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BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
INDIANA UNIVERSITY

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF
GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

By
HENRY LESTER SMITH
KATHLEEN DUGDALE
BEULAH FARIS STEELE
ROBERT STEW ART MCELHINNEY

Copyright, 1946, by the Division of Research and Field Services,
School of Education, Indiana University

Publisheq by the

DIVISION OF RESEARCH AND FIELD SERVICES
Indiana University

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

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ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOI.:S
C II APTER

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I.

INTRODUCTION ..................... :\ .....................................................
Books analyzed in this study ................................ \ ..............

9
13

II.

PURPOSES OF THE GRAMMARS ANALYZED ....................

17

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PHYSICAL MAKE-UP OF THE BOOKS.................................... 26
Number of volumes in text....................................................... 26
Size of book................................................................................ 27
Length and breadth ............................... !........................... 27
Number of pages .......... ,............, ............. ,......................... · 27
Cover of book............................................................................ 28 ·
Material .................................................................·..... ,.......... 28
Color........................... ...... .'................ ,.. ,................................. 28
Design .................................................................................... 30
Back cover............ 1.............. :........................ .............. .......... 32
Inside cover ........................................ ,..................... ............ 32
Appearance of page ........................................., ...... :.................. 32
Margins ................................................ .......... ~........ . ........... ... 32
Size of type ......................................................................... · 32
Kind of type........ ........ ........................................................ 34
Spacing of material.. .............................................:............ 34
Illustrations ................ ."......................................................... 35
Attractiveness of book as an interest of authors
and publishers..................................................................... 36 ·

Ill .

Acknowledgment
The authors wish to express their appreciation for the courtesiP.s
extended them by the publishers of the texts analyzed. They also wish
to thank the following publishers for permission to quote and otherwise
reproduce copyrighted material in these books: Allyn and Bacon Company; American Book Company; Ginn and Company; D. C. Heath and
Company; Houghton Mifflin Company; The Macmillan Company;
Charles E. Merrill Company; Row, Peterson and Company; Benj. H.
Sanborn and Company; Silver, Burdett and Company; The John C.
Winston Company; World Book Company.
H.L.S.
K.D.
B.F.S.
R.S.McE.

p AGE

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IV.

INTRODUCTORY AND SUPPLEMENTARY CONTENT.... ,.
Introductory content.. ..... .................... ......................................
Title page................................ .............................................
Title of text... .................................................c.....•': ..............
Subtitle of text....................................................................
Preface .................................................. ~ ---···· ' ······· · ············ · ···
Acknowledgment.. ................... .............................................
Table of contents.. ..............................................................
Supplementary content...... ............ ...........................................
Index......................................................................................
Appendix ....................................................... .. c......... ..... ... ....
Advertising ...............................................................·...........
Comments to students .....................................,.................

37
37 '
37
38
39 .
41
45
45
47
48
48
48
50

SUBJECT-MATTER CONTENT .................................................. .

53

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The sentence ...................................'............................................. .
Sentence construction .................... :........................ ........... .
Syntax....................................................................... :: ....:::: .. ::Parts of the sentence ........ ---·············r ········ · ··········· ··· -~ ---·
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ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

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BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

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CHAPTJ<;R
CHAPTER

VI.

METHOD ...............................................................................................
Role of the teacher.....................................................................
Deductive method ........................................................................
Inductive method .........................................................................
Object method .......................................................... ............
Topical method .....................................................................

61
62
64
64
65
65
67
74
76
78
80
81
82
82

Techniques and devices common to all texts ...............:........
Simplification of mat;eriaL .............................................
Standardization of grli1,Iln1atical terms ...... \ .................
Use of quotations .......... ~ ..................,. ................ \.................
Motivation ..........................'. ..................................................
. Techniques and devices emphasized in different pe_riods....
Use of parsing................................................... / ..............
Use of analysis ................................................ .'............ , ....
Use of diagramming..........................................................
Providing for individual differences............. ..................
Adjusting to grade level needs ......... :.. '. ...........................
Use of "catchy" ways of introducing subjects ...........
Personal element.................................................................
Mechanical form in which material was presented ............
Exercises ..........................'. .................................. ..................
Examples ....... .............. ;........................ ,................................
Questions ............... ;........................................... .. ..................
Illustrations................... ........................................ ........... .. ..
Definitions ........... .... ..............................................................
Rules .......................................................................................
Notes ........ :........................................................... ......... i .........
Reviews, drills, and tests............ ....................................

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87
87
89
90
90
92
94
94
96
100
101
103
104
105
lOfl

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107
107
107
108
108
109
109
109
111
114
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118
119
120
122

PAGE

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PAGE

Punctuation...........................................................................
Capitalization........................................................................
Form ........................................................... :...........................
Kinds................. .....................................................................
Arrangement........................................................................
Parts of speech .......................... :.................................................
Verb.. ......... ......................................................................... ....
Noun. ......................................................................................
Adjective................................................................................
Pronoun..................................................................................
Adverb. ...................................................................................
Preposition............................................................................
Conjunction......................................................... ..................
Interjection............................................................................
Prose and poetry...................................................... ..................
Composition...........................................................................
Study of prose. .....................................................................
Study of poetry....................................................................
Figures of speech ................................. :...............................
The study of words....................................................................
Phonetics and pronunciation............................. ..................
Spelling.. .................................................................................
Syllabication.........................................................................
Letters and sounds..............................................................
Vocabulary building............................................................
Forming of plurals .............................................................
Derivatives ............................................................................
Socially useful material. ............................................................
Writing letters .....................................................................
Telling stories ......................................................................
Reading for pleasure ..........................................................
Writing for school publications and newspapers........
Holding club meetings ........................................................
Planning programs .............................................................
Telephoning ...........................................................................
Listening................................................... c....... .....................
Making personal introductions.. ,.....................................
Filling out forms ................................................................
Writing ads ...........................................................................
Miscellaneous content .................................................................
Order of presentation ................................................................
Variety of content. .....................................................................

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VII.

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125
130
134
141
148
148
152
154
156
157
158
160
163
163
172
178
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183
186
187

SUMMARY............................. ::-.0:-: ... ..................................... ................ 189

A List of Bulletins in the Field of Education,

~ndiana

University ...... 195

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LIST OF TABLES
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IV.

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VI.

VII.

VIII.

LIST OF FIGURES

PAGE

TABLE

Percentage of Pages in Grammar Textbooks on Which Each
of the Five Major Phases of Content Was Mentioned.... .
Percentage of . Pages on Which Each Phase of the Study of
the Sentence Was Mentioned, Based on the Total Number
of Pages on Which Sentence Study Was Mentioned·--···---····-·· -Percentage of Pages on Which Each Part of Speech Was
Mentioned, Based on the Total Number of Pages on Which
Parts of Speecl1 Were Mentioned- ----·-·· --····-········ ····-··· ·····-····-···--·-··
Percentage of Pages on Which Each Phase in the Study of
Verbs Was Mentioned, Based on the Total Number of Pages
on Which Verbs Were Mentioned ........ ---·····················-- -·-···· ------·····
Percentage of Pages on Which Each Phase in the Study of
Nouns Was Mentioned, Based on the Total Number of Pages
on Which Nouns Were Mentioned .... ---···············-··---·-···-·····-··-··--··
Percentage of Pages on Which Each Phase in the Study of
Pronouns Was Mentioned, Based on the Total Number of
Pages on Which Pronouns Were Mentioned---- --- -· ····· ·- -·--······----····
Percentage of Pages on Which Each Phase of Prose and
Poetry Was Mentioned, Based on the Total Number of Pages
on Which Prose and Poetry Were Mentioned..
-··· -······--··
Percentage of Pages on Which Each Phase of the Study of
Words Was Mentioned, Based on the Total Number of Pages
on Which the Study of Words Was Mentioned ....... .. .................. .

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66

67

PAGE

1. Frontispiece in Dilworth's N ew Guide to the English Tongue
( 17 40) ··············-···············-----·--·····································-··-····· ····················
2. Textbook covers typical of various periods .....:............................... .

29

3. Inside covers of recent texts ............................................................... .

31

8

4. Examples of old and new textbook pages, showing differences in
size of print and general appearance of the page ........ ................. .

33

5. Chapter heads in old and new texts .... ..............................................

35

6. Title page of an old text ..................................................... .-................. .

38

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topics in grammars of various periods .................................... :......... · 46
74

8. Example of a list of irregular verbs in an early text ................... .

72

9. Illustrations used in early composition teaching................., ............

86

78

10. Old and new ways of teaching the alphabet and sounds of
letters ......................................................................................_................. .

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11. Old and new methods of teaching verb forms .................................. 128
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marks ......................................................................................................... . 133
13. Devices used for gaining and holding the pupil's interest .... ........ 145
14. Methods of parsing, analyzing, and diagramming sentences ....... . 151

90

IX.

Percentage of Pages on Which Each Kind of Sociall y Useful
Material Was Mentioned, Based on the Total Number of
Pages on Which Socially Useful Material Was Mentioned ____ ___ _ 103

X.

Percentage of Pages in Grammar Textbooks on Which Each
Mechanical Form of Presentation Was Found.. .....
163

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FIGURE

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catchy way of teaching the use of the apostrophe in contraction! ......................................................................................................... . 160

16. Illustrations from Dilworth's New Guide to the English Tongue
(1740) ....................................................................................................... . 180

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ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF
GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS
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Introductidn

No NATION, so far as is known, attempted to study its language until after the time of Aristotle. The Greeks, who were probably more
advanced intellectually than any other people of the time, were the first
to feel the need for greater knowledge and understanding in this field,
and consequently the first to try to analyze their language. Their
original attempt at such a study resulted in what might more accurately
be called a glossary than a grammar. It was a book which seems to
have been designed primarily for the purpose of assisting students in
reading the works of Homer and other well-known Greek writers. Later,
however, the complete Greek grammar was developed. This text was so
thorough in its treatment of the subject that it became the model for
grammars of .all other European languages.'
For many years the Greek text was the only book of its kind in
any tongue. The Romans, whose language had already been developed
to a high point of excellence, were among the first to realize that a
study of their own language, similar to that of the Greeks, would be of
value. Since the plan of the Greek grammar was the only guide they
had for such a text, they followed very closely its organization and
'terminology. Latin, of course, did not always fa!\ easily into the classifications and rules used by the Greeks, and the Latin grammar that
resulted was therefore rather awkward and inadequate in its presentation of many phases of the subject.'
Later, when other countries began to work out grammars for their
own languages, they patterned after the Latin texts as well as the
Greek, and their presentation was often more cumbersome and involved than that of the Romans. In English grammars even today there
are traces of this impractical, traditional method of teaching a language.
What was perhaps the first book to be published to help the student learn English was actually in Latin. This book, Grammatica
Anglicana., was written by P. G. (believed to have been P. Greenwood),
in 1594. It contained short discussions of letters, syllables, and parts
of speech, and attempted to point out in what ways English differed
from Latin. It also listed a vocabulary of Chaucerian words, and was
the first text to include a treatment of parsing, which it termed
"analysis."'
(full size)

Fig. 1.

Frontispiece in Dilworth's New Guide to the
English Tongue (1740).

'Hoyt, Franklin S .. "The Place of Grammar in the Elementary Curriculum," Teachers College
Record 7 :1!, November, 1906.
2Jbid., p . 4.
SMonroe, Paul, ed., A Cyclopedia of Education, The Macmillan Co., New York, 1912, Vol. IIl;p. 132.
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ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

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last .a reader, following the style of Dilworth's book except that the
parts were published under separate covers. The grammar book, · or
second part, was first published about 1783 and was used extensiveiy
for, a number of years. The other two · parts were published soon after
the grammar.
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Webster's text was superseded by Lindley Murray's E:iglish Grammar, probably the most popular grammar ever published in this country.
Murray, a lawyer from Pennsylvania, was in England at the time he
completed his text, and the first edition of the book was published in
that country in 1795. However, within five years an American edition
had been printed in Boston.' 0 The text enjoyed a wide sale, running
through more than 50 editions of the book and 120 editions of the
abridgement, with new editions being printed as late as 1866. For many
years it was almost the only grammar used either. in England or in
America, and its worth was so generally recognized that it was commonly accepted as authority in settling disputes concerning usage or
syntax.
The principal value of Murray's text was that it simplified the
presentation of the subject and contained discussions aimed to clear up
points on which there had previously been some question. However,· it
still was not too appealing to children, as it contained much of the controversial, puzzle element. In spite of this, it proved to be a definite
step forward in the teaching of English grammar and won for Murray the title of "the father of English grammar.""
·
While the need for simplifying the study of English grammar had
been felt for some tir_ne, it had been difficult to break away from tradition. The old scholastics looked upon the subject as a form of training
in logical thinking, and they felt that any simplification would lessen its
value in this respect. Nevertheless, a change gradually took place, with
much unnecessary material being dropped out, fine distinctions omitted,
and explanations made clearer and more appropriate.
In the early days of our country's history, grammar took its place
beside arithmetic as a subject for lively discussion and intellectual debate among the more learned. Just as the person who could solve
difficult or trick questions in arithmetic won the much-cherished title
of "arithmeticker," so was the person looked up to who had a thorough
understanding of grammar rules and who could apply them in parsing
or in clearing up problematic points In construction." It was an honor
to be known as one who could hold his own in a discussion concerning
controversial issues in grammar.
This interest in the subject was not felt in the schools until much
later, however. Although the provision for public education had been
made mandatory in Massachusetts as early as 1642, grammar was
considered an accepted part of 'the offering in very few schools in the
country until early in the nineteenth century. Even then the subject was
often little understood by pupils and teacher.

In 1624 John Hewes wr ote what he called an exposition for Lily's
Latin Grammair rules, under the title A P erf ect Su r vey of the English
Tongue. In this book Hewes led up to a study of the Latin by beginning with a groundwork of English expressions.•
A few years later, Simon Daines published a text in English, giving
it a title which was all-inclusive: Orthoepia A nglicana; or the first
principall pairt of the English Grammar Teaching the Art of right
speaking and pronouncing English, with certaine exact rules of Orthography, and rules of spelling or combining of syllables, and directions for
keeping of stops or points between sentence a.nd sentence. A w ork in itself absolute, and never known to be accornplished by any before: No
lesse profitable than necessary for all sorts, as w ell Native as Foreigners,
that desire to attaine the perfection of our English Tongue. Methodically
composed by the industry a.nd ob servation of Simon Daines , Schoolmaster of Hintle sham in Suffs. L ond. 1640.'
About this time two other texts were published in the field, both of
which were designed especially for the use of foreigners who wished
to learn the English language. The first of these was a grammar by
Ben Jonson, which was published posthumously. The other, J . Wharton's A New English Grammar, marked a turning point in the teaching of English, as it attempted, according to the author, to teach the
English grammar a student needed before beginning the study of Latin.•
For the next 75 to 100 years very few grammars were published,
Although education in the United States was by this time well established, no grammar used in England was republished in this country
until late in the eighteenth century. The earliest text to be so honored
. was Thomas Dilworth's A New Guide to the E nglish Tongue. Although
this was a small book, containing only about 150 pages in a ll, it was
divided into five pavts, the first two dealing with spelling, the third with
grammar, and the last two with prose and verse. While the book was
published in England as early as 17 40, the first American edition did
not come out until 1770.' The text was very popular in its day and is
still looked upon as one of the outstanding English grammars used in
the schools of this country. A Short Introduction to English Grammar,
by Robert Lowth, was another early text (1762) published in England,
and later printed in the United States. However, the American edition
of this book did not come out until 1811.' Lowth was among the first
to stress good use rather than grammatical rules in English.
Probably the first grammar of any consequence to be written by an
American and published in the United States was the second part of.
Noah Webster's A Grammatical Institute of the English Language.• This
text appeared in three volumes, the first being a spelling book and the
'Ibid., p . 132.
. 6 Ibid.,

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pp. 132-3 .

•Ibid .. p. 133.
7 Library

10£ibrary of Congress Catalog, Vol. 104, p. 633.

of Congrus Catalog , Vol. 40, p. 51.

8Monroe, op. cit., p. 133.
9Ibid., Vol. V, p. 757.

Clifton, Old-Time Schools and School-Books , The Macmillan Co., New York, 1904, p.
365.
.
! ' 12Monroe, op. cit., p. 134.
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BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

The study of English grammar gained rapidly in popularity during the nineteenth century. By 1810 it was included in the curriculum of
many of the schools and by 1823 it was given almost as much attention
as the study of Latin. For a number of years thereafter it almost entirely dominated the English curriculum, sometimes superseding spelling in the upper grades of the elementa ry school." Even though
composition was added about 1850, grammar continued to hold its
important position for at least 75 years.
Up to 1875, the usual common-school curriculum included little
more than geography, arithmetic, reading, spelling, and grammar.
Arithmetic and grammar were given more time and thought than any
of the other subjects in the upper grades and were considered the core
of the curriculum."
In keeping with the theory of mental discipline which became so
widely accepted during the latter part of the nineteenth century, grammar became a disciplinary subject. Later, however, when studies disproved its value in this respect, the amount of t echnical grammar
taught in the schools was significantly reduced.
The content of the English curriculum broadened considerably during the early twentieth century, with technical grammar receiving less
and less emphasis. In 1936 the Curriculum Commission of the National Council of Teachers of English recommended that grammar be
taught only from a functional point of view. This was one of the first
official steps toward breaking away from the study of a purely technical grammar, although the trend had been in that direction for some
time.
Thus grammar has passed through the various stages found in the
development and growth of most of the subjects handed down to our
schools from olden times. When first studied, the subject was treated
purely from a philosophical point of view. Later it became more technical and scientific, and finally it was made as practical and functional as possible. Language as taug ht today has a strictly social basis,
and therefore stress has been placed on the improvement of conversational English in its various ramifications rather than on t echnica l
rules and forms and on correct written Eng lish .
Most of the change in grammar texts h as come within the last
150 years, the period covered by this analysis. Although Murray's
English Grammar was the first to show the way toward simplification and toward a stressing of the language of our own country rather
than of a foreign tongue, it still contained much that was traditional.
The textbooks included in this study have been analyzed for the purpose of tracing the trends through the years - trends that have been
evident not only in the content and method of the texts but also in
their physical make-up. It is believed that all these changes have been
in the direction of presenting the material more appealingly, more
simply, and more practically.
IS [bid.,

p . 134.

14fbid., p. 134.

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

13

,
1r ay.
of ma mg a runnmg account of changes in the teaching
through the years, as exhibited by the textbooks of the day, an attempt was made to analyze one book for each five-year period. This plan,
of course, could not always be carried out. In selecting texts representative of the first half century covered, there was the difficult problem
of availability, for not many of the grammars published in those early
days are now in existence. In some five-year periods no grammars of
consequence were published, while in others more than one well-known
text appeared in the field. Then too, among books of the presertt century,
success as judged by the publisher was usually given precedence over
date of publication as a factor in the selection of a text for this study.
Publishers were asked to indicate the most popular of the grammars
they had put out, and selection was made in the light of their replies.
So far as possible, duplication of authors and of publishers was
avoided, in order that a broader viewpoint in the teaching of grammar
might be represented. Because of this policy, some publishers are represented by recent books and others by texts which are now out of
date. However, all the grammars used have been highly thought of in
their day. Since there have been many recent grammars written, it
was difficult to make a selection from among them. It is recognized that
the recent texts included in this study are not the only good ones on
the market today, but it is believed they are representative of the best
in modern English grammars.
The organization of data for this study was handled in much the
same way as was that for the summary analysis of arithmetic texts, a
study published by the Bureau of Cooperative Research and Field Service in 1945." Each of the grammar books or series of books was given
a number, with the texts arranged according to the date of original '
publication. While it was not always possible to secure first edition
copies for this analysis, the original date of publication was used because it was believed that the basic principles concerning content and
method were seldom changed when later editions of a text were put
out. Therefore, in spite of the fact that minor changes were sometimes
made when a text was republished, fundamentally the text was more
representative of the grammars published at the time it was first written than of those of a later date.
If the t ext was published in more than one volume, the most
elementary of the books is listed as "a," the next most elementary as
"b," and so on." The list of texts included in the study, with their
number and letter designations, follows:
16_Smith . Henry Lester; Eaton. Merrill T.; and Dugdale, Kathleen. One Htt11dred Fifty Years of
Arithmetic Textbooks, Bulletin of the School of Education, Indiana University, Vol. XX!, No. !,
J anuary. 1945, 15:'! pp.
·
16 Whcn material from any of these texts has b een quoted or photographed in this study, the book
fro'." which it w~s taken has been indicated by the number of the text, followed by the page on
which the material occurs. F or example, a reference on p age 14 of the fourth grade text in the
.4dventures in English "series would be identified as (27b:l4) . In all ' cases in which material was
take? from books under copyright, the p_e rmission of the publishers holding the copyright has been
obtained.
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ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

14

·1. Dilworth, Thomas. A New Guide

to the English Tongue. W. Ross,

. Philadelphia, 145th ed., 1784. (1st ed., London, 1740; 1st ed. published in America, 1770)
·2. Murray Lindley. English Grammar. Boston, 9th ed., 1815. (1st ed.,
Holgate', near York, England, 1795; 1st ed. published in America,
1800)

5. Brown, Goold. The Institutes of En.qlish Grammar. Samuel S.
and William Wood, New York, 1856. (1st ed., 1823)
6. Smith, Roswell C. English Grammair on the Productive System.
W. T. Truman, Cincinnati, 1850. (1st ed., 1832)

19.

(Robbins-Row series)
Robbins, Carolyn M., and Row, Robert Keable. Studies in English.
Row, Peterson and Co., Chicago, 1916. (1st ed., 1907)
19a. Book One, Language
19b. Book Two, Grammar and Composition

20.

(Pearson-Kirchwey series)
Pearson, Henry Carr, and Kirchwey, Mary Frederika. Essentials
of English. American Book Co., New York, 1915. (1st ed., ~914)

22.

(Essential Language Habits series)
Charters, Wallace Werrett; Cowan, Esther M.; and Betz, Annette.
Essential Language Habits. Silver, Burdett and Co., New York, 1929.
(1st ed., 1923)
22a. Book One
22b. Book Two
22c. Book Three

23.

(The Open Door Language Series)
Scott, Zenos E.; Congdon, Randolph; Peet, Harriet E.; and Frazee,
Laura. The Open Door Language Series. Houghton Mifflin Co.,
Boston.
23a. First Book, Language Games and Stories, 1928. (1st ed.,
1926)
23b. Second Book, Better Everyday English,' 1928. (1st ed., 1927)
23c. Third Book, Success in Speaking and Writing, 1928.

9. Pinneo, Timotheus Stone. Pinneo's Analytical G1·ammar of the
English Language. Sargent, Wilson and Hinkle, Cincinnati, 200th
ed., 1868. (1st ed., 1850)
10. Greene Samuel Stillman. The Elem.ents of English Grammar.
Cowperthwait, Desilver, and Butler, Philadelphia, 1856. (1st ed.,
c. 1853)
11. Kerl, Simon. A Shorter Course in English Grammar. Ivi son, Blakeman, Taylor, and Co., New York, 1870. (17th rev. ed. of An Elementary Grammar, 1864)

24.

12. Harvey, Thomas W. Harv ey's English Grammar. A Practic_al 9ran~­
mar of the English Language. Wilson, Hinkle and Co., Cmcmnat1,
1868.
·
.
13. (Reed-Kellogg series)
13a. Reed, Alonzo, and Kellogg, Brainerd. Graded Lessons in English~ Charles E. Merrill Co., New York, 1!.J29. (1st ed., 1875)
13b. Reed, Alonzo, and Kellogg, Brainerd. Higher Lessons in English. Maynard, Merrill, and Co., New York, 1893. (1st ed.,
1877)
14. Whitney, William Dwight. Essentials of English Grammar. Ginn and
Heath, Boston, 1877.
15. Tweed, Benjamin F. Grammar for Common Schools. Lee and Shepard, Boston, 1886.
16.

(Hyde series)
Hyde, Mary Frances. Practical L essons in the Use of English. D. C.
Heath and Co., Boston.
16a. State Series, 1896.
16b. Second Book, 1897. (1st ed., 1888)

17. Wisely, John Benjamin. A New English Grammar. The Inland
Publishing Co., Terre Haute, Ind., 1896.

,.

21. Lewis, William Dodge, and Lynch, Helen M. Grammar to Use. The
John C. Winston Co., Philadelphia, 1933. (1st ed., 1918)

7. Bullions, Peter. The Principles of English Grammar. Robinson,
Pratt and Co., New York, 5th ed., 1843. (1st ed., R. Carter, New
York, c.1834; 2nd ed., 1837)
8. Butler Noble. A Practical Gra~nmar of the English Language. John
P. Mdrton and Co., Louisville, Ky., 1846. (1st ed., Morton and
Griswold, 1845)

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18. (Scott-Southworth series)
Scott, Fred Newton, and Southworth, Gordon A. Lessons in English.
Benj. H. Sanborn and Co., Boston.
18a. Book One,, 1913. (1st ed., 1906) ,
18b. Book Two , 1912. (1st ed., 1906)

3. Comly, John. English Grammar Made Easy to the Teacher and Pupil.
Kimber and Sharpless, Philadelphia, 15th ed., 1826. (2nd ed ., 1805) ·
4. Kirkham, Samuel. English Gnwimar. E . Morgan and Co., Cincinnati, 1843. (1st ed., 1823 or earlier; 5th ed., 1827)

15

(Daily-Life Language Series)
Lyman, R. L. ; Johnson, Roy Ivan; Dearborn, Frances R.; Bear,
Mata V.; and McGregor, A. Laura. Daily-Life Language Series,
Ginn and Co., Boston, 1934.
24a. Book One (by Lyman, Johnson, Dearborn, and Bear)
241;>. Book Two (by Lyman, Johnson, and Bear)
,
24c. Book Three (by Lyman, Johnson, and McGregor)

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25. Daringer, Helen Fern. Grammar for Everyday Use. World Book Co.,
Yonkers-on-Hudson, N.Y., 1938.
26.

(Step by Step in English series)
Bair, Frederick H.; Neal, Elma A.; Foster, Inez; Storm, Ollie P.;
and Sanders, Vernon T. Step by Step in English. The Macmillan
Co., New York.
26a. Fun with Words (by Bair, N ea!, Foster, and Storm), 1940
26b. With Tongue and Pen (by Bair, Neal, Foster, and Storm),
1940
.
26c. Words and Their Use (by Bair, Neal, Foster, and Storm),
1940
26d. Better English Usage (by Bair, Neal, Foster, and Storm),
1940
26e. Knowin,g You'I' Language (by Bair, Neal, and Sander:s), 1941
26f. Strength Through English (by Bair, Neal; · and Sanders), 1944.
(1st ed., 1941)
··-- (Adventures in English series)
Burleson, David Sinclair; Cash, Laurie; Burleson, Christine; and
Merrill, Anna D. Adventures in -English, Allyn and Bacon, Boston.

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. BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
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Grade Three (by Burleson and Cash), 1944. (1st ed., 1941)
Grade Four (by Burleson and Cash), 1944. (1st ed., 1939)
Grade Five (by Burleson and Cash), 1943. (1st ed., 1940)
Grade Six (by Burleson and Cash), 1943. (1st ed., 1940)
Grade S even (by Burleson), 1943. (1st ed., 1942)
.
Grade Eight (by Burleson, D. S., Burleson, C., and Mernll),
1946. (1st ed., 1944)
Twenty-seven grammars were analyzed. The oldest in the group,
Dilworth's A New Guide to the English Tongue (1740), was published
more than half a century before the beginning of the period covered by
this study (1795 to 1945), but it is included here because it is a good
example of the English texts which influenced early grammarians in our
country. All the other grammars analyzed were published within the
150-year period studied, the earliest of these being Murray's text, which
first appeared in 1795.
For purposes of comparison, the books (other than Dilworth's) were
divided according to date of publication, into three 40-year periods and a
30-year period from 1915 to 1945, with from five to eight books included for each period. Without question, many good grammars were
written other than those analyzed in this study but it was of course
impossible to include all. While the generalizations or trends in textbook style and procedure pointed out in this study are based solely on
the grammars ana lyzed, they are thought to be reasonably true of all
the grammar texts of the times.
27a.
27b.
27c.
27d.
27e.
27f.

