in timate a nd friendly rehtiu ns.

The Signature
Th e Sig.1 ta l11n · should be on thl· li11e bd oll' t h<.' Co 111pli111nlla1)' C 'os1·, :incl at the r igh t. The f<>rm .,r sig-

n:iture d e pends som ew ha t o n the d egree of fam iliar it y
\ict wecn the co rres ponden ts.
In ge ne ra l, the na m e of
,v . ,,·riter
·
] io u ] c1 1>c
·
.
1
1·11
ftill, cxce j)t , j>c rh ~1 1 is.
s
s1g
ne(
tl 1
th e middle nam e, in prdcre n cl' t" writing initi:tl s. In
writi11g to stra ngers the write r shuuld s ign hi" na m e
in such a w:i y that th e rec ipient will know ho11· 1"
adclrcss h irn in reply.

Formal Notes of Invitation and the like .
Th e iorm of nlltes of in\· itatio11, acn: pta11 cc, n·;._:Tct .
· prescn·1JC< 1 ]l) - a1 -]) "t1··t1
-)' 1· t1l·V·· ~'· Th e )· ·s hnu l<I lie
etc., 1s
I
•
,nitten in t he thi rd person throughout, and th e phr:i.s111g
sh o uld f 1i1J<>W con 1·ent ion a l forms.
In su ch notes th e
salutat ion , the complim e 11tary close, and the s igpatur<.· ,
arc o mitt ed. Th e p lace fn1m \\'hic h th e note is \\'ritte n
11ut ,at the e ncl ,,f t h e 1wtl·,
a ncI t 1i c cla t e o [ \v.1·i·t1·11",.., ·ue
·
at the lo we r left-ha nd side of th e page . J\ ll d atL·s ;11ul
the hour of ent e rtainment slwu ld be \\'ritte11 i11 lul l.

The Superscription .
In th e supe r scripti o n of th e lett er g reat care sh 11 ulcl
be taken t" in c lude a ll directions nece ssary to 111 surc its
prompt clel i\·ery to th e pe rso n addressed. Th e first
line, cu nsisting of the nam e, should be abou t eq ually
dist:i.nt from the upper and low e r edges of th e c nv c lope,
and each line be lo w it should beg in a little farther to
the right.

CU.J/i'U.:iJJ'Ju.\ · ,,.JXLJ l1'l/L f"URJC.

J\l'l' ENDIX C.
EX AM PLl·.S

()J ·

llE 1· 1·.CrJ\l l•. CO MP OS ITIO N

T11Efll.
,
. .o ow rn g compos it io ns h a n~ been sdcct ed from
t 11 < :\( tu:li work of :i cb ss of boys in th e hi o- h-s c hool
g;·Jde.
fhcy h:i vc b een chose n at r:i ncl om f1~1111 som e
the best c om posit il)n s brotwht ti) th e cl · . .
l I,
.tss, a nt iavc
I
.
"
ice n copied ve r bat im . :;ome of t h em are cr ude ot l1 ..
· ~e Ci s
] >' 1s.,
ss more Cir Jess merit ·uHI al l .. . , I f
. . ,.
r es ), ... 1
.
., ,
' .lie t e ect1ve Ill som e
. .. 1_ ~< t '
rnt they a rc Lt1r c:o;amplcs of the compos itio n
'l' I1 . . .
ivo1k d C1nc 111 seco nd ary' sc hools
I .
.
··
1.. Y ,u c present ed
ie1 e ::i s su 1t:ihk nut e ria l fo r comm ent ·111 <1 11·.
.
o

I

·

'

\

s c us s10 11 111

tie cl~ss- roorn,. and m:1 y be studied 11·ith refere nce to
an y ot th e prin c ipl es in th e prccl:din " cln1i tc rs
.
t1 c u l·11·lY t IH.: m e-c Ievc l()pment.
"''
. ,pa1· , I«mcrson,
'
A J\ny good author, lik e lrv i1w,..,, l,'t tsk
· rn
rnold, ;ind. otlwrs , ll'ill furnish :ih undant mod e ls of
,..,ood lOllljl<>s 1t1on; hut refe re nce n1 ·t)' Ii. . I
.
.
.
.
.
·
e m,t< e espec ia lly
to th e 11i.111 y .!.:·ood selec twns in i\1 1· 1: JI L
. '
·
·•
.
••
•
ew1s
"Spcumc n 1:or111s of l>i sl·oursc, "
b
·
J> U lis hed by J lcnry
I··l <1 lt & Ct1., New York.
ff

.Sv~ t1 ' A T11 v w 1T11 Fi':<;i _,, l\ n .

L:it cly th e r e ha s be en a good d e,·il ,,f " lt 1
"1 a nd se ntilllL:nt n: hibitcd in be h;tlf 111 tl1e I'
f ,.., •
>Oc i s, >y ce rt a in c l.tsscs

Al'l'F.\/!!. \' C.
111 thi s coun tr y .
Ce 11 erous fee ling s, sy m pat hy with
the ll'c:i kcr sid e, atte mpts t" minimi ze th t:: claims o f a
po we r ful n :tt io11, :ill th ese Juve their u st:: :rnd wurt h.
But this sentiment , t o esc1pe be in g ridi c ul o 1i,;, mu st
be fC1u11dcd upon logic, a n<l but tre sse d by a cc 11r ~ 1t e
informati o n.
I t is cas il y und e rst ood that th e sympath y fo r th e
Boe rs in th e ir struggle aga in st the En g li sh. recently
expressed a t offi c ia l a nd unoffi c i:tl m eet ings in this c it y,
is co ntrol led mu c h m o re largely by traditiona l hatred
of England, than b y spec ia l admirati o n for the caus l:
whi c h t h e c iti ze ns of the Transvaal a re no w defe nding.
Th e c o untry whi ch th e advocators and s u pp()rtc rs ()f
th ese resol uti u 11 s have in mind is not th t:: Tra 11 svaa l. b11 t
I rcb11d, allll th e war in So . Africa is ust:d simpl y as
a club, to h t:at those who are ]C1ok c d upo n . ~ 1s uld
(•ppresso rs.
Th e questi o n arises, "\Vhy sh o uld we 1\m e ri ca ns
sy m pat hi ze ll'ith Eng land ? "
\ Ve slw11ld sy mpathi ze
with h e r, eve n if sh e we re in th e wrong: But s h e is n"t
in th e wro ng: sh e is in th e right.
Tw e nt y one th o usa nd O ut la nd ers, all s ubj ec t s of
Great Bri t ian, and all res id ents of the Tra n sva:i l, pctiti()n c d th e <)ucc n for re lie f from th e ir grit:\·an ces.
amon g whi ch , we re, "taxation without r e prese nLttion,"
" not t o be fur ced t o be placed und e r t h t: l'llllt rol "f
courts whose judges take their orders from a co rrupt
e xecuti ve. " The Hoe rs do n ot a llow Outland e rs tu ca rry
a rm s, whil e they th tc: rnselH·s tl o urish th e m with insolent
b rut al ity. Th e Out la nd e rs arc a lso compelled t o co n- ,..
tribut e t o sc hools wh e r e English is treated as a fo r e ig n
t o ng ue . In s h ort, they a re absolut e ly denied the ck·
mentary ri g hts of self-governm e nt.
A disa ster t o Eng land \\l()nld be th<..: greatest wo rld

C(). Jf!'OS!T/U.\' //. \·!} J.'l!FFON! C.

c 1hmity that cou ld·l w cnnce iq·d of, n ext to th e clcstru cti1J11 of our own rl'pt1hli 1· ; En gla nd is f-ighting as aga inst
l\ussia_ in C hina: fCJr \\"hat? h>r 1':r1g lish ach-antages?
No: hir the a1h·ancc 11f c i\·ilizat i<>11, f•lr open ports, for
liberty. lf worst c::i m c to ll'<>r,.;t and there was a wa r
bet ll'tTll I\ ussia and J-:11.~land in the l·:ast, f<>r the two
world i11"als \\"hich thn· rL"prcsent. l h<.:lie\·e Ameri ca
\\"oulcl ow,~ its hight'st duty t<J ( ;od ;1 1HI to 111:111. to pla ce
L'\·c ry sl11p. l'\"t:1·y g·u11. c\·ny d•ll lar she Jl<>ssesscd, at
th. e .h:1ck of ;111cl beside l·:11gb11d. \<1t for the adva11t:-we
ol J..11gb11LI , hut f,-". c;.,d, ;111d fnr rna11. a11d f"r duty.
l will say 11 oth1 11 g as to 1Ju1· debt to Fng·la nd for her
silc: 1~ t but no less pute11t fricndship of a ye~~r ago.
l·.11 gla ncl a11d ;\mcri r:1 a rc 011c at heart, 011c in relig11111. 011c in int erests, 011c i11 id eals, u11c i11 hopes, and
mu st be one in either defeat or triumph .
~

l'e opk, who h:t\'e 11 ot h:1d the goCJd fortune to spend
a few weeks o r mo11th,.; i11 a regio11 whi c h abounds in
_g·a~rn.: of all ki11ds. ca11 ha rdl y imag·ine 1rlnt a ple;isure
1t Is tu takt: gun 111 h:111d. and strnll throtwh the woods
in se: 1rc h of whate\·er 111;1r_ prc ,.;c nt itsel f. "Not CJn!y is
1t a pleasure, hut 1t 1s oltL'll ;1 \\1·-i11 ,.; piri11g, L"SJlt:cially
whvn 011c 1s 11 1 se;trt"h ol .~u c li all :111 imal as a JlCJl"l"t1pin e
\\'ll<lSL' 11ol"t t1rna l habits oh l i.~·e th e llllntn to seek hin;
after the woods havt: become d;11·k :rnrl st ill. As 1 ha ve
l>L·en fortunate c11ough t" he :1hk tn SJ>l"lld my Y;ica tions
in :l -;cctio11 uf Maine bimlcrin~· on tht: l't: 1~,,hsc11t ri\·cr,
111;111y ;1 hunt of tht: abm·e naturl· h;1s hlkn to my lot.
111 prq>aration for th e h t111t, ;1 t11t11· of inspec tion is
mack ;tlJ•lllt tht: 11ei ghho rin~ orch;trd..;, prdcrably thnse
s1tu;1ted nea r the borders of tht: ,,., .. ,tJ, ;1s tht: pCJrCupine