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Chapter II
Purposes of the Gra.mmars Analyzed
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THROUGHOUT the 150-year period covered by this analysis, the general purpose of grammar textbooks has been that of presenting a usable grammar in an understandable form. However, the early texts were
far from what could be classified as either usable or understandable
according to modern standards. In the first place, today's idea of usability is entirely different from that of early times; and in the second
place, understandability, which is, of course, closely associated with
simplification of terminology and methods of presentation, is determined
in modern teaching on the .basis of the child's rather than of the adult's
needs.
In the days of Thomas Dilworth, whose text was written half a
century before the opening of the period covered by this analysis, the
ultimate objective in studying grammar was that of enlightening the
world. In the preface to A New Guide to the English Tongue (1740),
Dilworth stated that:
"The knowledge of Letters (says the celebrated Dr. Watts)
is one of the greatest Blessings that ever God bestowed on the
Children of Men: By this Means, we preserve for our own use,
through all our Lives, what our · Memory would have lost in a
few Days, and lay up a rich Treasure of Knowledge for those
that shall come after us. By the Arts of Reading and Writing,
we can sit at Home and acquaint ourselves with what is done in
all the distant Parts of the World, and find what our Fathers
· did long ago, in the first Ages of Mankind. By this Means a
Briton holds Correspondence with his Friend in America or/
Japan, and manages all his Business. 'Tis this which brings al1
the past Ages of Men at once upon the Stage, and makes the
most distant Nations and Ages converse together, and grow into ·
Acquaintance. And it is this, by which God has discovered his
Power, and Justice, his Providence, Mercy, and. Grace, that we,
who live near the end of Time, may learn the Way to Heaven
and ever-lasting Happiness." (1 :vi)

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Here we see a rather philosophical idea of advantages to be gained
from a knowledge of the English language. While the general principles of educational progress and greater understanding of one's fellowmen are recognized as outcomes of ability to read and write correctly, they are expressed in a much more practical and more ' personal
way in the modern texts. For example, in the Step by Step in English
series (1940-1941), the idea is narrowed down to keep the goal within
the child's experience:
·
The purpose of this book Is to help you to know and to use
language even better than you do now. You · will find that an
increased knowledge of language will help you as you study - ·
other subjects, as you work and play with your classmates, as
you listen to the language of adults, and even a8 you think for
yourself. (2~e :v)
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18

BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

19

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Although there is a wide difference in point of view in these two
statements, the change has come about very gradually. Lindley Murray, whose English Grammar (1795) was the first text in this analysis to be published within the period from .1795 to 1945, gave far greater
stress to the practical side of grammar study than did earlier writers
in the field, saying:
On the utility and importance of the study of Grammar,
and the principles of Composition, much might be advanced, for
the encouragement of persons in early life to apply themselves
to this branch of learning ; but as the limits of thi s introrluction will not allow of many observations on the subject, a few
leading sentiments are all that can be admitted here '~ith
propriety. As words are the signs of our ideas, and the me~mm
by which we perceive the sentiments of others, and commumcate
our own; and as signs exhibit the things which they are i:r:itended to represent, more or less accural;J!ly, according as their
real or established conformity to those things is more or ·less
exact; it is evident, that in proportion to our knowledge of the
nature and properties of words, of their relation to each other,
and of their established connexion with the ideas to which
they are applied, will be the certainty and ease, with which we
transfuse our sentiments into the minds of one another; and
that without a competent knowledge of this kind, we shall frequently be in hazard of misunderstanding others, and of being
misunderstood ourselves. It may indeed be justly asserted, that
many of the differences in opinion amongst men, with the disputes, contentions, and alienations of heart, which have too
often proceeded from such differences, have been occasioned by
a want of proper skill in the connexion and meaning of words,
and by a tenacious misapplication of language. (2:6)
Murray saw the value of good English, but he agreed with earlier
ortant points in the study of grammar were a
its development and a knowledge of the
principle
· 1s based . These points were stressed in his book
rather than actual usage of correct Engli sh, which was presumed to be
a natural outgrowth of such understanding and knowledge. By the time
another 50 years had passed , authors were putting more stress on usage. Greene ( 1853) said that "it is the 8tudy of the languag e, rather
than the technical forms of grammar, that should claim the first attention of the teacher" (lO:vii), and Harvey (1868) also pointed out
that the teaching of grammar should not be an end in itself but that
its purpose should be to give one the ability to speak and write correctly. Harvey, in his preface, made a statement that was boldly progressive for one of his times:

.,;'

The whole plan of the work is in accordance with the educational doctrine that accuracy and facility in the use of language,
both spoken and written, are the ends to be secured by the
study of grammar : that to secure these ends, a thorough acquaintance with the elements, forms, structure, and laws of our
mother tongue, is indispensable; and that a practical knowledge
of these can be acquired only by patient, persistent exercise in
the analysis and synthesis of syllables, words, and sentences.
(12:iii)

I -

Reed and Kellogg (1875-1877), whose text was popular for more '
than two generations, brought out the same point, but went still further,
admittedly giving the study of technical grammar a subordinate position and stating that the purpose of t4eir work was "to make the Science
of the Language, of which all the essentials are· thoroughly presented,
tributary to the Art of Expression" (13b:4).
Whitney (1877) was one of the first to recognize that the immediate
needs of the child should claim the attention of the textbook writer. He
tried to pull away from the impersonal method of attack that had been
used
lier texts and to give the children a type of grammar they
coul
their school and home life.
I have endeavored to put before the learner those matters
which are of most essential consequence to him, those which will
best serve him as preparation for further and deeper knowledge
of his own language, for the study of other languages, and for
that of language in general. That the leading object of the
study of English Grammar is to teach the correct use of English
is, in my view, an error, and one which is gradually becoming
removed, giving way to the sounder opinion that grammar is the
reflective study of language, for a variety of purposes, of which
correctness in writing is only one, and a secondary or subordinate one ... it should be a pervading element in the whole school
and home training of the young, to make them use their own
tongue with accuracy and force. (14:iii)

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Hyde (1888-1896) brought out .the "use" angle in the teaching of
grammar still more forcefully when she said "the aim is to lead the pupil
to use habitually the right expression" (16a :iv), adding that "pupils
must be trained not only to write correctly, but also to hear correctly"
(16a :v ). This was the first time in the books studied that hearing correctly was given as an objective. Hyde also mentioned that "the reasons
why certain forms are right and others wrong are, for the most part, ,
omitted" (16a:iv). Here again the "use" result of the teaching of gram' mar was being stressed rather than the technicalities back of that resuit.
Early in the twentieth century, the idea of making grammar useful to the pupil took a little more practical angle. While great strides
had been made toward developing a text that would teach the child to
use correct forms in expressing himself, the ultimate aim of having
him express himself properly after he was grown was always more
prominent than the idea of teaching him to say correctly the things he
wanted to say in his everyday life while still a child. Scott and Southworth's L essons in English (1906) was the first text in the group studied
to center the interest on teaching the child to say well the things he
wants to say now, that is, "to help children to talk and write more
freely about the many things that they see or know" (18a:iii}, and to
get them to notice more things and to want to talk about them, thus
using the study of language to expand their information and enlarge
their vocabularies.
In 1917 the National Council of Teachers of English set forth certain purposes and principles in the teaching of grammar, a s follows:
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BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
A sane attitude toward the teaching of grammar would
seem to be to find out what parts and aspects of the subject
have actual value to children in enabling them to improve their
speaking, writing, and reading, to teach these parts accor~ing
to modern scientific methods, and to ignore any and all port10ns
of the conventional school grammar that fall outside these categories. In general, the grammar worth teaching, is the grammar
to use -function in the sentence - and the grammar to be
passed over is the grammar of classification - pige?nholing; b_y
definition. Language, it is well known, is learned mamly by im~­
tation, largely unconsci ous, and children constan~ly us~ ~n th~ir
speech hundreds of expressions, many of the~ highly i?10matic,
which only the linguistic scholar, familiar with the h1sto~Y. of
the language, can explain. Children should J;>e set to exammmg
only those grammatical forms and constructions wh?se ~lSe tJ:ey
can plainly see, and they should pursue such exammati on w ith
the conscious purpose of learning how to make better sentences.
Any other aim is mere pedantry. (21 :iv)

Lewis and Lynch attempted to make their Gram mar to Use (l!H8)
conform with these standards, stating in their preface that :
Perhaps the distinctive characteristic of the _book is the
emphasis which it places upon function as th~ basis for determining the classification and use of grammatical elements . . .
The word, phrase, or clause is what its function in the sentence
makes it. If the child can be made to understand clearly the n'.1ture of a sentence and of the work each part of speech does m
a sentence, his most serious grammatical troubles will disappear. (21 :v)
Almost immediately autho r s began "to arrange the mater ial in the
text so that it may be used in connection with the language work of
the pupils outside the language r ecitation" (22a :iv), and t extbook content was expanded to embrace many kinds of out-of-school activities.
In The Open Door Lan guage Series (1926-1928), the authors stated
that "since the chief u se that the majority of people have for English is
in the give-and-take of ever yday conversation, the book lays particular
emphasis on this phase of the subject" (23a :iv).
This point is also emphasized in the Daily-Life L anguage Series
( 1934) which states that "ability to use language effectively in the
practic~I activities of d aily life is the goal of language instruction"
(24b :v) .
For a while this trend seemed to be running away with itself, so
that the teaching of social relationships, etiquette, and "fun" outshown
the real goal of instruction in grammar. But in the more recent t exts a
sounder basis is beginning to appear in the teaching of "functional"
English. Today, while the child's interests and activities are still of
vital concern, the actual purpose, that of teaching good English usage,
is kept prominent, an idea expressed in the preface to the Adv entures
in English series (1939-1944):
It seeks above everything else to dramatize the freshness
and vitality of the child's own eager use of language, so that he
will spontaneously participate in the direct study which makes
for good usage. (27a:iii)

ONE HUNDRED. FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

21

This series of language books is typical of the attitude of modern
textbook writers in that it attempts to build up such an interest in and
desire to use good English that the pupils actually want to learn more
about grammatical constructions.
Thus, one of the purposes of authors of grammar texts has con- .
sistently been that of presenting a usable grammar. In the early days,
usability was interpreted as meaning that rules and definitions were
made clear and that examples were accurate and to the point. The more
mode r n of the texts, however, take usability to mean the presentation of
a type of grammar that is functional for the child in his everyday life
as well as a preparation for adulthood.
The second major purpose of grammar textbook .writers was that
of presenting a grammar that was understandable. In the early days
this presented quite a problem, for the t erminology was technical and
th e examples were in·volved, often beyond the comprehension of the
average adult and certainly beyond that of the child. For many years
the authors recognized the need for a simplification of material but were
so tied down by tradition that it took decades for the _trends toward a
more practical grammar to become evident.
Dilworth's grammar (1740) , which was written half a century before the opening of the period covered by this analysis, included only
those phases of the subject which he considered to be fundamental and
essential. No claim was made that the field had been covered thoroughly,
. nor did the text include the long discussions of controversial issues
found in other grammars of the day. The material covered was designed
for the common people of England, to enable those who "are intended to
rise no higher, to write their Mother-Tongue intelligibly, and according to the Rules of Grammar'' (l :vi) - for those .who needed only a little grammar to enable them to read and · write simple material, rather
than for the potential writers, historians, and members of Parliament,
who would necessarily have to be well versed in the more complicated
phases of the subject. Grammarians ever since Dilworth's time have
been writing textbooks with this as one of their purposes.
Lindley Murray (1795) was ahead of his times In realizing that a
technical text was impractical as a means for teaching grammar to
young people. In the introduction he stated:
In books designed for the instruction of youth, there is a
medium to be observed, between treating the subject in so extensive and minute a manner, as to embarrass and confuse their
minds, by offering too much at once for their comprehension;
and, on the other hand, conducting it by such short and general
precepts and observations, as convey to them no clear and precise information. A distribution of the parts, which is either
defective or irregular, has also a tendency to perplex the young
understanding and to retard its knowledge of the principles of
literature. A distinct general view, or outline, of all the essential parts of the study in which they are engaged; a gradual
and judicious supply of this outline; and a due arrangement of
the divisions, according to their natural order and connexion,
appear to be among the best means of enlightening the minds
of youth, and ' of facilitating their acquisition of knowledge.
(2:3)

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BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

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Almost ev ry-t ext hereait · made some reference to its attempt to
make gram
understandable Comly (1805) stated :ve
simply in
his title that he was attempting to make his grammar fe;isy, hile Kirkham (1823) wrote a very flowery statement concerning\ th simplicity of
his text :
By some this system will, no doubt, be discarded on account
of its simpli<;ity; whilst to others its simplicity will prove its principal recommendation. Its design is an humble one. It proffers
no great advantages to the recondite grammarian; it professes
not to instruct the literary connoisseur; it presents no attractive
graces of style to charm, no daring flights to astonish, no deep
researches to gratify him; but in the humblest simplicity of
diction, it attempts to accelerate the march of the juvenile mind
in its advances in the path of science, by dispersing those clouds
that so often bewilder it, and removing those obstacles that
generally retard its progress. ( 4 :9)
Kirkham also brought out the point that his book was "designed
for the use of schools and private learners" ( 4: title page). In those
times, pupils often had to study at home, without the aid of a teacher,
since schools were not common. Textbooks that were written clearly
and simply were, of course, of more value to students trying to learn
their gramm~nde-~ese conditions.
Althou~ 1834 ) was a great admirer of Lindley Murray
and based his own grammar on Murray's, he was one who believed firmly
in making grammar as~erstandabl~o the student as possible. As a
consequence he attempted to put out a textbook that was an improvement over Murray's English Grammar "by correcting what is erroneous,
retrenching what is superfluous or unimportant, compress ing what is
prolix, elucidating what is obscure, determining what was left doubtful, supplying what is defective, and bringing up the whole to that
state of improvement to which the labours of eminent scientific and
practical writers of the present day have so greatly contributed" (7:iii).
Kerl (1864) stated in his volume that h e "hopes he has produced
more nearly just such a manual as the great majority of public schools
throughout our country now require" (11 :3). By this time books were
being prepared with the idea of their being used in class work. A
number of references had been made in texts published before this time
to the effect that the book was designed for "all classes of learners." This
included those of different ages and stages of progress as well as those
either studying alone or attending school.
By the beginning of the twentieth century grammarians had broken
away from the technical type of textbook and were attempting to make
grammar more functional. Scott and Southworth (1906) made a very
simple statement concerning the purpose of their text, which shows

t ~o present the minim?m fundamental principles of sentence
s rue ure and usage so simply that they can be easily underdtood, and to show ~~ clearly how the principles apply to everyayf s peech and. ~l'ltmg that there can be no question of "their
use u 1ness. (25 :m)
All the r_nodern textbook writers have held this as one of the purposes of their grammars, and all have shown great progress in this
respect.
Here and there among the texts analyzed another idea was exas .to the usability of the text, but few of theseE
" a~-fuu d
consisten~ly. For example, Murray (1795) considered . aracter building
as a possible outcome of the teaching of grammar With
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chose ill us t ra t.ive mat el'la~s
.
.
min end.
' e
which he believed would
lead to this
Among the purposes ment10ned in the preface to his book, he included:
pres ~ ed

_He [the author] wishes to promote, in some degree the cause
o{ ~{rtue, as well as of learning; and with this view h~ has been
s u 10us, thro?gh the whole of the work, not only t~ avoid ever
example _and illustration, which might have an improper effed
on the mmds of youth; but also to introduce on many occasions
s~c;h
have a mor'.11 and religious tenden~y. His attention t~
o J~C s of so much importance will, he trusts, meet the approbat~n ~f every well disposed reader. If they were faithfully regar ed m aJl books of education, they would doubtless contribute
yeryt~a~enally to the order and happiness of society by guardmgt· e mnocence, and cherishing the virtue of the ~ising gen
era 10n. (2 :7)
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Hyd~ (18~8-1896) touched upon this subject in the statement that
she was mcludmg selections "designed to awaken a love of nature or to
dee?en some. mo~al impression" (16a :iii). However, in the other texts;
':h1le there ~ s evidence of an attempt to present examples and illustrations that will express moral precepts, such as Biblical quotations proverbs, fables, . and so forth, no mention was found in the prefaces 'of the
fact that this was done with a definite purpose in mind.

Although the idea was not actually expressed in many of the prefaces, there was evidence throughout the period covered by the st d
that
had attempted to help develop pupils to meet
respons1b1hties
and problems. The more moder n a tt"t
b·
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1 u d e to ward the
. su Ject 1s found stated by the authors of The o
D
L
pen oor anguage
' Series (1926-1928)' when they said:

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this trend:
To place before the student an orderly and intelligible statement of the principles that determine the structure of words and
sentences, and at the same time to furnish exercises for practice
in the application of those principles. (18b:iv)

Put!s ;ork a~ all times under the inspiration of expressing
eas o m erent mterest ... Moreover, it (the text] develo s
m the members o! a class a spirit of cooperation, and abilit lo
l~ta.d, both of which are essential characteristics of the fuiure
Cl 1zens of our country. (23c :iii)
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BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

Bullions (1834), whose grammar was claimed to be a rewriting or
an '"improvement" of Murray's, was the only one of the authors in this
study to state that R -bfe
· mmar text was to "render it a
'profitable i Ttroduction to classical studies (7 :v) . He went on to say:

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ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

.
·fts a mean_s of discipline nothing can compare with a training m t~e logical analysis of the sentence. To study thought·,
through its o_utward form, the sentence, and to discover the fitiliss of t~e different parts of the expression to the parts of the
ought, 1s to learn to think. (13a:7)
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While all languages differ from each other in their mode of
inflexion, and in some forms of expression peculiar to themselves, usually denominated idioms, their general principles are,
to a very great extent, the same. It would seem, therefore, to
be proper, in constructing grammars for different languages,
that the principles, so far as they are the same, should be arranged in the same order, and expressed as nearly as possible
in the same words. Were this carefully done, the study of the
grammar of one language would be a very important aid in the
study of another; . . . (7:v-vi)
In his attempt to carry out his idea of making a grammar more
useful in this respect, Bullions published a series of grammars, using
the same general arrangement of subject matter and the same terminology in all three. In this series were included his Principles of English
Grammar, a Greek grammar, and a Latin grammar.

Quite recently, Burleson and Cash (1939-1944) expressed thi s
aim in much the same way, but with a little more stress on developing
ability in future citizens than in building character. This is in keeping with the trends of the times.
The authors of this book have sought to make its exercises
definitely practical, believing such approach to be the most efficient in helping young people to think and express themselves
clearly while at school, and to work, later, with purpose and
competency in any field of endeavor. (27f:iv)
Hyde ( 1888-1896) was the first author in this study to state as one _
/"'Of the aims of her text that of cultivating an appreciation for good litera( ___ -ture (16a:iii). For a time this seemed to be rather popular as a purpose in teaching language. Scott and Southworth ( 1906) stated that
they attempted "to create a liking for good literature by presenting
worthy selections to be read, studied, copied, and learned" ( 18a :iii),
and later P earson and Kirchwey (1914) mentioned that the material included in their text was "designed to engender respect for the mother
tongue and sensitiveness to its beauty" (20a :v) . However, little more
was said about the subject in the texts studied until the Adventures in
English series (1939-1944) included among its objectives that of giving
guidance in literary appreciation (27c: iii). While this aim is perhaps
more nearly related to the teaching of reading than of language, in
many courses of study today reading and language are closely interwoven.
Although the theory of mental discipline was widely accepted during the latter part of the nineteenth century, and grammar was considered one of the principal subjects through which pupils could gain
growth in ability to think, only one or two of the texts included in this
study stres::;ed the point as one of their aims:

25

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Othe~ theories that were popular 'among educators a't one time or
another did not ~how up very clearly in the grammars studied, nor did

~he _auth~rs men_tJon that they were attempting to present their material
m !me with the ideas of these various groups.
On the whole, the trends toward -usability and understandability in
the texts were by far the most pronounced and the most consistent of
the purposes mentioned. They have been evident from the time when
grammar was taught purely as a technical and scientific subject to
the present time. Grammar study has now become language stud
subje~t useful in our daily living, and the main purpose of gram~a~
~each1~g has become that expressed by Burleson and Cash (1939-1944)
m their Adventures in English series:

Lang~age. is . more than sounds and symbols. Man has
br':athed ~nto 1t hfe and intelligence. The rhythm of creation
ammates it. The authors hope that ~his book will help the young
learner to sense t!rnt rhythm and give him confidence and competence to share increasingly in its power. (27b:iii)

-

..
Chapter III
Physical Make-up of the Books
THE first feature a person notices about a book is its general appearance, and therefore this phase of the analysis of grammar texts is
discussed before those of content and method. Some individuals see only
the .size of the book and the color and design of the cover when considering its more material characteristics. Others, however, notice also
such factors as size of print, use of illustrations, and so forth. In the
textbooks analyzed, all these points and others, too, have been studied,
as ~ach of them plays a part in determining the physical make-up of
the text.
Number of Volumes in Text
The earlier textbooks included grammar for "the different classes of
learners" (2 :title page ) within the covers of one volume. Although
authors sometimes mentioned that they had designed their texts for
young people, until the middle of the nineteenth century no evidence was
found of any actual distinction between the material offered for beginners
and that which was planned for older students.
Pinneo (1850) was the first author in the group studied to include the more elementary phases of grammar in one textbook and then
to prepare a separate t ext fo r more advanced students. However , in
the preface to the text analyzed in this study, Pinneo's Analytical
Grammar of the English Language, he stated that, while the book was
intended to succeed his Primary Grammar, it was · designed "to be complete in itself, and does not necessarily require a n acquaintance with its
predecessor, although such acquainta nce will essentially facilitate the
study with all learners, and with young pupils is especially impor tant"
(9:5).
At about the same time, Greene also made a distinction between
elementary and advanced students, although the t ext analyzed in this
study is not an example of a t wo-book series. In the preface to The
Elements of Engli.~ h Grammar (1853), Greene opened with the statement that "the design of this new wor k - for it is essentially new - is
to combine in one treatise all the distinguishing f eatures of the 'Analysis' and 'The First Lessons'" (lO:iii). In carrying out this statement,
he included in the front of the book 36 pages of material titled "Introductory Course for Beginners," with detailed instructions as to how
the subject matter should be presented by the teacher.
Among the texts included in this study, that written by Reed and
Kellogg (1875-1877) was the first to appear in two volumes, the one
designed for younger pupils and the other for the upper grades. A few
years later Hyde put out a two-book series, and, by the tu r n of the
century, most grammars designed for the elementary grades were
published in two or more volumes. The only texts included in this study
which appeared in only one volume after that date were that by Lewis \
and Lynch (1918) and that by Daringer (1938), both of which were i
designed for the upper grades only and have been included here be(26)

O NE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

27

cause they have been very popular as texts and because they cover
approxima~ely the same grammar teaching as do the other books
analyzed.
·
By 1923 authors were beginning to designate the exact material to
be taught in each separate grade. The ' Essential Language Habits
seri~s, which appeared at this time, and The Open Door Language
Series (1926-1928) and Daily-Life Language Series (1934), which followed, were published in three volumes each, with each volume designed
for two grades, Part 1 for the lower of the two grades and Part 2 for the
higher. These books were necessarily very long, the more advanced
volume of each series having more than 400 pages.
Although the last of these three series mentioned was put out in
three volumes, it contained a statement in the preface that it was
published "in a three-book and in a book-a-grade edition" (24a :iii).
This was therefore the first of the texts to take up with the six-book
organization of elementary grammar texts. Grammars put out in this
form were naturally easier to handle. This advantage and the fact that
children enjoy having a new book each year may have been the principal
reasons why the last two textbooks analyzed, Step by Step in English
and Adventures in English, were published in six volumes each, one for
each grade from the third through the eighth.
Size of Book
Length and breadth. - Although the range in length and width of
the books seems to indicate a · wide variation in size, with the exception
of two or three books, differences were minor. In fact, there was less
than an inch difference in either the length or the width of most of the
texts analyzed.
Comly's grammar (1805) was much the smallest of the books, 5%
· by 3%. inches, while the Step by Step in English series (1940-1941) was
the largest, 8 by 6 inches. Dilworth's and Murray's grammars, which were
published before Comly's, were also small, but only one other text was
less than 7 %. inches in length. In width, texts did not become standardized
until much later, however. None of the books was more than 5 inches
wide until the Hyde series in 1888-1896, but after this date all were
more than 5 inches wide and all but two were from 51h to 6 inches in
width.
Books within a series were almost always the same size. The only
significant difference was that in Reed and Kellogg's text (1875-1877) and
this was due to the fact that the two books used in this analysis were
from editions published several years apart. The only other series in
which there was any difference was that of Hyde (1888-1896), a
difference of less than a quarter of an inch each way.
Number Qlf pages. - The number of .p ages in each book has also become more or less standardized. This probably has been the result of
studies concerning the most convenient size of books. However, the
tendency toward standardization relates to individual books only. There
· was wide variation in number of pages in the texts when all volumes in a
;series were considered.

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BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

Although th e number of pages in the books ranged from 113 in
Tweed's ( 1886) to 485 in the advanced text in the Daily-Li/ e Language
Series ( 1!)34), almost all books contained between 200 and 250 pages.
The re was a slight trend toward including more pages to th e book,
though it was not very pronounced. Only four of the ea rli est 20 books
ha d more than 300 pages, while 12 of the la t est 20 had more than 300,
three of th ese having more than 400 pages each.
Texts published in more than one vo lume almost invariably contained more pages in the volumes for the upper grades, although the
difference was not great. On th e whole, the volumes with the largest
numbe1· of pages were the three-book series, in which work for two
separate grades was included . These contained from 1,000 to 1,200 pages,
when all three books were con s id ered, while the six-book series contained only from 1,600 to 1,800 pages.

)

Cover of Book

Material. 7 Leath er covered ca rdboard was a popular mater ial for
covering textl5ooks in the ea rly days. Three of the earl iest grammars
analyzed in thi s study were bound in lP.ather and s ix others had a
backbone of leather.
Paper covered cardboard came into use early in the nin eteenth
century and was very popular for a number of years. Of the analyzed
texts published during the first 65 years of that century, a ll except one
were covered in this way. Before the use of paper for covers we nt out
of vogue, textbook wri ters were taking advantage of the fact that it
could be eas ily printed , and books appeared with a great deal of information on th e ir outside covers.
Cloth, which was much more durable than paper, appeared first
in 1868 as a book covering among the texts studied. Cloth was evidently
found to be a very satisfactory material for this purpose, for it was used
on all t t b.fioks from that tim e to the present day.

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Color.
All th e leather covered texts were tan and, while attraci
ea rance, were not particul a rly interest ing o r in vi tin g to the
young mind. The paper covers of the ea rly days, too, were far from
gay, as th ere seemed to be an attempt n ot to stray too far from the
bro wns of the leather covers. Not one of the books with a paper cover
was in a color that would stand out as differ e nt on a s helf of books.
Some were tan, whil e oth e rs were dull gray, dusty r ose, or li g ht grayblue.
Even after cloth came into use, there still was a te nd e ncy to use
the traditional drab colors. None of the books appeared with a bright ,
cover until the late 1800's. Although the 18D3 edition (the one analyzed) '
of Reed and K ellogg's advanced text was in bright reel, no information '
was available as lo the culur uf lhe o rigin al eJilion ( 1877). ·wh ilney's
Essentials of English Grammar (1877) broke awa y from the pale dull
colors and was bound in dark gree n, w hile Tweed's (1886) appearer! in
a rather dark red. These were the first to use deepe r, richer colors.

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BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

Hyde was the first to use truly gay colors. Her elementary text appeared in a rich dark red and the advanced grammar in a turquoise
blue. Except for these, books were either dark or somber in color· until
about 1920. The Ess"ential Language Habits series (1923) appeared in
bright orange, and from that time on a good deal of color was used in
all texts.
In the earlier series, books were bound alike, with the exception of
the Reed-Kellogg series (1875-1877) and the Hyde series (18881896). However, as has been mentioned before, in both of these series,
the books analyzed were of different editions, a fact which may account for their difference in appearance.
The three books in the D aily-Life Language Series (1934) were
the first to appear in different colors in the same edition. These were in
gray-blue, tan, and rust, colors which blended nicely, so that the books
showed that they belonged together, yet were different enough to make
each stand out individually.
From this time on, color became very popular for textbook covers.
Daringer's text (1938) was in two shades of red; and each book in the
two six-book series appeared in a different color. Step by Step in English
(1940-1941) was in rather soft shades - a rosy cream, light blue, pale
green, and so forth, while Adventures in English (1939-1944) looked
more like the type of text its name indicates, with books in turquoise,
bright orange, clear yellow, vivid green, etc.
-~
Design. c__ Of the texts analyzed, the first to have any print on the
cover
s- th t by Smith (1832). This gave only the name of the book,
au or, and publisher, with a narrow scrolled border around the edge.
After 1845, however, when the first text with a picture on the front appeared, no other texts had plain covers.
Pictures on early covers always concerned school situations. Butler
(1845) used a picture of a schoolmaster lecturing to his students, with
several kinds of print above and below the sketch, some rather large and
startling. The cover of Keri's text (1864) was also well covered with
print and pictures, as can be seen in Figure 2.
Pinneo's Analytical Grammar of the English Language (1850) and
Greene's Elements of English Grammar (1853) had plain borders but
no pictures. Instead, they were almost entirely covered with print.
Greene included the name of the series, the title of the text, a very long
and detailed subtitle taking nine lines as it was set up, the name of the
author, his degrees and title in his present position, the name of the
publisher and place of publication, and the names and addresses of 11
other firms, probably places where printing was done or material distributed for Cowperthwa!t, Desilver, and Butler.
Harvey's grammar (1868), which was the first to have a cloth
cover, brought to an abrupt end the fad of giving extensive information on the cover. No print was attempted on the cover to this text,
but a border design was made by pressing the cardboard filling in a
scroll design.
About this time decorative borders became very popular. Some
books were very ornate in this respect, with a boxed section in which

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

31

\I

(approximately one fourth size)

Fig. 3.

I

Inside covers of recent texts.

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the title and author of the book were given. Later, the design was used
only at the top and bottom of the page. Tweed's text (1886) was an
excellent example of this style, the border being about an inch wide.
However, border designs did not continue to be popular for long, and
covers became more simple and more interesting. On some only the title
of the book and the author were given; on others even less information
than this.
In more recent texts an effort has been made to use more ·originality
in designing covers. On the Essential Language Habits series (1923)
was a picture of two scribes with large quill pens, one on either side of a
portal; the covers of The Open Door Language Series (1926-1928) were
made to look like hinged doors, and.other texts used a small decorative
sketch of some kind. The Step by Step in English series (1940-1941) put
only the name of the text (the name of each volume in the series was
different) on the cover; printed in script.

.

On the covers of almost all the early texts the print was in black,
although now and then gold was used on the backbone when it was made
of leather. Gold was the first color, also, to be used in printing the front
cover, but it was not until after the beginning of the twentieth century
that anything but black was used for this purpose. About the same time
that Robbins and Row (1907) used gold, Pearson and Kirchwey (1914)
published a text whose covers were printed in bright red, and from this
time on colored ink was used rather extensively. In the Daily-Li/ e Language Series (1934) and in the Adventures in English series (1939-1944)
colors were used to make similar or identical designs look different.
While no design appeared on the cover of the Step by Step in English
series (1940-1941), the name of the book on each volume was enlivened
. ·with a deep blue purple ink instead of black.

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BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

33

Back cover. - The very early books had plain back covers but, with
the advent of paper-covered cardboard for material, it became popular
to use this space for printing a great deal of advertising. Sometimes
other books written by the same author were listed, and sometimes other
texts in the same series or other publications of the publisher were
given. With the advent of cloth-covered covers, however, backs again became plain and, except for a small publisher's symbol or a very simple
border to correspond with that on the front , practically none of the
backs contained either printing or design.
Inside cover. - In the days when extensive and detailed information
was printed on the covers of texts, this material was sometimes carried
over to the inside cover. Kerl 's grammar ( 1864), however, was the only
one of the texts included in this study to follow this procedure. On the
whole, inside cove.r s were plain, but with the present tendency to make
textbooks as attractive and colorful as possible, interesting inside covers
are coming into favor. The only two texts to decorate their inside covers
were the two most recently published (see Figure 3). The earlier of the
two used a conventional tulip design, corresponding in color with that of
the outside covers of the books. Each book in the other series had a
different drawing in color, symbolic of the learning of correct English.
In all books, the front and back inside covers were alike.
Appearance of Page
. Wide differences were found in the general attractiveness of the
printed page in these texts. Since students were not required to attend school or to learn grammar in the early days covered by this
study, grammars were written primarily for those who were already
interested in the subject. The subject matter, therefore, was of much
greater importance than the physical form in which it was presented.
Authors crowded as much material as possible on each page, almost in
encyclopedic form, with little thought as to its appearance or even as to its
readability. Later, however, when it became necessary to attract the
child's attention as well as to present the subject matter, much thought
was given to the appearance of the page.
Margins. - Increase in the width of margins was, of course, a
contributing factor in the improvement of grammars. Early texts had
very narrow margins. In two or three of the books studied, the top and
side margins were not more than a quarter of an inch in width and the
lower margin was only about half an inch. Lower margins in the more
recent texts, however, increased to from three quarters to more than an
inch and side margins averaged about three quarters of an inch. Because of these differences, the size of the printed page has not varied
much. Brown's text (1823) and Smith's (1832), for example, had almos;t as many square inches of print per page as had the most recently
published of the texts, although the proportions of the page were slightly
different, the more modern pages being broader and somewhat shorter.
Size of type. - The early books contained far more print to the page
than did later texts, because the size of type was so much smaller (see

(one half size)

Examples of old and new textbook pages, showing differences
in size of print and general appearance of the page.

..

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Figure .4). It was ~ot uncommon for them to have as many as 10 Jines
to the mch, averaging about 120 words in a one-inch strip across the
, ~age, and most of them had at least seven lines (70 words) to the
mch. Footnotes or notes inserted in the text were sometimes even
smaller than this. In Brown's (1823) and Smith's (1832) grammars
~ome notes were as small as 15 or 16 lines (250 to 275 words) · to the
mch, and ~ere very difficult to read without a magnifying glass.
The size of type was often used to indicate different kinds of
material. Comly (1805), for example, stated that "such parts as appear most necessary to be committed to memory are exhibited in a
l~rger type" ( 3: 3 ), and Bullions ( 1834) explained in the preface to
his boo~ that "very young pupils, or mere beginners at any age should
be _.requi~·ed to study only the leading parts which are generall; disting~1shed rn .the Grammar by a large1· type" (7:viii). Greene (1853) used
d1fferen~ s1~es of type in much the same way as did Bullions, stating
clearly m his preface that "the paragraphs in large type are intended
as a fi~s t conrse, to be committed to memory by the learner. The Remarks 111 smaller type are intended as a second course for the more
advanced pupil" (lO:viii).
No mention was made in the texts to the effect that the use of
l~rger type for the younger children was the result of actual educational research. Perhaps it came only as the result of a discovery by

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BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

35

teachers that children read the larger type and ofte"n skipped the smaller.
However, the increased use of larger type apparently brought to the attention of book makers the fact that frequent insertions of small type
had a "deadening" effect on the appearance of the page. Then, too, by
the middle of the nineteenth century authors were beginning to present their grammar in a continuous building up from one item to the
next, and the use of different sizes of type tended to break the continuity of thought they desired.
In the grammars of the last half century, those for the lower grades
often had only about five lines ( 45 to 50 words) to the inch, and even
the more advanced books in the series seldom had more than six lines
to the inch. Standardization in this respect has been brought about
partly through experimentation as to the size of type most easily read
and partly, as has been said, through a desire on the part of textbook
writers to make the pages of their books look uncrowded and inviting.

'\I

Kind of type. - The kind of type also had a great deal to do with
readability. Up to the early part of the nineteenth century italics was
very popular and, although the main part of a book was written in
Roman type, rules, definitions, and stressed words or ·sentences were
almost always printed in italics. Dilworth (1740) went so far as to
print his entire four-page preface in this kind of type.
Greene (1853) used italics in somewhat the same way as early
writers used small type. He stated that he "thought it best to indicate
the prominent idea in the paragraphs to be committed to memory by
Italics, rather than to insert printed questions" (10 :viii). However,
it was ·not long after this that much of the italics in textbooks was supplanted by bold-face Roman type. According to Kerl (1864), "bold-face
type, which we were the first to adopt for school-books, in 1858, has
been since adopted almost universally for such books" (11 :66). It is
still very popular, the most recently published of the texts analyzed,
Adventures in English (1939-1944), having used it to set forth all the
rules and principles in the books to aid in efficient teaching and rapid
review.
In general, Roman type has been used for headings in texts throughout the period covered by this study. Sometimes this was in light face,
sometimes in bold. In the earlier years headings were almost always
in capitals, some large and some small, but a few of the recent texts
have used capitals and lower case in bold face for their lesser headings.
Another kind of type, Tempo, which has recently become very popular because of its simplicity and greater readability, was used for the
principal headings in Daringer's Grammar for Everyday Use (1938).
Daringer also varied her headings by setting chapter and subdivision
heads flush with the left-hand margin instead of centering them. Her
headings were short and concise and had an unusually large amount of
space around them, the neatness and openness of the page making the
book very inviting.
Spacing of material. - A great deal of progress has been made in
this respect. In the old texts one of the greatest drawbacks to making

(approximately .three tenths size)

Fig. 5.

:

Chapter heads in old and new texts.

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the books attractive was that of leaving too little space between items.
The page had a crowded, cluttered appearance that was confusing to
the re~der. One ~tern followed another in such close proximity that it
was difficult at times to tell that the subject matter had changed, and
new chapters began immediately following the close of the preceding
chapter rather than at the top of the :following page (see Figure 5).
In the newer texts far more open space was provided. Headings
were not cr~wded'. space was left between topics and even between paragraphs dealmg with the same topic, so that each point stood out clearly.
Chap~ers a~ways began on a new page, and in the Step by Step in
English senes (1940-1941) there was even a title page for each chapter.
Illustrations. - Another. means of making books more attractive
r ustrations. Surprisingly, the earliest of the texts
analyzed, Dilworth's (1740), was well illustrated with what were probably wood cuts. The author's picture was in the front of the text, several chapter headings were decorated, and toward the end of the book a
' number of fables were illustrated. Up to the time of Reed and Kellogg,
135 years later, no other text studied included pictures, except that now
and then a letter form was illustrated. Hyde (1888-1896) was the only
other author before the beginning of the twentieth century to enliven a
text with illustrations, but after that date pictures were found in almost
all the texts.
At first the only illustrations included were for instructional purposes. In composition, pupils were sometimes asked to write a story
about a picture with a human interest element of some kind, while in
letter writing, the illustrations usually concerned the spacing and arrangement of the parts of a letter or of the address on an envelope.
The idea of illustrating grammars expanded to include many other
types of material. Clever ideas for illustrating rules or definitions were

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BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

used as teaching aids; maps, charts of various kinds, cartoons, and _so
forth were used in discussions of different topics; and the last two series
of grammars analyzed contained many illustr~tions for the sole purpose
of making the books more cheerful and attractive.
The Robbins-Row series ( 1907) was the first to introduce color
into its illustrations, but only a few of the books analyzed used more
than one color and black and white, except in the case of one or two fullpage colored pictures in some of the texts.
The only grammar to use a great deal of color was ~he Ste~ by
Step in English series ( 1940-1941), which included many illustrations,
both· in color and in black and white. Some of these ext ended to the
edges of the page, leaving no margins, the book as a whole bein g very
bright and attractive.
The Adventure.~ in English series (1939-1944), which was the most
recent one analyzed used only one or two colors in each book for most
of its illustrations. This may not have been the origi~al in~ention of ~he
authors as the war started during the time that this series was bemg
publish~d and war shortages may have made it. nec~ssary to keep to a
more simple printing job. The quality of paper 111 this last set of books
showed the effect of the war.
Attractiveness of Book as an Interest
of Authors and Publishers
Although in many old textbooks statements were carried to the
effect that the author or publisher had attemped to make the book as
attractive as possible from a physical point of view, none of the older
grammars analyzed happened to contain any comment of not~ concern ing the make-up of the text. The constant improvement found m the a~­
pearance of the texts was almost the only evidence of interest taken 111
this matter, but the change from th e dull, uninviting grammars of
the past, with their small type and crowde~ pages, to ~he. gayly ~olor~d
books of today, with their easily read print and their mteresbng illustrati ons, is sufficient proof that there has been a _very real desire on
the part of both authors and publishers to make their books more readable and more attractive.

Chapter IV
Introductory and Supplementary Content
~~~--\·

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Introductory Content
IN THE front of every textbook, in fact of every book, there are several pages given. over to information that concerns the book but is not
an actual part of its subject matter. These pages usually include the
title page, the preface, and the table of contents. Sometimes, but not
often, other material was also found in this part of the texts.
Title page. - Judging by the grammars analyzed, a title page has
always been considered a vital ·part of a textbook, as every one of the
grammars studied included one. The information given on this page,
however, has become very much simplified through the years.
Some of the title pages in old textbooks were almost entirely
covered with print, much of it very small (see Figure 6). At the top
of the page was the name of the textbook series to which the text belonged. It seems that publishers in those days put out their educational
publications under a series title, textbooks in all subjects being included under this title. This use of the term "series" is very different
from that in modern grammars which included only the volumes designed for the various grade levels of a certain text.
Below the series name was the ti tie- of the book, followed by the
subtitle, which sometimes took a great deal of space. Then came the
author's name, his degrees, his present position, and the names of the
more prominent of the books he had written. This statement was sometimes followed by a quotation, either in Latin or in English, or by the
edition of the book being printed, or by both. At the bottom of the page
were given the name of the publisher, the addresses of his various distribution offices, and sometimes the date of publication.
By the middle of the nineteenth century, textbook authors had begun to realize that this very uninteresting, scholarly looking page was
not encouraging to the pupil, especially to the one who did not enjoy
studying. They therefore enlivened title pages a little by leaving out
some of the information or by transferring it to another page. The
· dropping of subtitles brought about a big improvement in . the ap. pearance of the page. Quotations were omitted, as also were names
'' of additional publications, the various addresses of the publisher; and
sometimes even the date.
·
In 1914 the Pearson-Kirchwey series added to the attractiveness
of the title page by placing a full-page colored picture facing it. One
'or two other texts, including the most recently published, adopted. this
idea also. The Step by Step in English series (1940-1941) used the very
!>riginal idea of having the title page cover both sides of the spread page.
n attractive picture in several colors extended from the left-hand
page
over on the right-hand
one, while some of the information was
I
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BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

given on the left-hand page. In this series only the series title, the
book title, the names of the authors, and the name of the publisher
were given on the title page.
Title of text. - Through the
years there has been a comparative
uniformity in the titles of grammar texts. The formality of the
earlier texts sometimes led to a
rather sedate sounding title, s uch
as Dilworth's A N ew Guide to the
English Tongue (1740), but on the
whol e there was a st raightfor wa rdness a nd simplicity about t he t itl es
that led to a same ness th ro ugh the
first century covered by this study.
Onl y fi ve of the texts publisher!
durin g this time failed to use the
term "English grammar" in their
main titles. Murray (1795) and
Kirkham (1823) included no other
wonls in their titles, hut other
authors indicated that the ir texts
covered the "institutes," "prin. 1s "
ciples," "elements," or "essen t ia
of English grammar.
Comly catered to those who
were seeking an easier way of
learning their grammar by giving
his text the title English Gr1111mna1·
(o ne ha lf size)
Made Easy to the T eacher and
Fig. 6. Title page of an old text.
Pupil (1805), and Kerl, much

·subtitle of tex t. - Th e style of su btitl es t o texts h as un dergone
mu dl' m or e ch a nge than has th a t of th e m a in t itl es. I n t he ea r ly days
covPr ed by th is st ud y, t ex t s us uall y had very long a nd de tail ed subtitl es. The most extreme of these was that of Dilworth (1740) , who se
book was published half a century before the opening of the 150-yea r
period of t his a nal ys is. This subtitl e gave almost as much information
as is often found in the table of contents, and perh a ps was plann ed for
this purpose, since the book did not include a table of contents.

th
dd d the term "practical" to the title of Butler's
In 1845 au ors a e
t h If
century also
text, and two or three other grammars in the nex
a a

impo;~:n~:~t~e:t~oa

;;ede1an~

\

'

'"
.1

~

li

1
;~

I
'

•

~

;/-~

\

A

mair (1864) .

~~;~a~eu:h:r;v~:ere

\

(1918) and Daringer (1938) followed Hyde's example, and the. title
to the Essential Language Habits series (1923) was also worded in
such a way as to stress the same idea.
It was not until the last 20 years , covered by this study that titles
to grammars began to take on life and briginality. About this time The
Open Door Language Series (1926-1928) used a title supposed to invite stud ents to look into the tex t, that of Daily-Life Lan,qiw.qe S eries
(1934) emphasi zed the prac ticality of its grammar, and that of A rfvent nrcs in Engli:;h (1939-1944) tried to make the series attractive from
the point of view of opening up new experi en ces in English for the
pupils.

. ·1 a1. th·mg m
. A Shorter Course in English Gramlater, attempted a s1m1

used this word.
"
" · A Practical
Butler was also th ~ first to use the w~rd lan~uaJi~ ~~t allow it to
Grammar of the English Language (184u).' b~t e
b t the time
h
d " rammar " This change m title came a ou
gfirst giving evidence that th ey were becoming con.
f the fact that ability to use the grammar learned was even more
~c1ous o
knowledge of scientific grammar alone.
use the term "English" in the title ':'.ithout includ.
"th r the word "grammar" or the word "language was that of
K ellogg (1875-1877). The use of the term "English" was very
. th early 1900's and again very recently, but between about
I
popu and
ar m1940e most of the texts used the wor d "I anguage " instead . The
1920
"
h"ch
1 had been such a favorite in the early days,
word "grammar, w
bi " h d ft 1896
.
d . th main title of only two of the texts pu IS e a er
was use m
e
b ·
t · the text
H d ( 1888-1896) was the first author to nng ou . m
Y e the idea of teaching grammar f or " use. " Lewis and Lynch
book title

39

•

NEW GUIDE
TO THE
ENGLISH TONGUE:
In Five Parts.
CONTAINING
I. Words, both common and
II. A la rge and useful Table
proper, from one to six
of Words, that are the
Syllables: The sever a I
same in Sound, but dilTersorts of Monosyllables in
ent in Signification; very
the common Words being
necessary to prevent the
distinguished by Tables,
writing of one Word for
into Words of two, three,
another of the same Sound.
and four Letters, &c. with
III. A short, but comprehensix short Lessons at the
sive, Grammar of the EngEnd of each Table, not exlish Tongue, delivered in
ceeding the order of Sy!the most familiar and inlables in the foregoing
structive Method of QuesTables. The several sorts
tion and Answer; necesof Polysyllables also, being
sary for all such Persons
ranged in proper Tables,
as have the Advantage
have their Syllables dionly of an English Eduvided, and D i re c ti o n s
cation.
placed at the Head of each
IV. An useful Collection of
Table for the Accent, to
Sentences on Prose and
prevent false PronunciaVerse, Divine, Moral, and
tion; together with the like
His·torical; together with a
Number of Lessons on the
select Number of Fables
foregoing Tables, placed
adorne'd with proper
at the End of each Table,
Sculptures, for the better
as far as to Words of four
Improvement of the Young
Syllables, for the easier
Beginners. And,
and more speedy Way of
V. Forms of Prayer for Chilteaching Children to read.
dren, on several Occasions.
The Whole being recommended, by several Clergymen and eminent Schoolmasters, as the most useful Performance for the
Instruction of Youth. (1: title page)

,.i

~

40

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

More than half of the other analyzed grammars published before
1850 had long subtitles. Kirkham's English Grwmmar ( 1823), for example, was typical:
In familiar lectures, accompanied by. a compendium; er~f
bracing a new systematick order of parsmg, a new sy~te~. 0 _
punctuation exercises in false syntax, and a system o P ~·
so hical gr~mmar, in notes: to which are added an appen ix,
a~ a key to the exercises, designed for the use of schools and
private learners. ( 4 :title page)

1

Besides listing the principal phases of the content of the texts,
these long subtitles almost invariably included a statement as to the
type of pupils for whom the text was ?repared. In t~e early days, school~
were not common and in many localities students did n~t have a~ oppor
tunity to attend. It was necessary, therefore, for those without this ~ppor­
tunity to study alone or possibly with a tutor, if such were available.
It wa~ to the advantage of authors to write texts that co~ld
used
without the aid of a teacher; and authors often stated, as did K1rk~am,
that their grammars were planned "for the use of schools and pnvate

?e

learners."
But it was not only schools that were scarce in the early days; suitable textbooks for those attending school also were hard to get. Some
authors wrote their own, making their books available, of ~ourse, :o
other teachers. Comly ( 1805) was one of these. In the subtitle to his
text he stated that it was "originally compiled for the u se of West-Town
Boarding School Pennsylvania" (3 :title page) . This was good advertising. If the school was good, the book would sell, and if the book was
good, the school received a better name from those who knew the text.
As schools increased in number, and the majority of children began
to attend, books were no longer designed for "private learner.s." How-.

ever, authors continued to mention that their texts. were designed fo1
schools or for use in the school room. With the commg of the two-book
series, more specific info1mation was given concerning the grade level
of students for whom the books were planned.
About the middle of the century subtitles began to lose their popularity. Some grammars went so far as to omit them entire~y, .and those
that continued their use made them very short. By the be~mnmg of the
twentieth century, subtitles had been dropped almost ent1rely.
Reed and Kellogg, whose grammar was the earl~est one analyzed that
was published in more than one volume, called their elementa:y volume
Graded Lessons in English (187 5) and their advanced text, Hi.gher Les. E
l" / (1877) All the other series of texts, however, either gave
sons in ng is i
·
.
·
h
a common name to the separate books or used a senes name, with eac
book having an individual title. In many cases this t.it~e was merely t~e
grade designation or the number identi~ying the p?s1tion of the book ~~
relation to the other volumes in the series, as mentioned above. ~he firs.
series to use an individual title on each volume was the Robbins-Row ·
.·
(1907) , but the titles were very simple and matter-of-fact,
Book
settes
..
One being l,nnuua 11 e, and Buol.- Two , (;rmnmar and Composition.

41

In only three texts were different titles given to each volume; but
in each series an improvement was made over the one before in the
amount of imagination shown in naming the books. The last series to
use this plan was the Step by Step in Etiglish series (1940-1941), which
used titles in keeping with the age and interest of the child; beginning
with Fun with Words for the third grade and ending with Strength
Through English for the eighth.
Preface. - Although every text included material that could logically
fall under the heading of "Preface," and most books so termed it, a few
of the authors substituted what they called an "Introduction" or included,
either as a part of the preface or in place of it, a few paragraphs titled
"Suggestions to the Teacher" or "To the Pupil."
Prefaces ranged in length from one to five pages; the only exceptions being that of Brown's Institutes of English Grammar ( 1823), which
was ten pages long, and that of Greene's Elements of English Grmnmar
(1853), which covered six pages. The more recently published books had
shorter prefaces, only one since 1914 giving more than three pages to
this part of the text. In this study the volumes in recent series have been
considered individually in dete1mining the length of prefaces. Since in
some series this section of the book was repeated in toto and in others
in part in the different volumes, the sum of pages given to such material
in all the books of a series did not give a true picture of the relative
amount of di scussion of this kind. On the whole, much Jess repetition
was found in the more recently published series. In some of them, in
fact, there was no repetition whatever.
,
One of the principal items found discussed in prefaces was that of
of the textbooks. These have been discussed in more detail
in
apte · II of this analysis. Other points brought out were those of
justification for the book or phases of its content, the source of information used as a basis for the content, an explanation of the organization
of ~aterial, a discussion of the method of presentation of material, suggestions as to the most advantageous ways of using the text, and the
grades for which the text was designed.
Throughout the years, authors have justified the writing of a grammar text by pointing out the needs which it would fill. Dilworth ( 17 40)
included such a statement in his text, but, like those in most of the older
grammars, it emphasized the wrongs being committed and the obligation
the author felt for correcting these. He said in part:
As all Learning gradually ascends from the first Knowledge and use of Letters, Syllables, and Words, what better Work
can the Instructor of Youth undertake than endeavour to propagate the Knowledge, prevent and rectify the Mistakes and root
out .the ill Habits contracted by many in a wrong Metl~od, either
thro' the Ignorance or neglect of the Teacher. (1 :A2)
In recent books authors have said the same thing but presented it
from a much friendlier and more constructive point of view. There was
no longer the implication of great error or Jack on the part of the pupil.

I

43

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

42

BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

lread had a start in learning the
.
The assumption was th.at t~e child af En ~ish that he felt the need for
things he should know m his s.tufdy o t' g r ~uggestions the text could
e any 1n orma 10n o
help and wou ld we1com
. h'm all the assistance posauthor
wanted to give 1
't
h
t
t
th
provide, _an d
a
e .
.
.
( 1939 _1944) explained how 1
sible. The Adventures in English series
could help the student as follows:
·1 . h. study of English in six
The book a~vanc~s the pup1 m h~ve something to say and
ways - by helping him, namely, to
in speech to listen intel't
ll to avoid common errors
'
d b
h'ch
to say 1 we • .
t
develop
critical
standar s Y w 1
ligently, to w~·1te c1e~:1y, ? tures and radio programs, and to
to judge stones, mo w;i p1.c
d'
(27e:iii)
gain greater skill and JOY m rea mg.
. . d the s ace given to certain phases of
Sometimes authors Just1fie
pf
ch material. Goold Brown
content, pointing out the advantages o su
( 1823 ), for example, stated that:

.
. False Syntax is inserted in
A Key to the Oral Exer?lises in be 'enabled fuhy ,to prepare
the Grammar, that the pup1 mart fons
(5·xii)
himself for that kind of class rec1 a i
.
.
. the reface of their text, listed
Reed and Kellogg (1875-187l) '.in
~uch space to the study of
three good reasons why they ha given so
the sentence.
d t th entence is necessary' because
The large space allo.tte 0 ~rds are many and diverse, and
(1) the offices and relations of w analysis and synthesis bethey must be mastered byd tood. (2) because Arrangefore the inflectionJ. c;n b~ t~: ~~~atim;s of clauses in the comment must be stu ie • an t
ust be understood in order to
plex and t~e compound sen ~~~~n:s of expression; and ~3) ~e­
secure vanety, force, and C:l
t express the subordmat10n
. rea d'in g ' the pup1h canno
,
cause, m
. de endent
and the co-or d'mat'10 n
of the dependent clause to. t ~ m p detect the relation of these
of independent clauses, till e can
elements at a glance. (13b:5)

i

.,.\

.
4) were also among those who gave an ~
Pearson and Kirchwey (191
t
certain phase of content,
·
f
th emphasis they pu on a ·
h
h ·
explanat10n or
e .
.
't bly learn the language t roug
saying that "since ch1ldr:n mus~ me:1 a throughout the book to oral
the spo k en wor d , P rommence is given
work" (20a :v).
h
f
.
.
.
f content took also anot er orm,
In the older texts, JUst1ficatlon o
d . the texts. As Brown
. . · t1
. e of statements ma e m
. ,;
that of g1v111g 1e some
t db
uthority is indeed mere fiction !
(1823) said, "Grammar unsupport ~ pye;sons we~·e recognized as well. ) I the early days cer am
. t
(5 :1v . n
.
rammar, and textbook authors m erinformed leaders. m the ~eld ?:h gthe authenticity of their texts often .
ested in hnpressing.· peop ~ w1 horn the had obtained the facts given . .
named the grammanans f10mh"'. . . forr:ation many of the books gave "
In explaining the source of ft
mntemporar,ies, while Murray himself
d't to Murray or to one o is co .
'
~~~l~ded such statements as the following:

:.JI

The rules and observations respecting Perspicuity, &c. con- /~£
tainei:I in the Appendix, and which are, chiefly, extracted from
~::;
the writings of Blair and Campbell, will, it is presumed, form a
proper addition to the Grammar-, (2:5)
,
,0
As the content of grammar texts became more simplified, the back. ing of technical grammarians grew less important, and consensus of
opinion on a certain phase of the work was given more weight. Brown
(1823) was among the first to state in his preface that he had attempted
to find out what others thought should be included in a grammar textbook. He stated that:
He [the author] has studiously endeavoured to avail himself
of all the light they have thrown upon the subject. For his own
information, he has carefully perused more than two hundred
English grammars, . . . (5:iv)
This plan of Brown's in determining the content to be included in
a grammar text is still in favor today, as is evidenced by such statements
as the following, found in the Adventure.s in Engli.sh series (1939-1944):
.The materials in this book, the methods of presentation, and
the basic philosophy behind it are fruits of long experience
in the classroom. They also represent the careful appraisal and
winnowing of authoritative courses of study. (27a:iii)
Murray ( 1795) realized the problems involved in writing a grammar
acceptable to all when he said, in the preface of his text:
The subject is attended with so much intricacy, and admits
of views so various, that it was not possible to render every part
of it unexceptionable; or to accommodate the work in all respects, to the opinions and prepossessions of every grammarian
and teacher. If the author had adopted that system which, on
the whole, is best suited to the nature of the subject, and conformable to the sentiments of the most judicious grammarians;
if his reasonings and illustrations, respecting particular points,
are founded on just principles, and the peculiarities of the English language; he has, perhaps, done all that could reasonably
be expected in a work of this nature; and he may warrantably
indulge a hope, that the book will be still more extensively approved and circulated. (2:8)
Misunderstandings would probably have been less numerous had it
. not been for the fact that grammarians delved so deeply into the intricacies of technical construction. Such matters were of vital concern to the
.' early students of grammar, and controversies were common even as late
as 1864, when Kerl wrote his Shorter Course in English Grammar. However, by this time the discussion had come to center in the type of content to be induded in the texts and the method of presentation rather
'• than around the more detailed technicalities of the subject. Kerl commented on these differences of opinion in the preface of his text:
'I

BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

44

The great diversity of opinion, on the subject in general,
is certainly something to amuse, if not dishearten, the man who
undertakes to make a new grammar. What one teacher approves,
another condemns; and what proves a failure with one, is a success with another. (11 :3)
Even as recently as the early 1900's authors were criticizing other
men's grammars, inferring in their criticism that the weaknesses pointed
out had been corrected in their own texts. Robbins and Row (1907)
objected particularly to the kind and amount of grammar included in
elementary textbooks in a statement made in the preface to their .text:

Th e mo st prevalent, serious rnistalce, in this- connection
(t eaching of English grarnmar in elementary schools) has been
the attempt to teach grammar too early in the school. c?urse.
English grammar is a highly abstract s~ience, be~au se it 1s the
study of thought expressed in symbols. 'I h e analysis o~ language
is, therefore, the analysis of thought an_d the modes of its expression. Grammar has been called the logic of the common schools.
A second common error in text-bvolcs on grammar
fvr elementary schools has been t!~e attempt to teach too n~uc_h;
that is, to analyze elements too mmutel y, to tease. out ?ve1-mce
distinctions and, hence, to make unnecessary class1ficat10ns. Important fundamental conceptions have been obscured by the i:iass
of details. The really vital problems have been treated 1.r: a
superficial way, and the result, commonly, has been confus10n,
misapprehension, and often disgust with the very name "grammar." (19b:3)
In
stated.
on the
cerned

later books adverse criticism was often inferred rather than
Such inference usually was found in constructive comments
advantages of the book being prefaced. Sometimes these conthe organization of the text, as in the following:

The use of the natura l unit is a unique feature. The conventional synthetic unit is avoided. The nat1;1ral unit !s ~he only
unit for language study. It is not confined m an artificial compartment held together only by a label. It reaches t? eve~y part
of the course and joins tissues with every other umt. It is both
structural and functional.
Such an Qrganization leads the pupil to !eel the vitality_ of
language. It makes his study a vital p_a:t of his everyday affairs.
At the same time it captures the spirit of adventure, and traditional obstacles become challenges to discovery.
From the teacher's point of view, the natural unit has every
advantage. it permits flexibility of emphasis; ~nsured adaptability to variable c?ndi tions. of l~cale and. teach mg circumstance;
and guarantees mterest m drill for skill as a natural part of
creative endeavor. (27b:iii)
A discussion of the organization of a text sometimes led to an
explanation of the method to be used by the t eacher ii; presenting the ,
material; for example, The Open Door Language Series (1926-1928),
in a section of the preface entitled "Brief Suggestions to Teachers,"
gave general directions as to the method to be used:

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

45

Encourage pupils to take initiative in the work and to feel
responsibility for their own progress. Use the tests and the
composition score to help them in measuring their work.
See that the work in conversation and composition is done
under the stimulus of communicating ideas but prevent aimless
talking. Each lesson should be both an e~pression of '.thought
and a training in form. (23b :iv)
One other type of information, the grade or grades for which the
book was designed, was found rather generally in the prefaces. Since the
grading of grammars was not started until about the middle of the
150-year period covered by this study, the early grammars analyzed
stated only that they were designed for "all classes of learners" ( 5: iii),
"for the use of the more advanced scholar, as well as of the mere beginner" • ( 7 :viii), or for "the schoolroom" (11:4). However, after texts
began to appear in more than one volume, authors were more specific
in naming the grades for which their books were planned. Many stated
in the opening sentence of the preface that the book was designed for
"grade · three" or "grades seven and eight." With the exception of one
or two of the more recent texts, the preface of almost every grammar
after 1890 contained this information.
Acknowledgment. - Few authors failed to acknowledge the help
they had received from other grammarians, from teachers, and from
publishers in the development of their texts. In some books, the acknowledgment was given in the preface, but in more recent texts it was·
often printed on a separate page, immediately following the preface.
Table of contents. - Only three of the grammars contained no table
of contents, and all these were published within the first 40 years
' covered by this analysis. Three other texts contained an alphabetized
index in the front of the book instead of a chronological list of the
contents, but the other 21 grammars had at least one page in each volume
given to a table of contents.
·
This material was given from 1 to 14 pages of space in each book,
with the earlier texts giving it less space than the later ones. Of the
13 grammars published before 1875, 11 gave it two pages or less; but
during the next 60 years there was a strong tendency to make the
table of contents very detailed. During this time the average length of
such material was six pages. More recently the trend has been away
from long tables of contents and in the last three series analyzed only
about four pages in each volume were given to them .
The organization and arrangement of subject matter in the grammars showed up more clearly in the tables of contents than in any other
part of the books (see Figure 7). Most of the early texts were divided
, into four main sections usually ealled parts, coverinm onnog!'ap y,
tymology, syntax, and prosody. These were subdivided into numbered
chapters, each part being numbered separately. Murray's English
Grarnrnar (1795) was typical in this respect. Under orthography were
three chapters, "Of the Letters" (2 :13) , "Of Syllables, . . . " (2:35),

.r

!.

r.'

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

46

Tlw Dog That Wouldn't Swim
Talking about Pets
E1~oyi~g Poe~ about ...\1~lino.ls
Tt-llin~ Stotiri ;bout Pets

_writir~~ /\bpti\.rc15

Asking QµC.nio:Ti~
Csh1g ls, :\rt. aild Am C.Ofrectly

Pian.<fur ;r'et
,.\ nnouncin2

Sho;-

the Show

(one half >ize)

Fig. 7.

.ng arrangement and organization of
Tables of con t en t s, Showl
topics in grammars of various periods.

and "Of Words in General, ... " (2 :37) . Under et~ology the numbe~­
ing began anew and a separate chapter was used to mtroduce each pa1t
of speech, and so on.
this
.
Of the texts analyzed, Harvey's (1868) was the. 1ast to us~
traditional four-part organization. About 15 years earlier tha~ t~1s the
idea of using "lessons" or "studies" instead of chapte:·s was mboduced
and apparently proved very practical, for it was qmckly adopted and
has been in use ever since. Some books contained as many as 100 to 200
lessons which in general, seemed to have been planned to take up abo.ut
e cla~s hour' each. There was no consistency about the type of material
on
'th'
· 1 book In some lessons
included in these, however, even w1 m a smg e
:
.
.
new material was presented, in some were oral or written exercises, m
some reviews or tests, and in some, poems, or puzzles, or games.
While the idea of having a text divided into chapters was never
entirely discarded, it seemed to lose its popularity around the turn of
the century. Later, however, from the time The Open Door Langua~e
Series (1926-1928) was published to the end of the study, all except o e .
of the texts analyzed divided each volume into chapters and each chapter
into lesso
or studies.
The wording of headings changed through the years to sue 11 an
. h d · 1800 and one published in 1940
extent that a grammar pu bl is e m
would hardly be recognized from the table of contents as covering the
same subject matter.
.
.
In the earliest of the texts studied, one of the favon~e ways. m
which section and chapter titles were worded was that of 1~troduc111g
·
'th th
rd "of" as seen in the chapter headmgs from
the topic w1
e
•
.
.
Murray's text given above. Although this style of wordmg did not con.
·
' very long after the beginning of the nineteenth century,
tmue m vogue
A
very direct, clear, unimaginative titles were used for many years. mong
,.iiI

47

these were such headings as "Adverbs, definition and use of" (7:xi),
"Interrogative Sentences" ( 10: xi), and "Declension of Personal
Pronouns" (15 :2).
The Hyde series (1888-1896) was the first to break down the traditional grammatical unit into its component parts and to· present the
material in lessons instead of chapters. Instead of a large division on
"Adverbs,'' several lessons were included on the topic, one entitled
""Words That Show How," one called "Words That Show When,'' etc.
(16a :x). Not only were topics broken down in this way, but the wording
of the headings was also simplified, so that pupils would not be confronted with new words to add to their vocabulary before being told what
they were studying.
Up to the early twentieth century, a few of the authors continued
to use the classifications and headings of the early grammarians, but
the idea u sed in Hyde's series gained quickly in popularity and, with
slight modifications, is still in general use today. The most important
change made in recent times has been to make headings interesting.
Instead of "Letter Writing," The Open Door Language Series (102fl1928) said "Sending News to Friends" (23b :v), and instead of "Adjectives" or "Adverbs" the Step by Step in English series (1940-1941)
used the heading "Using Picture Words" (26b:xi).
Then too, as stress on socially useful English increased, the everyday activities of the pupils were drawn upon to provide a btMs for the
study of grammar and language usage. In the more recent texts, material
within a chapter centered in some activity, such as answering the phone
or writing a letter, while in the earlier ones it centered in some division
of grammatical construction. The imagination was allowed a great deal
of play in naming these activity chapters; for example, one book called
the discussion of telephoning "Magic Messages" (24b :xi), and another headed a chapter on letter writing "Sincerely Yours" (26f :x).
In chapters used to introduce several minor points or to review material
already taught, it was not uncommon to find headings like "A School
Circus" (26a:x) or "A Safety Club" (26c:ix). It can be seen from
these that titles themselves were used to help gain the child's interest.
Within the division, instruction was woven around the activity to s•1ch
an extent that the child scarcely realized he was being taught correct
English usage.
Although much can be gleahed from the title page, the preface,
• and the table of contents concerning the organization of a book, and although from these a general idea of the point of view of the author can
be obtained, the book itself must be studied to gain a true picture of the
kind of material included and of the method of its presentation. The
' results of such a study are given later in this analysis, in chapters concerning teaching content, method, and terminology.
=Supplementary Content
Almost every textbook included a certain amount of nontcaching
material other than the introductory content already discussed. Such
things as indexes, appendixes, advertising matter of different kinds, and
comments directed to the student who was to u se the text fall into this

~I

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BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

Index. - Of the grammars analyzed, none published during the
first half of the 150-year period contained an index in the back of the
book although two or three had what they termed indexes in the front.
Sine~ 1886, however, an index has been so consistently included that
it might almost be considered a standard part of every grammar textbook today.
Some of the indexes were so detailed that they took as much as 10
to 15 pages, the average length being about seven pages to the volume.
In almost every case they were printed in a double column and were
in smaller type than the rest of the book.
Appendix. - When included at all, appendixes were usually rather
long, most of them being 20 or 30 pages in length, and one, that in Murray's text (1795), containing 60 pages. However, only nine of the 27
texts contained an appendix, and four of these nine books were published
before 1835. It is evident, therefore, that there was not much consistency
of opinion concerning the advantages of carrying appendix material in
grammar texts.
Nor did authors agree as to the kind of information to be put in the
appendix. Some of the earlier ones included rules and definitions , or a
"key" for exercises in false syntax given in the text, but most of them,
especially the later ones, u sed the appendix to give the pupil or teacher
additional exercises, increased vocabulary training, or more advanced,
technical material than was carried in the main part of the book.
Advertising. - Being dependent upon public approval for their
financial success, textbooks have been brought to the attention of those
who might use them by having their strong features pointed out. Sometimes authors have done this in a subtle way, through the prefaces to
the texts, but at other times they have expounded the merits of their
works in a much more obvious form.
In the early days the author of a grammar always did his own
advertising. Kirkham (1823), under the separate heading of "Advertisement," showed considerable pride in the "gales of patronage which have
wafted it [an earlier edition of his grammar] along" ( 4 :7), and promised the public continued improvement in future editions of the book.
The most common method of advertising used by authors of the
texts published early in the nineteenth century was that of printing
in their books letters of recommendation from teachers and school administrators of note. Murray (1795) and Greene (1853) each included
eight pages of such material, some in the front of the book and some
in the back, Greene's tex t extending it even to the outside of the back
cover. These recommendations were often very flowery.
Concerning Murray's English Gra11t11tar, Dr. Abercrombie said that
"the unwearied exertions of this gentleman have done more towards
elucidating the obscurities, and embellishing the structure of our
language, than any other writer on the subject" (2 :345-346 ) ,_and Evan
stated that it "nearly superseded every thing el~e of the kind, by concentrating the remarks of the best authors on the subject" (2 :345). The
Annual R eview was among a number of magazines to publish recommendation of Murray's work:

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

49

Mr. Murray's Grammar, Exercises, and Key to the Exercises, form altogether, by far, the most complete and judicious
3:nalysis of the English language, that ha s hitherto been published. The rules for composition are excellent; the examples
are selected with taste and judgment; and the execution of the
whole displays an unusual degree of critical acuteness and
sagacity.
Annual Review, 1802. (2:339)
Kirkham (1823) printed only a few recommendations, but he
clai ed to have had more than six hundred others "equally flattering
with these" (4:3). Eber Wheaton, Principal of Mechanick's Society
School, said, among other things, that in Kirkham's text "the lectures are
ample, and given in so familiar and easy language, as to be readily
understood, even by a tyro in grammar" ( 4: 5), and Samuel Blood,
Principal of Chambersburgh Academy, recommended the book especially
for those who "are destitute of the advantages of an instructer" (4:4),
stating in his introductory paragraph that:
It is now almost twenty years since I became a teacher of
youth, and, during this period, I have not only consulted all,
but have used many, of the different systems of English grammar that have fallen in my way; and, sir, I do assure you, without the least wish to flatter, that yours far exceeds any I have
yet seen. ( 4 :4)
Of the texts analyzed, Greene's (1853) was the last to include recommendations of this type. For some time after this, authors presented their
"talking points" in the preface, bringing out the fact that they had
made a definite effort to write textbooks that filled a felt need. Harvey
(1868) was among those who handled his advertising in this way:
Actuated by a desire to render the labor of the class-room
more pleasant and effective, by furnishing an attractive means
for instruction in a useful branch of study, the author ventures
the hope that this treatise will commend itself to the favorable
notice and consideration of his fellow-teachers. (12:iv)
However, with the passing of compulsory school attendance laws
in the various states of· the Union, competition became very great among
textbook writers. Judging from the decided improvement in the appearance of texts, publishers grew more and more interested in the
popularity of their books. Great effort was made to get texts adopted
for use in the schools of different states, and much advertising material
was sent out to school administrators and teachers concerning new textbooks. This material was a modern version of the old-type recommenda·•' tions, but it came from the publisher rather than from the author
himself, and it was distributed usually by mail or in person by sales
representatives instead of being printed in the text.
In 1923, the Essential Language Habits series came out with
advertising matter printed on a separate sheet of paper, book-page size,
a_nd pasted lightly inside the front cover of the book. On this sheet were

, I

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BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

Chapter V .