is \Try f111Hl " f lt lC t ern 1l:r Sllll1111 LT s ;..;1. .() \\"th1 1f a 1l1>lctrees, cSlllTi:t!ly of S\\"l'L'l ones . If pornq1i1tl'S 1111L·_c _1·isit
an orch:ird, and 11nd g<>ucl fcnl, tlw y do 11ot l;1tl l•>
frequent th..: plaC<'. nightl y ; but aLts, they lc;1\·e tract:s
L>ehind them, for under a tree wh ich th ey ha,·..: \"l s lled,
the " t"<•llild \\"ill be se<.:n t o he stn:wn with the yo u11g·
grt>\l:~h n[ th t: tree, cut in Sl!L·h a mannL·r as t<> tidy a ll
in experie ncnl pers<111 tn dct crminl· whet hl-r t ht· _cllt h:1d
been 111 : 11 k hy a JH•n:11pi11t', .. r ,,·ith th L· pd.:-kn1k ol ;1
ht1y. Th e fr« 111t t<.:ct h n( ;1 lull -gr<1\\'ll J>•>rn1pi11t· a.re
fully threc-ei,g-hths ol an 1m.:h Ill \\"tdth, ;111d une_-half ,111
irn·h long, thlls t: nablin g hilll \11 c ut a lim b uf c<111sHlcr:1blc
magnit 11d e, with ca se.
.
J\ keen <1bservc1· \1·ill noti ce that the bark O\"L'I" wl11c h
th e cll!msy cre:ltllrt: has cli mbed , is a litt le bit 11·t1rn;
thus after all signs of thL'. prt:sence o( a pnrcuprnt: ha\·t:
ht:en d11lv C•1n,.;iderecl, all is ready for th t: hunt.
l·:\T lli;1 :_:: ct1mes, and shortl y afterwards the 111rnrn
ris L·s, c; 1 s; in .~ a mell ow and indistin ct lig ht U\·er the
\\'<11>tb ;111 d urcha rds. T ak ing his gun, th e hunter leisure ly, b11 t ca 1·dully takes his way tu th e orck1rcl pre\ iously \"isitt:d . It is l!lln ecessary tu wait, f.. r the game
is ;t!reacly 011 the sct:ne. Stopp111g a moment to li sten,
he ht·a rs a rustli11g of lc;1ves and snapping ot twi gs; not
liecui,.;v tht: g:1m c has b<.:e11 disturlK"ll, ht1t heca ust: .,fits
11 a tur;tll y clu.msy movemL·nts and 11f it s t: nti:d y t1ncu11 cc r11cd manner. being thoroughl y ahs11rbed m its work
.. f d estructi on.
Co11trary to mnst hunt s, n <> ca re nt:t:d he tak e n now tu
pre\Tnt a i.;oise, as it only serve.; th e m or e t•> ket:p th e por ....
cup inc in tht: tree. Th t: hu11t e r must not l?t: dismayed 11
at th e shot . the porcupi11c dues not tall, lur it is a \·ery
tenacious ~ll1imal; but if tht: aim has bet:n true, th e
a 11 ima1 srnint:r llr later ,,·ill fall, pruducing a n uisc, i11

. II'/' l c". \ "/JI. \" <.

286

<O.l!!' US!T/()N .·IN/J Rl/l.'TO RIC.

striking th e gro und, s imila r In th at \rhich might be
made by le tting fall. from a considerable height, a
r ubber water-bott le, three-q uarters full of wa t e r.
It 110w remai ns t() cu nvey th e a nim a l bomc, but if
home be very fa r off, this task is n!!ne of the pl e;isantest,
as th e weight of a fu ll-gTo\\·n porcupine varies from
twenty l<i thirty pounds. The largest of se \·cral which
I h;1vc scn1rcd weighed twenty-eig ht pounds.
The pleasure and excitement uf the hunt, togethe r
\\' ith a fc \\' q ui lls, arc t he hunter's only compe nsati1rn;
b ut in after years, the sight uf the q uills recalls t o his
m ind a memur:-tble ni ght's hunt.

A tho ughtful pcrsti"n re \·icwing the hi sto ry of th e
p:-tst few yea rs mu st notice that th e wo rld is rnp idl y
changi ng from th e use of one form of energy to :lnot hc r,
from :u1im;tl tu mechanical po\\·er. In \·ie w of thi s fact
it C<ll111• >t be reasonab ly ar.~· ued th at the automobile is
s imply a p:1ssing fad. It has come to stay, although of
cou rse the po\\'crs employed ma y be radically cha nged.
Hut :lt p rese nt stea m heads t he list for the average
pleasure carr iage.
Th e steam eng ine is an old friend to the mechanic
who is not so familiar wit h the mo re mode rn gas e ngin e.
Since the ne cessary fu el, water and gasolin e, is procurable in almost any clist ri ct . it provides ample means
ft> r tourin g . Many people object tu th e noise a nd ex haust. But if one stops tot hink. why is this a ny more
objec ti o na ble than th e pound and rattle vf the iro n sh od
horsl' an d ca rri age.
l n running one of these carr iages of course there arc
cerLt i11 things that mu st Ix: 1\·atclh·< I. 1n fro nt :ire t wn

gauges usu;i!J y, <i nc regist e r s the amount o ( pressure on
the g-as"line 1\·h ich fo r ces t he oil t o the fire box, the
othe r shows the steam press ure, whi ch \'aries from one
hundre d twenty to o ne hundred sixty while running.
Th e,;c d" nl!t need co 11 st; u1 t \\'atc hf ulness, !Jut a persun
who docs nut wish to be left o n the road \\'ill always
k eep a n ohsen·;1nt eye on th e flu ctuat in g le\'eb of the
wate r-gauge, for ;1 b urnt out boil e r is ne xt to useless.
A by-pass va lve nt.::1r th e throttle lever directs th e water
from the pump to the builer, o r bac k to th e tank,
according ;1s it is closed or open.
.
/\ person wishing to run a steam c 1rnag-c does n ut
tH.:ed :lily e:-.: tendcd instru ction in mechanics. l f a hi g h
rat<.: of speed is des ired put "n more stea m , 1f not su
rnut.·h shut it off and apply th e bra ke, no iuggl mg with
di ffe r e nt clu tc hes allll gears. I have call ed this ca_rri:1ge
a pk;isure <1nL" for a busi ness man , or mo re espcc1a11y ;1
physic ia n. wllll must be out in all weathers, dues nut
;1 pprL:t· i;1tc the results, when a strong w111d blows du wn
the \"L·11tibtion f1 ir t he fire, bl.,\\'ing the fl ame o ut around
th e l>1 1l\rn11 of th e carriage to the te rror a nd co nst e r11a ti"n " f th e passe rby if n"t extinguishing the flame
e ntirely . Since steam is a n expansive power, :rn easier
motion is obtained, than the jerky m ovement which is
apt to a rise frolll an expJ.,sivc e ng in e.
I Icn cc, for a pleasure trip what could be more de]jo·h t ful tha11 to skim smoothly ove r the ground at almost
: 1 ~y speed desired, without any an~mal imm ed iately in
iront t o obstruct th e view. (Herc 1s :-tnother powe r for
good roads a nd one not to be sligh ted , for usu:illy the
mobile possessor is a person of influe nce ~nd bo und _to
be h eard .) Of course the auto-carriage is still m its
infa n cy, and one is lia bl e, whil e soaring on th e he ig hts
0 { abstract e nj oy m e nt t o be forced bac k suddenly to

.

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. // '/' l e'. \. /!/ .\' (.
t'( ). lf/ '1!S/'J'/U.\' //,\/J J.' l!FIO !.' /C.

I

'

l':trt h aga in , t•> p r::tet ice perh :1ps tht..: virtu e of patience,
and perhaps rl'turn to a more ancient form of lncomot i<>t1, for aftt:r all kgs IYl' rC m :1tk hefo r c a n y thi11 g d se.
Th e bu ilding u[ sl'lf-pr11pell ing carri :1ges has in a
m e asure arisen ir11rn th e C.\ pt..:rience i1 1 cycles, ll'hich a n ;
a lT<lSS bctll'ccn the ani m al and nlL'chan ica l t..:k m c nts.
C 11nsequcntly it is n ~1tur : t1 th:1t tlH· .. :i rlicr product ion s
shou ld he l:1rgely t·h: 1r:1ctni1.,·d liy hi1 ·y,· k 111\'\h rn ls,
th e rl'lorc th e ,·;1re .,f :1 ,·arri :1g,· is onh· :1 littk nwn.:
\\'ork o\'cr t h: 1t "f :1 J.ic yck. thi,.. i11 clu«ks th,· 11·heels
:i nd c n g it ll' ·lJL·ar i11gs. e tc'.
lks idcs this there is th e
g:1s .. lin c 11·h i«h produces tlw he:1t. and the b" ik r. T1>
pn.:n:nt any undue inn ust:1t iu n <>f th<: b tt e r , from the
i111 purit ies o f the ll' att..:r it is 111.:n:,.;sary to blo\\' it o ut
every third da y or so.
O rdin ary steam e n gi n<:s 11·hich :ir e likel y to he calle d
o n at short not ice, must keep u p a litt le steam, bu t with
the e n g ine as :1pplied t o th e carriage I haxe in m in d, a
pc r s11 n ll'ishin g l11 take :1 r ide is not deta in ed m-er t en
n1inull's gc n c r:1 ti11 g s \ ,;arn enoug h.
I 11 st:Jrti n g th e re
will he some 11·:1 t e r in th e cy linde r , whid1 will 111ak,: th e
stc1111 a little lw:t \')'. afte r thi,.; has w<>rked u ut , he may
,·on f11k ntl y shakt..: g •><>LI hyt..: tu wli <:l: lrn c n , h u r s<:s and
.. br:LSS bu t t <>llS" L'\' e ll.

" \ Vake up boys \\T rnust be starting-." T hi s was
s:t id to tll' O m:1 g n ific-ent fo x- h<>1111d s 1Yhic h we r e sl ee p il y
y aw nm g 111 my lace. A ll th e pre1·i1n1s afte rn oo n h ad
bet..:n spe nt in gL:t tin g from the cit y s c h ool to my pbyg- round s 11·a y d oll'n in the \\'11<>ds o n the Cap e. a nd n ow
11·he 11 th t..: east wa s t in g,'.d 11·ith a cold yell ow and pink,
ll'hi1· h g:ll'e the n·11:trs a nil'lall iL' \Cill l' h, a nd the breath