The newer point of view is clearly evident in the "'.ording of this
foreword. Authors are no longer trying to encourage pupils to st~dy by
promismg them rich future rewards. Instead, they are a~temptmg
make their books inviting in appearance and to show pupil~ tha ~/h . ~
can have more fun and do more things in their every ay 1 e 1
they learn more about their language.
.
. as others in attractmg the
t
ff
·1
some
authors
are
not
as
e
.ec
ive
Wh 1 e
f
dult speakpupils' attention because they still use the language o an a
art
ing "down" to a child, there has been a consistent attempt on the P
of these writers to help the pupil enjoy the text.

1

:o

\

Subject-Matter Content
MANY changes have been made in the content of grammar texts,
but most of them can be accounted for by the trend toward making
grammar more useful in everyday life, and the consequent addition of
various types of content.
Up to abo ut 1850 lan g uage stud y was almost entire ly a stud y of
grammar and grammatical constructions. Much of the subject matter
was a hand-me-down from Greek and Latin grammars and was ·not
necessarily applicable to the English language, but, because it had always been included, textbook writers hestitated to omit it. For this reason
a great deal of involved and sometimes unnecessary material was found
in the early texts.
While grammar has continued to make up the greater part of
language study, it has not entirely dominated textbooks as it did in the
early 1800's. Composition came into texts about the middle of the
· century, and from this developed story telling, letter writing, and many
other types of socially useful activities involving a knowledge of correct
grammar. As these new topics appeared, some of the old ones disappeared, but the major topics, such as sentence structure and parts of
. speech, continued to be included in textbooks, the difference being principally in the relative emphasis given to each type of content and the
_ point of view from which each topic" was approached.
•
In collecting the data for this study conc~rning various types of
· content, the number of pages on which a certain topic was mentioned was
determined for each text, rather than actual measurement of space. This
method of determining the relative emphasis given a topic by the different texts gave a general idea of the amount of repetition in a book,
for, if many pages were given to a topic, it could be assumed that the
author · either reviewed the subject often or presented it a .little at a
time, each time adding to knowledge already gained. The method does
· hot, however, give an accurate idea of the amount of material included
under each topic, for in the early books instruction was concentrated
on a few pages while in the later ones a topic was sometimes merely
mentioned on a page given to one or more other topics. Nevertheless,
even a space count does not give a true picture of the amount of information given on a subject, because texts vary greatly in the number
of examples and exercises used. It is for this reason that it is ' believed
. that the number of mentions is as accurate a way of determining relative emphasis a s is the number of inches of space used.
Tabulating the material called for the making of many decisions.
Certain content, for example, might be classed as parts of speech by one
analyst, as parsing by another, as sentence structure by still another,
and so forth. No two persons would classify the material in exactly the
iame way. Also, constant overlapping was found. Instruction on proouns, for instanc~ would be listed under pronouns, and certain types
(5:!)

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BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

54

of material found in this division might also be listed under rules, definitions, examples, exercises, or review. In the same way, material on
the planning of a program for a club meeting would be counted und er
club meetings, programs, and perhaps, public speaking. Percentages of
pages on which various topics are mentioned therefore ~dd up to m~re
than 100, but this does not lessen their value in showmg the relative
~~.--~-~mount of space given to each topic.
In making up the tables, the study was divided i~to 40-year pe1:iods,
all texts published up to 1835 being in the first penod, those published
between 1835 and 1875 in the second period, those between 1875 _and
1915 in the third and those between 1915 and 1945 (a 30-year penod)
in the fourth period. Percentages of pages given to a subje:t _were found
by determining the total number of pages given to the topic 111 all books
of a certain period and dividing this number by the total numbe~· of
pages in th e texts of that period. In setting up the table~, the vanous
types of content have been arranged in order of emphasis in all texts
published during the 150-year period.
The content of the grammars was divided into five major cl_assifications which included all except a very small percentage of mISc:llaneous material. Four of these classifications corresponded closely with J:
the four major divisions of the early texts: Ort~ography is . termed
"the study of words" and includes all the content falling under thi s head.
· the early texts as well as vocabulary building, which has been
mg m
· ca II e d"pa~ t s
given a great deal of emphasis in later texts. EtymoI ogy is
of speech" and deals only with this phase of grammar. Syntax is mcluded under the heading "the sentence" and consists of p1mctuation ~nd
capitalization as well as the various phases of sentence construction.
Prosody is teimed "prose and poetry" and includes not only the ru les '
of versification and other content found in early te xts but also the
composition work that has entered the texts ?uring the past 150 years.
The fifth major division, socially useful matenal, c?vers. a type of :ontent
that is new to textbooks but that has gained rapidly rn populanty and
is found in almost all recent t ex ts. It consists of instruction in all. kin~s
of daily-life situations in which a knowledge of correct En!'.h~~ is
neces 5 ary. The r elative amounts of emphasis given to these fiv e dlv1s10ns
in the grammars ana lyzed are shown in Table I.
. TABLE 1. PERCENTAGE OF PAGES IN GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS ON WHICH
EACH OF THE FIVE MAJOR PHASES OF CONTENT WAS MENTIONED
Books of
first

Books of

pe rioJ

pniod

sec_o nd

Books of
third
peri od

-- - - -- - - - -- ----- - - -- - - -- - - - - 51
56
64
The sentence ......... ...... .... .
PRr ts o f speech ... ............ .

Prose and poetry . .... · ·
The study of wo rds---;-···· .. .. . -- ·: .. ---- Socially useful matenaL.....
.. ...

I

49

8
21

111
7
10

Books of \
fou rth
prrio:!

46

Wide variance was found in the emphasis given to different kinds
of content at different times. The sentence and the parts of speech have
always been given a great deal of space, but there has not been as
much difference in the percentage of ·mention of these divisions from
one period to the next as in the case of the other divisions of grammar.
The t endency has seemed to be to reduce the emphasis on these two
phases, both having been given the greatest stress in the second period
with less emphasis in each succeeding period.

51

48

a.)

41

42
7
8

15
14
18

30

·•

·P

~·

The study of words was given moi:;t emphasis in the first period ,
when the study of grammar was taken up from such an analytical
point of view that even single words were analyzed into their various
syllables and much stress was placed upon the formation of words. Interest in this phase of word study lagged considerably in the next two
periods, but in the last one words were again stressed. In this period,
however, the emphasis was upon the use of words rather than upon their
:. · derivation.
Socially useful material was found in every period, but in the first
two periods less than one half of one per cent of the pages of t ex ts contained anything falling in this classification. In the third period this
type of material gained rapidly and by the fourth period was found on
18 per cent of the pages. In all the grammars included in this study,
socially useful materiat was given almost as much attention as was the
study of words, although it did not really enter texts until about 1875.
The Sentence
The study of the sentence has been given more space in textbooks
than has any other major phase of grammar instruction. This has been
: true not only of the textbooks as a whole, but also of those in each of the
four periods when analyzed separately, the smallest percentage of pages
given to the subject in any period being 46 per cent in the last period .
_ The largest amount, 64 per cent, was given in the second period, when
' syntax received unusual emphasis. The relative amounts of space al; lotted the various phases of sentence study are given in Table II.
TABLE II. PERCENTAGE OF PAGES ON WHICH EACH PHASE OF THE STUDY
OF THE SENTENCE WAS MENTIONED , BASED ON THE TOTAL NUMBER OF
PAGES ON WHICH SENTENCE STUDY WAS MENTIONED

Phases of sentence construction

I
-

13

12

·1,.,~

Prose and poetry did not receive a g~eat deal of space in the early
grammars, but since 1875, when Reed and Kellogg introduced the idea
· of giving students a great deal of practice in composition writing, it has
been m en tioned on mo re than 40 per ce nt of the pages in texts.

All
bo0ks•

*In this and succeed in g t ab les, th e percentage in this column is based on all pages of all bo~ks
analy zed. It sometime~ vari es consid erably fro m \\'.hat wo ul d ~eei:n t o be an av~rage of the i:er1od
percenta ges becaw•e the total number of pages vanes from t ,4.J7 m the first penod to 7 ,:171 tn tht
last period.

55

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

.. . ... ········· ·• · ·

II

Books
first of \
p criorl
-

'.:!2
69
7

2
-I
1
1

I

Book• of
thirrl
period

- --

- -1

lo
.. . .... ......•...

Books of
second
p crio<l

-

Booh of
fourth
period

All
books

-------

II

2+

61
2.~

46
11

45

62

i

12

2.~

17

18

G
:1
6
5
I

12

2i
13
4
6
I

IX

I

9

x
6
'.'

10

n
6
.)

2

·I

56

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

According to Table II, in all periods sentence construction and syntax received by far the most attention in the study of the sentence,
while the form, kinds, and anangement of sentences were given very
little emphasis. Punctuation was stressed more than syntax during the
last period but syntax was considered far more important during the
second period. A great deal of variation was found in amount of emphasis
given the more important phases of sentence study.
Sentence construction. - Sentence construction, which included the
correction, completion, and contraction 01· expansion of sentences, was
given much more emphasis than was any olher phase of the stutly of the
sentence. Syntax was not included as a part of this phase , because in
almost all study of syntax the completed sentence was given and the
student was asked to analyze it or explain its various parts. It therefore did not logically fall under the heading of sentence construction.
Comparatively little stress was placed upon sentence construction
in the first two periods. This was undoubtedly because of the way in
which grammar was presented at that time, for the deductive method
of teaching is based on the setting up of rules, definitions, and correct
examples for the student to memorize and copy, rather than on any
creative work of the pupil. While material was included in the texts '
under the heading of Rentence construction, it was not the type of teaching content included under that heading in later texts. Greene (1853)
described it thus:
Under the head of Construction, the learner commences
with the foundation of the sentence, and from this most favorable point of view he witnesses the progress of its structure,
from its commencement to its completion. As the parts are added
one by one, he notes the effect of each, and feels that each supplies a want and fills a vacancy demanded by the unfinished
structure. In no other way so well can the peculiar force of
the elementary parts be appreciated. Having learned to combine
every fotm and condition of the elements, whether with their
relations expressed or un expr essed, he commences, under the
head of Analysis, the opposite process of taking the structure
in pieces, and pointing- out all the peculiarities of its parts . . .
(lO:vii-viii)
Here the grammarian was taking the initiative, setting up the
sentences, adding clauses or phrases, and then explaining to the student
what was being done. The student's pl ace in the picture was always
either that of onlooker, watching the development of the sentence, or
that of critic, studying the sentence to see that it had been put together correctly. Reed and Kellogg (187 5-1877) were the first to make ,
any extensive attempt to help the student express hi s own thoughts
in correct form. In their preface they explained their stand on this
subject.
Every principle learned by the pupil is fixed in his memory
and, above all, in his practice by varied and exhaustive drill in
composition. He is constantly required to .c ompose sentences, to
arrange and rearrange their parts, to contract, expand, punc-

57

tuate, . and criticise th~m the analysis furnishing him
maten'.1ls for th~ synthesis, and the synthesis supplementing the
:inalys1s. Even 1f the study of grammar were only to lodge
m the memory. the forms and principles of the language, we
con~c_nd that t~1s could ?e done effectively only by work in compos1~1on this, and this only, can make them permanent possessions . (13b:4)
In teaching sentence construction, Reed and Kellogg (1875-1877)
used many different kinds of exercises, such as:
Construct one sentence out of each group of the sentences
which follow: (13a:l57)
Change these general terms to specific words, and note lhe
gain in energy: (13b :290)
Name these figures of speech and then recast each sentence u sing plain language, and note the loss of beauty and
force: ( 13b: 291)
.
The ide~ of giving the pupils "skill in the use of the sentence as an
, mstrument m expressing ~heir thought" (17:5) grew rather rapidly,
· and ha.s become a very important part of language teaching. The
propor t10n of pages on which' sentence construction was mentioned
jum~ed from 24 per cent in the second period to 61 per cent in th e third.
Pupils were taught that a thought could be expressed in a Yarict'· of
ways. The Essent-inl Langu.age Hai>it.q series (192J) for exa~ple
showed the pupil five different ways of expressing ap~roximately th~
same idea:
Never call attention to unpleasant remarks.
Do not pay attention to disagreeable remarks.
When people speak unpleasantly, pay no attention.
You should not notice disagreeable remarks,
Unpleasant remarks should be ignored. (22b:247)
It was at about this time that authors began to emphasize the importance of expressing thoughts in an interesting manner as well as
putting them in correct English. The Step by Step in English series
(1940-1941 ) attempted to do this by showing the pupil the difference
between a mere statement of fact and an interesting sentence.

Now look at the statement of fact and then at the sentence
that was used to express it:
.
Statement of fact: An electric light is easy to turn on.
.
Sentence: The flip of a finger brings to modern mcin the
light he reads by.
·
The statemei:it . of fact does not make a good beginning
sentence .because it ts so well known that it does not arouse the
reader's mterest. ( 26f: 42)
It is evident from this change in point of view in teaching sentence
co.nstruction that in the early days the study of the sentence began
with t~e parts of speech and the details of the sentence and went from
there mto the more complex grammatical constructions necessary in

.

BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

58

forming a correct sentence, while in later texts the sentence was considered the unit of language and was presented to the student as the
means of expressing his thoughts accurately and interestingly.

Syntax. - While syntax was given far more emphasis than all the
other phases of the sentence during the first two periods.' it drop~ed to
28 per cent of the pages on which the sentence was d1s?ussed m ~he
third period, when sentence construction increased so much m .populanty,
and decreased still further, to only 14 per cent, in the last penod.
According to Brown (1823):
Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, government, and
arrangement, of words in sentences.
.
The relation of words, is their dependence, or connexion,
according to the sense.
The agreement of words, is their similarity in person, number, gender, case, mood, tense or form.
.
The government of words, is that power wh1~h one wor~ has
over an · other, to cause it to assume some particular modification.
The arrangement of words, is their collocation, or relative
position, in a sentence. (5:124)
Dilworth (1740) defined syntax a little differently, but with even
more emphasis on the use of the correct forms of the various parts of
speech, as well as on the proper arrangement of these words.
Q.
A.

What is Syntax?
It is the disposing of Words in their right Case, Gender,
Number, Person, Mood, Tense, and Place, in a Sentence.

Q.
A.

Give an Example.
Good Bo11s are not beaten; here the Words are placed according to Syntax: Wherea~, sh~u~d I say, Bea.ten no~ are
Boys good, it would be umntelhg1ble; because here 1s no
Syntax in this Sentence. (1 :114)

In the early grammars the study of syntax alwa ys included a ~et
of rules of syntax. In the present analysis, these rules ha ve been discussed more extensively in the section dealing with rules. In books
taking up the subject in detail, every part of the ~enten ce a nd eve?
part of speech in the sentence were accounted for 111 respect to their
form, position, and agreement.
.
. .
Many of th e grammars included both analysis and synthesis m
their presentation o-f syntax, and a few also included parsing, although,
except in t exts in which analysis and parsing were considered together,
parsing was discussed in connection with etymology.
.
Examples and exerci ses on each rule of syntax were also given. In
the early days most of these exercises were in the form of what was
known as "false sy ntax," or sentences containing errors which the pupils
were to detect and correct.
With the introduction of sy nthesis as the opposite of ana lysis in
the study of syntax, the construction of sentences first ente red text-

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

59

books. It was a number of years, however, before the study became more
than a form a l following of ~et rule~. When the change cam e, it came
very rapidly, as has been noted in connection with the discussion of
sentence construction. After the beginning of the third period, when the
Reed-Kellogg series (1875-1877) was published, the emphasis changed,
and only one book (Whitney's, in 1877) put out after that time followed the old plan of including its study of the sentence under the
heading of "syntax."
A certain amount of syntax, or the breaking down of se ntences in
order to study their construction, was found in every textbook, even
in those published very recently, but it was not classified under that
name in the newer grammars. While it might seem to be a part of the
work on sentence construction, the two phases have been taken up
separately here because of the wide difference in point of view and the
sudden shift in the study of the sentence which took place about 1875.
Parts of the sentence. - Although every text included some mention
of the parts of the sentence, this phase of the subject was not stressed
until Greene's text (1853) appeared. After this, the majority of the
grammars, especially Reed and Kellogg's (1875-1877), gave the matter considerable attention.
Every text published after 1823 divided the sentence into a subject
' and a predicate. According to Daringer (1938) :
The shortest sentence you can think of and the longest one
you find in an encyclopedia are alike in one respect. Each has
a subject and a predicate. (25:11)
I
;

The simple subject, called .t he "bare subject" by Robbins and Row
(1907) and the "subject substantive" by the N.E.A. Committee
, (19b :31), and the simple predicate, called the "base of the predicate"
, (25: 12) by Daringer (1938), were discussed in connection with subjects
and predicates in almost every book. In the older books, the complete subject and predicate were referred . to as the "complex" subject and
, predicate.
·
The direct object was mentioned in Comly's (1805), Kirkham's
1
(1823), and Brown's (1823) texts, and in all published after 1864. The
.' indirect object did not enter grammars until Greene (1853) introduced
it, but both direct and indirect objects were taught in all texts published
during the third and fourth periods. Subject complements were discussed in only five or six of the books, and independent members of
the sentence were found in three texts before the twentieth century
• and in all except three since that time.
Modifiers w:ere discussed in every text, but were not called by that
name until about 1845. In the early books modifiers seldom included
more than adjectives and adverbs, but most of the later books included
phrase and clau se modifiers as well.
I . Phrases were discussed in all texts except Dihyorth's (1740),
,K1rkham's (1823), and Butler's (1845) and were given particular
,e mphasis in the third period, when they were mentioned on nearly 14

60

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

per cent of the pages on which sentences were taught. T~e d~finition ' .
for a phrase has changed during the years, so that matenal mclu~ed
under this heading in the early days did not exactly correspond with
that in later texts and the two therefore are not wholly comparable.
Murray (1795) defined a phrase as "two or more word~ rightly put
together, making sometimes part of a sentence, and snmetim es a whole
sentence" (2: 138) . The acceptable definition today, howeve r, is that
given by Lewis and Lynch (1918): "A g-roup of ~elated word s, without
a subject and predicate, doing the work of a swgle part of speech"
(21:173).
h
Pupils were taught to identify a phrase, to show its use in t e
sentence, and to expand single words into phrases or reduce phrases
into single words.
Except for the substantive and the adverbial types, ph1:~ses were .
not broken down into classifications until after about 1850. Smee then,
adjective, adverbial, infinitive, participial, and preposition~] phrases
have been discussed in the majority of the texts, and substantive phrases
were included in most texts of the third period. In general, these clas- •
sifications were the only ones used , although one or two books also
included absolute, appositive, or independent phrases.
Clauses were also discussed in most of the grammars, the only ones
to omit the subject being Dilworth (1740) and Kil:kham (18~3). Here,
too, there is a difference between th e old and new mterpretat10n of the
term. Murray (1795) said, in this respect;
A relative pronoun possesses the fore~ bo~h of a pronoun
and a connective. Nay, the union by relatives 1s rather closer,
than that by mere conjunctions. The latter may form two or
more sentences into one: but, by the former, several sentences
may incorporate in one and the same cla,use. of a sentence. TI:m;,
"thou seest a man and he is called Peter," is a sen~ence consist.
of two distinct clauses united by the copulative and: but,
)~~e man whom thou seest 'is called Peter," is a sentence of one
clause, and not less comprehensive than the other. (2:127)
Not until about 1850 did authors come to agree about th~
of clauses and, consequently, the kinds of sentences. Mu~~ practice has
been given in the texts of the last century in the recog111:10n of ~lauses
of various kinds, of their use in the sentence, and of their effectiveness
when placed in different places in the sentence. Reed and Kellogg. (18751877) gave a good example of the latter in illustrating the different
kinds of noun clauses:
Direction. - Vary the follo wing sentence so cis to illustra.te
the six different kinds of noun clauses :Model. - 1. That stars are suns is the belief of astronomers.
2. Astronomers believe that stars are suns.
3. The belief of astronomers is, that stars are
suns.
4. The belief that s tars are suns is held by
astronomers.
5. Astronomers are confident that stars a1·e suns.
6. That stars are suns being the belief of astronomers we accept the theory. (13b:129)

61

Beginning in 1834, most of the texts distinguished between the principal and the subordinate clauses in discussing complex sentences, and
after 1853 almost every grammar divided clauses into adverbial, adjective, and substantive classifications .. The relative clause was mentioned in seven texts published between 1853 and 1918 but in no others.
Such classi fi cations as condition al, el lipti cal, interrogaliYe, parenthetical,
and objective were also found in one or two of the texts but were not
mentioned in the others.

Punctuation. - According to Comly (1805), "punctuation is the art
of dividing a written composition into sentences, or parts of sentences,
by points or stops, for the purpose of marking the different pauses
which the sense and an accurate pronunciation require" (3 :154).
Considerably more space has been given to punctuation in the
later books .than in the early ones because the topic was originally set
up separately from any instruction in sentence structure. It usually consisted m erely of a list of rules, with perhaps a few examples of correct
use but often without exercises. There was some disagreement among
grammarians as to whether it shouM be considered a topic under syntax '
or under prosody. Murray ( 1795), however, set it up as a separate sec·• tion, saying that "the nature of the subject, its extent and importance,
and the grammatical knowl edge which it presupposes, h~ve induced
us to ma ke it a distinct and subsequent article" (2 :257).
Although many texts followed Murray's plan, Kerl (1864) noted
disadvantages of this method and suggested that "punctuation is
but a kind of finish to syntax, and is probably best taught in connection with the parts requiring it" (11 :97). A little later, Reed and
Kellogg (1875-1877) carried this idea still further, saying that "rules
for Punctuation are given where they are needed, since the marks are
, as much a part of the sentence as are the words themselves - the
sentence is not written till it is punctuated" (13b:5). The use of punctuation in helping to express a thought clearly has been stressed increasingly as the years have gone by, the last text analyzed stating that:
Punctuation is a guide to thought.
The more clearly we express our written thoughts, the less
punctuation we need.
Punctuate for meaning, not for decoration. (27d :209)
In discussing the development of the use of punctuation marks, the
.Adventures in English series (1939-1944) said that only points and
straight lines were originally used (27d :208) . However, by the time the
first books analyzed in this study were published, many more had been
added. More than half the grammars included 11 punctuation marks,
though not always the same, and all included at least eight. The only
exception was Whitney's (1877) text, which mentioned only the
apostrophe. Four of the marks, the colon, comma, question mark, and
' period, were found in every text except Whitney's, and the semicolon was
also included until very recently, when one or two texts omitted it. The
exclamation point and apostrophe were carried in most of the texts,
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62

BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

,but there was not complete agreement among grammarians as to the
importance of other marks, such as the hyphen, dash, single quote,
parenthesis, etc.
Several of .the oldest of the texts took up punctuation marks from
the point of view of the length of the pause indicated, as did Dilworth
(1740):
Q.
A.

What are the proper Pauses for these Stops?
The proper Pause or Rest of each of these Stops may be
thus measured: The Time of stopping or resting at the
Comma, is the time of saying One ; at the Semicolon, One,
One; at the Colon, One, One, One; and at the Period, One,
One, One, One, before you begin the next Clause or Sentence. (1:88)

Many of the early writers al so included, usually as. a part of
punctuation, certain cha1·acters and diacritical marks. This was common
until the time of Harvey (1868), who was the last to list many of the
characters and the only one to give as many as eight diacritical marks.
Thirteen different characters were taught at various times, but no text
included more than 11 of them. Among these were such things as the
asterisk, the section sign, the caret, the paragraph sign, and the use of
italics. No text published in the last 75 years included more than three of
these, and several recent grammars did not mention the subject at all.
In the case of diacritical marks, practically no instruction of this kind
was found in texts published after 1868. Before that time eight or nine
of the grammars included accents of different kinds, the diaeresis, cedilla,
etc.
Capitali'zation. - Capitalization was included in every text except
Whitney's (1877). In the early books it usually appeared as a separate
topic, although Smith (1832) discussed it under prosody, Bullions (1834)
under syntax, and Butler (1845) and Lewis and Lynch (1918) under
punctuation. In the more recent texts it has been taught whenever the
occasion arose: in the teaching of the sentence, capitalization of the
first word in a sentence was taught; in teaching proper nouns, capitalization of the word was a part of the instruction given; in the teaching of
poetry, pupils were shown that each line began with a capital; etc.
Rules have always held a very prominent place in the teaching of .
capitalization. Dilworth (1740) summed them up in only two statements:

Q. Where are the Capital Letters to be used, and where the
Small Letters?

A. The Capitals are to be used in the Front of Sentences, and

in the Beginnii;ig of Verse s ; of all proper Nam es _of !'~r­
sons, Places, Rivers, &c. of Arts and Sciences; of Dignities",
Festivals, and Games; and of all Words put for proper
Names, or that have any great Emphasis· in a Sentence:
Also after a full Stop, and at the Beginning of a Quotation,
tho' it be not immediately after a full Stop: Likewise whole
Words, and sometimes Sentences, are written in Capitals,
and then something is expressed extraordinary great. They
are sometimes used in the Titles of Books, for Ornament-

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

63

sake: And always the Pronoun I, and the Interjection 0, are
written in Capitals; and in all other Places the Small Letters must be used.
Q. When Capital Letters are placed single in a Sentence, what
do they stand for?
'
A. Sometimes they stand for whole Words; as B.A. Bachelor
of Arts: B.D. Bachelor in Divinity: D.D. Doctor in Divinity,
or the like; as you may find more at large at the End of
this third Part: Or else they stand for Numbers, and are
called Numeral Letters. . . . (1 :82-83)
Although 24 rules for capitals were mentioned in all the texts
combined, those given by Dilworth were the most important. Dilworth
• did not exactly follow his own rule, however, as he capitalized every
' noun in many of his statements. This style was a carry-over from continental languages and may have been used here in keeping with his
rule concerning capitalization for emphasis. More different rules (21)
~ere found in the first period than in any other, the last period containing only 15. All except six of the texts contained at least 11 rules
• each. By 1875, however, a tendency to break away from the use of so
many capitals was making itself felt. Reed and Kellogg (1875-1877)
brought this out:
The usage of newsapers and of text-books . on geography
would probably favor the writing of the class names in the
examples above with initial capitals: but we find in the most
carefully printed books and periodicals a tendency to favor small
letters in such cases.
The principle we suggest may be in advance of common usage; but it is in the line of progress, it tends to uniformity of
practice and to an improved appearance of the page. About a
century ago every noun began with a capital letter. (13b:28)
Although rules on the subject decreased in number, the space given
to capitalization increased steadily through the years. In the first year
'· only 2 per cent of the pages on which the sentence was discussed gave
information on capitals, while in the last period this amount had in·. creased to 13 per cent. One reason for this difference was the concentration of the subject in the early texts, where it was taught by listing
rules, definitions, and examples rather than by showing its use when
.the occasion arose in teaching sentence structure, etc.
'
As has been said, Whitney (1877) did not mention capitals. Wisely,
too, gave them practically no .c onsideration, mentioning only the use
of a capital at the beginning of the sentence. All except one of the other
. texts included the use of a capital in writing the pronoun "I" and
proper nouns; all except two books, both in the first period, included the
µse of a capital at the beginning of a quotation; and ·a ll except three
· mentioned the capitalization of the interjection "0" and titles of books.
Among the less commonly mentioned uses of capitals were those
capitalizing for the sake of emphasis, using a ,c apital for the first
word of an example or of itemized material, using capitals in writing
Roman numerals, and capitalizing the na1nes of festivals. More than a
, .third of the texts included instruction in the writing of initials with
capitals, and all the later books stressed their use in writing abbrevia-

i

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BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

65

\

I

I

tions. The study of abbreviations was included in all except three texts,
many of the older grammars giving a page or more to lists of abbreviations, but the use of capital s in connection with abbreviations was
found in only one text before the twentieth century.

Form. - The form of sentences was mentioned in every grammar,
but was never given space on more than 8 per cent of the pages on which .
the sentence was m entioned. Both simple and compound sentences were
included in every text, but the complex sentence did not enter grammar
teaching until Pinneo (1850) introduced it. Murray had li st ed what he
called a complex sentence, but what he was referring to was a sentence
with a compound subj ect and predicate.
Although ellipsis was included in only about half of the books,
it was mentioned in every period and was found in the first as well as •
the last texts analyzed. A few grammars also included what they
called loose sentences, compact or contracted sentences, a nd abridged
sentences, but these terms were at no time particularly popular.
Kinds. - The kinds of sentences were given very littl e attention
in the first per iod, but were mentioned on an average of 5 or G per cent
of the pages on which sentences were discussed in the other three
periods. Most of the texts included the stud y of the interrogative
sentence. However, except for Munay (1795), who included the declarative and imperative sentence, and Brown (1823), who listed the declarative sentence, no other t ext mentioned the kinds of sentences until
Greene (1853 ) included all four kinds. Up to that time a standard
classification of sentences had not been settled upon, nor had the
terminology. Murray (1795) listed three kinds of sente nces:
There are three sorts of simple sentences; the explicative, or
explaining; the interrogative, or asking; the irnperative, or commanding.
An explicative sentence is when a thing is said to be or not
to be, to do or not to do, to suffer or not to suffer, in a direct
manner: as, "I am; thou writest; Thomas is loved." (2:137138)
Greene's (1853) explanation of the four kinds of sentences
followed that of most of the later authors:
A sentence, considered as an entire structure either declares something, asks a question, expresses a cornrnand, or contains an exclarnation.
A declarative sentence is one which declares something;
as, "The truth will prevail."
An inter'>·ogative sentence is one which asks a question;
as, "Wilt thou be made whole?"
An impera.tive sentence is one which expresses a command;
as, "Put up thy sword into its sheath."
An exclamatory sentence is one which contains an exclamation; as, "How art thou fallen!" (10:144)
After the middle of the century, every text discussed the declarative, exclamatory, and interrogative sentences and, except
published early in the 1900's, all included the imperative.