steamed o u t on t ii L· mild qu id ai r, I h ;1d :i ri se n , r cs<>h L·d
on ge tting at least a s h•>t at the most famous :ind
cunnin g fox in the to wns h ip . The tow n s p eop le had
asked wh y l did not get t h at fox until I fe lt lik e putting
the d11,c;s 111t1> t h e ir lunds fo r a <l ay, ju s t as dicl a n 11ld
lar nw r I k n11ll', 11·ho, ll'h,:n :Hh· ist..:d t1> plo w in a d iffc:ren t
wa y. a sknl his fri vml to sho\\· him h1111'. T h t..: shrc1nl
L1rmL·r w:ts e1·i(k·11tlv sa ti sfin l for lw d i1·L·c t,·d his L'll ·
e rgi es to :111<>th lT p:irl of tlh · f:irn1 . k:t\'i ng hi s fri t'I HI
t o li ni sh th,· p il'l 'L'.
\ Ve passecl a ro un d thl· e 111I o r :L p o nd . Th ,· 11·; 1tcr
n ut yet ha v in g :t.\\':1k,· 11 L'll b y t·:tl 111 , 11·l1 ilc i11 th e dist:11 ;c·c·
were two b ea u t il.ul birds, th e shcld rake 11·ay d1)\Yn the
shore an d th t..: blut..: h ero n c;1 uti1iu sly wad in g in si k ncc
and dclibc r:ition. Sudd e nl y my :1t tentio11 1~·:1s called in
anothe r d irect ion; the h: 1rsh d o leful b:1rk .,f the f1•x
was h eard. The d ogs we re a full h :tlf mi le bad< c:ncfully sn iffing ::d o ng the gro und . T he fox',; ba r k to ld
m e two thin g s, a den n ear b y and in it y ou ng . 1\ ,.;
I k n t..: w tha t she n ever mnild b ri ng t h e dogs lnck tn
th :1t den, l m :1de for a ccrt:1i11 runway a mile off . / \ s I
r:rn th e r e was rumpu s. e n ou.~ h , th e h eavy ba y .,f t h e
l\llund s was st t..:ad il y gn mg off and growing fa int er .
Now :is we a ll know, the fo x, li ke th e r abb it , is 1·L· r1·
apt to make :1. brf?e c irck , but it is n cct..:ss:iry t o st:rn;I
011 a plaL·e whKh 1s a fa irl y sure po in t for th e JKtssing<>f th t..: ga m e. I we n t to a po nd bt..:c:1 u se I had found
t h e p rin t 11f her foot in t h e mud th ere, nea r t o the (k:n.
a nd l sus p ected that sh e probabl y was li v in g in this d e n
t hi s season . t hus I was fair ly s ure of gl'lt in g t hi s parti cular lo x s tarted b y gorng t o h e r d e n . Yuu ask ho11·
l l~ n ew it was lier by th e print ? That i,; eas il y maclc
plam by say 111 g that 111 a fight or in a tra p sh e had
deform ed o n e foot . Thi s fox ge nerall y kd a strai g ht

~I

2<)0

n). 11/'0S!T!O.\ ..·l.\D N!l/:' f'ORIC.
A!'l'l:- X/JI.'< C.

aw:1y cli :is e, ll"h e 11 sL1rtnl from the p<md and finally returned :tln1ost t" a certain opening in a certain runway,
h ut just be fore re;-i c hing that point, the dogs barking
like mad, all \\'ould s uddenly become quiet. The dis;.;ustcd dngs at last returning would sniff around in a
dejected m:llln<.T.
~<> now when I reac hed this runway
I impro\·ed m y time c• f ll"aiting f•>r the distant \"<>i ces uf
th e h<>U1Hls s" s11· cd t<> th e hunter's ,·a r. hy looking
:1bout to see why this f1i'\ nen:r crossed this spnt , hut
:tlw:1ys dis:tpp<.·:irnl j11st s h11rt of it. I was cautiously
f•1ll1111·i11h· the ru1111·:1y into th e bushes :!lld h:td j11s t come
ll"it lii11 c.1sy rc:1ch of a 11·:tll "f piled up stones, when l
lll'a rd 111 y dogs f:li11tly in th e rn•rth. The 1·oi<.·cs came
n<.·a rcr so rapidly th :1l I took my w:1rning and stood like
a st:tt uc b e hind a you11g pine . Occasio11ally the cl ogs
wnuld gi\·e a yapp in g angT)' bark as th ey lost the trail.
Ushered 111 by at rc 111 e nd11us baying a fair sized, deaclg r:1ss color e d object sw ung lightly but rapidly toward
111<.'. Could 111y eyes b e right ! calmly she walked just
<Hit of gu nshot t" a brook f1i ll o11·ccl it back dcliber:ttely
t1llv:1rds th<.; d ogs, until the y \\'ere ne:t rl y within sight.
Then li g htly upun m y side of the brook and followed it
right up close to me , int ent only upon the dogs. her
c u1rning intellige nt face s h<J\ving that she was full
111:1stc r of her tri ck.
Right up a nd pa.st me she went.
My ()ld g un l:tid back his cars at full cock, but I did
not fee l th:tt it \l':l.S qu it e t irn e to sh oot. for f wanted t()
prc\·c n t th e f<>x from m:1k1ng· Slll11C quick dodg e.
ln
the meantime I looked along the ll":tll to try to sec
what sh e would do next. Of c" ursl: :ill this was done
in a fhsh.
I saw an old b11tto1111"oud ll"ith a hole in the
lwli<>w trunk . The tree 11·:1s near th e ll'all and within
gunsh·•l . It all came upon lllC 11 0\V.
r read the tri c k
:md just a s the old fux ma.d e ;1 leap for th e tree, my g un,

2<) I

which I no l"ngcr could rest r:1in, r<Kir c d 11ut it s op ini o ns
on the subject. The fox \\'as red :u1d u1H1su :1ll y l;1r gc ,
th e fur, rn()reover, was still in go1id con clitiun.
Country people arc nol dcmonstrat ive, nor do _tl: c_y
:tlways show appr cc iatiu n, yet when they heard ot U11s
n<>torious hen thief, all m y friends ca.m e m·cr to sec him
and hear the story. I felt proud when on e of the m
said, "\Veil T aint seen no sich cr itt e r killed ro und
here since the 'old man' di e d." The; '' uld man " was
a trapper.

In th ese times when thousands of ne w hoo k s arc
publish e d e1·ery wee k, a few words oi ach·icc con ce rnin g
the ch o ice a nd the use o f lit e rature arc necc ,.;sary, espe cially to childr en.
There _a r c so many temptations
offered in the form of lxi.d lit e rature, h1dckn under clcg:tnt h nguage, that unless pare nts pay stri c t ;1t tent ion
to th e ir ch ildre n's reading , th e y will generally be kd
astr:1y. There are others alsu who arc sorely in nee d nf
C()ltnsel, especia lly the yo un g men and women who re;1d
every n e w nove l issu ed, and who keep a _list_ of all the
trash th ey have read, to show it to th e ir fnl'nds who
generally rega rd it as a sign of muc h knowledge a nd
learning.
Su ch rea.d c rs ha\·e no purpos e in life; th ey read
solely for amusement.
It is true that we r c:i d s11111<.·1,·hat for e nj oymen t, but m ost of our reading sh ould be
for a purpose.
\,Ye should not wast e our time in rc::idi11g Ctl!TUpt, morbid, ind ecent books w1th•) Ut t bought
and with o ut real izing th e ir injurio us effect upon the
mind. O n the contrary, good books exert a beneficial
inAuence on us, which rem a ins througho ut our li ves.
Good read ing s trengthens the mind, destroy s narr uw-

.rl!'I' / :'.\"/!/.\' c'.
2<)2

c"0.11/'(iS/!J f/. \ . . l.\"/J !1'!/f:"/"ORI<·.

llL':'s, e kvates th e suul. g i\·L·s tis f'"'d for 11.,IJk rctl cct i<>n. stim ulat es u s t" a c ti1111, :111d 111ak cs us fresh and
,·1µ;1>rous. \Vh en e n .~·:tged in it, \\'e a rc lost t•l th e outs ide \\'orld , to ot 1r truubks, ;tnd to our sorrows. 'vVe
arc e\'<.T ch<.·erf ul :111li h:tppy, ;l!ld \\'ith 111> distressing
c;1res. More than fricncls, says I n·ing, "buo ks c heer us
with that true frie11dship \\'hil·h 11en:: r dccc i\·ed hope n u r
deser ted snrro\\'. ''
l·: ,·en \\'h l' n ,,. c ha,·e :tcquired a taste for go<>d b<l<>ks,
nH1,·h depe nds on our 111:11111 1.:r 11f r c;1di11 g. i\ n·o rdin g lo
H:t, 1111, some hooks arc lo Il e rc;1cl 011ly partly, others
i11:ttte11t i\·ely , and a fc\\' \\'h•ill _1· and cl iligently . Th <.'l'C
is mu c h that 11· e 111usl "mit, f .. r life is sh'lrt. \\ 'c mu st
n• •t try tn i'L':ld e\·e ry thin g r,-c., 111111enckd. Hut \\'li ;1tc\·e r
\\' e clu rc;1cl shou ld he r<.·a d atlenti1·ely, \\'ith no int e rrt1pt io ns, ;llld ll<•t hlindlv: th:it is. \\'C should kti·c our <>Wn
tho ughts on \\'hat tl1e author s:1ys, h<.: i11dq Je nd c11t of
his v i ·ws, ;incl w1:igh ;rnd c111 i,.; iclc r his statc111e nts. \\'c
should also b rin g to ou r mirk th t.: pn •pe r spirit. A
good suggest i<>n is t<> take 111>t L''.' while ,,.e read.
H. c btiv cly to our !1l<lst imp"rtant to pic - -;,•/111! lo
fflld. - onl y gener;1J in strncti"ns should hL· .~in: n
1\
list <>f g1J1 )(I IJ•1<>ks is n<>l e<>1111n c ncla ble.
Each <>ne h;1s
his lik es :111cl dislikes , an d Ill· sh.,u ld 11<>t h<.: ;1fraid to
C.\ prc ss them.
I .istl'll to Sh:1kc,.;pl·:1rc : -n Nn p1oti1 gn c :-; wh f..! n ; tlil't t.: i :-:. 110 p l1 ·a:-: 11rL' ta'1: 11:
In J,ri ef. sir, ~ tud y what yu u tno :-:. t aft c\·t. ''

!\ hook th ;it wc di sl ikL· bccolll l'S a })<lr<.: to us.

Dn n ot
r c;i.d Sh:-t kL·s pc:trc, M ilto11 , or I )ante, if th c y g i\ "C yo u 110
pleasure, although it is 11ot their fau lt. :)0111e cby, perhaps, you will appreciate them .
But do n"t read b<H>ks 1111lv f11 r :mrn semc nt. J\ firstclass novel may be read once ,in a 11·hilc, but simp ly "for

a change," :1 rebxati1m from 11ur us ual rL·adin g.
·I y••ll 1'11 life , th at ,,·ill furtli L·r \• >U 111
bov I.;s t 11:1t 11·1·11 ;u,
·
]
) ou1 v lJjC C ls an< ;urns , l)1111ks that cuntai11 i11f"rn1at11111
l,ll ·'ct11<l)' 1>1· C"' tlli11•,-,• .• ])\loks t.lnt
rcoart Illlg )Olli · S!l"('
~
h : i~c ck\ .ttlng Hk.is .1 nd 110\ ilc th• •lights ; h<>ok s th at l'U 1.
" 1n1 ..i1H l ct..:\
\ · ·L"
·l 1>1·c·il···t11Jll
"l\islllll\'S
tn·atc
!...'..· ~HH. I c>.:prcs~1
t:.._ .
·
1· •
,
.
..
·
·
·
j
· \ . \\Ill\ .
t\11·
111:11 ii« ·
"
111:tkl· lill'll WISC, s;1\" >.lc<>ll, JH>l S
. •
mati cs suhtk; n:itu.r:tl philosophy <.Jeep; 111or:il .:.::1::.1\·c;
]1wic ;u1d rhet o ric. ;tlik \11 c1mte1Hl."
/\nd "s 11 , he
c1 ~1 1 · l11dcs, "e\·cry dc kd <>f thL· mind m :1y h:t\'\..'. ;1 spL'l'l:: l
,.· urt11c1111or
'
l'l'C<.' .IJ•l.
c, 1L' l 111,' ,.,,' l\', tl1· ·· LL · l ,"'" '".." j,. ,,,,;
is \\"<>rth rc:tcl ing :1;.:::iin and again, ;u1d sl ti•llt 1I t,; l\c rc !ll'\\'<'ii plca,.;u r e <>11 each <>ccasinn.
.
:)li.,tild th e rc:idn fed 1liss<1tisl1,·.I '' 1t \1 till' ,·:1 g uc11L:-;s
nf th cSL' s uggest i1ms, t Iicrc arc rnany lists .:tl his di;;
. 11 I ).. _ .' 11' ,.,,,·e. ri 11 ..;-,· h"L'l1L'l:il lill'r:tturl'. ;111d sp.cc 1:t!l st11d1cs.
· 11
f\ strict adhcrl'll\'\'. h<>1\'C\·cr, t" thL: :tl l11 \'1· rtl cs . '~·1 ii"
duuht accomplish nn1 ch \iJ\\':trd a high er 1Tga rd li\r t ruc
lite ra ture . .And sh1Juld tint be acy111rcd. th e rL·adcr l·:111
easil y ;:iicl iii th e nu blc work nu11· g1ling on fnr the r;i.1 s1ng
of the s tan <lanl of pure bovks and guud rcad111 g .
0

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he't a1oid .CJ'"iP h1· rn·in~ tu thinl-- 11rll

h 1H If-...,
The l l n1\f ·d :---,1;11t ·.-..

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t1 '' i1 •

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1HT d:-- ;1 i . 11·.l'.. 1' 1 ..... 1. 111di11;..!,' ;1rm\·

, . \ \ ·c ...,]1 11td d .1\nid tlit · l 1,11-:._:.1in in:.,.: "' ]i irit in 111,1kin g )11('""·11 !"~- Lx ;trni11:1ti(111..., ;ire a 11e 1: t.·:-....,;1n· t. · \·il .
(/. l 1 11p1nH· iu :11it\· is ()f'l(' ..... r•r1 of ;- : 1cl r' TH '<..; '·<

10. '!'lie nc cc ssrt\· f or labor i, :rn 1nc, trni:1bic 1 , 1c~ .si 1 1;.;.
i\l;in y rH: ll' e1i1plo1·ment<; are open in g- for women.

J\J'PF0:1Jl.\: D

r 1.
1~ -

The -l o r es ts uf tliis c: u1rntr y I or in o n e nl ih

1n11sl i1 1qHH 1. 1111

l"L :'JUUl"Lc:-- .

TOl' I CS

To

Tr ut h r eq uire· .'-' h e lp for ih sp rc:1 rl; f;d sc hn o rl, nnne.
t>Pl "'rtu11it1,· C(1111t.:-::, Lut unc c .
15. ·r 1ic stucl en-t \\'l1n will n11t g in.: ;l11c1itioi1 i n !l i t· cL 1. . . .-... 11H1 1 11
l . • l ti nut J 11 •\ ·t · t(i 1c:1 rn
1 L1 • Th e st uch· of L•tin 1n :1v l:c Jl\.ld c .ll \ C.\Cclknt tr.li11i11;.; ;,.
;1c c ur;i Cv nf expre ssiOn
It is difficiilt fu r a bov ll'ho ra nnot s pell \\'ell to <>i•ta i11 :t
I 7.
I '.

'-t-

11 ,

Sch ool -d ;1ys.
1\: ..u1 u od ·rr ainin p·
Th e Trouh ado 1 ·~ -- ,, f tl 1c
~liddk /\ ges .
11 crocs .
Th t: T ll' il ight I l ou r.
Th ~ :\ !mi ghty I Jull; 1r .
Ih:1u s1ons .
Sy mp at h y.
Th e Auro ra Bor ea lis .
Sta ined <_;Jass .
Ce ra Illi e s_

I ::!.

< ;en1s.

r.

.)·

·I·

5·
("
,.
'' ·

').
10 ,

\ 'oic-es of th e N ight.
Foliag-e.
I nd us try.
Th e B c aco11 Li gh t.
Th e U n dC' r;.;roun d !\ ailwa y_
1 -~ ­ Co urtes y _
I•). Ci ps i es.
:o. T he Tran svaal.

~ I .

j) ri f I in"
Th e I J;~"'n.
~ :a s tl es in Spain.
I he
l 'ortn I\.l cn
Th e J-.:Jo1al.ikc .
T-:xil1•.
l. :d>n r I ;., i<>!ls .
Lyn c hing.
N iagar;1.
The' l 'os tn1;1:J.
The S hip \\'re ck .
l i is torr.
l 'o pnLir , \r t.
Rt:a li sm.

1!1""""''-'"'·'·

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30.
.\ '_, __
33 .l·I·
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3 () .

h~ e ;uli ng- .

_-:,7 .
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to .
.11.

Our F or c ig- 11 l ' ns .,cs'i"ns
The l.i b r ;1ry_
·
1\rminiscc nrt·:--..
Th e Ne w Ce ntur y .
l\ cce nt Inve nti o n s.

pc\ :--, jt
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Tfll'I C St ·: N Tl ·: N c 1-: s Tn

in-:

l>l ·: \'1-:f.lll' l ·: ll

l ;\TO

l ',\IU1;iu1·11s.

_l·:ducatio n is th<> 1111f<>ldin g nf the poll' c rs of th e mi nd.
-· I h e fift ee nth c c ntun· was o n e of stirrin" · c l · .
disCO\'f~ /'\'. in1·entio-n. and letters .
.- .1 i1e1-c 1ne 11t Ill
3· Th e yonng- man wh o chell's g- ulll in pu b lic phces sh o l 1
_ e x pect to he r ece il' ccl as a g-cnt le m a n .
'
· ·
u 1 not
~ - l· o r some p eo pl e , .. Hit c h _l'<rnr wa b""o n t o a star, " -mau
p rove an un [ o rtunat e precept.
'

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3.\.

1.

_;c1.
37.

i 1 Hl

tl1 rc1 11g h CO;Tt 'C... )'f1ll(~ C!lt'i.

·rh c theo r y Pl l'\·nlut i(\ 11 h ;1s :dll.· 1·1vd ;d i s1.: iC' n l il ic tl11H1'....'.l11 .
·· ! !;di 1l 1c \ \ "t)J" l 1 \ d<1C~ 111l\ k1H1\\' 114 ) \\ lhe nt li cr l i.t lf )i,t ·-.. ·
"l-\.11n1t· ,,·;1~ nn1 l 111ilt in .1 d .n· ,.
:\ lo \T uf 0: .lt ltn: h as ;t rel ini ng inliu t:ncc on t lic 1: !..1r.1 ~ t c r .
I \\';ts fr i;..:,litcn ~cl wh e n J :-. : t\\' l1i1n corning up the \\' ;dk.

It \\·as o n l.' nf th e nw st ;it tra c ti ve spot' I rvn sa11·.
Th e b est educati o n is so m et imes th a t whi c h a man g " -c'
hilllself.
l shall ne,·e r forget my pleasure in reac hin g- the:" Hill and
C r o ss-ho\\' l nn .. that ni g ht.
Th e hot e l c le rk \\'as a , -e r y im po rtant fc ll o"" \\'ho nl.lin tain ed a p o lllpcrns res e rv e behind hi' diamonds.
Th e stud y of mathemati c s is ;i trainin i.:; in lo g ic al acutcnc,s.
Th e re are man y qualities r e quire d in the wo!llan ll'ho as sullles to b e a la d v.
<lur tr ea tlll c nt o f th e Indian has been unjust.
I s h a ll a l\\'a y s r e lllelllbe r th e ni g ht of '.he fir e.
.
.
Th e re i' usu a lh· so m uc h lawlessn ess m connect ion \\'1th a
s trike that p-eop le d o n ot sy m p a thi ze with th e strikers.
\\Till ie h ad a number o f a cc idents on the Fourth of July.
Th e , -illag-e h a d c h a n ged ve r y much s in ce I last sa w it.
\\"e ar e all influ e n ced m o re or le ss hv nur e nvir /)nment.
1\hr aha m Lin co ln probab ly s tands hlg-h e r in p opu lar rei; ard
th;in a n y oth e r ,-\m er ican .
:'\ature nev er cop ies.
1-1 isto r y rep ea ts itse lf in m a n y ways.

J._

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TOl'IC

U. l/l'USJ FIU. \ . • IX/! !1'/IFIU NIL·.

S l·: :\TJ•::\CI·:S

AND TllE \\'JIOIY

.1! 1 / 1 EXIJI.\.

Sl : BIECTS

,\s

FOi\

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l\°lllC!I

F11 ·1·: TOl'IC Si':i\TFNCES l·:,\Cli

/' ,\ /\ ,\(;( \ ,\l'll S
IN

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TO

B l ·:

11· 10TT1·:N

F OR
AND

(>/\lll':IL

The F rench a nd ln di:111 \V a r.
~1 uni c ip:d ( ; ove rn mellt.
.) . ~ 1 :ik ing :1 l 'li o 1ograph.
.\. The l\ eturn of the Voot -1\:dl T eam .
5- :\ f\orn :lll Triu11111 l1.
ll . Franklin in i'h iladelphia.
7. Long· Joh 11 i 11 Tro·,,...,, ,.,. J.d,u1d.
s Jim Ha wki n., ·s i 'a rt in lr<'fl .rnrr: l.r/,111d.
')· ·T he Storv of So/1ra/1 1111d J.'11 .r/11111 .
10. The C lia-racter of H:b il the Blac ksmith i11 F,·,111.~'di111»
I I.
Life in Acadia in f:' 7· <111.J[,.li11<'.
I..!. Th e C har:ict<:r of c >11h:i r ha i11 !/1,; l·Ji,i:li t o/ 11 l{ll/ar
I.

-.

Ji ·if,,· ,
.1· Th e S10n· nf R ip \ ·an \\ .inkle in J /11· S~·l'fd1 /1110/.'.
f.\ . The Crc ..:k Cods a~ found in the !l i11J
I 5.
l\ode ri c k J)hu in
l .11 d1· il///1,. l .11l,-.
16 . T he Course of th e Fi cn · C ross in ll1t· I .adv il///i,· / .11!.-c.
J 7. Shyl11c k and 1\nc nn io ii i //,,· .lhri/1.111 /, !f f~:1ii1:c .
1f\. C h.;1 r :1c tc r of (;a ma in / /,, · /'r/11 (< .I°.<' .
IC). Th e /\Ian in the Iron ,\ fask.
20. The 1-lumt)r of l.i11 co ln .
2 I
The l.c g·c nd of th e I Ioli· Crai l.
- - . \ Vhne and I l1> w tu .1d1·cnise.
I

r;,,.