Arrangement. - The natural and inverted order in sentence
structure was discussed in almost every text except those published
between 1820 and 1850. Dilworth stated that transposition "is the placing of Words out of their natural Ord~r, to render the Sound of them
. . more agreeable to the Ear" (1:115). In several of the books , of the first
· period,· emphasis was placed upon sound in the arrangement of the
sentence. This was probably because many people were unable to read
and write and therefore received their instruction and information by
ear.
Murray ( 1795) stressed the logical order of expressing a thought:
This appears to be a proper place to observe, that when
different things have an obvious relation to each other, in respect
to the order of nature of time, that order should be regarded,
in assigning them their places in the sentence; unless the scope
of the passages require it to be varied .. ..
The following sentence is a beautiful example of strict
conformity to this rule. "Our sight fills the mind with the
largest variety of ideas, converses with its objects at the greatest
distance, and continues the longest in action without being tired
or satiated with its proper enjoyments." This passage follows the
order of nature. First, we have the variety of objects mentioned, which sight furnishes to the mind; next, we have the
action of sight on those objects; and lastly, we have the time
and continuance of its action. No order could be more natural
or exac~ (2:291)
The study of the arrangement of sentences was taken up from a
new angle in the latter half of the nineteenth century. Clarity became
, the principal concern of those teaching sentence order, and the proper
placing of phrases and clauses was given considerable attention.
· · Sentences like "Balboa discovered the Pacific ocean climbing to the top
·" of a mountain" (13a:116) and "One should not drink lake water without
· being boiled" (19b:280) were found in almost every text.
Every grammar published after 1850 included material of this kind,
, but, until recently, the arrangement of sentences for the sake of sound or
strength seemed to have been dropped from the study of grammar.
In the last few of the grammars, however, this has re-entered the field
of language study, and students are again given instruction in arrang~ Ing their sentences so that they will be smooth and effective.
Parts of Speech
In the early years covered by this study, there was considerable
disagreement among grammarians concerning the number of parts of
speech in the English language. The eight recognized today had been
rather universally accepted before the opening of this study, but some
-authors were still including the participle and the article as separate
parts of speech. The first of these was considered a verb form by all
but two or three authors ; the second was listed as an adjective by all
except one author after 1834, but before that time ·was called a separate
, part of speech in almost every text.

Kirkham (1823) threw some light on the historical and philosophical
background of this problem:

in each book. Thus the relative emphasis on each part of speech may be
determined. Here again, since more than one part of speech might be
· .found on the same page, the percentages add up to more than 100.
As can be seen from Table III, verbs were given the most emphasis
in every period, and nouns came next. ·interjections were always given
the least space, probably because their use in the sentence called for
so little explanation and their form never changed. There has not been
a great deal of difference in the percentage of pages on which the
various ·parts of speech have been given through the years. The conjunction and preposition have been given less space in recent books than
in early ones, while the adverb has been given more space, but there has
been little variance in the amount given to the more prominent parts
of speech.

OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS.
According to the method in which philosophical investigations of language have generally been conducted; all our words
should be reduced to two classes; for it can be easily shown,
that from the noun and verb, all the other parts of speech have
sprung. Nay, more. They may even be reduced to one. Verbs
do not in reality, express actions; but they are intrinsically
the m~re names of actions. The idea of action or being communicated by them, as well as the meaning of words in general,
is merely inferential. The principle of reasoning assumed by
the celebrated Horne Tooke, if carried to its full extent, would
result, it is believed, in proving that we have but one part of
speech.
Adnouns or adjectives were originally nouns. Sweet, red,
white, are the names of qualities, as well as sweetness, redness,
whitene.~s. The former differ from the latter only in their manner of signification. To denote that the name of some quality or
substance is to be used in connexion with some other name, or,
that this quality is to be attributed to some other name, we
sometimes affix to it the termination en, ed, or y; which signifies
give, add, or join. When we employ the words wooden, woollen,
wealthy, grassy, the terminations en and y, by their own intrinsick meaning, give notice that we intend to give, add or join,
the names of some other substances in which are found the
properties or qualities of wood, wool, wealth, or grass.
Pronouns are a class of nouns, used instead of others to
prevent their disagreeable repetition . Participles are certain
forms of the verb. Articles, interjections, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions, are contractions or abbreviations of
nouns and verbs. . . .
This brief view of the subject, is sufficient to elucidate the
manner in which, according to Horne Tooke's principles, the ten
parts of speech are reduced to one. (4:36-38)

While mention was made in some of the books that "the thing that
determines whether a word belongs to one part of speech rather than
to another is the work that it does in the sentence" (21 :36), this point
' was not given much emphasis until comparatively recently, when functional English began to be stressed.
Verb. - In every period studied, the verb was given approximately
twice as much space as any other part of speech. This is understandable
in light of the many forms, u ses, and irregularities of this part of
speech.
According to Dilworth (1740), "a Verb is a Part of Speech that be. tokeneth Being; as, I live: Doing,· as, I love: Or Suffering; as, I am
loved" (1:98). A definition similar to this was found in many o(the
early texts, but in the recent books verbs were more often defined a s
"words which express action, or being, or a condition" (27d :74).
The percentage of space given in the texts analyzed to the principal phases of verbs is given in Table IV.
TABLE IV. PERCENTAGE OF PAGES ON WHICH EACH PHASE IN THE STUDY
OF VERBS WAS MENTIONED, BASED ON THE TOTAL NUMBER OF PAGES ON
WHICH VERBS WERE MENTIONED

Table III gives the relative amount of space given in each of the
textbooks to each of the parts of speech found in grammars today. In
the table, the article is included as a fo1m of the adjective and the
participle is included a s a form of the verb. The percentages are based
on the total number of pages on which parts of speech are mentioned

I/'

I~

........................

Verb .............. .
Noun.
Adjective ...... .
Pronoun ..... .......

,'

•'

\.

-~.

Adverb ........... .
Pre~ositi9n .. .
Con1unctton .

Inte rjection .

first
p cri o<l

62

:n

25
24

10
14
I~

4

Books of
second
peri od

40
20
20
16
10

Books of
third
period
46
36

26

21
16

8

JI

:i

3

6

9

Books of
fourth
period

- - - -H
26
21
24
14
7
8
3

periorl

Book s of
second
period

25
:J2
26
25

25

:;

Books of

Books of
first

Phase

TABLE III. PERCENTAGE OF PAGES ON WHICH EACH PART OF SPEECH
WAS MENTIONED, BASED ON THE TOTAL NUMBER OF PAGES ON WHICH
PARTS OF SPEECH WERE MENTIONED
•

Pa rt of speech

67

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

66

All
books
48
29
23
22
13
9
8

3

Books of
third
period

Book s of
fourth
period

36

19

42
20
19
16

15
i
6
7

II
I
10

6
5

All
books
18
15
12
10
10

In all the grammars analyzed, tense was mentioned on 18 per cent
of the pages on which verbs were discussed. During the last two periods
has been given more space than any other phase of the study of verbs.

!t

Throughout the years, textbook writers have been in fairly close
agreement as to the number of tenses, almost all of them listing six. Dilworth (1740) stated that there were three:

r,

~

§

68

0Ng HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTDOOKS

BULLETIN OF T ITE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

with th eir subjects. Early t exts did not consider this point so important
but emphasized the forming of plurals.

Q. What is a Tense?
A. It is the Distinction of Time.
Q. How many Tenses a.re there?
Present T ense,
A.
Three: {

~:~~ent,

To-conie,

69

} viz. { Preterperf ect T ense, and the
Fu.tu.re Tense.
(1:99)

Hyde (1888-1896) also mentioned only three, the prese nt, past , and
future, but hers were sufficiently comprehensive to take in all six of the
tenses named by the other authors. The chief problem in regard to tense
seemed to be in settling upon names for the ten ses . The man y changes
that have been made through the years and accepted by one or more
gramma r ians provide an excell ent example of the g radu a l development
of nomencl a ture before it is finally accepted as standard. The variou s
tense names used throu gh the years are di s cussed rath e r full y in the
section of thi s study dealing with terminology.

All texts except the Step by Step in English series (1940-1941) included first, second, a nd thi r d person in relation · to verbs. Dilworth
(1740) mentioned also an impersonal petson, and three · or four other
authors included what they called a unipersonal person, but nei ther of
these terms was found in a text published later than 1886.
Voice, called "signification" in a few of the very old books, was a lso
· · included in every text. In the first period it was given five times as much
;.·. emphasis as in the last period, the decline in emphasis being steady
throughout the years. Th e active and passive voices wP-rP- included
regularly, and neuter was found in a few, especially in the earlier t exts.
·' Bullions (1834 ), in expla ining his own division of verbs according to
voice, outlined the stand taken by some of the other gram mari ans, whi ch
was rather enlightening:
2. Mr. Kirkham, and Mr. Smith, divide verbs also into

Active, Passive, and Neuter . Under the term active, they include

Mood was given far more attention than any other phase of ve rbs
in th e first two periods, but after that it lost in popularity ve r y quickly,
and in th e last period was me ntioned on only 1 p er cent of the pages
devoted to verbs. In fact, th e subject was scarcely mentioned in any of
the books published after l!'Jl8, a nd was not included at all in either The
Open Door Language Serie.~ (1926-1928) or the Step by Ste p in E nglish
series ( 1940-1941).
Dilworth (1740), whose grammar was set up more nearly according
to the orga nization of the old Latin grammars than wer e any of the
other texts, included si x moods - the indicat ive, s ubjunctive, imperati ve,
infinitive, potenti a l, and optative (or wishing). The fi rs t fi ve of these
moods (sometimes called "modes") were included in every text published
before 1870 with the exception of Ke ri's (1864 ), which omitted the infiniti ve as a mood. After 1870 the infinitive was no longer in cluded in
the discussion of mood and the potential was found in only two of the
later texts.
There was some question in the mind s of grammarians ,c oncerning mood. Murray (1795 ) commented that "grammarians have not only ·
differed in opinion, respecting the extent and variations of the sub,iunctive .
mood, but a few of them have even d oubted th e existence of such a '
mood in the English language" (2 :10:3 ) . About 50 years la te r, Butler
stated that "there seems to be no suffici e nt foundation for either the
subjunctive or the poten tial" (8: 65). The trend in the teaching of these
moods seems to indicate that grammarians are taking up with Butler's
ideas on this matter, for in some of the recent texts only the indicative
and imperative moods have been included.
Numbe r in connection with verbs was given far more con sideration
during the first period than at any later time, but the singular and
plural fo1ms of verbs were di scussed in every grammar included in the
study. All texts publis hed s ince th e H yde series app eared, in 18881896, have stressed numbe r in connecti on with the agreeme nt of verbs

all verbs which denote action of any kind, whether transitive or
intransitive; and under the term neuter, those only which denote
l1eing simply, or an inactive state of being.
3. Mr. Brown divides verbs into four classes, called Activetransitive, Active-intransitive, P assive, and Neuter. If we unite
the second and fourth of these, which ought never to be divided,
we h ave the division of Murray. Unite the first and second, and
we have the division of Kirkham. For further remarks on these
classifications, see Appendix, III. 5: - (7:29)
The conjugation of verbs, which includes a ll the phases already discussed, was given considerable space in the earlier texts. According to
. Murr ay (1795 ), "the conjugation of an English verb in form, through
all its moods and tenses, by means of auxiliaries, so far from being useless or intricate, is a beautiful and regular display of it, and indispensably necessary to the la ng uage " (2: 110).
Sometimes the conjugation of one verb would cover several pages,
with each tense in each mood being given. Between about 1850 and
1875 some of the texts gave even more information than this, present, ing the conjugation in several forms, especially the emphatic ("I do
love" ) , the interrogative, the negative, and the progressive ("I am loving" ). None of these forms has appeared in a tex t published :;ince 1935 ,
and the interrogative and negative were found only once or twice in
books published outside the period mentioned a bove.
Included in the conjugation of verbs were also the auxiliary verbs,
•· the participle, the infinitive, the gerund, and the principal parts. These
· have all been discussed in almost all the texts, even in those in which
' the conjugation itself was not considered as a separate topic.
Since it is in the auxiliary, or "helping" verb, that difficulty in cor, rect verb form often arises, this topic was taught in every one of the
grammars and in some it was given considerable space. Some books
Included a complete conjugati on of th e auxiliaries, like that found in
Greene's text (1853) :
·

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70

BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIARIES.
Plural
Singular.
2d.
Per.
1st.
Per.
3d
Per.
2d. Per.
1st. Per.
You
W
e
H
e
Thou
I
are
a re
is
art
Am
do
do
does
dost
Do
have
have
has
hast
Have
w ill
will
will
wilt
Present Will
shall
shall
shall
shalt
Shall ·
may
ma y
may
mayst
May
can
can
can
canst
Can
must
must
must
must
Must

Pas t

Was
Did
Had
Would
Should
Might
Could

wast
didst
hadst
wouldst
shouldst
mightst
couldst

was
did
had
would
should
might
could

were
did
had
would
should
might
could

were
did
had
would
should
might
could

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

1941). Usually the present and present perfect tenses were discussed·
' Whitney (1877) also included the progressive. While most authors listed
~o forms of the infinitive other than the tense forms, Murray (1795)
mcluded the passive, potential, independent, and subjunctive forms.
· Except fo r the passive fo rm of the infinitive, which was mentioned in the
Pearson-Kirchwey series (191 4 ) an d the Le wis- Lynch text (1918) ,
none of these forms was included by other authors.

3d Per.
They.
are
do
have
will
shall
may
can
must

The g erund, when first introduced by the Reed-Kellogg seri es (18751877), wa s referred to as A verbal or ve rbal noun. It has appeared in
about half of the texts analyzed, all but four of which have been
published since 1900.

were
did
had
would
should
might
could
(10:73)

The participle was originally considered a separate part of speech,
one of the nine or ten listed by a few of the early grammarians. Ap· ·
parently there was considerable disagreement among textbook writers as
to just how the participle should be classified. Butler ( 1845) said that
"participles are intermediate between verbs and adjectives, as
zoophytes are between animals and vegetables" ( 8: 78). Several authors
considered them as participi al adj ectives, but graduall y the idea of
listing them as verba ls gained in favor, and for the past three quarters
of a century they have always been included as a fotm of the verb used
like an adjective.
In most of the texts, the three tenses of participles were included.
The present participle was found in all except Butler's ( 1845) and
Tweed's (1886) texts; the past participle in Brown's (1823) and in all
grammars except Tweed's (1886) published after 1850; a nd the perfect
participl e in all t exts up to 1850, and in about half of those published .
after that date, when it was more often referred to as the p resent perfect. Especially in the early days, authors sometimes used other names ~ ·
for the tenses of the participle - the preterperfect, the past perfect,
the imperfect, and, rathe r commonly in the early 1800's, the compound
perfect.
The dangling participle, which has been such a problem to teachers '
and pupils, was stressed in three of the texts published during the ·,
twentieth century but, surprisingly, was found in only two or three
other grammars. The tendency seems to have been to give the subject
more consideration in the later t exts.
As has already been mentioned, the infinitive was originally considered a mood, but, in texts publi shed during the last 75 years it has ·
been listed as a verbal, or verb form, doing the work of a noun. It was
included in all te xts except the Step 1111 Step in English series (1940-

71

The principal parts of verbs were included in only three of the
texts of the first period but have appeared in every book published since
1832. In presenting principal parts, irregular verbs were given much
more attention than regular verbs, although the latter were always
included.
Teaching students to use the correct form of irregular verbs has
al_ways b een a pro?lem, and therefore all texts, with the exception of
Dilworth 1s ( 17 40), mcluded the subject. Lists of the principal parts of irregular verbs were included, sometimes in extremely fine type in the
early texts (see Figure 8).
In listing irregular verbs, all except six of the books included defective verbs and a. few also included redundant verbs. According to
Brown (1823 ), the irregular verb is one whose principal parts are not
formed regularly; the defective verb is one which does not have all its
principal parts, like may, might, .. .........., or quoth, quoth, ............ ; and the
:edundant verb is "a verb that forms the preterit or the perfect participle
m ~wo or ~ore ways, and so as to be both regular and irregular; as,
thrive, thriv ed, or throve, thriving, thrived or thriven. Of this class of
verbs, the.r e are about ninety-five, besides sundry derivatives and compounds" (5:95).

~

Murray (1795) stated that "the whole number of verbs in the Englanguage, regular and irregular, simple and compounded taken to&"ether, is about 4300" (2 :117-118). If this figure was accurat~ then the
numbe~ of En~~ish verbs has grown rapidly in the last 150 year~. Murray
also said that the number of irregular verbs, the defective included is
about 177" (2: 118), but Reed and Kellogg (1875-1877) included ;51
Brown (1823) listed 229, a nd Scott a nd Southworth (1906) named 226'.
In the ~rst t~ree periods covered by this study, the number of irregular
' verbs listed m texts averaged about 175 to the book, but none of the
· grammars published since 1923 has included more than 80 and the Ste
.. by Step in English series listed only 45.
P
·

S?me of the old form s of past participles in the early texts were intere.stmg. Kerl ( 1864), for example, included as irregular verbs those
havmg two past forms, an old one which was stili in use though somewhat outmoded, and a new one which was not yet universally accepted.
' Among these were found such verbs as the following:

! i

;:...
'

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

,,

72

73

,BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
... .

;

i

'f

Beget, begot, begotten
begat, begot.
Dare, durst, dared.
dared,
Eat, ate, eaten,
eat, eat,
Freight, freighted, freighted,
fraught.
Seethe, seethed, seethed,
sod,
sodden
Shear, sheared, shorn,
shore,
Spit, spit, spit,,
spat, spitten. (11:141-145)

v·1:•.1·1
/•

'

•' j.

Kerl followed this list with the remark:
A few verbs we have omitted, because they may now be considered regular, or the irregular forms occur but very seldom;
as, help, holp, holpen; climb, past clomb; load, perf. part.
loaden. A few participles we have omitted, because they are now
used only as adjectives; as rotten, from rot, drunken, from drink,
and shotten, from shoot. (11:144-145)
A rather humorous explanation of the reason for changing the past
participle of the verb "drink" was given in Butler's text (1845):

"Toasts were drank," is now often used for "Toasts were
drunk."*
*It would be better for those who are afraid to say, "Toasts
were drunk," lest in [sic] might be supposed that the toasts were
intoxicated, to use some other form of expression, such as, "The
company drank toasts," and not make the innocent language
suffer to save the character of the toasts. (8:97)
Transitiv~ and intransitive verbs were discussed in all texts except
Dilworth's (1740). According to Bullions (1834) the terms "transitive"
and "intransitive" had not always been used :

The terms Transitive and Intransitive, have been substituted for Activ e and N euter, as a more appropriate accurate
designation of the two classes of verbs. By this means all ambiguity and contr oversy is avoided on this point - the term
Active is confined to one appropriate use, - and the word
Neuter is dispensed with so as to be applied solely to the gender
of nouns. (7 :vi)

(full size)

. . 8.
F 1g

Example of a list of irregular verbs in an early text.

A transitive verb, according to Daringer (1938), does not necessarily
express action, but it must require an object to complete its meaning
(25: 245). In this study, all verbs were considered either transitive or
intransitive, the latter classification including linking, or copulative, verbs
which, in the early 1900's, were sometimes listed as a third type of verb.
Some authors in the nineteenth century attempted to classify verbs in
much the same way as they did nouns, adjectives, and pronouns. A few
of the more interesting among these classifications were Whitney's (1877)
. .' causative and factitive verbs, Keri's (1864) unpredicative verbs,
Wisely's (1896) factitive and cognate verbs, and Robbins and Row's
. (1907) infinite verbs.

'.·

\

'

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74

BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

As in the case with other parts of speech, the emphasis in the ~ore
recent books has been on the selection of the correct word to use m a
given situation rather than on mechanical drill on verb for~s. ~or
example almost every one of the books published recently conta111ed 111structio1~ on the correct use of "teach" and "learn," two _words ofte~ c?nfused in meaning. Stress has also been placed on the choice of descnphve
verbs that would enliven and clarify one's statements.
Noun. _ The noun was give more emphasis in t~e first and third
p-eriods than in the others, but it has always been an important . part ?f
speec h , as J·udged by the number of pages on which it wasd mentioned
t•
f h'm
the textbooks analyzed. One of Murray's (1795) recommen a 10ns ?r is
text was that it contained "copious lists of nouns arrange<l accordmg to
their gender and number" (2 :7).
P erhaps the most complete definition of a noun found in an y of the
texts analyzed was that in Comly's text:
OF THE NOUN.
A noun is the name of any thing that we can s.ee, hear,
taste, smell, feel, or discour~e .of; !!;S, man, apple, fire, virtue, &c.
Nouns are sometimes d1v1ded mto pr~per and common .
A noun proper is the name of a ~articular person, place or
thing· as William, London, Brandywine.
.
.
.A no~n common is the name of a sort or species of thmgs;
as man, river, city.
d
f
1
' A noun which is the name of a company, or bo Y o peop e,
is called a collective ?Wun, or noun of multitude; as, family, assembly, committee. (3:15)
In Table v is given the percentage that the pages on which e~ch
phase of the study of nouns were of the total number of pages on which
·nouns were mentioned.
TABLE V PERCENTAGE OF PAGES ON WHICH EACH PHASE IN THE STUDY
OF NOUNS WAS MENTIONED, BASED ON THE TOTAL NUMBER OF PAGES
ON WHICH NOUNS WERE MENTIONED

Phase of study
Kinds ............. ............................. .............
Case ..... ...
Number.. ............
Gender.......... ·· ·- --·- ······-·-·-··· ··
Person .......

Books of
third

Rooks of

second

period

period

period

All
books

23
31
26
16
9

19
19

31
10
21
2
1

27
21
21
6
3

Books of
first
period

Books of

40
59
23
15
G

17

7
_ _2__

fuurlh

The kinds of nouns were stressed more than was any other phase _
of the subject during the 150 years as a whole, although in the fi~st two ·.
eriods case was given much more prominence. In the last penod ~he
was completely reverse<l, with the kinds of nouns bemg .
given three times as much attention as case.
·
Every text included both the common and the proper noun, and almost every one also listed the collective noun. Abstra~t nouns were foun~
in all except one of the grammars to 1886 and 111 several of those
published since that date. Surpisingly, however, concrete nouns

~elationship

75

not mentioned until Reed and Kellogg (1875-1877) put them in their
text. Only a few grammars published recently have mentioned them.
The reason that the case of nouns was given such unusual emphasis
in the early texts was that case had been such an important part of the
grammatical construction of the Greek and Latin language's. The effort made by textbook writers to fit the English language into the pattern of the Greek and Latin was particularly evident in Dilworth's (1740)
declension of the noun "church":
Singular
Nom. A Church.
Gen. Of a Church.
Dat. To a Church.
Acc. The Church.
Voe.
0 Church.
Abl.
From a Church.

Plural
Nom. Churches.
Uen. Of Churches.
Dat. To Churches.
!\cc. The Church es.
Voe.
0 Churches!
Abl.
From Churches.

(1:95)

The Latin names for the cases were found in very few of the texts,
most of the grammars including only the nominative, objective, and possessive cases. Dilworth (1740) was the only author to include the vocative
and ablative by those names. The terms "genitive," "dative," and "accusative" were found also in the Pearson-Kirchwey series (1914) and in
the Essentw,{ Language H abits series (l!J23), and the term "dative" was
also used in The Open Door Language S eries (1926-1928).
The nominative of address, which has been included in all but one
·· of the texts published during the twentieth century, was mentioned in
only two other grammars: Murray's (1795) and Comly's (1805). It
was not always omitted entirely from the texts, however, as some of the
other books referred to it as the independent i10minative.
Number, in connection with nouns, was discussed by every author
except Smith (1832) and Wisely (1896). Much of the space given to
this topic dealt with the formation of the plural, a subject discussed in
• this study in connection with the properties of words, and with the use
of the sing ular and plural with the proper form of the verh.
The ge nder of nouns was mentioned on an average of about once
in every s ix or seven pages in the eal'!y texts, but it has been given
decidedly less space in the textbooks published since 1875. The main
reason for its inclusion in any of the books is that, as Pearson and
Kirchwey (1914) said, one must "know the gender of a noun because it
determines the correct use of th e pronouns, he, she, and a·· (20b:l38).
In many of the older books, lists were included of the masculine
__ and feminin e forms of certain irregular nouns. Typical of words found
in such lists are the following, taken from Smith's grammar (1832):

Male.
Boy,
Friar,
Hart,
Husband,

319-1. By different words ; as,
FemaJe.
Male.
Girl.
Milter,
Nun.
Sloven,
Roe.
Stag,
Wife.
Wizard,

-FemaJe.
Sfiawner.
S ut.
Hind.
Witch.

76

BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
319-2. B1y a difference of termination; as
F emaJe .
Male.
Male.
Hero,
Actress.
Actor,
Landgrave,
Bride.
Bridegroom,
Poet,
Czarina.
Czar,
Goddess.
God,

F ema.le.
Heroine.
Landgravine.
Poetess.

319-3. By prefixing a noun, pronoun, or adjective; as
A hen-sparrow.
A cock-sparrow,
A maid-servant.
A man-servant,
A she-goat.
A he-goat,
(6:44-45)
The three usual genders, masculine, feminine, and neuter, were included in every text except one or two of the more recent ones. Many of
the older texts and two modern ones also included a "common" gender,
which covered either masculine or f eminine.
Almost all the grammars published before 1875 included first, second,
and third person of nouns, but authors had much difficulty in explaining
the topic. Harvey (1868) claimed that "a noun in the predicate is in the
third person, though the subj ect may be of the first or second" (12 :28).
However, as authors began to break away from the Latin and Greek
forms, there was a growing conviction among them that English nouns
did not truly have person.
Adjective. - An adjective, according to the Adventures in English
series (1939-1944), "is a word which describes, limits, or modifies a
noun or a pronoun" (27e : 107). Dilworth (1740) gave adjectives practically no consideration, claiming them to be a kind of noun rather than
a separate part of speech. Since his time, though, adj ectives have been
mentioned on an average of at least 20 per cent of the pages given to
parts of speech.
The different authors have classified adjectives into various types,
but there has never been complete agreement as to the number of classiflcations or as to what they should be called.
Descriptive adjectives were found in Kirkham's grammar (1823)
but not again until Keri's (1864). After this date, however, they were
included in every text analyzed except the Daily-Life Language Series
(1934 ). The Robbins-Row series (1907) divided all adjectives into two
classes, descriptive and limiting, but stated that the N.E.A. Committee gave 16 other classes and subclasses (19b :97).
Distributive adjectives were found in five books published between
1853 and 1906 but in only one other t ext. Demonstrative adjectives were ·
mentioned in both Murray's (1795) and Kirkham's (1823 ) texts, but did
not appear again until 1853, when Greene included them in his grammar.
After this, they were mentioned in approximately half of the texts "
studied. Quantitative, or numeral, adjectives were discussed in almost
all the texts. In a few, these were divided into cardinal and ordinal, and,
in Whitney's (1877), even into fractional. Limiting adjectives, which
might be included in this class, were first known as definitives. These

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

77

were found in most of the texts, especially during the second and third
periods.
Pronomial adjectives, which, according to Harvey (1868), "are de.
finitives, most of which may, without ·an article prefixed, represent a
noun understood; as, all men, each soldier. . . . " (12 :40), were found
in most of the books in the second and third periods, but were in only
one appearing since 1915. Interrogative adjectives were included in six
of the eight books in the third period but in only two other ·grammars,
Butler's (1845) and the Essential Language Habits series (1923). Relative adjectives were found only in the third period, but five of the eight
books published during this period included them.
Indefinite adjectives were found classified by that term in about a
third of the books, most of the grammars published during the last half
of the nineteenth century. However, the articles, which are considered
adjectives, were discussed in every one of the texts analyzed, and in almost all of the books they were divided into definite and indefinite
articles.
Proper adjectives were mentioned in only two books each in the
first two periods, but between 1906 and 1938 every text published mentioned them. Although common adjectives would normally accompany
proper adjectives in a discussion, they were omitted from many of the
grammars that included proper adjectives.
Among the less commonly mentioned kinds of adjectives were the
restrictive and secondary, included in Kirkham's (1823) text; the assumptive, appositive, and factitive, in Keri's (1864) ; the identifying and
intensive, in the Pearson-Kirchwey series (1914); and the diminutive, in
the Reed-Kellogg series (1875-1877).
An interesting point brought out in the early books was the position of adjectives in the sentence. This was discussed only in the first
three books published. It is believed, therefore, that it was definitely a
carry-over from the old Latin grammars, in which position of words in
the sentence was always given considerable attention.
The compar ison of adjectives was found in all the books. Irregular
as well as regular forms of comparatives and superlatives were included.
Some of the unusual forms of comparison were also mentioned in a few
of the texts. Reed and Kellogg (1875-1877) discussed double comparison
(13b:226); Murray (1795) mentioned the use of "rather" in this con; nection, including also the statement that "the termination ish may be
accounted in some sort a degree of comparison, by which the signification
is diminished below the positive: as, black, blackish, or tending to blackness .... " (2 :58).
In recent texts much space has also been given to the use of ad-.
jectives in making one's speech or writing more colorful and descriptive
, as well as more clear. The Step by Step in English series (1940-1941)
.' was among those to bring out particularly well the use of adjectives in
· influencing opinion. In picking out expressive adjectives, they showed the
. difference in point of view of two radio speakers as brought out by the
· ·adjectives they used, one speaker claiming the candidate to be "firm,
determined, strong-willed, and inflexible" a nd the other calling him "obstinate, stubborn, and mulish" (26f:95-96) .

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78

BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

Pronoun. - Except for a slight d ecline in the second peri od, there
has been little change in the amount of empha sis given to pronouns during the 150 years studied. The percentage of space gi ve n t o th e various
phases of the pronoun is gi ve n in Table VI.
TABLE VJ. PERCENTAGE OF PAGES ON WHICH EACH PHASE IN THE STUDY
OF PRONOUNS WAS MENTIONED, BASED ON THE TOTAL NUMBER OF
PAGES ON WHICH PRONOUNS WERE MENTIONED
Books of
first
peri od

Ph ase

- -- - - - - -- -- - - - - - Kinds...
····-··············
Case.-............... ..
Antecedent... ..... .
Number·-······· ········· ·· ······ · ··· .. ..
Person............ -·-··--- ------ -······· ···· ···
Gender.. ·-······· ... ..... .. ........

56
25
19

....... .