0

~

~

'

'297

C l o r - printin~ in i\ l ndern i\1.q:;azines.
S~a ni s h I ntlu e ncc in South America.
A Loc al Ind us try..
A Fast Mail Train .
An O ld-fashioned Cardt:n.

C<l:l ll'OS ITI ON.

J\s.su111i11g that each uf the t opi c se nt encL·s gwcn
;1bo,·e is for a paragTaph whi c h is to he part of a larger
\\'hole, ll'rik three other topic sentences for as many
p:1ragraphs 1d1ich s h;1ll cornpl<.:tt: the comp11sition, and
supply a title for 11·hat yo u assume the co mpleted writ in g is to he. Arrange the topic senten ces in the proper
<lrdcr, :-t 1Hl be p rcp:-i red to say whi c h t opic sentences
sh\Juld bL: d e 1•c:lopecl into the lunger paragraphs.

n.

SU llJ ECTS

FOi{ \\. llI C ll

~ 1 ATE l< I A1.

,\Nil
1.

IS

TO

BE

(;,\TllEIU-: 11

Al< IL \N (; f<: I>.

Causes of th e Revolution.
Th e Frenc h l' easantry in th e E ig ht eent h Centun-.

-· , _.harl en1agn e·s Influ ence on the

. T

l h: ve lop1nent of L·1v1 I·

.3· '
.\. T~~t~~~~wth of Manufacturing Jndustri e~ in the :outh.
Th e N icarag-ua Cana l.
~.: R csu l1s of the Pea ce Co nfe ren ce at the 11 ague.
7 . Schools for the ln d 1an.
s. A f\ornan H o use.
.
Th e Trans-S iberian Railro ad .
Th e fri e ndship between Johnson and Cold ~ n>ilh.
11 . !'ope and Addison.
, .
1z. The Roent ge n Ra ys. .
Th , Yellowstone Na uonal I a1 k.
Th~ Coal-fi elds of th e United States.
1 S· \ Veal th and Progr ess .
16 . The Department Stores.
i 7. The Conspi racy o f Aaron. Jlurr.
iS. Th e Ori g- in of Thanksg1vmg-. .
The New Eng-land T ow n Meel111 g .
19. ' l' h c E li zabe than Age Ill L1teratu1 t.
10.
1 t
l\ !ilton as a Contr <?vc rs1a ~s .. . .. . , ,
,
1
:21'· llaco1:'s Contributi on to Sc 1ent1hc 1. hough_.
,
· ·rhe Natural Advantages oft.he Un.1ted Sta tes.

ig:

:t

~t 1-?,~i<~i~ki~~t~~~ ~~etl~ela~~~~~;entuf).

:6. The Holida y Season .
The F ;i ll s of Niagara.
2 s. A Spanish Bull-fight.
: 9 . Farragut at New Orleans.
.
30 . The Sue z Canal.
Advantages of Recreation. .
_
.
3
1. The G ri evances of th e Ame ri c an Co lonies.
~~: Summer Sports in the ~ountry.
J-1· Dangers uf -~racles Unions.
35 . Changes of I• ash 1011.

n.

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!>Ii F Fr !/:fr
f.
f~)~
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Tlic .- \ <iva 11 Lag-c~ ol Tr:in·I.
Th e 1-:ffcn~ of J\ la c hin crr 011 .\la1111,tl Ld1nr.

.....

~

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li;qir· n \· Cnh: nh 11 1 "\ g- r icultl 1rc .

Th e \\'orld' s S 11ppl y of Lo.ti.
\\ ' .11 . .::.! .- \rl,ilr;i(Jt>1 1.

l '.\ !U<d\.ll' l l S OF
lil .'\ J·: I > !
Tl< l:\ <W
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SUl!OJ<D l :'\.\-

C l. .·\ USE;; .

fc \V weeh ~ <1 g·o lii e , \ mhc r st Collf'gC freshn1cn a11d
sophon 1ore' h ;td :1 .. ru :-..h ."
()nc of t!w ir n11n1her w;c"

~ ...- io11 .,Jy i11 j 11rcd . I t was fcarl'd th a1 lie mi g- ht not li ve.
·11 1.: 11 cx 1 11rnrn i11g· t ile stwlc111s ulled !h a t the c ustom
:-.!i1iuld l'Ca.'\c .

·ri1~r

\·01ed 1iiat :-. omethin;..:· less dangerut1s

s hnttld lakc it.-; phc e. !' resident 1 l:irris had g- iv1·11 th cn1
\J I H; of i1i s quiet. ll! lllll Jl. l SSj()!led talks.
(_)!lC YOIJ0~1: llla!1
.t l ihe lw ttom <> l <t c anc rn s h la st week w;is su tfoca ted
to death. T his w: ts ;it the l nstilu tc of T cch n olog-y in
l\osto n . T h is w;is a ve r y sad c\·e nt.
I t affec ted th e
w hole body of st11cle n ts. :111d t he n ew pres id ent. Dr. l'ri tc li e tt. \ Ve do n ot con d e mn co ntests be tw ee n co ll eg-es or
c l;isscs. The\' s hou ld not endanger life .
If they du
llicy s hould be alio lished. Superior ity may b e derided in
m.rn y othe r wa ys . It is not necessa r y to set two o r three
h1111dred 1111.: 11 tu pott n ding- ;ind fig ht in g- and tumbling o n
l':1,·h othe r.
-· Th e re are m a n y vari o usdepar t ments oi painting-. Of th ese
ma n y do n o t pres um e to mak e su c h hig- h pre tensi o ns.
No ne o f th e m are witho 111 mer it. There is a g- rea t uni vers al p e r vad in g- id ea o f th e an. \ \'ith this n o n e uf th e m
come in to con ipeti ti on. Th crc :ire painters wh o h ave
app li ed th e ms elves mor e pa rti c ttl ar ly to low :me! vulgar
cha ra c ters.
T hey exp r ess w ith pre cisio n th e various
shades of pass ion as th ey are exhibited by n1l g-a r minds.
This we sec in the works o f Hogarth. They deserve
gre a t p ra is e. Th e ir ge niu s h as bee n emp loyed o n lo w
and co nfin e d subjects. Th e pra ise that w e g iv e must
th e n lie .ts limite d as its obj ect. Th e m e rr y-m a king o r
q11arre lin g o f th e boors o f T e ni c rs is exce ll e nt in its
kind. So also is the same s ort of produ c tions o f Brouw e r
or Ostadc. Th e exce ll e n ce and its p r;1 is e wi ll be in propo rti o n . as. in th o s e limit ed s u bjec ts and pecu liar forms.
the y in trod tlCe rn ure o r less o f tlt ose p:i ~s i o n s a s they

PARAG!{APllS CONTAIN I NG \VOROS I N
OT! I E 1{5 A tu: T O

THE

BE

s u llS TIT U T

IT J\ l.I CS

J•: n , \\'IT II

f'O R \\. lttClt

1<1-: ..\

so!\ Fil"

C llA NG E .

Th e three vesse ls h ad b ee n swi11![i11g- swift]~ _w es tward . the
. ,. » JJ \r e ll to th e ;;ire. a lth o ugh th e galle}s were slo11l)
cog
slt
" J·e1, •··1·,: sk"therill,
in upon e ith e r quarter. ·1· o tiI e I e ft " ··1s
' ._ "
· _.
{~e unl:roken b y a sail. Th e is l a nd a lr~ad y /11lffl1k e :t clo.ud
t ·1 : d th e m wh-ile dirrdlv in fr o nt w as St. Alban .s H ea d.with
]l'~:-~J~nd lou ;11 ing i11di.»li1idly in the distance. Alleyne ~toud

i ,

I

< 'r I.I/ l'r!S/ /'/ r I.\" . / ,\ ·;I !»I II·.' '/'1 I;,·; I ·.

b y t h e t ilkr. ·' " 1:: i 11 1' l1ac k\\'ard. the fr es h \\'i ncl y/r,1i .,ft l in hi s
tt:e th, t h e n 1s p wi 11 1<: r air t in .. lin " 0 11 his C•H111 1e 1i'a n ce a nd
bl o w ing h i., .irlffd,·11 ru r ls fr11111 1J~1d e7 h is bass in et. JI is c hee ks
\\' t: re tlus he d :111d h is e\'es sj>fl r~· fi11,f[. fnr the b lood of a hun d red
<111_a r r t' lt 11.f( S: l.\O ll .lll Cl.'.S tnrs w a s lu:g i11nin g- to 111n'i't' i n hi s
ve in s .
1\ . C o :-; ,1 :-; J) o \'l . E : l /11· II '!ti/1' C o111j>1wy .
. T h e 1t 11 /1'l'r!iit'd )'Ollth / t>ol th c h i t ter s c ntc n r e wi th res ig; nat1o n t hat o ·, 1/ <d e 1·er y h ea r t hut ~ l : 1 n f r c.: d' s . I l e wi,.d 1ecl Zt 'rT I ·
0 11.d y to ~n o w t h e i 111j>111 ·1 of .th e \\' u rd s h e had h e: trc l n f ·rrill.('
lo th i: l n n ce s ; hut d r'.·1.1d111,(' to .11tJl fl111t' th e ty r :ult m ore
l rn<1flrds h e r he i't't l .>'l'tl.
I he o n ly j t17 •/lr he J·/ ooj>ed to as k wa s,
that h e m 1g; ht b e a lloll' cd lo ha1·e a cn nf e sso r . a nd m a k e hi s
, -,·,·on t /lial i lf n \\' ilh l1.e a1·en . ~ 1 anfr e d, who h o p ed b y th e co n fe sso r s m e a n s to a rri l' c al t he y o ut h 's h is to ry . read il y allowul
his r e q ues t ; a nd h e 1ng; a.r.r111 't'd th at F :1t h e r J e r o m e wa s n o w in
!i!s 0 111st·, h e ord e rt.:d h1111 to be ca ll ed :i n d sh ri ve th e p ri so n e r.
_I h e sa1'J'ed 111a n w h o h :1d litt k fi iu /o /d th e ,·a/a m i ly th a t hi s
1_111 pr ud e n ce p ro rl11 c1·d. fel l o n h is kn ees tn th e l'ri n c e a nd 0111 .
.J11 r ed hi m 111 th e mos.t s e ri ou s 7i'11y . n o t to shed ,1!'1t ill!.:ss b lood.
I l e a cc 11se d h im se lf in t h e b itte res t 7, •flrds fo r h is in d isc r e ti o n ,
t1/lt!111/Jlt:d tn disc 11l pat_e th e you th . an d left n o w ay untr ie d to
t1m e/J o1t1lt! th e ty r ant s ra g;c . Manfr ed. m o re e11rt1i:1·d th a n
:1pp e :iseu b y J e rom e 's i11lt!r~·1· 11 1io 11 . \\' hos e r e tra c t ion ii ow m ade
l111 n .~1trmis1· h e h ad bee n imposed u po n i ll· bo th . c o m1l! a nd ed
th e I· n a r to d o his du11·. te lli n ,t:; him th at he ll' o 11 ld no t />i' nllil
the p ri so n er 1n: lny 1n i11 u tes for co nf ess io n.