Book s of
second
pe riod

Books of
third
period

Boo ks of
fourth
peri od

All
books

50

43
18

33

:is

- - - 16
:13

17

22

12

13
9

15

19
14
11

11

18
10

10
8
6

79

siderable trouble, but, as Pinneo (1850) said: "This case is virtually
acknowledged by all grammarians, but is most frequently called the
nomina.tive independent" ( 9: 42) .
The antecedent was always a rather important topic in the teaching of pronouns. It was given a great deal of space in the second period,
being mentioned on one page out of every three, but dropped to only one
in ten in the last period. In fact, the Adventures in English series
(1939-1944) did not include it at all . While the stress was usually placed
on agreement with the antecedent, the proper placing of the antecedent
for the sake of clarity was also emphasized. As the Step by Step in
English series (1940-1941) stated:

17
15

12
JO

8

In the discussion of pronouns, mo re than twice as much space was
given to a study of the kinds of pronouns as was allotted to any other
phase of the subject. Dilworth (1740) included only t wo kinds, "substantives and adjectives" (1 :97), but he was the only author who was
not in fairly close agreement with the other grammarians concerning
the classification of pronouns.
The personal pronoun was found in all texts except Dilworth's
(1740); the relative pronoun in all except the Pearson-Kirchwey series
(1914); the interrogative pronoun, which Comly (1805) said was the
same as a relative pronoun except that its antecedent "cannot be determined till the answer is g iven to the question" (3:16), in all except the
Step by Step in English series (1940-1941); the possessive pronoun in the
very early texts and again in all published in the t wentieth century, but
not in many published during the middle 1800's; and the compound
pronoun in all except three of the t exts.
The reflexive pronoun first appeared in Greene's text (1853 ), but
was never generally accepted as a fo1m that should be taught, as it
appeared in only six other books, most of them rather recent. A few
grammars divided the ir classification s of pro nouns still furth er. Among
the rather unusual names of these groups of pronouns were the specifying pronouns, found in Kirkh a m's text (1823); respon sive pronouns,
in both Bullions' (1834 ) and Keri 's (1864) grammars; and identifying
pronouns, in the P earson-Kirchwey series (1 914) .
In the first and last periods, case was found on a greater percentage
of pages devoted to pronouns than was any other phase of the subject
except the kinds of pronouns. Here, as in the study of nouns, Dilworth
(1740) applied all six Latin cases to English. However, except for Whitney (1877), who included the vocative, none of the other tex ts discussed more than three cases. In general, the three cases mentioned in
modern textbooks were known as the nominative, the possessive, and the
objective, but two or three of the most recent grammars have again
adopted the terms "dative," "accusative," and "genitive."
For some time after the Greek and Latin vocative form was dropped
from English grammars, the "independent case" (9 :42) caused con-

Pronouns are very useful words. Our language would be
clumsy and awkward without them. A pronoun must be used
exactly, however, or its meaning will not be clear. When you use
pronouns, be sure that your reader or listener will know exactly
what each one of your pronouns means. (26c:l81-182)
Number is being given considerably less emphasis than it was in
the first two periods of this study, although it is still mentioned on about
one page in eight. All books included both the singular and plural form s
of pronouns.
The person of pronouns was also given less emphasis in the later
texts, but first, second, and third person were discussed in every one of
the grammars. In the early texts one topic which was always taken up
in connection with person was that of the use of "thee," "thou," and
"ye." By 1850, however, most of the texts were omitting these pronouns.
Pinneo mentioned them in one of his "remarks":
Rem. 3. - You is generally used for the 2d person
singular.* Thou, however, is still used by the ·religious denomination of Friends, and in the Scriptures, and in solemn, poetic,
and burlesque . style. (9 :47)
Least in importance in the study of pronouns was their gender. Although the subject was at no time given much space, it was mentioned
only about half as often in the later books as in the very early ones.
All of the books included the masculi ne gender; all except Pinneo (1850)
gave the feminine; and all except Bullions (1834), Pinneo (1850), and
Tweed (1886 ) listed the neuter · gender. During the second period, and
again in the last period, two or three texts referred to the common
gender, which had been called "either masculine or feminine gender" in
some of the very early books.
Little difficulty was encountered in teaching the gender of the personal pronouns, of course, although it was interesting to note that in
several of the old texts a note was inserted to the effect that "it" was
used in referring to small children. This same idea carried over into
the relative pronouns, Comly (1805) stating that "the relative pronoun
who should only be applied to persons or intelligent beings; and which
to little children, animals, or inanimate things" (3 :85).

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BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

Adverb. - In the first peri od cover ed by this stud y, the adverb was
given less space than was a ny other part of speech except the interject.io n, h ut it has gained in im portance and is now allotted more spare than
ei th er the con.iunction or the preposition. The Reed-Kellogg ~er i es (18751877) included the study of the adverb more often than did auy other
text, mentioning it on approximately every third page. Three of the
books in the first period included it on fewer than ten pages each, and
Bullions (1834), Tweed (1886) , and Wisely (1896) also gave it very
little space.
The comparison of adverbs and a discussion of the various classes of
adverbs w ere the two important phases of the subject always taken up
in textbooks. Comparison of adverbs was handled in much the same
way as was compar ison of adjectives.
The classes g iven by different a uthors did n ot always agree, but
most of those mentioned were included in the list given by Comly
(1805) :
1. Of number; as Once, twice, thrice, &c.
2. Of order; as First, secondly, thirdly, lastly, finally, &c.
3. Of place ; as Here, there, where, ~lsewhere,_ any"'.here,
everywhere, somewhere, nowhere, herem, therem, hither,
thither, whither, upwar d, downwar d , forward, b ackward,
whence, h ence, thence, whithersoever, &c.
4. Of time present; as Now, to-day, &c.
5. Of time past ; a s Already, before, lately, yesterday, long
since.
6. Of time to come ; as To-morrow, hereafter, henceforth,
by and by, presently, immediately, &c.
.
7. Of time indefinite; a s Oft, often, oftentimes, sometimes, soon, seldom, daily, weekly, yearly, al wa ys, wh en, ever,
never, again, &c.
8. Of quality; as Much, little, sufficiently, enough, how
much, how great, abundantly, &c.
9. Of manner or quality; as Wisely, foolishly, justly,
quickly. Adverbs of quality are v~ry. numerous; ~l}d are generally formed by adding ly to ad.1echves or participles, or by
changing le into ly; as bad, badly; cheerful, cheerfully; admirable admirably; agreeable, agreeably, &c.
10. ' Of dou bt; as P erhaps, peradventure, possibly, perchance.
11. Of affirmation; a s Verily, truly, certainly, yea, yes, indeed, really, &c.
12. Of negation; as Nay, no, not, not at all, in no wise,
&c.
13. Of 'interrogation; as How, why, wherefore, whether,
&c.
14. Of comparison; as Better, be~ t, more, most, worse,
worst, less, least, very, almost, alike, &c. (3:67-68)
The majority of these kinds of adverbs were mentioned in the
early texts, but not more than six kinds, and sometimes only two kinds .
have been listed in texts published since 1868.
Adverbs of manner, place, and time were found in most of the
texts, beginning with Murray (1795) and ending with The Open Door
Langna.ge Series (1926-1928). Adverbs of negation and affirmation were

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

81

included in most . of the early books; in fact they were in a ll of those
published du r ing the first period, but they were gradually dropped and
in the last peri od were found in none of the texts. AdYerbs of degree
were givf' n conside rab le attenti on between 184ii and 1877 and again between HIOU and l\J::! U, but they were m entioned in only two books not
published within these dates. Adverbs of cause were included in texts
only between 1853 and 1\J14.
During the second and third . peri ods conjunctive adverbs were
stressed, but they were found only once or twice in other periods. Adverbs of doubt, of order, of number, of quality, and of quantity appeared in the first two periods but were included by these names in very
few books after that time. Relative adverbs and responsives were
emphasized in the third period . Interrogative adverbs were found in
about ha lf of the grammars scattered through all periods.
Double negatives were mentioned in only two books in the first
period, but were in most of those after that time, and were found in all
texts published since 1900.
Some of the more unusual kinds of adverbs (so far as nomenclature is concerned) were found in Whitney's text (1877), which included potential adverbs and adverbs of measure, of motion, a nd of
succession. Dil worth (1740) listed adverbs of wishing, an d Bullions
(1834 ) included adverbs of uncertainty. In recent texts the more fo1mal
names for the different classifications were dropped, most of the books
referring to adverbs as words that tell how, when, where, to what extent, how much, and why.
As iri. the case of adjectives, textbooks published within the last
period have emphasized the value of adverbs in making descriptions clear
and vivid and in adding interest to a story.
Preposition. - As the years have gone by, the amount of emphasis
given to the preposition has steadily decreased. Murray (1795) stated
that "one great use of prepositions, in English, is, to express those rela, tions, which, in some languages, are chiefly marked by cases, or the different endings of nouns" (2 :123 ). H yde (1888-1896) discussed prepositions in great detail, Including long notes on some of the forms. In one
such case, she explained the different points of view concerning the
parsing of the word "of" in the sentence, "His original purpose was lost
sight of" (13b :233 ), concluding her discussion with the statement that
"Mr. Goold Brown pronounces this construction 'an unparsable synchysis,
a vile snarl, which no grammarian should hesitate to condemn' "
(13b : 233 ).
Prepositions have not been broken down into kinds in t exts published
since 1877, but before that time most of the books divided them into
two classes: prepositions separate from the noun, and inseparable
prepo.;;itions, or prepositions joined to the noun. A few included compound prepositions, or those made up of two other prepositions, such a s
"into," "underneath,'' "upon,'' etc. Bullions (1834) explained that inseparable prepositions were "certain particles never found by themselves, but always in composition with another word. Those purely

82

BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

83

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

English are a, be, fore, mis, nn" (7 :70). No attempt has been made in
recent texts to divide prepositions into classifications of any kind.

Some of the interjections listed in the older textbooks are particularly interesting. Bullions (1834) included the following:

Conjunction. - Conjunctions were given so much stress between
1795 and 1823 that the percentage of pages on which they appeared in
the first period of this study was greater than that in any_of the other
periods.
Murray claimed that conjunctiorys were necessary only to the speech
of the educated and intelligent:

Adieu ! ah! alas! alack! a way! aha I begone I hark I ho!
ha! he! hail! halloo! hum! hush! huzza! hist! hey-dey!, lo! O!
Oh! 0 strange! O brave! pshaw! see! well-a-day! &c. {7: 71)

Till men began to think in a train, and carry their reasonings to a considerable length, it is not probable that they
would make much use of conjunctions, or of any other connectives. Ignorant people, and children, generally speak in short
and separate sentences. The same thing is true of barbarous nations: and hence uncultivated languages are not well supplied
with connecting particles. The Greeks were the greatest reasoners that ever appeared in the world; and their language, accordingly, abounds more than any other in connectives. (2:128)
Disjunctive conjunctions were included in the first eight books, but
were found in only three of the texts publi shed later than this. The
opposite of these, copulative conjunctions, were included in most of the '
first 18 books, but did not appear after 1906. Coordinating and subordinating conjunctions, on the other hand, were not found in texts until
Greene introduced them in 1853. Greene's division of conjunctions was
accepted by almost all textbook authors, only one book after this date
failing to include it.
Dilworth ( 1740) included conditional conjunctions, and he and
Whitney (1877) and the Scott-Southworth series (1906) included causals.
Murray (1795) mentioned double and illative conjunctions, and conjunctions in pairs, and a few of the books published b etween 1850 and 1877
also included adjective, adverbial, adversative, alternative, and correspondent conjunctions. Recent books have not listed many kinds of conjunctions.

The interjection is much more useful in spoken English than in
written English, but even here the modern texts warn students to avoid
using it too often. Several of the newer texts contained statements
similar to that found in the Adventures in English series (1939-1944):
A very common fault in American speech is the excessive
use of interjections - often very cheap 1111d inappropriate ones,
such as gee whiz and bolo'ney, to say nothing of swearing. One
way in which we can show our patriotism and pride in our
language is to resolve not to swear or use expressions that
really add nothing to the value of what we are sayi ng.
{27f:l07)
Prose and Poetry
Prose and poetry, mentioned on 30 per cent of all pages in the textbooks analyzed, included four rather general subdivisions: composition,
which involved the writing of material by the student; the study of prose,
that is, the interpretation of literary selections or other written material
or the study of its organization for the purpose of gaining an understanding and appreciation of good writing; the study of poetry; and
figures of speech. The relative amounts of emphasis given these divisions
i'n the various periods are shown in Table VII.
TABLE VII. PERCENTAGE OF PAGES ON WHICH EACH PHASE OF PROSE
AND POETRY WAS MENTIONED, BASED ON THE TOTAL NUMBER OF
PAGES ON WHICH PROSE AND POETRY WERE MENTIONED

Books of

Phase

first

period

Interjection. - The interjection has bee n given less space than
any other part of speech throughout the 150 years covered by this
study. Lewis and Lynch (1918) gave it more emphasis than did any
other text studied, m entioning it on n early 7 per cent of the pages.
However, many of the grammars mentioned it on only two to four pages.
Murray (1795) described the interjection and his reason for considering it a part of speech, as follows:
The interjection, indeed, seems scarcely worthy of being
considered as a part of artificial language or speech, being rather
a branch of that natural language, which we possess in common
with the brute creation, and by which we express the sudden
emotions and passions that actuate our frame. But, as it is used
in written as well as oral language, it may, in some measure,
be deemed a part of speech. It is, with us, a virtual sentence, in
which the noun and verb are concealed under an imperfect or
indigested word. (2:4 3-44)

···- ·· ·· ·· ·· · ··· ··· ·

······· · ·· ·· - -· -···-··· ··

:i
33
44
:13

Books of
second
period

Books of
third
period

Books of
fourth
perio<l

10

55
15
28
2

50

8

58
:Jl

a6

15

All

books

48

29
20
2

More variation in the amount of emphasis given the various phases
a subject was found in prose and poetry study than in any other
major division of grammar. Composition writing was seldom mentioneci
in texts of the first period but was found on half the pages of texts
published after 1875. Figures of speech, on the other hand, dropped from
at least one mention for every three pages to a negligible amount of
emphasis in the last period.
Composition as we think of it today did not enter
out 1850. Of the textbooks published earlier than this,
{1834) gave the subject any consideration worthy of note.

·~

~·

84

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

While Bullions stated that the "rhetorical divisions of a discourse" were
"generally six in number, viz. the Exordium, the Narration, the Proposition, the Confirmation, the Refutation, and the Peroration"
159)'
he gave practically no explanation of the characteristics of these different
divisions.
Emphasis on composition increased tremendously at the beginning
of the third period, when Reed and Kellogg (1875-1877) gave the subject
a great deal of attention. Up to that time much of the work tha ~as
called composition had been nothing more than sentence coi:istr~chon.
Ree and Kellegg greatly broadened the field covered by this kmd of
composition:

<y:

In the supplementary Lessons on Composition the p1;1pil js
thoroughly drilled in the use of the marks of Punctu.at10n, is
made familiar with the cardinal virtues of Style, and 1s led on
to the grouping of sentences into Paragraphs and of Paragraphs
into Themes, to the construction of Frameworks for Themes, and
to Letter-Writing. (13b:5)
I

·•I

Only four books in the first two pe riods discussed ?aragr~phing,
but the subject was found in five books publi shed in the t~1rd p~nod and
in all those in the fourth. Proper margins and paragraph mdentions were
included in most of the texts published after 1875. Reed and Kellogg
(1875-1877) were among the first to stress the paragraph.'. but the.y
usually tied it up with the mechanical make-up of compos1bon , as JS
seen in the directions they gave:
Direction. - W eave th ese facts into as many varngraph.~ ,UR
you think there .~ hould be, n sing ti.1.e v nrie ty of exv.r ession insis ted on in L essan 1.50, and write on the rnarmn of each
paragrctph the .<rpecicil top-ic, and ov er the whole, the general
.~ ubject of ~he Them e: ... (1 3b:298)
In connection with the paragraph, the topic sentence was discussed by a few of the texts, especially in the last period. Books
published between 1896 and 1926, and one or two later t ext.s, gave considerable attention to the use of an outline. In this connect10n, the Adventures in English series (1939-1944) likened the writing of a co~­
position to the building of a house and the outline to the blueprint .. This
text stressed the need for organization, saying: "Get the habit of
putting your thoughts in order, no matter what you think, or say,
write" (27d:27).
Clearness and forcefulness in writing were mentioned in a few
books throughout the study, especially in the last period. Accuracy,
naturalness, and variety were also stressed in the later books. Interest
and vividness, too, were considered by recent texts as among the more
important qualities of a good composition, but were not even mentioned until 1900 'n the gi:ammars studied.
Of the... four more common forms o~ composition, narration a~ . ,
description were given the most space. While these forms were found m
only two books in each of the first two periods, they were included. and •
given far more emphasis in most of the texts of the last two periods. 1

85

• Exposition, on the other hand, was found in only four books published
before 1907 and argumentation in only two put out before 1914 and in
three publi shed after that date.
h

Figure 9). Scott and Southworth (1906) included also questions to
guide students in telling the story or to get the most out of a picture.
The development of creative ability became an important point in story
writing and books attempted to develop this ability.
In teaching th e writing of description, emphasis was usually placed
on the use of an appropriate and effective vocabulary. The Oven Door
La.ngua.g e Series (1926-1928) stressed this by having th e students pick
out the characteristic traits of whatever they planned to describe. They
pointed out that "almost everything in nature has striking characteristics
by which it may be told. An English sparrow is recognized by its
twittering and quarreling ; a fox by its bushy tail and sly ways; a bear
by its savage gro wl and awkward walk" (2!3c:13) . The student was
then asked to pick out the characteristic movements of variou s animals.
Perhaps the topics suggested for themes will throw more light on
the changes in the= ·eaclring of composition than will gene ral discuss ion
of the subject. Bullions (1834) listed more than a hundred "selected
, from Parker's E x ercises in Comvosition," among them such topics as
"Ardor of Mind," "Government of the Affections," "Life is Short," and
"Idleness Destroys Character" (7:188). By the time Reed and Kellogg 's
text (187 5-1877) appeared, about 40 years later, t opics were not, a s a
rule, so moralizing, and gave the student a chance to write in a lighter
vein. However, the pupil was still usually held down to a~rnign ed topics
like "The Missions of Birds" and "A Descent in a Diving Bell" (1 3b:305 ),
rather than given the opportunity to use his imagination.
The trend, however, was toward encouraging originality by allowing pupils more freedom in the sel ection of their theme topics. Hyde
· (1888-1896) suggested that "whatever the pupil is interested in, whether
it be a topic connected with his reading, geography, history, or some
other lesson, will afford him a good subject for composition" (16a :v) . A
-quarter of a century later, when educators were beginning to encourage
pupil s to look outside of their classroom experiences for topics, the
Essential Language Habits series (1923) included such assignments as
"Pretend that you are a peppennint cane in a candy store. How do
you feel when you see a little boy getting ready to buy you? Where does
pe take you? How do you help in making someone happy?" (22a :137).
Recent texts have tried to develop the whol e pupil in their teaching
of composition . Not only have they given him the opportunity to select
': his own subject for a composition, but the Daily-Life Language Serie.s
(1934) even gave him a formula to go by in deciding whether the subject
he chose was suitable for him.
"The Home Run Which Won the Game." Is that a good subject
for me?

f

'j:
t
:i

..
l

.l

'

86

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

Test 1. Personal experience? Yes, I was in the play.
Test 2. Interesting? Yes, the play won the game.
Test 3. Definite? Yes, I can tell it _in a short time.

,,...! , ~
oe

: .

. :___ ~·~---~~lf-1:_~-~:::~~-- ~··

~~-

.LEs.~N

u.X_

1

,____ --'1'i' 9r-91

------

~ -~

... onpai ..,. - • ""

87

(24c:20)

Study of prose. - The study of prose was given about the same
amount of emphasis in the last period as in the first, but between the
two periods it was included far less often. Before 1835 much of the instruction concerning prose dealt with the subjects of clearness, perspicuity, precision, propriety, purity, strength, and unity. These phases
of the subject were not given much consideration in th e second and
third periods, except in Reed and Kellogg's tex t (1875-1877), but were
again taught in the books of the twentieth century.
At first the study of prose was more nea rly a study of grammar
than of writing because it involved a tearing apart rather than a
building up of well written sentences and paragraphs. Quotations from
writers were included in a few of th e texts to illustrate effective writing
or correct pa r agraphing, but not many of th ese were used until about
the middl e 1800's.
Many stories were included in texts, some purely for the sake of
adding interest, but most for the sake of helping the child to recognize
well written prose and to appreciate the factors in its development.
The first t ext to include stories was Reed and Kellogg's ( 1875-1877), but
almost every grammar since that time has included a number of them,
nearly one sixth of the pages in the Robbin s-Row se ri es (1907) and the
Daily-Life Language Series (1934) containing material of this kind.
A few fables were quoted in recent texts as examples of story writing. Biography was found in five grammars, four of them publi shed
since 1920, and essays and orations we re also included now and th en in
recent texts. All of these were quoted for the sake of showing the student
some phase of prose writing - th e logical arrangement of thought, th e
development of the interest element, the crea tion of a certain atmosphere,
and so fo r th. Di scussion of the factors usually followed the <JUOted
type of prose includ ed for study was that of children 's compositions. These were first put in tex tbooks ea rly in the twentieth
century and became very popular, for in thi s way the authors of th e
texts were able to show the student what not to do a s well as what to
do and to show him th e r es ults of poo r writing and the way in which
they affect the fini shed product.

(a pproxima tel y two fifths size)

Fig, \),

Illustrations used in earl y composition t eaching,

Study of poet ry. - The study of poetry was another subj ect ginn
much more emphasis after 1875 than earlier. The differe nce in percentage of pages given to poetry was mostly due to the fact that seve ral
phases of the subject were included in the later books, while in th e early
1
1ones little more than versification was discussed.
1At first, the study of poetry was always placed under the heading
;'Prosody," a term never found in modern texts. According to Dilworth
'j(1740), prosody, or the study of the principles and methods of versification, "teacheth the true Pronunciation of Syllables and Words, according to their proper Quantities, and Tone.q, or Accents" (1:91) . In the

,,

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

89

DULLETIN OF TTIE SCTTOOL OF EDUCATION

88

The first evidence of teaching the pupil to write poetry was found

teaching of the subject, perspicuity. preci sit'll, prnpricty, purit y, ~tren~th,
etc., were strPsscrl in t exts up to 1 s;~.1. nnd the mct•lurnicnl form of 1it1etry
was taught in detail through the first two pe ri od s covered by this study.
The greatest emphasis on versification came <luring lhe second
period, a lth oug h the s ubj ect wa s fou11d in most of {lie g-ramma rs of
the first period. After 1868 it was dropped a lmost completely for 30 or.
40 years. The study of rhyme and of th e stanza r e-e ntered texts early
in the twentieth century, and, in the las t two books analyzed, versification, including such topics as accent, blank verse, m eter, pauses, rhyme,
and the stanza, was again given considerable attention.
Although Dilworth (1740) and Comly (1805) did not mention poetic
feet and only one of the authorn after 1868 included the topic, several of
the early grammars discussed a s man y as eight kinds, always including anapaest, dactyl, iambus, and trochee . Greene's text (1853 ) was
particularly d e tailed in this respect .
Poetic license was mentioned only once after 1868, having received
its greatest emphasis in the seco nd period. Brown (1823 ) listed 36
"of the m ost striking peculiarities in which poe ts indulge," such as "They
use concrete terms to express abs tract qualities" ( 5 :3 33 ) and "They abbreviate verbs" (5: 3::!4).
Scanning was popular during the second pe riod but was scarcely
mentioned by any othe r authors and was not found in any of the texts

Jn Greene's text (1853):
Construct a line to rhyme ivith the following:'.'.'1,'he soldier marc.hed upon the burning ;and,"
.. s,oft the breeze Jn yonder vale,"
'Ihe leaves are falling one by one,"
(10:220)
~wo or three recent books also gave the pupil an opportunity to try
rhymmg words and making lines of poetry. One suggestion made in The
Open Door Language Series (1926-1928) was:

. W!th the h elp of your classm a tes change this stanza to one
b egmmng: And when the summer is over.
And when the winter is over
The boughs will get new'leaves
The quail come back to the clover'
And the swallow back to the ~aves.
Cary (23a :205)
The .two most recen~ books. have i:nade a point of the fact that "poetry
a :uus1cal way of saymg ~hmgs with picture words" (27e: 178) . Great
mte1es t h as be:n shown dunng the t wen ti eth cen tu ry in teaching pupils
to ~s e exp ressive ~nd vivi.d words, and poetry has furnished a good
medmm through which to give such instruction.
.

~s

of the last period.
Classical poetry r eceived its greatest emphasis in the second period ·
and the least in the las t period, when it was almost dropped from texts.
Children's poetry was included in only three tex ts in the fi r st two periods,
and in each of those only one or two poem s were found. Since that time,
however, only three texts have failed to include children's poetry, about
one third of all teaching in the field of poetry being based on this type
of poem.
Reed and Kellogg (1875-1877) were among the firs t to present the study of poetry from the point of v iew of teaching the child th e m eaning of a poem rather than merely teaching him th e form. They included selec tions from well-known poets (l!~ h :l ,18), for t he pupil to
translate into prose. Hyde (1888-lS!JG) tried t o h elp the pupil ga in the
meanin g from a poem by a sking questions concerning it:
Read the first stanza. What is this stanza about ? Where
was the blackbird? Whom did he address? What did he say ?
What reply did the little girl make? Describe Little Bell. What
is the meanin g of piped? Of spray? Of quoth? Of unfold ? What
are the marks called that enclose the words Little B ell? Why
are they used ?
Read the second stanza. What was the fir st thing that Little Bell did? ( 16b: 14)
Poetry to be m emorized was not included in texts until Hyde (18881896) published several such poems in her grammar. The idea met with
such immediate popularity that sever al of the texts published in the
next 20 or 30 years contained many pages of poems for memorization
and all except three of the grammars after that time quoted at least a

Figures of speech. -

According to Kirkham (1823) :

.
Figures o.f Speech may be described a s that lang uage which
is prompte.d either by the imagination, or by the passions. They
gederally .imply s~me departure from simplicit y of expression ·
an exh1b1t ideas m a manner more vivid and impressive tha~
c<;mJd be . done by plain language. Fi g u res have bee n com~onl ·
d1v1ded mto grea t classes; F igures of Word s and Figures 0}
Thought . (4 :222)
'
F '.gu res. of speec h were mentioned on nearly one fourth of th e pages
p1ose and poetry were discussed in the first period but in t he
l~st pe1:10d only three boo ks included the s ubj ect and none 0/ these mell. h~ned 1t on more than one or two pages. Altogether, only about t wo
. thirds of the texts included figures of speech.
on

wh1c~

Murray (1795 ) and Brown

(1823)

gave a fulle r di scussion of

figure~ of spe~c~ th~n di~ any other authors, but Harvey (1868), who
went m to detail rn d1scu ss rng punctuation m arks diacritical m Jt

0: 1~;J
m~nt~:~:~

~1sted 35 different figures bf speech, much the 'greatest num:r,sf
many text. Kerl (1864) listed 26, Brown (1823) mentioned 17 G
, (1853 ) gave 16,
Pinneo (1850) included 14, but those
I were not necessanly the same in the various books.

~nd

, ;j

Personification
was found in 14 texts and simile i~ 12, but no oth er
fi
f
one gure o . speech was mentioned in more than nine of the texts
analyzed. Besides the t wo n a m ed, those most commonly inch d d
IJ
t'th ·
.
i e
were
a egory, an 1 es1s, climax, hyp erbole, irony, metaphor, metonom y, and

few.
Ii

BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

90

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

synecdoche. Early books included also such unusual figures of speech .
as paraleipsis, enallage, autonomasia, and onomatopy. Altogether, only
eight were mentioned in the last two periods and none of the books contained all of these.

91

In the early books very technical names were given to the various
sounds, and the problem of studying the correct pronunciation of a word
was an involved one. Pupils had to learn these terms and to apply them
correctly. Harvey (1868) gave a model to go by in analyzing the sounds
of the letters in a word:
Model III.

The Study of Words

Clank. - Give the five sounds in quick succession.
c-1-a-n-k, and pronounce the word.

While the study of words was not considered t~e most important·
phase of grammar, it was discussed on more than an eighth of t~e pages
of the texts analyzed. In the first period, howe~er, t~e subJect was
given much more emphasis than in any other penod. D1l:-vo1;~h (1 '.40)
gave particular stress to the study of words, which, he said, are given
us by the alwise God, as a Means by which, not only one Man may m~ke ·
his own Thoughts known to another, but that we _thereby ma;r also arnve ,
to the Knowledge of the Will of Him our Creator, revealed 111 the sacred
Oracles of his Divine Word" (1 :A2) .
In this division have been included such topics as phonetics and
pronunciation, spelling, syllabication, letters and sounds, vocabula~
building and correct usage of certain words, forming of p:urals, and de. t"
"th their roots prefixes and suffixes. The relative amounts of
nva 1ves w1
.
•
'.
.
III
1emphasis given these different topics are shown m Table V .

Model IV.
Clank is a syllable, containing five elementary sounds.
C ........ is a consonant-aspirate-palatal, substitute for k. (Give
its sound.)
L_ ___ __ is a consonant-subvocal-lingual. (Give its sound.)
a ........ is a vowel, short sound. (Gfoe its sound. )
n ........ is a consonant-subvocal-palatal-nasal, substitute for ng.
(Give its sound.)
k ........ is a consonant-aspirate-palatal. (Give its sound.) (12: 19)
These t echnical terms were omitted entirely from modern texts, although the same general content was taught. In the Adventures in Eng·· lish series (1939-1944), for exampl e, pupils were told to:

Nearly one third of the space given to the study of words
with phonetics and pronunciation, while about the s~me amou~t "".as
given to spelling and syllabication combi~ed . . Emphasis on s~ellmg md however as the teaching of syllab1cahon became less important.
cLretatse ' d their' sounds and derivatives were stressed in the first period
•
b "Id"
e ers an
but have almost dropped out of textbooks, w~ile _vocabu1ary ~1 mg,
on the other hand, increased greatly in populanty m the last penod. .•

Notice carefully which sounds you make with your teeth,
which ones with the help of your lip s, and which ones with your
throat muscles. Watch the vowel sounds especially. Here are
examples of the different kinds of consonant sounds, grouped by
the way we sound them.
T eeth letters: d, t, n, s, and r
Lip letters: p, b, m, f, v, and w
Throat letters: c, ch, g, k, and q (27c:28-29)
Interesting practice in using the correct sounds of letters was given
the Step by Step in English series (1940-1941) :

·

PERCENTAGE OF PAGES ON WHICH EACH PHASE OF THE
WAS MENflONED, BASED ON THE TOTAL NUMBER OF
PAGES ON WHICH THE STUDY OF WORDS WAS MENTIONED

~~~t;. 'b~LWOR.DS

Phase

- - - - - - - -- - - - -

Phonetics and pronunciatio n .

~~fi'!~i~~t;;;;; :::::: .

·······

Letters and sounds ..... .
Voca bulary building Forminl! of plurals
DerivatlVCS ..... ..... .

S{'.C'.Otlrl

Boo ks of
th ird

period

period

Books o[
first
peri od

B oo ks of

42
JO

22

25
21
8
4
14.

- -- -33

~H

18

14
16
0
17
12

11
7
4

24
4

I

In this sentence the th sounds are unvoiced: Thirty-three
thistles were thrust through m11 thumb .
In this sentence the th sounds are voiced: The11 bathed my
brother with Father's lather. ( 26b: 25)

Books o[
fourth
1wri od

29
25
9

8

16
5
1

Phonetics and pronunciation. - Phonetics and pronunciation havt
been combined in this analysis because they were so often combined la
the textbooks.

Authors have always emphasized the fact that correct pronunciation is essential if one is to be considered educated. In the early days
: pupils were given an understanding of diacritical marks and an explanation of the rules for accenting syllables. Lists of words were included in many of the texts which, as Kirkham (1823) said, were "erroneously pronounced by polite people, as well as by the vulgar" ( 4 :201).
Among the words found in such a list in Keri's text (1864) were "Do
not say . . . chaw for chew, pint for point, git for get, sich for such,
skeer for scare, shet for shut, guine for going, borry for borrow, widder
\for widow, Injun for Indian, tremenjus for tremendous" (11 :52).
11

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BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

In recent books more space was given to the often mispronounced or
slurred word, such as "yuh" fo r "you," "gonna" for "going to," and
"juh," for "did you" (27b:14) . H owever, certain other words which are
often mispronounced were also pointed out. In The Open Door Lan1111age Series (1926-1928), the authors gave the source of difficulty in
pronunciation, pointing out whether it was the initial sound of a certain word, a mistaken sound, the final sound, or a slighted syllable tha.t
usually caused the incorrect pronunciation (23b: 157). The Step by Step
in English series (1940-1941) also included a list of words such as "accompanist," "athletic," "drowned," and "film," introducing it with:
If you wish to make a good first impression, be sure that you

do not slip extra syllables into the following words: (26e: 23)
Pronunciation was stressed in the last period, while phonetics was
stressed in the first. This change in emphasis followed the pattern of
many of the changes in other phases of grammar teaching, that is, it
was a move away from the technical aspects of the study to the more
functional phases.
Spelling. - Spelling created quite a problem in the early ?ays because the spelling of a number of words had not been standardized, !et
authors seemed to feel that there could be but one truly correct spellmg
of a word. This led to discussion of the subject, with textbook writers
seeking authority for the spellings which they included in t~eir . books.
Murray (1795), for example, included several statements m his text '
similar to the following:
C, says Dr. Johnson, according to English or~h~grap~y,
never ends a word· and therefore we find in our best d1ctionanes,
S tick block publi~k politick, &c. But many writers of latter
years' omit ' the k in' words of two .o~ more syl~ables;. an d t h'1s
practice is gaining ground, though 1t 1s productive of irregularities; such as writing mimic and mimickry; traffic and trafficking. (2:22)
Since much stress was placed on rules in the early study of gram
mar, spellings that did not conform to rules were questi?ned. People
have developed a tolerance toward the opinions of others m regard to
this point, however. When r ecent texts mentioned that there was not
complete agreement as to the spelling of a word, pupils were taugh~
to use the preferred spelling:
The preferred spelling of the following words is given first,
but the other spelling is not wrong:
cancelled
canceled
catalog (26e :216)
catalogue

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

93

The first part of Dilworth's text (1740) was given over entirely
to spelling, first by. letters and later by syllables. He began with words
of two letters, giving lists of such words, which he termed "Tables," and
then included exercises. After his list of three-letter words, for instance
he included "Some easy Lessons on the Foregoing Tables, consisting of
· Words not exceeding Three Letters" (1 :4), among the lessons being
such sentences as:
No Man may put off the Law of God.
In God do I put my Joy, 0 let me not sin.

(1:4)

..

Dilworth listed words of as many as six letters, but all of these were
one~syllable words. When he got into words of more than one syllable,
he mcluded them in his discussion of syllabication rather than of spellLists were included, especially in the older t exts, giving the correct and incorrect (or old) spellings of words. In a list in Kirkham's
grammar (1823) were found such spellings as "corset" (incorrect) and
"corslet" (correct), "ouse" (incorrect) and "ooze" (correct) and "rib.
'
bon " ( mcorrect)
and "riband" (correct) (4:200). Were it not
for the
fact that many spellings considered correct today were found in the "correct" column of this list, it would seem that the columns had accidentally
been given the wrong headings.
Homonyms were also stressed in several of the texts. Here again, a
few of the early grammars included long lists of homonyms, one of the
. most ~nteresting of which was found in Dilworth's text (1740). The
followmg were among the items in this list:

Bolt, for a Door
Boult, Meal
Breaches, broken Places
Breeches, to wear
Earing, the Time of Harvest
Eatr-ring, a Ring for the Ear
Grease, nasty Fat
Greece, a Country
Male, the H e
Mail, Armour
Mite, an Insect
Might, Strength
News, Tidings
Noose, a Knot
Pint, half a Quart
Point, a Stop

Rere, the back Part
Rea11·, to erect
Retch, to Vomit
Wretch, an unhappy Man
Rie, Corn
Wry, Crooked
Some, a Part
Sum, the whole
Way, to walk in
Weigh, to poize
Wey, Forty Bushels
Whey, Milk and Rennet
Weather, disposition of the Air
Whether, which of the Two
Vile, base
Wile, a Trick
While, in the meantime
(1 :73-79)

, · In many cases the words given in such a list were not true homonyms,
and therefore would not be found so classified in modern texts. Lists in
recent texts were much shorter and seldom contained rarely used words,

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BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEX'l'BOOKS

but almost always included the homonyms "there, their, they're" and
"to, two, too." Instead of merely listing the words, r ecent g r a mma rs have .
tried to help the pupil to see the words used correctl y in content, The
Open Door L anguag e S eries (1 926-1928) using the phrase "too man y
going to town in a t wo-wheel cart " (23a :283 ) to help the stud ents r emembe r the correct use of each of the s pellings of the word.
Syllabication. - Although syll a bication was in cluded in all bu t two
of the texts, it was given very little em pha sis in any except th e first book.
According to Brown, " a S y lla ble is one or more letters p ronoun ced in
one sound, and is either a word or a part of a word ; a s; a, an , cint"
(5 :28). In discussi ng the di vision of words in to syll abl es, Dil wo rth
(1740) stated that it is done "by t a kin g W ords asund er into conve ni ent
Par ts, in or der t o shew their t r ue P ro nun cia ti on, and ori g inal Formation, which is commonly ca lled S pelling" (1 :83 ) .
Dilworth (1740) g ave far more spa ce to syllabi cati on th a n did a ny
other text, pl a cing it in his tex t immedi at ely foll owi ng h is det a il ed discussion of s pelling. H e included long li sts of wo rds of one, two, three,
four , fiv e, and six syllables, giving 11ea rly 42 per cent of his book to this
and t o spelling. Towa rd the end of thi s sect ion he included th e foll owing
list :

.

.,JI"
Jt

•
I

J

• •

. ."' .
,.• . : :'
I

If ,

,.

,..

u •

,,r...•

~

y

I

•

Jo

•

.a

y •

Ii

I

,

t

t

....
,,
" 1:

t

t

··'t.
•11r~"·

h·r,

d~ ..tk- tr~

..,._

'

.
... .. .
...' ...... ·,,'•""
'

£-flrt_,,4,t;

c~

'" '

~

I

'

.,ro;

/ .,

Proper N ames of S ix S ylla bles.
Note, The Accent is on the F ourth S yllcible.
A-Bel-beth-ma-a-cah
Be-rn-dach-Ba"la-dam
Ec-cle-si-a "sti-cus

;,

Hi " sto-r i-o " g ra-p hy
Me" di-ter-ra" ne-an
Me-so-po-ta-mi-a (1 :71)

No other text included syll a bica ti on on more tha n a ve ry small
percenta ge of its p ages and, in the r ecent t ex t s, little was said on the
subject ex cept as it r elated t o the div ision of wo rds a t t he ends of linea
and to the spelling of words.
Letters and s ounds. - The a lpha bet was di scussed in t exls of every
period, but the point of v iew from which it was taken up differed greatly
in different period s (see Fi g ure 10). I n the early gram ma rf': t he letters
were printed in or der , often in Roman, italic, sc1· ipt, an d Ol d E nglish
type. The memorization of the alphabet wa5 believed to be iio basically
necessary to the learning of words th a t pupils were drilled thoroughly
on this point. Since a knowledge of the pronunciati on of the various letters was, of course, essential to ability to repeat the alphabet, a guide
was often included in which the names of the letters we re given. Typical
of such guides was that foun<;I. in Brown's /nstitii tcs of E ngli h Gr«mmof'
(1823), which was one of the first to gi ve the pronunciation of z
instead of zed:
The. names of the letters, as now commonly spoken and
written in English, are A, Bee, Cee, Dee, E, Elf, Gee, Aitch, I,
Jay, Kay, Ell, Em, En, 0, Pee, Kue, Ar, Ess, Tee, U, Vee,
Double-u, Ex, Wy, Zee. (5 :19)

10. Old a d
(one half size)
n new wa ys of tea ching th e a lph abet and so unds of letter s.

Great detail was used in teaching the d 'ff

1
tere. Mu r ray (1195 ) gave 21
h·
er.ent SQunds of the letpages to t is material, the various sounds
of the one letter "a" tak·
'I
mg up more than a page In discussi
th.

etter, he began with the statement that " A h
f
.
ng
is
al d
th b
as our sounds· the long or
en er,
e road, the short or open, and the middle" (2·2l) H
. . . . e gave
examples of ea ch of these and then went on t
0
diphthongs "aa,, " a e " "a·.,,
"
,, "
,,
a d1scuss10n of the
1
h .
.
'
'
'
au,
aw, and "ay." So vital did it seem to
t·
aut om to include exampl es of ever y sound th a t the
y some 1me8 wen t to

95

96
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BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

-

'

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,s·

great lengths to find suitable ones. Comly (1805), for example, seemed
not to consider the fact that a person studying the alphabet for the
first time would not be acquainted with many unusual words, for he
used as examples of silent "ph" such words as "apophthegm, phthisis,"
and "phthisical" (3 :7).
Diphthongs were taught in every one of the early texts except Pinneo's (1850) but were not mentioned after Reed and Kellogg (1875~
1877) published their text. Triphthongs were dropped by 1868, and at
no time were given as much stress as diphthongs.

97

proprieties, and so forth . These included lists and discussions similar to
the following:
87.

A LIST OF IMPROPER EXPRESSIONS.

I should admire to go to sea.
~

By 1825 the unusual emphasis on letters and their sounds had be- ' ·
gun to die down, and after that time few books gave the subject much
space. Study of the alphabet in recent texts dealt almost exclusively
with the teaching of the vowels and consonants. While the sounds of
letters were still taught, they were given in connection with the
pronunciation of the words in which they wel'e contained. This situation
may be accounted for in part by the fact that st~dents used not to have
an educational background for their study of grammar, while more
recently, with an opportunity to get a primary education in the public
schools, the majority of students have a knowledge of the alphabet before entering upon grammar study.
Vocabulary building. - In the first few texts included in
analysis, any discussion of vocabulary was essentially a study of de·
rivatives, a topic that is discussed more fully in another section of this _,
major division. Sometimes lists of obsolete words, recently coined words,
etc. were included. Later, vocabulary building, as we think of it today,
became an integral part o{ grammar texts. Kerl (1864) was among the
first to stress the need for an understanding of the meaning of words,
although he was a little apologetic when he suggested that "to know.'.
what a word means, and how to use it, is probably quite as valuable an _
attainment as to know of what part of speech it is" (11:126).

He was walking back and
forth.
Where be you? Here I be.
A chunk of bread.
These things are in a bad fix.
How do your folks do?
Will you go by and dine with
me?

I should like to go to sea.
______ __backwards and forwards.
Where are you? Here I am.
A piece of bread.
.. ...... .in a bad state, or condition.
How is your family?
Will you go by my house
and dine? (7:149-150)

Tweed (1886) included a discussion with some of his examples of
,incorrect use of words:

Had as lief, had better, had best, had like, had as good,
and had rather, are sometimes criticised; but they are idioms
which have been in use from early times, and are abundantly
supported by the best authorities. Would as lief and would ra.ther
are also used by good writers.
"I had rather be a doorkeeper," etc. - Ps. Lxxxiv, JO.
"I had as lief not be, as live to be
In awe of such a thing as I myself." - Shakespeare.
"Some things the state had better leave alone; others it
had better not." - M. Arnold. (15:106-107)
In more recent books these were referred to as an illiterate or
uncultured use of words, or merely as an incorrect use of words. Typical
of the errors mentioned in such material was the following, taken from
!~e Essential Language Habits series (1923):

')

It is an interesting fact that the older books were the ones

gave the most space to obsolete words. Lists of such terms were found inthe first five grammars and in most of those published before 1850, butthe subject was not mentioned in more than two texts published later
than 1877. Some of the words found in these lists are interesting be-,
cause of the fact that they were already outmoded a century ago. They,
included many :seldom-used principal parts of irregular verbs, as well_
as such words as "whilom, erewhile, whoso, albeit, aforetime, methinks~
(5:329).
N
Troublesome words, including homonyms (discussed in the section
on spelling), and pairs of words like "lie" and "lay,'' "good" and "well,"
and "teach" and "learn" have also been found in most of the texts since1
1834.

('

Archaic terms and colloquial expressions were found in one or t
grammars of each period. Now and then usage found in a certain pan
of the country and not elsewhere was mentioned. Tweed (1886) co
sidered sentences ending in a preposition to be a colloquial form of ex
pression. The older books often spoke of provinciali sms, solecisms, Im

' .{

138.

Correct Use of Words

What is the difference between the correct and the incorrect
fonns given below? Your dictionary will tell you why, in the
first 1'P.ntence, the word person should be used instead of the
word party, and will answer similar questions for each of the
remaining sentences.
Incorrect
Correct
Who was the tall party to
Who was the tall person to
whom you were talking?
whom you were talking?
I am "Yours respectively."
I am "Yours respectfully."
Her hair is different than
Her. hair is different from
mine.
mme.
The balance of us went.
The r est of us went.
There are le .~s pupils here
There are fewer pupils here
today.
today.
That is alright.
That is all right. (22c:288)
The study of vocabulary from this point of view became in reality
a :study of language usage, including idiomatic English and slang. A
of the early grammars included lists of idioms, particularly long

,.

,,

'•,

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

98
~'

lists being found in Greene's (1853) and Keri's (1864~ texts, but material
f this kind was found in only two grammars published after 1886. In
~lace of it came the language of the street, meanin gful a~d somewhat idiomatic in construction but careless and conseque ntl y mco rr~ct.
The Adventures in English series (1939-1944) gave a very effective
example of this:

.
!

Overheard at the Factory
(n.) "Hey, you!"

I

i

l"
t

'l

"What?"
"Wait there."
"Why?"
"Orders."
"Whose?"
"Boss's."
"Can't."
"Too bad!"
"So long."
"You're fired."

;i

(b) "Stop a minute; you're in too b ig

a hurry."
"\Vhat do you want?"
"I want you to wait there."
"Why should I wait?"
"Because I've been sent wi th an
order to stop you."
"Who ordered you to do it?"
"The chief said he wanted to see
you."
"But I'm in a hurry and I can't
stav now.''
"Its too bad you have to disobey
him."
"Good-by. Wait until I get back."
"Well, if vou leave, you'll be fired ."
( 27f: 40-41)

Slang was not mentioned as such in texts until the .last . pe~iod,,
although some slang words had been included among the mtenectiona
listed in a few of the early grammars. Since children often find slang
an effective form of speech, the Step by Step in English series (19401941) was careful not to condemn it too severely. Their comment on the ,
subject would discourage the us.e of such language, however:
Sometimes a new and clever slang phrase expresses a
thought neatly. Slang has a way of going stale, however. Like
a good joke, it appeals at first because it is c::itchy, .new, and
humorous. Like a joke, however, slang loses its spicy flavor
when it is repeated too frequently. It becomes as dull as an old
joke. (26e:104)

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BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

Along with a di scussion of slang came that of the use of what Reed
and Kellogg (1875-1877) termed "overworked adj ectives." .In commenting on the subject, they said, "careless persons and those with a mea~er
list of adjectives at command overwork and abuse such words as nice,
n.wfnl, ho~·rid, splendid, elegant, lor ely , and say nice mou.nto.in11, awful
pens horrid ink, splendid pie, eleg<mt bee f , lovely cheese, etc." (1 3a :49),
Such adjectives as these have been stressed in a number of the newel\
texts.

The needless use of words was mentioned now and then throughout the 150-year period. Although Murray (1795) objected to it, he upheld its use in the Bible:
This manner, however, in a certain degree, is so strongly
characteristic of the simple style of remote ages, that, in books
of the highest antiquity, particularly the Bible, it is not at all
ungraceful. Of this kind are the following scriptural pprases.
"He lifted up his voice, and wept." "He opened hi s mouth, a nd
said." It is true, that,· in strictness, they are not necessary to
the narration, but they are of some importance to the composition, as bearing the venerable sign a ture of ancient simplicity.
(2 : 299)

,.

Another phase of vocabulary building taught in recent texts was
that of the selection of "picture" words a nd of words which would g ive
a certain "feeling" or atmosphere. The E11sential Language H abit.~ series
(1 923 ) quoted a selection from Poe which showed clearly the effect of
the careful choice of words in building up atmosphere:
And the silken sad uncertain rustling of each purple curtain
Thrilled me - filled me with fantastic terrors never felt before. (22c:283-284)

I

-~
~

\~~

In this connection, several recent texts included the study of what
they termed synonyms, but in most cases it was really training in making distinctions between the connotations of words similar in meaning.
The Scott-Southworth series (1906) was the first to incfode much
material of this kind.

..

•i

\

1
•.'
'1

SynonyI11s.

Birds sometimes chirp, they sometimes twitter, they sometimes sing. What is the difference?
Two pictures hang on the wall. Both are moonlight scenes,
but in one the moon shines brightly , in the other it shines
brilliantly. How are the scenes unlike?
Some steam-whistles toot, some scream, some shriek. How
do t he sounds diffe r?
What fruits or s ubstances are sour? What are tart?
Monday you walked down the street, Wednesday you
walked down the road. Where were you on each day?
Two bells are sounding. One tinkles·, the other clangs.
What kind of bell is each?
A man drives across a railway track when he knows that
an express train is coming not far away. Is he carele ss or reckless ?
Is a cat timid or cautious?
Is a grizzly bear awkward or clumsy? ( 18a: 93)
Knowledge of these slight variations in the meaning of words is
important factor in the development of a wide vocabulary.
In discussing the minimum usable English vocabulary, the Ad'venture.~ in English series ( 1989-1944) included a short history of the

..

...

100

BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

developme nt of Basic Eng lish. Basic English is made up of 850 words
which Mr. Ogden, who developed it, claims can do the work of 20,000.
An interesting example of the translation of a speech from its original .
form into Basic English showed the practicality of this minimum list
of words:
Original: My friends, I want to talk for a few minutes with
the people of the United States about banking - with the comparatively few who understand the mechanics of banking, but
more particularly with the overwhelming majority of you who
use banks for the making of deposits and the drawing of checks.
I want to tell you what has bee n done in the last few days,
and why it was done, and what the next steps are going to be.
Basic: My friends, I am here to have a short talk with the
men and women of the United States about banking - with
the small number of persons who have a cl ear knowledge of the
working of banks, but more especially with the very much
greater number of you who make use of them for putting
your money into an account or taking it out by checks. I am
here to give you an idea of what has been done in the la st day
or two, and why it was done, and what steps are to be taken in
the future. (27f: 253 )

·'·
l'

' ,.

Perhaps the development of such a vocabulary means that, in
future, stress in teaching will be placed on simplicity rather than on t
beauty, clarity, and force. At present Basic English is such an innovation that its effects cannot be judged.
''
Forming of plurals. - Instruction in the forming of plurals was , '
included in texts throughout the 150-year period, but not all grammars
have discussed this matter. A larger proportion of the books in the
first period than in any other mentioned the subject, and most of them
listed rules to be followed.
The greatest amount of stress was given to this subject in the
second period. Several of the grammars published then or earlier included lists of words which were taken from the Hebrew, Latin, and '
Greek and formed their plurals in an unusual way. Among words given ·
were some that would probably never be used by those studying them, .
such as "Animalculum, animalcula; Effluvium, effluvia;
Encomium,
encomia or encomiums"; and "Ignis fatuu s, ignes fatui" (7:14). Material ·
of this kind was almost never referred to in modern texts.
However, another phase of the study of plurals, and one
continued in some of the more r ecent books, was that of words that
seemed plural but were really singular. This point was brought out
as early as 1850, when Pinneo stated that "some nouns are used only
in the plural; as alms, ashes, scissors, tongs, lungs, snuffers, oats" (9 :33).
Greene (1853) also mentioned that "news is now regarded as singular;
so also m easles and molasses, although they have the plural form"
(10:25).
Every discussion of the forming of plurals included the rules, and
every text except Wiscly's (1896) listed from one to a dozen rules,,
Sometimes even the simplest of th em was made a matter of considerable
discussion, for example:
·; ·

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

101

In Anilo-Saxon, as was the plural termination for a certain class of nouns. In later English, as was changed to es,
wh.i ch became the regular plural ending; as, bird-es cloud-es.
In modern English, e is dropped, and s is joined to the
singular without increase of syllables. But, when the singular
ends in an s-sound, the original syllable es is retained, as two
hissing sounds will not unite. ( 13b: 188)
·
Practice in the forming of irregular plurals, such as "man, men,"
"mouse, mice,'' "child, children,'' etc., w.a s included in almost ' every
grammar but was given greater emphasis in the more recent texts.
Derivatives. - The derivation of words was a rather important
'topic in the early books, when English grammar was still being presented
according to the construction outlines used 'in teaching other languages,
but only about half of the texts published since 1870 contained the topic,
and even in these it was mentioned on only one or two pages. According to Brown ( 1823 ) :
Words are distinguished as primitive or derivative, and as
simple or compound. The former division is called their species;
the latter, their figure.
A primitive word is one that is not formed from any simpler
word in the language; as, harm, great, connect.
A derivative word is one that is formed from some simpler
word in the language; as, harmless, greatly, connected, disconnect, unconnected.
A simple word is one that is not compounded, not composed of other words; as watch, ma.n,, never, the, less.
A compound word is one that is composed of two or more
simple words; as, watchman, nevertheless.
Permanent compounds are consolidated; as booksellei·,
schoolmaster: others, which may be called temporary compounds, are formed by the hyphen; as glass-house, negro-merchant. ( 5: 29-30)
A number of statements concerning derivation were found in conwith the study of the parts of speech. As a rule, these were
very much alike.
Words are derived from one another in various ways; viz:
1. Substantives are derived from verbs.
2. Verbs are derived from substantives, adjectives, and sometimes from adverbs.
3. Adjectives are derived from substantives.
. 4. Substantives are derived from adjectives.
5. Adverbs are derived from adjectives. (2: 130)
Examples were then given, such as "to witness a will" or "to wor- ship God" (14:101), showing how one part of speech has been derived
from another. According to Pinneo (1850):
Art. 211. Most words in every language are derivatives;
many may be derived from a single root.

'·

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102

BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

103

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS
E~ample, 1. ~ From form are derived fo1mal, formally,
formalist, formality, fo1mative, formation, former, formless,
fonnula, formulary, informal, informally, informality, conform,
conformable, confo1mably, conformist, conformation deform
deformity, reform, reformer, refo1mation, &c. (9: lOG)
'

The derivation of the adverb seemed to come in for more attention
than did that of any other part of speech, Kirkham (1823) saying that
the adverbs ending in "ly," a contraction of "like," were "the most
prolifick family of this ill egitimate race" ( 4 :85).
Compound words were di sc ussed separately in many of the old
books, although Ki r kham ( 182:l) seemed to think that "the re is little
or no difference between derivative and compound words. The terminations or added syllables, such as ed, es, ess, est, an, ant, eu, ence, ent,
dom, hood, ly, ous, ful, ness, and the like , were, originally, distinct and
separate words, which, by long use, have been contracted, and made to
coalesce with other words" (4:20) . Kerl (1864) tried to clear up compounded and uncompounded words by listing a numbe r of them, such as
"A crow is a black bird, but not a blackbird ... A .glass house is made
of glass; but a glass-house is a house in which glass is manufactured ... "
(11:70).
Prefixes and suffixes were dis.cussed in 16 of the 27 grammars, and ,
many of the older t exts Jong lists of them were given. Recent books
often contained examples of the development of words through the
combination of primitive words and their prefix es and suffixes. Rather
simple everyday words like "steamboat" and "pickpocket" were used
to illustrate the development of the compound word. As in the case
of many other phases of instruction in grammar, mode rn t ex ts, showed
the development of words while the old texts started from the completed word and broke it down into its parts, explaining each separately.
Greene ( 1853) even set up a model for analysis of words:

found in 13, and German in 11. Some languages not mentioned until the
last period of the study were Norman, introduced in The Open Door
Language Series (1926-1928); Scottish, in the Daily-Life Language
Series (1934); Swedish and Norwegian, in the Step by Step in English
series (1940-1941); and Old English, in the Adventures in English series
(1939-1944).
In all, 16 different languages were referred to. Kirkham (1823)
mentioned 10 of these and was the only author to include "Gothick" and
Persian. He and Murray (1795) and Pinneo (1850) were 'the only
ones to mention Hebrew. Brown (1823) was next to Kirkham in the
number of languages listed in his text, as he gave seven, but no other
author included this many.
More different languages were mentioned in the last period than
in any other, there being 12 as compared with 11 found in the first
period. During the intervening 80 years, interest in foreign languages
seemed to lag, as only seven different ones were referred to in the second
period and six in the third . Three of the books during those years made
no reference to foreign language and two others included Latin only.

.

Socially Useful Material

111

MODEL FOR ANALYSIS.
ImpenitenL ...... Is a derivative word. (Why?)
Penitent.. ............ is the radical part, and signifies repentin.g.
lm ........................ is the prefix (in, Rule II.,) and signifies not.
Hence, IMPENITENT, not repenting.
(10:14)
With the exception of those in the third period, almost every text
made some reference to foreign words. Every one of the grammars
published in the present century included foreign words, but reference
to the derivation of English from these forms was often only casual.
In texts of the early 1800's, however, grammarians compared word formation and sentence construction with those in some other language.
Latin was, of course, included in more books than was any other
language, only four of the texts failing to refer to it. French was mentioned in 16 grammars including all published befo r e 185::!, Greek was

The recent trend in English textbooks has been to present grammar
in a form usable in daily life situations. As a consequence, the amount
of socially useful material in textbooks has increased steadily through
the years. In the texts published before 1870 only a small fraction of 1
per cent of the pages contained any material classified in this study as
socially useful, and all of this was given to letter writing. In the third
period, however, the amount jumped to 8 per cent and in the last
period to 18 per cent. Table IX shows the proportionate amount of
given to the various kinds of content included in this grouping.

I)

TABLE IX. PERCENTAGE OF PAGES ON WHICH EACH KIND OF SOCIALLY
USEFUL MATERIAL WAS MENTIONED, BASED ON THE TOTAL NUMBER OF
PAGES ON WHICH SOCIALLY USEFUL MATERIAL WAS MENTIONED

Kind of socially
useful material

- - -

Writing letters ....... .
Telling stories .....- -- -·-· ·· ·
Reading fo r pleasu re ...................... .. .. ... .
Writing for school publications and
newspa pers ... .. ...... ....... ...
Holding club meetings .. .
Planni ng programs ... .
T~lep~oning ..
List eni ng ........ ..... ..... .. .... ......... ... .. .. ..
Making personal introduction s...
Writing ads ... .. .. .......
Fill in out forms ...

Books of
first
period

Books of
second
period

Books of
third
period

Books of
fourth
period

100

100

82

0
0

0
0

16

42
14

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
3
0

- - --- - - -

0

0
0
0

0

8

~

All
books
49

14

7

,;
~

'"'

"~
~

.~

·~

7
6
4
2
2

1
1

fi

;,
~

2
2
I
I

,
As can be seen from Table IX, letter writing was the only form of
' socially useful material included in textbooks of the first two periods,
, and even in the third period it compri sed 82 per cent of such content.

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BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

Telling stories, either orally or in writing, became rather popular In · ·
the third period and continued so to the end of the study, but writing '
ads was the only other kind of socially useful material found in the
third period. By the fourth period, however, many kinds of such content
had entered the texts. A few types besides those listed in the table
were found, but each was given so little space that they were not included here.
Writing letters. - Letter writing was the first kind of socially
useful content introduced into textbooks with the idea of g iving the pupil
the grammatical infonnation needed in meeting everyday situations.
However, only six letters were found in the textbooks published before
18yo, and two of these were included for the purpose of teaching somethmg other than letter writing. Only five of the 17 texts published before the beginning of the twentieth century included letter writing, the
Reed-Kell.ogg (1875-~877) and the Hyde series (1888-1896) being the only
ones to give the subj ect much attention, and the first to teach more than
mere form. Beginning with the Scott-Southworth series (1906), every
~ext except the Lewis-Lynch grammar (1918) and Daringer's text (1938)
mcluded from 30 to 180 pages each on the subject.
Every book mentioning this topic included a discussion of correct '
f~rm
letter writing. Some gave this information by means of explicit ,
dll"echons to the student, while others included sample letters which "'
the student was to study or copy. Most of the texts stressed the fact that
there are five main parts to a letter, and a few also gave directions for
addressing the envelope.

!n

Letters were often used as exercises in teaching capitalization and
punctuation because of the unusual amount of this required in correct
letter form . For such purposes the copying of letters was a common
exercise. In the teaching of business letters, neatness and form were
given particular emphasi s because, as the Step by Step in English series
(1940-1941) stated:
Sometimes so many people will write letters for a single job
th.at the employer does not have the time to see all of the applicants personally. In that case the employer interviews those
few whose letters made the best impression on him. (26e:57)
The emphasis on business letters was approximately the same as '
that on personal letters in all texts combined, but there was not a great
deal of agreement among authors as to which should be given the
greater amount of attention. In the second and third periods business
letters received the greate r stress, but in the fourth period personal
letters were emphasized.
Topics chosen for business letters seemed more practical than those
for pe~sona~ letters. Students were asked to write an application for a job
advertised m the paper, to order books or other materials, to inquire
about courses offered in a certain college, and so forth.

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

105

Friendly letters included invitations, thank-you notes, regrets, etc.
the early texts formal notes were always included and were sometimes given more attention than informal ones; but they were seldom
mentioned in 'the recent books. The friendly, chatty letter was the type
most widely taught in modern texts. At first, subject matter was
dictated for letters of this kind and instruction was based chiefly on the
development of correct form. Pupils were asked to write a . friendly letter on rough paper, then read and check it, correcting all errors, and then
' rewrite it in final form. This, of course, caused their letters to become
written compositions rather than friendly letters with spontaneity and
life. However, in the most recent of the texts, the emphasis was placed
on the message of the letter, for, as the Adventures in English series
(1939-1944) stated, "when people write letters, they are really talking
to each other" ( 27b: 65).

·: t
<. .

'

·', '

Telling stories. - The teaching of oral composition, which entered
textbooks in the second period, was the forerunner of story telling, a
topic found in many of the i·ecent grammars and the most popular
of all types of socially useful material with the exception of letter writWhile story telling is closely related to story writing, it has been
· discussed separately here because, while based on the same fundamental
principles, it is a more recent development in the field and places
the emphasis on different factors in the development of the story.
Actual story telling did not enter textbooks until the twentieth century, the Scott-Southworth series (1906) being the first to give such instruction, although the writing of stories was taught in grammars for a
quarter of a century before that. Human interest pictures were included
in texts and pupils were asked to tell the story which they illustrated.
Sometimes questions were given to guide the pupil in his interpretation.
Beside a picture of two little boys, for instance, pupils were given the
following hints:
The name of the boy on the left is Fred Johnson. The boy
who is talking to Fred is Harry Armstrong. Harry wishes Fred
to do something. Look at Fred's face. Does he think that it is
right for him to do what Harry proposes? What does he i·eply?
Where do the boys go, and what happens to them? (18a:125)
In other cases stories were given in the text and pupils were to
retell them. Scott and Southworth (1906) sometimes called them "Stories
to be Told" (18a:26), but the Pearson-Kirchwey series (1914) clung to a
, more formal title, "A Story for Oral Reproduction" (20a :34).
Truly imaginative story telling did not receive much emphasis until
the Essential Language Habits series (1923). Many attempts have been
made since that time to develop creative ability in writing, one of the
cleverest of which was found in The Open Door Language Series
' (1926-1928) which gave the first part of a story and asked the pupils
to finish it.

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BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

Little formal instruction in story telling was found until the last:
two texts analyzed, both of which stressed the topic. The Step by Step '
in English series (1940-1941) brought out particularly the point that
"situation, suspense, conflict, and sometimes surprise" (26d:l41) are
necessary in the making of a good story, while the Adventures in Eng·
lish series (1939-1944) stressed the interest element:
One thing is important in storytelling: interest. A story is
no good at all if it is uninteresting, and the reader or listener
will find it nothing but a bore. No one wants his readers and
listeners to be bored by what he is telling them, and so interest
is necessary in any kind of story, written or oral. (27e:14)
Reading for pleasure. - Books as such were scarcely mentioned _
in grammars published before 1923. Dilworth (1740) was the only author .
to give information concerning the mechanical make-up of a book, but
the instruction he gave was very formal and matter-of-fact and was
not in any way intended to create an interest in reading:

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

107

Through books you can travel to far places, you can become
friends with book characters, you can live with heroes. All you
need is skill in reading and the time to read. (27e:101)
Writing for school publications and newspapers. - Writing for
,; school publications or newspapers was not introduced into grammars
; until 1926, when The Open Door Language Series included such material.
· Many kinds of writing were done for the papers, such as editorials, news
stories, jokes, puzzles, etc. All texts except Daringer's (1938) in the
last 20 years included some instruction in this type of writing.
Holding club meetings. - The Open Door Language Series (19261928) was also the first text to include material on the holding of club
. meetings. Most of the grammars since that time have followed their
lead. In the Step /Jy Step in English series (1940-1941) the subject was
taken up in several of the different volumes, instruction being given in
starting a club, in electing officers, and in parliamentary procedure.

'1

.

Planning programs. - Although one might expect instruction in
planning of programs to be presented as one phase of holding club
. meetings, it was almost never included as a club activity in the texts
analyzed. Program planning did not enter texts until about 20 years
ago, but has been found in almost every grammar since that time. The
Step by Step in English series (1940-1941) stressed this type of material
more than did any of the other books. Many of the programs it suggested were those in celebration of a national holiday, such as Thanksgiving or Christmas; others were purely for the sake of entertainment
and relaxation, like the radio program suggested in the fifth grade text
(26c: 231) ; and others were more educational, for example, "Planning
a Travel Program" (26b:31). Several of the texts proposed safety programs.
In th~ discussion of program planning, topics and activities were
1
often suggested but the actual work of getting the program together
was left to the pupils.

't the

OF BOOKS
Q.

A.
Q.
Q.

A.

How are Books divided?
Books are usually divided into Chapters, Sections, Paragraphs and Verses.
What are Chapters?
Wha.t is a Verse?
In Prose, it i~ the. shortest Division in a Chapter, as is
largely exemplified m the Holv Bible: But in Poetical Writings, it conveys unto us an lndea [sic] of a certain Number
of Syllables artfully compacted in one Line, to gratify the
Ear. (1 :90)

Reading for pleasure was first mentioned in the E:;.~ential Language '
Habits series (1923), but in this book as well as in the later ones which
included such material, little was given other than lists of books for the
students to read. The Daily-Life Language Series (1934) quoted poems
or short stories here and there, entitled "Reading Recess," with the idea,