1-1 o

J(..\f'E

\ \I Al.I'< >1 .tc : l /11 · C.H //,·

r1/ O t n111 l fl.

Th ese m ~t h s or c ur re n t /11 /,·s. th e 11t1 /1tra/ an d jir.<' / ~ r o wth
of th e <, rec 1a 11 1n 11 HI, f't1 111/J(l.\'1'd at ti n : s a m e tim e th e e ntire
1111·11 /a / s to c k o f. th e tini c to ll' hi c h . till: \' b e lo n g·ccl . Th ey are
th e c o mm o n onp11 of a ll th o s e d dfer c n t bn111du ... int o whi c h
th t.: me nta l act iv i ty of th e C1·eeb s11 lis e q 11 c n t ly sepa r a ted ; co n t aining: as 1t we re . th e pr e fa c e a nd ge rm o f th e pos iti1·e hi s to r y
and phil o s o p h )', the d og111 :1t1c thenl •>1.:} · :i ncl pr<1e11 d t:d r o m a n ce,
whi c h 1~ ~ sha ll h e re.a l te r t ra ce . l' :1.c h.11i i ts i11 d h·id111r/deve l op111 e n t.
I h ey .l{t1 7it:jtlo d to th e cu no s1t 1·. a nd sr1 1i .ijilt'li1111 to t h e
1111t.·,·r1ai11 dou b ts ;rnd as p ir a ti on s of· t h e age ; th ey ex plain ed
t h e_o ri g in o f th os e 1111111111'1".• :rnd stand ing- s l r1111.f{f 11 t:sst:s with
w l11 c h me n we re familiar; t he y 1 111 pre~ sed m o r a l le ssons
a \\'a k e n ed 11 11 / i o11al sy m p at h i.es, a nd n /){l sed in de t a il , th ~
sh adowy. b ut an x io 11s fi1r t:.r1't'Jli,f{ of th e vul ga r as to th e inler.f1'r e11 c1: o f th e g;ods ;_ m o re m· e r , the y /it!ji//, ·d th at c r a ving fo r
adventu r e :i nd a p pe ti te fo r t he w ondojid whi c h h as in m od e rn
ai:1·.1· beco me th e p r o1· in ce of ri ct io n p ro p e r .

'0 1

. I / ' /'F. \ '/J / .\ ' fJ.

,)

Tt is !tt1rd \\'C m a1· sa 1· impossible , fo r a m :1n o f m atur e
p ·ars 1;, fi r i n,,; ha c k h i ~ mi IH I to hi s. t !tou.[[ltls s uc h as. th ey_ s ~ood
\\'I H.: n h e w a s :t c h ild . g r ow 111 ~ n r.1·/111 1111,dy 011t of hi s 111 i,q.; 1n a t ion and ,· 1111 1/ / on s . w o~kin µ, upo n a 111 ~t1.1/Tt~ ~ t oc k o f 111a/1, ·_ r .. ~t nd
/ 01111 / 11,1.,• fro m a u tho ri ti es w h o m h e bli ndl y lo ll ow e d but t11w1111
p ! d d y kn e w. A like d iffi c 11lt y occ urs w l ~ c n w e. e11 d"'. "". r to
p lace o urse h ·e s in the h isto n ca l an d quas 1-p h tl o ;op l11 c .tl

flo.•1 :

1;1 , 11 o f siJ;-111 whi c h th e o ld m y th s .d1t11~ ' to 11 s. \\ e can fo ll·" "
i'. rnt'lly the im :q:!; in at io n a nd fee l111 g- w l u ~ h d ic ta te d .th t:;"' t({/1~ ;1 l h'f'S, and we c an adm ir e and sv m pa tlu ze wi th t lit.:m .1s n 1 /1 . t:,
s u l limi:. and m o11 i11.i: pot.:tr y; h u t we are too mu ch u ~ed to
m a t te r of fa c t a nd phi loso p h y o f a u:r f t1111 sort. tu lw :1h lt: to
ajJprd11: 11 d a t im e w he n th ese beau tdul .ft1 11/11Sfl'S w e re 1t11do ·
s lttod li te r a ll y a nd / 1//.' e11 as .w hr: r r ea li t y .
( ; EO tH;E ( ; !{O'l'E: / /is / 1i1y t'f ! ;l't',·1·c.

T h oug h h e was lik e hi s fa th e r in n o n e o f tl1 :1l fa th er 's ;.;r ~ a t l' r
rli a ra 1·/ r r i s lir s , h e was li k e h im in be ing wo rth v. •JI . 111 1 '""t/t ·
,f,; 11 ,·e. \ .V h e n he s e nt t h a t le tt e r to th e l' a r li am l.! n t, . fro m
llr ecla h e d id p os i t i 1•d y prom ise th a t a ll ca r 11 esl r el1 ~1111.1 ~
u p ini o'i1s s h o ul d b e r e s pec t ed . Ye t h e was n_o so_a n e i; s/ rt111.1•ni
his p owe r th a n h e a.i:r <·,:d to o n e o f th e wors t. a c ts I ;i 1IL1m e11t
e i·e r p a s se d. U n d e r this s / a /u l c. e ve r y min iste r •w h o s houl d
n o t y i d d hi s s o le m n co11 .renl to th e pra ye r-book b y a ce r t;un
da i· wa s 111111011 11 ced to b e a min is te r no lo n g;e r . an d to lie
r oi1/,,:tf nf h is c hur c h . T h e re'.\'// I f uf this was , t h a t s n me two
t housand h o nest m e n we r e tak e n f ru 111 their a ud/1' 111,·.•. :111d
redu ced to d ir e poorness an d di st ress. I t w a s s 111·,·,·cd <d .l'i'
;in o the r o u tr ag;eo u s la w, c a ll ed th e C onv e n ticl e A c t. h y wlllC.<
ani· p e r s o n a b ove th e a g-e of s ix tee n wh o was p r e s e nt at a ny
pir;u ,,· s e r vice n o t ac co rd in g to th e y ra ye r -bon k, w a s to b e "" :
pri so n ed thr ee m on th s fo r th e hr s t 111 ~1/a /111:1: .s ix fo r t l1e
s econ d , a nd to h e t r an s p or ted for th e third . . I hi s a c t a lo 11 e
ti ll ed th e pri so ns, whi c h we r e th e n m o st a 1uj u/ cl1111 g:e o ns . t"
01· e r l'l ow in g .
C HA S. DI C KEN S : C ltild 's l/ is l ory

l·: X l'O S ITQ RY
Ei'\LI ~

TH E M ES
TO

TO

Ill':

Ol lT LI NE D

AR l{i\ i'\ <; FM !•'.N T

AN D

of L'11g-lt111d.

\\' lTll

l\ l ·: FER -

P RO PO l\TI O \ .

Alc h e m y a n d Chemist r y .
T h e P e d ig;r ee o f \ Vor d s .
3. At wh at 1'' o int in E du ca ti o n sh o uld S peciali za ti o n 13egin.
4. Th e Heal S c h o o l.
5. C o ll e ~e A thl e ti cs.
1.

302

l'c!.i//'0.YJ! Jo .\· ./.\/; lt'!ILTURJC.

(, _ T!'." Effc~'. of the l!rama u11 Sncietv.
7. Wireless l e leg raph y.
·
8. T!1e Kindergarten Pr inci ple.
9· Why \Ve Should Studv Mvthnloo-\·
IO. S_ir Thomas More's Educa.tio11al ':'fi"ieorits
I I.
l he ivlound Huilders.
··
1: . Tl 1c Druids.
13. The c·otton Gin .
·~· lluw the \Vater l{uns the ;\fill.
15. A Paternal Government.
"'· Th.., 1\ ustr<1lia11 Ballot .S \'s tcrn
17. The :-ipanish Armada. ·
·
1S. \' u lcaniz ing kuuber.
19. The City Street Railroad Svstem
20. The Constitution of the English i'arliament.

Al'l'F.\D/_\- /J.

,

-·.:;

±;I

-

20.

Do trades-unions tend to promote the best interests of our
workingrnen?

Should the standing army in the United States bl' increased ?
22. Had England a right to int erfere in the affairs of South
J\ frica 1
23. Should ottice-holders be assessed for the exp enses of a

2I .

p:lrty c:1n1paig-n?

24.

Should the United States annex any foreign possessions?

EXERCISES

BE OUTLINEll IN PHOPER

OR DE!<.

1. Should "P upil Go,·ernmcnt ·· l•e int1·oduced into 0 , 11.
schools?
z. Should churche~ and colleges accept g ift 5 from
·ir
a1res who have made their money b,· mean
mi ionaccounted dishonest?
· s generall_1
J. ~hould the presidential terrn b e extt'nckd >
-1- Should rcprcsentat il'cs \'Ole :iccord i1w .,, ·J'".Jr
.
1 «..:
·
·
.
•
.:l
0 \\n conv1ct1ons or according to the desire of their co 11 ·t·t
en ts?
s 1 u5· Should th e Go vernment own and control the railways ?
6. Does l1?fe offer greater opportunities than a ce ntury ago or
not.

,

7· Sho uld senators be elected by direct vote of the people?
8. ~ re large depa~tment stores an injury to the country?
9- S iould the United States o wn and control the N'
Canal?
1caragua
IO.
Is the average daily paper an injury to the reader or not?
I I. Ar~ suf'.lptu~ry laws. ever ne cessary?
·
12. I_s 1mm1g r at1o n_ detn.mental to t he V nited Sta tes?
IJ . Sho~1ld thi; United States cult iva te especi a ll y friendly relations with England?
f.1. ~ hould a_ man be qualified to vote if he cannot read?
15 . ~hould eight hours constitute a day's labor?
d1. ~hould fi~h be caught with a seine?
~
I 7. Should h1g~ schools be maintained at th e public ex ense?
1
8. r.s an exclusively vegetable diet healthful ?
P
I 9. Should educa tion ·be made compulsory?

1

GJ\TllERED

NEWSl'APEl<S,
l<IO US

AR GU MENTATlVE SUBJEC'l'S TO

'O'.)

.)

-~
.; -

llEF.ECTS,

REASONS
A 1.L

FOR

FROM

SCHOOL

COMPOSJTIONS,

i\Nll OTllEI< SOlll<CES, CONTAlNIN( ;
TO

BE

COR l<ECTEIJ

COJ<l<ECTJONS

Al<E

BY

TO

l'Ul'ILS .

HE

GIVEN

\',\ Till·:

IN

CJ\S ES .

1. \Ve did not want none of the g-oods and told him so at once .
z. ]{ip was lazy, which was a great p:lrt of his char:Jcter. hut
being sn obliging his neighbors all t"ok his p:lrt
3. A prominent portion of it (\Vindso r Castle) is tl1t: old. t-:ra\·
stone tower more elevated than the rest, and in which
James I. \\'as confined .
4 . Nothing- need be said about the mill, as they can be seen
most anywhere.
5. Fortunately we have got a hundred years to recover from
the jamboree in.
_6 . The church was situa ted on a rise of ground, and around it
was a graveyard and its walls were covered with in.
7. They were exactly lik e the Irishman's pig, he couidn't
count, because it wouldn't stand still long enoug-h for
Pat to count it.
8. What a nice thing it would be for this mundane sphere if
it had started in young and fresh, the glamour of sophistication extinguished in the clear li ght of regeneration 1
9. Athleti cs is run into the ground in many schools.
10 . The old red school-house was situated on the hill, where
the children of the village whose fathers could afford it,
attended.
11. Through it flowed a b~oad rive r whose silvery waters
meandered slowly on its course towards the sea.
1z. Trouble was anticipated at the Republican caucus, but
everything passed off smooth. Hardly had th e proceedings commenced than two voters were challenged,

I

COJ! POS !TIO./\! A1\!1J RHETORIC.

13.
14.
1 5.

16.
17.

18.
19.
20.

::!1.

23.
24.

26.

28.

30.

31.

but each proved th ei r right to vo te and harmony
prevailed.
Accordin g to a private corresponde nt London has been
o utfogged fo r once and everybody has gi ven themselves
up to gloo m.
In the distance we notice green woodlands whose depths is
the retr eat of deer and other animals.
The School Committee forgets that they were once yo un g
a nd liked to go to parties.
W hat do you th ink about this cloth wearin g well .
We salute the new commonwealth o f A ustralia, which
comes into existence today. wh ere its first Parliament
will be ope ned by the Du ke of York who has ar ri ved
there from Lond o n for that p ur p<Jse.
When Gans met Erne here, he proved himself to be a rank
quitter, and the whol e thing was a fake.
C;:esar th en tried to send a message to th e Senators by
Decius, but he declined to do so.
The physic ian who was called to attend the gi rl who was
murdered with chloral and by th e degenerate men will
tes tify before th e coroner tomorrow.
Whe n a chinchilla fur borders the jacket in na rrow bands
the fr onts are fro ~gecl with sil ver galloon, a nd th e skirt
has a broad band of fur above a plaited cloth li o un ce
the r esult is very dainty.
Th e first thing ge nerally happens when the gang arrives on
the tr ain. O ne of the p ush. dressed as a ru be s ki ps the
car before it stops, and lands in a heap on the platform.
The strike's begi nnin g was caused by the fact that s ix
mo nth 's wages was clue the workmen .
. Rip had as many more q ualities that were bad as he had
as fe w qualities that were good.
The West Poi nt testimony has gone far enoug h to s how
that the cadets th ink br ac in g is g reat larks.
The latest narrative r elative to another bi~ financial coup
by the big bulls of Wall Street is au thoritativel y denied .
I was confronted by a diminutive maiden whose habiliments were indicative o f pe nury.
During the anci ent regime t he peasants were g rieviously
oppressed.
He became identified with the anti -slavery party and into
which he th rew hi s whole sou l.
The a mencle honorable ha vi ng been m ade, a hos til e meeting was preve nte d.
The mischievous urch ins caught the poo r dog, and to his
caudal appendage th ey affixed a hollo w vessel that rever-

APPE;VDJX D.

32 .

33·

34·

35.
36.
37.
38.
39.

berated most d iscordantl y as the yelp in g quadruped ran
d own the s treet.
Upon whi ch the Moor, sehi ng a bolster, full of r age and
jealous y, smo th ered the unh appy Desdemona.
On this occasion the question gave rise to much agitation,
and soon after absorbed eve ry other consideration.
J on as, m y son, rou are entering upon your life; before yo u
the doors o th e future open wide, and like a young
squirrel escaping from his cage, you go forth to navigate
the sea of life upon yo ur own win gs.
He lost his wife, his child, his household goods, and his
dog, at one fell s woop.
Edi th a lways says" lo ts of folks" when she means" quantiti es of persons."
So utterly was Ca rth age destroyed that we are unable to
point ou t the place where it stood at th e present day.
Whi le the storm was r aging, a tree was struck by a fl ash
of lightning, which wa s the only flash seen durin g the
s torm, and which looked like a ball of fir e.
She is a novice; that is to say, a green hand at making
bread.

I

'l

IND FX.

Abbreviat ion!" ,

151 .

ahilit1•, 161.
accept. 159·

apt, 167.

aurp!1111rc, 15 7.
I 57.

Argum e ntation, 21 1.
Exercises in, =1 5.

1uceptation,
arress,_ I 57 .
<U(CJ.fl01l, I

57.

11 rise,

162.

Art and Science, d ist im t io n be-

(l((Ttrfit , T 59·
tld ,

any 01[( ·, IS.).
A post rnphe, 249, 27 2.
npf'arnrli)', 1h7.

tween, 6.

161.

t1difln, 161.

11.rs~rt, J (,fr

11J. I c;I.
AJjeClives an<l A<lverl". l C> .1.

a; 1001!1on, 1(J1.

at, 169.

admire, 1()5.

bad, 105.

ad"li.r.rion, t 61.
admit, 166.
odmitlan,·t.

/>,1dfr.

li111Ilrr.

•7/lf'd, '5'!·

,, /ia ,

1 (q .

Hates, Ario. 13.

·

Beauty, 255. 2~<J .
Beech e r, Henry \Vard, r.i.
between, 169.
bicycle, I 50, 151.

A.ilegory, 246.
al/1tde, I 65.
nllrtsi1m, I 57.
,,1,,w.rt, 160, 184.
alm s, 182.
a/1unni. 1 82.
America nisms, 139.

btC)tcftnff, I 51.
bicyclist, 151.

amoftg, 16<).
11.11alyus, 1 82.

both, I 68.

Anglicisms, 139.
Anglo-Saxon Element, The. 107.
Comparison of Two Elements, I

l>ioscope, 150.
bias!, 149.
hombast, 1 49.
/>1111combe, 149.

f•ur.rlarizr , 1 5 1 •
Burke, Edm und, 243.

an,i;ri~l'· 185.

Burroughs, John , 98.
Bushnell, Horace, 68.

Antithesis, 240.
183.

by,

angry,

168, 185.

brin.~',

anyhm~v .

JO?

-l

J 49.

llarhar i'm', l .\ 7·
Harrie, J. i\! .. ·1'1·

1~/J;1irs d',1111011r, l .\'J

1i/1t:r11.Hn:ds. t 63.
irt;l[rrn •ntin(", 167.

18 5·

h11ft111ct·, I (ij.

161.

16(,.

169.

308
cab,

INDEX.
I

5 I.

Corwin , Thomas, 73.
Cosm n politan, The, 208.

01lcuf,1tc, 165.
t:a11, 167.
(tlllOt', I 48 1
t'frpacity, 163.

C(l /Ot.U/, I

C arlyle, Th o mas,

1J1.

mrri<~('e, 1 65.

carry , 166.

Case, Errors in, 1 79.
C astl e. E ge rton. 4S.
Capital letters, 273.
character, 1 (\4.
C hidwick, John P., 77.
C hoate, R., 74.
Cl~~,.11r, I 48.
daim. 166.
C lassical Element, Th e, 109
t : l~arness, ::22, J low auained, 2~3.
C l1111ax, 242.
t 'o here nce, 4, :!J I, 240.
l "olon, 270.
C ollective no uns, 1 S2.

5I .

168.

Co mparison oi the Two Elcn1cnts.
114.
ro111fle11u11I,

1

5:-t

romflcteness. 161.
co111p!ctio11, 161.
tomp!im e11f. I 58
Composition and Rhetoric defined, 4.
Relatio n between, 6.
Co nco rdances, J 28 .
cnn(ess, 166.
Co nnect ives and Correlatives, 189.
construct, 159.
cons/nu, 1 59.
1.·on.tir.ual, I 63.
conlinuou.r, 163.
,·onvince, 1 59.
C0 117'1d, J

58.

~41;

in ~ c nt e nc e , ~tru ct nr e .
:!4-1; Vi olations of. 16t.

O'<!dih/e, I (10.
r redit, l 59.
crcdit,: h!.t, 16o.
crcdulaus, 160.
C rawford. F. Marion, 5 1.
C unin, Jeremiah, 201.
C urtis, Geo. Wm ., 78.
custom, 164.

59·

Co rnford, L. Co pe, 1 :6.
Correct Expression, "What it is , 133.

I

(' J/1 lJ' f!/ OllS!l t'SS ,

c11ilt u sc,

J

5S.

rt/1/(s, 182.

Davis , Richard llarding, 1.1.
deadly. 163.
dent/dy, 163.
dctided, 16o.
d ca'siv-e, 16o.
Oefect ive compositi o ns, 2S2.
dc/11sio1t, 1 57.
I >escription, wo.
Desc riptive Writing. Exercises in,
I

>ial , The, 11 9 .
J>kkens, Ch as., JI, 105, :?OJ, z57,
:?fir.
Directions f~r Theme \l\'ritin g , 16.
Discourse. 1 h e Vorms of, 199.
\~'ha t D i'1ing uishes Th em, 199.
discmxr, 166.
doc, 151.
drive,. 166.
u rrh, 16S. 183.
lrlnt, 149.
ef/ect, I 59·
drctroc11te, 1 50.
.Elegance, 25 5 ; as a Quality of
Style, 25S; llow Attained,
259; Violations of, 261.
degant, r 68.

dtlier, 183.
Eliot, George. 66. 7 2, '5 1, 2 59.
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 73, 128.
et!ll~'1'0 tio11, I 6 1.
e11 gra11de toilette, 149.

Euph o ny. 259.
Everett, Edward, 2 52.
every, 168, 183.
e·ueryl>ody, 1X3.
evidwt~J' , 167 .
ex cept, 1 59. 190.
ex<cftio11<rl, 16o.
ex<eplio11able,

Ccorge. Hen rv , 61 .
( ;i ]man. lJa11l ~ I t :uit. 70
...i..~011i/, IS .\.

Cra v, Tlinrn:l:-\. :: 4 7 . -~· ls·
G ree le y, l l oni.cc. So.
.l...' 11\' , 1

50 .

j .J..')'111, 1 5 I .

t; J .

Errors, in . Numl>er, t02
Miscellaneous, 191.
es/a m, I 59.
L'Sfimale , 159.

dn la . 1 8 ~.

~OJ.

158.

Empha s is, z30. (~ e n er:t l J ,:tw nf.
::=39; S e h:l· \ltn1 , a form 0f,

I

Co m1na, 267.
{'011/.11/ 0 J/.,

01ar111i~1 1 ,

co11110'/, l S~~L

Ca pital", :13.
rnrgo, r4 S.

f OtJl/1i11e, J

INDE.Y.

1 60.

Exclamation, 2~9 .
Exclamation m a rk , 27 1 . ·
rxpo.rt, 1 51.
Expo sition, 207.
Exercises in , 209 .
Fable. 24 6 .
fa t/, J 50
F ae rie Queen e, 247.

l1tti11i, 104.
h'1tk. I 'ii.

Ha111mer1011, I'.< :., 5 1, 53 ,
haply. I 63.
/iaf'fOl1 167.
l:11ppi~v . 16:).

Harm ony , ~ 60 .
I l a wt home, Natl·anicl, J l.
/;cad1711a rtcrs. 1 0 ~ .
frc<1l//1jitf,. I 6.J
lualtlry, 163.
1li gginson, '!', \Y . 7 ·I·
hire, 16 7.
/111 11u11u, 1 bO.

lu11n/111,!.,'.

t

50.

Hypt:ibule. ~ -19·
hypht:n, ~71.

1 62 .
;;7/.ri~J' 1 1 6 2 .

1111 n11:i.rrali<'!I. 1< )1.

c;o.

jrrls1.:11cis,

F ernald, C hest er Hailey. 145.
.fctc/1 , 166.
Figurativ e Langua ge, 245.
Figures, 249.
Effoct of, 24<i. 2fo.
F o reign \"i ords. 1 48 .
Frederic, Harold, 66.

Impropri e ti es . what the y arc , 155;
ca u~e:-:. pf, 1 ;(1; ( Lt ~~e" <if. t -:, 7.
I.II.

I

(i9 .

111,-.:J..'·,

._t;t
, nts,

I

5 I.

J

..,,

jI .

I 11depen<lent. The, 6 _). 70. 7 5.
:? J 2.

l ndex c~, use of, JJ·
/n tnul.

Gram m ar and Rhetori c, distinct ion between. 7.
G ood Usage. 9, 134. 135.
Applicatio n of laws of, q 7.
G e neral terms, :z-".(1.

,...

lt ll ~f/llfl , t f10 .

f emale, 164.

1

, .1F1

1-1 arland, Marion , 75

1cl iornatic Fn gl ish. 171 .
Idioms, 17 1.
;;: 1 il4.
i!i11.ritJn, 1 57 .

/ •11.:c,

<•z.

1 ()~.

lnterrogat-ion. 249.
I ntP.rrogat ion rnark,
in 'lJt!Jlt,

16G.

/117•//(. I ::; I .

lrdand.".Allevn c.
l rony. 249. '

10(>.

271.

1 o(>,

:j

310

INDEX.

INDEX.

irritating, 167.
Irving, \Vashington, 31, 64, 65,
67,•76, So, 22 6, 234, 26o,
I tali cs, 272.

moccasin, 148.

Morris, William, 143.
most, 16o, 18-1.
·
1110/or1111i11, I 50.
111atqr11eer, J 50.

James, Henry, 11.
Johnson, Samuel, 245.
J o'rdan, David Starr, 2 1 2.

kind of, I 87.
Kipling, R u<l yard, 115.
Lamb, C harles, 50.
!tarn, 166.
lease, 167.
Lett er-writing, 27 5.
importance of, 276.
parts of a letter, 276.
Lewis, C . B., 2 52.
l ie, 162.
lay, 162.
l i;rble, 167.
liA·e, 165, 166, 184.
lihly, 167.

Lincoln, Pres., 223.
Localisms, 137.
Lodge, Thomas, 144.
lo·ve, 166.
llllUal'Ol/.i, T 48.

Macaulay, Thomas B., 32, 52, 71,

96, 2 34, 2 5 I , 2 59·
168.
Mahon , Lord, 223.
majnrity, 164.

11/tldi

11u1the111atics, 182.

may, 167 .
McCarthy, Justin, 94, 116.
111. enns, 182 .
111ea.rdc.r, t 8z.

me11tio11, 165.
i'"1 credit h , George, 1 2 0.
l'l'lerriman, Henry Seton, 127.
Metaphor, 246.
metier, 149.
Metonymy, 248.
Milton, John, 247.
mob, 150.

movement, 205.
Murray, W. H. H., 81.

"'"'""'· 168.
Narration, 204.
Exercises in, zo6.
neither, 183.
New Formations (words), 15 I.
New Words, 150.
news, 182.

Nouns and Pronoun,;, 179.
Norton, Charles Eliot, 77
nobody, 183.
none, 183.
""' 011/y, 190.
Nun1ber, Errors in, 182.
observaitct.· ,

t

58.

(lbscr;1a/io11. 1 58.
oj/icial. 16o.

r!ffecious, 1 6o.
Oral and 'vVritten Expression, Difference between, 10.
tJral , 168.
"'~-·/1/, 185.
Outline, The, 36.

pains, 182 .
pants, I 5 I .
Paragraph , The, What it is, 42.
Importance of, 44. Length
of, 46. Topic Sentence for,
49. Development of, 6o. Development by Repetition, 61,
by I >etail, 64, by Specific Example, 68, by Comparison or
Co ntrast, 71, by Cause and
Effect, 74, by Proofs, 76, Irregular Development, 77.
fa,.d, 15 1.
Parenthetical expressions, 272.
Parkman, Francis, 72.
partinlly, 16o.

partly, 16o.
ja rty, I 64.
pdfll, 151.
penult, 151.
Period, 271.
persecute, 16o.
person, 164.
Personification, 247.
phiz, 151.
phone, 151.
ph,,to, 151.
phenome1111, I 82.
piano, 148.
l'lLGRlM'S i'ROGRESS, 247.
p1'1rality, 164.
prarticable, 163.
pract,icaJ, 163.
prescribe, 159.
Poetry, 258.
pnlitics, 182.
Pronouns, Errors in the Use of,
181, 182.
l'osse,;sive, The, 179.
propriety, 155.
l'rciportion, 242.
propose, 159.
prosecute. 16o.
/'""scribe, 159.
pro.xy, I 51.
Punc tuation, 265.
purpose, I 59.

quite, 168.
Quotation marks, 273.
radii, 182.
1·aise,

162.

1·m1ch, 148.

r1ither, 168.
real, 184.
really. 1 84.
receipt, I 58.
1·ecipe, 158.
1·,:l1Ztion.

162.

relative, 162.
Redundancy, 228.
Redundant and Incomplete Expressions, l 87.

3I

I

remainder, 163. ·
reputation, 164.
requirement, 162.
requisite, 162.
rest, 16J:
Rhetonc, defined, 4. Principles of,
and their authority, 8.
Rhythm, 259.
ride, 166.
rise, 162.
Rules of Punctuation, 266.
Ruskin, John, 123.
Sanborn, Alvan F., 2 10.
Sawyer, Edith A., 221.
scoop, I 50, I 51.
Scott, Walter, 144.
Semicolon, i6g.
.rmsible oj, 161.
sensitive to, 161.
Sentence, The Unit of Discourse,
85. What it ij, 85. Content
of, 87. Compound and Complex, 88. Subordination in
Complex, 90. Variety in forms
of, 93. Length of, 97 . Loose,
244. Periodic, 244, Balanced,
244, 245.

uries, 165.
set, 162.
.rhall, 16g, 186.
shoeist, 151.
should, l 70.
significance, 158.
sil{"tifaation, 1 58.
S1enkiev.icz, Henry, 201.
si,,.ile, 246.
sit, 162.
slang, 149.
sloop, 148.
Smalley, G. W., 235.
•
snob, 150.
Solecisms, 178.
in Use of Nouns and Pronouns, 179·
Specific and General Terms, 226.
Speech; The Parts of, 184.

INDEX.

3r2
.rp!mdii!, 168.

l<Jllr, I

Spoffo rd, llarriet Prescott, 256,
258.
sprint, 151.
sta mpede, 148.
statem ent, 16 5.
statue, 1 58.
s/alute, I 58.
stay, 167.
Stephe ns, Alexand e r IL, So.
Steven son, R . L.,
stop , 167.

:?OJ.

Style, What Co nstitutes a Good,

I tr anspire, 167 .
lra11sLri11.s:s, I

5 I.

IMPORT ANT INFORMATION

type-w riter, 1 50.

U nidiomatic English, 172.
union , 158.
U nity, 158, 229, 240.
Uuited Statc.r, Th e, 18 2.

Use, !'resent, 135, N ationaJ, 136,
!{ eputable, 140.
I

fJ(lll ,

51.

vtrhal, I 68.

22 I.

Subject , Choi ce of, 18. Getting
info nnation upon, 19. Ge ne ral and Specific, 21. LiMitati o ns of,

The Cambridge Literature Series

5 I.

2:.: .

Sources of, zz .

.rtll'c:essio11 , 165 .
su io'dt·, 151 .
su sp u t, I 84.
.r11spi,:i on , 184 .

S ynecdoche, 248.
Synonyms, Boo k of, 128.
tableaux, 182.
la ctic.,·, 182.

Tautol ogy, 228
Taylor, Isaac, 98.
Taylor, Pres., 228.

Verbosity, 228.
\' e rbs and Verbals, Errors in the
Use of, 185.
11crdit t , 1 65.
1·a y , 168, 184.
Vocabulary. A Large, 1 2 I. ll o w
to Inc rease ,
vocation, 16 1 .

l 51.
Ward, H e rbert D., 120.
wdl, 184.
7<'11 i r./1 and that, 183.
/Vhig, 149.
who and w/10111, 182.

wall.·ist,

''lll1:J? Wfl11/.;

1oit/1,

Technical W o rds, 138.

·wit/1011/,

tdeph o11e, I 50, I 5 I .
tdcplw nic, I 51.

10 0 11/tlll, I

rni!I,

t 48.

69, and
1 6<;.

tea.ch, 166.
team, 165.

Them e, Th e, P reliminary, 15. r>i.
rect io ns writing, 16. Material
fo r, 30. Developme nt o f, 33 .
Begi nnin g o f, 34 . Ending of,
J )·
O utline fo r, 36.
·
le.rlim o11y. 165.
tha t an<l w hich , 183.
Title, Th e, 16, 23. fl ow to c hoose,
23. Use of Capitals in, 17.
tom ah a wk, 1 48.
T opic Sentence, The, 49.
T ory, 14 9.

J :? 2.

1

shall, 1 86.

190.
64 .

Words, ~ourc es of English, 103.
Emotio nal and Intellectual
C haracteristics o f, 1 16. C hoice
of, 225. Num be r of, 227.
Omission of, 228. SuperAuArrangem ent o f,
uus, 2 28 .
229.
7tJOUftf,

I /0.

Written and Ora l Expression, Difference bet ween, 1 o.
148.
Ycznku , 149.

)'•l<'h/,

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