apparently, of encouraging the pupils to read for relaxation. Practice in
reading for information was not given in a text until it appeared in the
Daily-Life Language Series (1934) as "Volunteer Work" (24b:30) ,
However, it seemed to be prescribed so that the pupil might tell the story
to the rest of the class, and therefore it is considered more closely allied
with composition and story telling than with reading.
"
The Adventures in English series ( 1939-1944) made the greatest ef·
fort of any of the texts to get pupils interested in reading for pleasure. _;
Time and again the idea was brought up that there were many ad·
vantages to be gained from reading. In their seventh grade volume, for
example, they said:

'

Telephoning. - The use of the telephone was first introduced in
Ess ential Language Habits series (1923) and has been included in
' all grammars, except Daringer's (1938), published since that time, with
, increasing emphasis given to the subject in the later books. ·
,
At first, the use of the phone was the topic stressed. Pupils were
i told how to put in a call, how to answer a call, how to give a grocery
order over the phone, etc. The Daily-Life Language Series (1934) gave
particular attention to this phase of telephoning. WhBe courtesy entered
into correct telephone procedure, it was not given as much emphasis
when the topic first entered texts as it received later. The Step by Step
·, in English series (1940-1941) gave detailed information about making
and receiving calls eourteously. In the seventh grade book they called
· this topic "The Etiquette of the Telephone" (26e:241), and in the fifth
1grade book they included a two-page account of a telephone conversa. tion, following it with the comment:

I:'

108

BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

109
'

1.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Notice the following points about Peggy's conversation:
Sh~ answered the telephone promptly, pleasantly, and
politely.
She told who was speaking.
She offered to give her mother the message.
She wrote the message.
She repeated the number that Mrs. West gave her. She did
this so that Mrs. West would know she had heard the number correctly.
She said good-by politely.
She wrote a note to her mother, explaining the message.
(26c:49)

Listening. - Although four grammars published since 1923 have •
included material on the subject of listening, in almost every case it has '
been given very minor consideration. It is included here because it is a
new kind of instruction found in texts and seems likely to become more
and more important with the increased use of the radio in teaching as
well as in daily-life experiences. While actual instruction in intelligent
listening was not given, questions were sometimes included by which
a pupil could check on his success in listening, such as "Can you repeat
the thoughts which you hear others express? ... Repeat the announcement from memory. Do your classmates agree that your report is accurate?" (24c: 288). Sometimes the factor of courtesy in listening
stressed, as it was in the Essential Language Hahits series (1923):
. Ar~ you always interested in what a speaker is saying to
his audience? Are you always interested at the moving picture
show? in the opening exercises of your room? Should you expect a speaker always to interest you? Why not? Sometimes it
may be your own fault that you are not interested· perhaps you
do i:ot pay attent~on. You can, of course, make yo~rself pay attent10n by watching the one who speaks and trying to understand what he is saying.
.
Even if you are not interested, however, it is impolite and
ill-mannered to be noisy in an audience. Out of consideration
for others who wish to listen, you should sit quietly. By being
quiet you are also aiding the speaker. (22b: 25-26)
Making personal introductions. - In an attempt to give more
socially useful activities through which pupils could get practice in us- ·:
ing correct English, four of the recent grammars included the making ;·.
of personal introductions. While the emphasis was not on grammar in
these discussions, examples of the right form in making an introduction
gave the pupil an illustration of the correct way in which to express
himself on such an occasion. The Daily-Life Language Series (1934) included rules to be followed:
To introduce a younger to an older person.
Remember

{

To introduce a boy to a girl.
To introduce a man to a woman.

Practice to yourself so that you will learn to introduce
people easily to each other. Try to remember always the three
rules above. (24a:20)

Filling out forms. - No actual instruction in filling out blanks
was given until the last book of the series, although discussion had been
included in earlier books c.oncerning punctuating of dates, capitalizing of
names, and so forth.
Writing ads. - Except for writing letters and telling stories, writmg ads was the first of the socially useful activities to be included in
' textbooks. Hyde (1888-1896) brought up the topic in connection with
, letter writing, but only six of the grammars included such material,
and none gave it much space. Scott and Southworth (1906) also men'tioned the topic, but the other four texts in which it was found were all
published after 1923. In the more recent books the subject expanded
from instruction in writing lost-and-found or help-wanted ads to include notices of meetings, posters and display cards, announcements of
school activities, etc. (27c: 165).

.
4
.
.

' ·~

·~

~~

~~

'!~

ll

~:~
.-

·~

Miscellaneous Content
Almost every phase of grammar included in the texts has been dis·. cussed under one or another of the five major divisions. However, a few
· kinds of material were found which were given sufficient attention to be
worthy of note in this analysis, yet did not logically fall in any of the
, classifications.
The more common abbreviations, especially those of the months
of the year, the days of the week, and the states of the Union, and
those of address, such as "Mr., Mrs., Dr.," etc., were included in all
except three of the grammars. In the early texts these were given in
lists, sometimes a page or more in length, which included almost every
imaginable kind of abbreviation. In the more recent books, the emphasis
1
was placed only on abbreviations used in daily life, especially those
needed in writing letters.
J

.'
l

Abbreviations were not mentioned on more than four pages in any
: grammar until after the Reed-Kellogg series (1875-1877) was published,
but in the last period they were found on about 30 pages each in several
texts. The difference in seeming emphasis is accounted for by the fact
that the teaching of the subject was concentrated in the early books,
. while recently it has been taken up whenever and wherever the need
for it arose.
Reference was made to the dictionary in many of the older books
and in all of those published .since 1886, but until the beginning of the
· twentieth century little instruction was given as to its use. Interest in
this topic has greatly increased, however, as shown by the fact that the
, last two texts analyzed mentioned the use of the dictionary on more than
·~ 100 pages each.
In the early texts, the student was referred to Johnson's Dictionary
Worcester's Dictionary as authorities in the discussion of a certain

!I'

110

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

point in &"rammar. After Smith (1832) stated in his text that "the nature and power of letters" and "how to spell cQrrectly is usually learned
from spelling-books and dictionaries" ( 6: 41), pupils were told more and ·
more often to consult the dictionary for further information on a
tain point.
It was not until fairly recently, however, that students were givM
ins~ruction in the correct use of the dictionary. The Pearson-Kirchwey

sen es (1914) was the first to give very detailed information on finding
the pronunciation and meanings of a word, although a few texts before
this time had included drill in looking up words and studying their ,·.
meanings. The Essential Langna.ge Hnbits series (1923) stressed
particularly the need for careful study of information in the dictionary '
saying "Notice carefully how each of the words given below is spelled: ..
and if you do not know its meaning, consult your dictionary. Use each
word in a sentence to show that you understand its meaning and know . ·
how to use it correctly" (22c:385). Following this were given combinations of words similar in form but very different in meaning, for the
pupils to look up, such as "complement, compliment; allusion, illusion; ,
and track, tract" ( 22c: 385).
Alphabetizing was taught in a few of the early grammars in
nection with the learning of the alphabet, but was scarcely mentioned ·
b~tween 1835 and 1?14. After that it again entered texts, this time being)
given more emphasis and usually being presented as a phase of dictionary study. It was included in all the books of the last period with the
exception of the Lewis-Lynch text (1918) and Daringer's (1938).
·
A few other kinds of material were carried in more than one text
but were not found in many. All kinds of lists of words or phrases, for'
example, were found throughout the years covered by the study. In the
early days these were sometimes lists of idioms, such as that found in
Murray's English Grarnrnar (1795) (2 :152-153); lists of English and
Anglo-Saxon, Latin, and French prefixes, similar to Brown's (1823) _;,
( 5 :326-328) ; and lists of Latin and French words and phrases or of
law. te1:ms, like those in Bullions' text (1834) (7 :209-211, 213-216).,
While lists were not as commonly found in later grammars, a few were
included in most of the texts, such as lists of irregular verbs or of overworked adjectives.
'

~

Of the socially useful activities, a number have entered recent books.··
Some, like the use of the library, the use of an index, and proofreading
as an aid in criticizing and correcting written material either for class
work or for publication were mentioned once or twice in the nineteenth i.,
century texts but were not emphasized t1nti\ recently. Others like in-'
struction in how to write a telegram, how to study, how to read a news•i
paper intelligently, how to skim in reading, and how to take notes have•.
entered textbooks within the last 10 or 20 years. The trend seems to .
point strongly toward the inclusion of more types of socially useful
material in texts, as this was the only type of content added in the ~
last few years.
'

111

In the early books, which were usually divided into four main parts,
· the order in which grammar instruction was taken up was almost invariably that of orthography, etymology, syntax, and prosody. Under
each of these heads, and also under the subheads included within each
division, the teaching content was opened with a definition or rule which
, was supposed to introduce the pupil to the topic and to give him a firm_
basis on which to build further instruction in the field.

' ,, I; _'
.

With the introduction of the inductive method in teaching, about
1850, the placing of rules and definitions at the opening of a topic was
discontinued, and by 1875 the four-division organization of texts had also
been dropped. Whereas the study of the alphabet and of word
development had for years been considered the logical point at which
to introduce a pupil to the study of grammar, in the new organization
these topics were scattered through the book, sometimes not being mentioned until toward the middle of the text and sometimes being omitted
altogether. Punctuation, which in the older grammars was not usually
presented until toward the end of the book, was taken up much earlier
in the new texts, some phases of it being discussed in connection with
the study of the sentence. Kerl (1864) approved these changes:

~r

'

\

, L;

"1_1:·

·:·· ',
. ''

A great difficulty, in the study of grammar, lies in the Jong
stretches between what is learned and its practical application
or beauty; and another chief difficulty is the abstract nature
of the subject. Syntax produces most of the so-called etymology
of the parts of speech. Why, then, separate these two parts of
grammar? And why place the result before the cause? Do not
the parts of speech themselves, and most of their variations,
depend directly on the RELATIONS of words in sentences?
Punctuation is but the finish to syntax, and versification is but
metrical syntax. (11 :4)

!'
.~

l

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ii

Etymology continued, of course, to be an important phase of grammar study, but it, too, was scattered through the book instead of being
taken up intensively, and It often was not mentioned until after the
sentence had been given considerable study. At first the parts of speech
were always introduced before the study of the sentence, but with the
coming of the inductive method this, too, changed. The sentence then be·1 , came the first topic of study and the parts of speech were taken up as
· parts of the sentence and were studied from the point of view of their
use in the sentence.
Through the years
in which the parts of
presented nouns first.
second only to articles,

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there was rather unusual consistency in the order
speech were discussed. All but five of the books
Four of these five, all before 1835, placed them
and the other placed them second to verbs.

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Articles were considered a separate part of speech by only one text
after 1835. Dilworth (1740), while listing the article as a separate part
of speech, claimed that it belonged to nouns, just as gender, case, and

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so forth, belong to nouns. Later, however, authors considered it a kind
of adj:ctive and, although they discussed it separately, they did not
grant 1t the rank of a separate part of speech.
All but four of the books published after 1845 and all but one of
those published after 1886, took up pronouns followlng the discussion of
nouns. In the early books adjectives and articles were introduced before
pronouns, but in the later books the adjective followed the pronoun and
often followed the verb also.
I~ 16 of the books, the study of the verb was taken up immediately
followmg that of the pronoun, and in six others only one part of speech
usu a lly the adjective, came between the pronoun and the verb. Mur~
ray's text (1795) varied from this plan more than did any other text,
f~r he presented the verb second and the pronoun not until eighth among
his ten parts of speech. Scott and Southworth (1906) took up the study
of the verb later than did any of the others, and Lewis and Lynch (1918)
were the only ones to place the verb first in their discussion of the parts
of speech.

The study of the adverb usually followed that of the verb in the
e_arly books and that of the adjective in the later books. The preposi- '
bon was taken up next and the conjunction came next. All but one book '
left the interjection until last.
·
With the exception of Daringer's Grrmmwr for Everyday UHe (l!l38),
all of the analyzed t ex t s published durin g the las t 25 years took up the
parts of speech. i~ the same order - nouns, pronouns, verbs, adj ectives,
adverbs, prepos_1bons, conjunctions, and interjections, and the only difference found 111 this one text was that adjectives were placed before
verbs. It would seem , therefore, that the order of presenting the parts
of speech has become fairly well standardized.

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The declension of nouns and pronouns, on the other hand has not \
been handled in quite as uniform a manner today as it was ~ century '
or more ago. In the case of nouns, the various kinds of nouns were
considered first in all but five of the books, and four of these five have
been published since 1914. In each of these four cases, number was introduced before kind s. This seems logical in light of the tendency to
teach fil:st t~ose things most often used by the pupils. Although case
_was ordmanly taken up last in the decl ension of noun s, a few of the
texts throughout the years left person until last. Within the last 40
years, kinds and numbe r of nouns have been assured one of the first two
places, but there was not a great deal of uniformity in the order
which the other phases of nouns were taken up.
Pronouns were declined in much the same order as were nouns in
the early y:ars cove.red. by this study, but during the last century there
was great irregularity 111 the way in which they were taken up. During
t~e last 50 years, case was the only phase of pronouns that was not
d~scu ssed first in their declension by at least one of the t ex ts, and gender,
kmd: number, and person were placed in every position, as the grammarians seemed unable to agree on the relative importance of these
phases.
In the con_jugation of verbs, voice was considered first in almost all .
the texts published before 1875, but it dropped down at least to third

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS , 113
place in most of the more recent texts. Mood or number was taken up
next in most of the older grammars, but, while number continued 'to be
taken up second, mood dropped to last place and in the two most recently published texts was omitted ent~rely. Here again is evidence of
the trend of the times, in that the phase of verb study given the least
attention in recent books was the one for which the pupil had the least
need.
Changing usage and changing teaching methods showed up particularly well in the order in which the 11 punctuation marks found in
both old and new texts were introduced into textbooks.
In grammars published before 1853, the comma was invariably taken
up first, the semicolon second, the colon third, and the period fourth.
This was because of the length of the pause given to each in speech, the
comma being the shortest pause and the period the longest. However,
Kerl (1864) saw the advantage of discussing the period first, because it
was the s implest to understand and the most often used; and since his
time all but two of the texts analyzed have placed the period first.
The question mark, which had come fifth or sixth in the early
texts, jumped up to second place in recent books, while the comma was
taken up fou1-th or fifth. The semicolon and colon dropped to among the
last discussed. The semicolon was the last one taken up in four of the
six books published in the last 25 years and was omitted entirely from one
of them, while the colon was introduced as late as the eighth in all but
two of the books published in the twentieth century.
In the early texts, the dash, if included, usually came fifth, and
was followed by the question mark, the exclamation mark, the parenthesis, the apostrophe, the hyphen, and the quotation mark. The question mark, as has been said, was presented .much earlier in the more
, recent texts, as also was the exclamation mark. However, except for the
' period, the question mark, and the comma, which usually followed these
two, there was little consistency in the arrangement of punctuation
· marks in modern texts, for they were usually introduced as the need
arose in the content of the text.
In almost every phase of grammar teaching usage is coming to
determine what is to be taught and when it is to be taught. A purely
mechanical arrangement of subject matter was used in the early texts.
Dilworth's explanation of the order in which he presented spelling words
(1740) showed him to be in favor of this kind of organization:

If it be reasonable, in the Order of Words, to begin with
those of one Syllable, as all Spelling Authors agree; it must be
also granted as reasona.ble, that Monosyllables, which consist
of various Quantities of Letters, should be taught in the samie
order, proceeding gradually from Words of two Letters, to
Words of th ree, four, five, &c. Letters, cis is exemplified in the
following Tables. Besides, Experience, which must be allowed to
be the best Master, will soon declare in Favour of this Method.
( 1: iv)
Recent texts, on the other hand, considered the use of the word
' · rathe r than the length. A word that a young child used in his daily

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BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

conversation was the one which he was taught to recognize In print and
to spell correctly. This same principle has been followed in presenting
all phai;es of subject matter in the newe r grammar texts.

Variety of Cont.ent
As can be seen from th e discussion of the different divi sions
content found in the textbooks analyzed, there has been a great in- .
crease in the kinds of material included in the texts.
During the first two periods studied, there was littl e change
the number of topics included in the grammars. Tradition held
strongly to the orthography-etymology-syntax-prosody organization of
material that, even when an author thought it wise t o include ot~er content, he was inclined to place it in an appendix rathe r than to break
away from the customary scheme of things. Since the subject matter
texts published before 1875 did not vary greatly, the principal difference in content of the texts was in the amount of detail included.
In the first period Brown ( 182'.l) broke hi s topics down into more
subdivisions than did any other authol'. Time after time he listed more
rules or exceptions to rul es, more kinds of a certain part of speech,
more punctuation marks, etc., than did any other a uthor. Scarcely a
topic was included in any of th e grammars that he did nnt find a place '
for in his own text, even if it " ·e re only to critici ?:e the inclusion of the
material in other books. Dilworth's N ew r.11ide to th e R11.,q li<d1. Tongue
(1740), on the other hand, included fewer different topics than did any,'·
of the other texts analyzed, except pe rhaps, Wisely's N ew Enr1lish aram·m ar (1896).

of

Greene (1853 ) introduced the different kinds of sentences, phrases, and clauses that later became more or less standard. Before his time
there had not been so m any kinds included in texts.
Harvey's English Grarnmar (1868) was the last text publish ed in
the second period and the last to include the older divisions of gram- .
mar by the names us ed in texts up to this time. Harvey went into great
detail in some phases of hi s text, including more kinds of clam;es, more
figures of speech, and more forms of the verb than did any other
author.
Ke r l (1864) , whose tex t was published shortly before Harvey's,
was much more progressive. Kerl was among the first to stress the
sentence and to ce nter his study of grnmmar in the development of the
sentence. He also was one of the very f ew before 1875 to include ~
charts, letter writing, outlining, and other "newer" kinds of content.
So far as the authors of the texts analyzed were concerned, Reed .
and Kellogg (1875-1877) were the first to add any of the "modern"
~opics to their grammars. They in~roduced composition writing, copy·
mg, memory work, and the use of pictures for instructional purposes - .
all of them new f eatures in t extbooks. They also included a much greater .
variety of exercises, adding, among other things, exe rcises in paragraph ·
writing and the expansion and revision of sentences. On th e other hand, ~

115

they were the fir1Jt to drop the detailed study of such topics as versifica. tion, poetic feet, and diacritical ma1·ks.
Hyde (1888-1896) followed closely in their footsteps, stressing the
newer kinds of content, adding a few, like children's compositions, and
omitting still more of the older kinds, silch as syllabication, phonetics,
· foreign language, and the use of many notes. Hyde listed fewer kinds,
forms, and uses of each part of speech than did any other text.
The third period of this study, from 1875 to 1915, was evidently a
transition period, for, while the Reed-Kellogg and Hyde series were in
many ways similar to the modern texts, the grammars · which appeared
between these two, Whitney's ( 1877) and Tweed's (1886), and even
Wisely's (1896), which was published still later; were more like the
early grammars than like the recent ones. These latter three texts were
not as old-fashioned as this statement might make them seem, however,
because, although they did not take up with the new ideas, they omit~ed
many of the things that were being dropped by the more progressive
texts of the day.
The scope of English textbooks broadened greatly with the beginning of the twentieth century. The interest element in texts was being
given much more thought than it had formerly been given, for it behooved authors and publishers to put out an attractive text if it was to
be popular. Pictures were included in all books and other interesting
material was added in some. All kinds of composition work, both written
and oral, were added, and much of the work was based on the child's
daily-life experiences rather than on some deep, philosophical, or moral
subject.
The greatest cha nge in content f~und at any time during the 150. year period began about the time of the publication of the E.~s entinl Languag e Habits series (1923) which introduced several socially useful ac. tivities, like telephoning, making personal introductions, and r eading for
pleasure. The text which followed soon after that, Th e Open Door Language Series (1926-1928), added still more of this type of material, including writing for school publications and newspapers, holding club
. meetings, and planning programs. The kinds of content introduced into
grammar texts by these two series were found in almost every text published after that time, and a few other topics have been added. The trend
seems to be toward increasing the teaching of the grammar used in
daily life and omitting any content for which the average student will
probably have .little or no use.

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Chapter VI

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Method

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IN THE teaching of grammar during the 150 years covered by this
study, there have been two important schools of thought, the philosophic,
which was predominant during the eighteenth century and continued to ·
be accepted by most a uth ors of grammar texts until the middle of the
nmeteenth century, and the modern scientific, or psychological, which has
been popular ever since that time. Those with a philosophic point of view
almost invariably used the deductive method of presenting the subject,
while those with more scientific ideas of t eaching have u sed one form or
another of the inductive method. The type of subject matter stressed
has changed completely during the ears, as has also the dependence on
the teacher in assisting the student in his interpretation of the text.
Role of the Teacher

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As has been said, in the early days students were often unable to
obtain the aid of a t eacher, and therefore authors attempted to write
texts that could be followed by the student without such ass istance. Since
a thorough knowledge of gramm ar, its general development, and its
finer points, was considered necessary, authors included, either in footnote > or in smaller type in the t ext itself, explanations of rare or unusual
grammatical constructions. Many authors, like Brown (1823 ), also gave
rather detailed discussions of controversies concerning- grammatical
constructions, giving their authority for th e different deci sion s in the
matter.
The word self was originally an adjec tive; but whe n used
alone, it is now generally a noun. This may have occasioned the
diversity in the formation of the compound personal pronouns.
Dr. Johnson calls .•elf a pronoun; but h e explains it as being
both adjective and substantive. ( 5: 64)

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These discussions lengthened the book co nsiderably without ad dlng ,
much usable information. As a conse<]uence, repetitious material, extensive exercises, and content which might seem to have no purpose other _
than that of adding interest were omitted. The texts of the day were
very meaty, but distinctl y dull.
Grammar, as a study, has always been considered important and,
ever since public schools were first established, it has been one of the
core subjects in the curriculum. In the days when children were not
r e<J uired to att end school, only those who we re interest ed had to cope
with the problem of comprehending the grammar presented in textbooks.
Not until compulsory school attendance Jaws were more generally en·
fo1;ced were authors faced with the problem of making grammar inter·
esting to the student. Since the same problem arose in all subjects taught
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in the public schools, educators began studying the laws of learning and
applying them in the presentation of textbook material. As a result of
this r esearch in psychology, grammars showed considerable improvement both from the point of view of the interest element and from that
of teachability. •
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As these changes in textbooks took place, the teacher's responsibility al so changed. At first, her work consisted almost entirely in
hearing the pupils repeat the material in the book. Since she did not receive special training, she was not always equipped to teach the subject,
and had to keep a lesson or two ahead of the pupils, learning the work
herself before hearing them recite the same material. Authors offered
encouragement to tutors and t eachers ; for example, Kirkham (1823)
said:

\

To those enterprising and intelligent gentlemen who may
be disposed to lecture on this plan, the author takes the liberty to
offer a few hints by way of encouragement.
Any judicious instructer of grammar, if he take the trouble
to make himself familiar with the contents of the following
pages, will find it an easy matter to pursue this system . . . .
(4:12)
On the whole, those who undertook to teach a subject had a special
interest in that subject, and therefore did not have great difficulty in
preparing themselves for their teaching duties.
The demand for teachers grew tremendously with the coming of
compulsory school attendance laws, and with it came the need for
training teachers in their particular fields. At first, training was given
in subject matter alone. T eachers were assisted by means of notes inserted in the texts explaining how the topic could be taught. Pinneo
(1850), for example, in a footnote in his grammar, stated:
The Teacher is referred to pages 143, 147, 154, for examples
of Special Questions, which will be found very interesting and
useful. With those as a model, he can easily examine his classes
on all the parsing lessons, as often and as extensively as he may
think best. (9:157)
Kerl (1864) suggested that:
If the pupils have been well drilled according to the general
tenor of all the foregoing exercises, they have probably acquired
a tolerable knowledge of the larger parts of language, with their
joints and mob ility, and are now prepared for a more minute
analysis. ( 11 : 15) ·

A little later Reed and Kellogg ( 1875-1877) referred the teacher

to material entirely outside -the textbook.
Condensed statements of fact s, taken from some book not in
the hands of your pupils, may be read to them, and they may be

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required to expand and combine these and group them into
paragraphs. (13a: 168)

By the 1920's the work of the t eacher had . become of very real import in the teaching of grammar as well as of all other public school
subjects. She no longer merely drilled the pupils on the content of the
textbook or provided additional similar material for study, but she also
was expected to add interest to the subject by allowing the pupil s more
freedom and by directing them into newer outlets for their recently
acquired knowledge. In the teaching of oral composition, for example,
The Open Door Language Series (1926-1928) advised the teacher to
"encourage first a free, spontaneous expression of ideas; and then, as
the discussion proceeds, help the pupils to organize their ideas in such a
way that they can sum them up in informal talks" (23b:iv).
By the time the last of the t exts analyzed was publi shed, the
teacher had become the guiding spirit in the schoolroom. The authors of
Adventures in English (1939-1944) stated, in the preface to their text,
that they hoped "this practical, realistic program will conserve the
teacher's time and energy for the inspirational guidance wh.ich is the
real strength of every true teacher" (27a :iii). This attitude toward
the teacher has become rather widespread and authors did what ,.
they could to help her develop the characters of her charges and guide
them toward good citizenship in every sense of the word.

Deductive Method
Of the grammars analyzed in this study, all but one of
published before 1850 used the deductive method of organizing and
presenting material. In these, the arrangement of subj ect matter was ·
almost invariably the same. Most of the books began with an over-all
definition:
ENGLISH GRAMMAR is the art of speaking and writing
the English language with propriety.
It is divided into four parts, Orthography, Etymology,
Syntax, and Prosody; which treat of letters, syllables, words,
and sentences. (3 :A'2)
Not only were almost all texts divided into the four parts men- '
tioned in this definition, but the parts were always included in the •
text in the same order. These were broken down into minor divisions,
dealing with declensions, conjugations, parsing, analysi s, and so forth.
Each new topic was introduced with rules and definitions. Examples
illustrating these were given next, followed by exercises, but the
examples and exercises were always based on the rules and definitions
under which they fell. If, by chance, they were separated from the rule
governing them, the student was aided by a note similar to "For the
syntax of the Interjection, see Rul e v. Note 11, page 152, and Note 9
of Rule xxi" (2:214).

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

119

The mechanics of grammar was always emphasized rather than
language usage. The pupil's knowledge of the subject depended almost
entirely on his ability to memorize rules and definitio~s and to ap~ly
them in the places where he was told they were applicable. Very msignificant and seldom-used constructions ' were ha~dled in ~xactly t~e
same way as the more important points, and no detail was omitted. Pa1sing and analysis were stressed, but no material "".~s gi~e~ in the texts
which would help directly in developing the pupils ab1!1ty to u se t_he
English language. Seemingly, the language to be used in everyday hfe
was supposed to grow naturally out of a knowledge of the details of
grammatical construction.
Inductive Metllod
The first person to attempt to write a grammar P_resenting the
subject inductively was Smith (1832), who borrowed the 1~ea ~rom the
schools of Germany and Switzerland, where the Pestalozz1an mfluence
had been felt for some time. This method of approach had been 111troduced into arithmetic textbooks more than ten years earlier, ?ut _the
subject of grammar did not lend itself so readily to reorga111zab~n.
Even after Smith published his English Grammar on the Productive
System, it was about 20 years before other authors accepted the plan.
Smith summarized his method thus:

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Such is the Productive System, ~y which t~e. powe.rs of the
pupil are called into complete exer~ist; by ~eq~irmg him. to a~­
tempt a task unaided, and then ass1stmg him m. correctmg his
own errors, or returning from his own wandez:mgs, before ~e
is discouraged by the waste of time and the frmtlessness of his
efforts. They distinguish carefully between knowledge and the
means of obtaining it. (6:6)
.
By about 1850 there was considerable discussion among grammarians as to the best method of presenting the subject in textbooks
and in actual teaching. Greene (1853) s,ummarized the two points of
view in the preface to his text:
Shall the forms of language be re~arded as direct results
from thought as the offspring of an mner impulse? or shall
they be looked upon as possessing in ~hemselves, regardl~ss of
their origin all that is necessary to gmde to a successful mvestigation? The one may be called the _interior, the ~ther the exterior, point of view. From the one porn~, lan~ua~e 1s r~garded as
organized under the influence of a vital, life-.impar~ing pow~r,
determining all its outward forms and mamfesta~1ons; while
from the other it becomes a lifeless fz:al!le, to be ~1s~ected and
examined for the purpose of ascertammg what 1t 1s, and of
what it i~ composed. . . . (lO:iii)
He went on to say that he had "aimed in the following pages, as
far as possible, to take the interior point of view" (10 :iv). He then
gave a detailed account of the organization of material in an oral
exercise:

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An oral exercise, in which it is supposed that the learner
is about to enter upon a new field of inquiry, is first given . . . .
The way is thus prepared for the definitions which immediately
follow . ... Copious and varied exercises immediately follow the
definitions and remarks. These are intended (1.) to test his
ability to apply the definitions; (2.) his ability to produce illustrative examples; (3.) his ability to alter and adapt given examples, in all their varieties and modifications, to the words
with which they are connected; and (4.) his ability to correct
erroneous expressions. (10 :vi-vii)

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LESSON I.
OBJECTS.
The world in which we live is full of objects, as trees,
shrubs, flowers, grass , rocks, stones, metals, houses, barns, valleys, rivers, brooks, springs, oceans, seas, lakes, ponds, oxen,
horses, sheep, birds, insects, reptiles, mountains, hills, pools;
in all, a multitude so great that one could not count them in a
lifetime.
Lessons on objects may be conducted after the following
MODEL.*

Greene (1853) was one of the first to follow Smith's lead, but he
evidently could not pull very far away from tradition, for he still
stressed rules and definitions. However, his text proved popular, and
from that time on almost every grammar took up the subject from an
inductive point of view.

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ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

Since the inductive method took advantage of one of the soundest
principles of learning, that of building from the known to the unknown,
it has held its popularity for more than a century. During that time,
various theories and methods of organizing and arranging the content
of the text have been tried out, some of the methods being quite generally accepted for a time. As the purpose of teaching grammar
gradually changed from that of memorizing rules and definitions and
studying the minor technicalities of the subject to that of teaching the
correct English to use in everyday situations, the content itself changed
in textbooks. Through all these changes, however, the inductive method
has continued to be used in one form or another. Among the more com·
monly used forms of this method were the following.
Object method. - It is only natural that some of the major theories . .
he d by educators at various times should be evident in grammars as
well as in textbooks in other subject fields. One of the first theories to
appear after the inductive method was introduced was what was known
as the object method, a method which proved popular because it gave
the. child something concrete and within his acquaintance on which to
build his new knowledge. Here was an attempt on the part of textbook
writers to help the child learn his grammar by showing him its relationship to the world he knew rather than by confronting him with unfamiliar terms and abstractions. This method was a direct outgrowth of ·
the Pestalozzian theory and, while very popular among educators in
other fields, was a little difficult to apply to the subject of grammar•
Greene (1853 ) used it very effectively in his introductory course for
beginners.

Teacher. (Pointing to the object.) What is this?
Pupils . . (In concert or separately.) The platform.
Teacher. Now, write upon your slates near the top, Names of
Objects. (The teacher does the same on the blackboard.) Under this, write Platform, commencing it
with a capital letter, and placing a period ( . ) after
it. Now, which is the object?
Pupils .. (All point to the platform.)
Teacher. Which is the name of the object?
Pupils .. All point to the blackboard or their slates, (thus
showing that they know the distinction.)
Teacher. (Pointing to the first object at the end of the platform, so as to proceed in order.) What is this?
, Pupils . . Bookcase.
Teacher. Write the word bookcase under Platform, placing the
first letter directly under the first letter of that word.
Now since platform and bookcase are nmrnes of objects, what shall we call these words?
Pupils .. (All hesitate.)
T eacher . May we not call them object-words?
Pupils .. (All give assent.)
The lesson, when carried to six objects - quite enough for
the first, - will stand thus:
NAMES OF OBJECTS.
Platform.
Bookcase.
Chair.
Sette.
Desk.
Table.

(10 :xiii-xiv)

In a footnote on this material, Greene (1853) gave explicit instructions to the teacher in the technique of presenting the lesson .
Sixteen numbered directions were listed, beginning with "Let the class
be so arranged that each member can see the object pointed out"
(10 :xiii). In number 14 he said, "The term object-word may gradually
be displaced by the word noun," and he followed this with "15. At first,
let the attention be drawn more forcibly to the object than to the name;
; but at length let the name, as an object-word a NOUN become the more
-prominent" (10 :xiii). Thus the transfer was made from the concrete
' object to the abstract word symbol of that object.

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ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

The object method apparently did not prove very satisfactory In
the teaching of grammar, for it was not used extensively. This may
have been due to the fact that, as the study of technical grammar grew
into a study of English usage, and the putting together of words in
correct form became the goal of teaching rather than the naming of
objects, thoughts, and situations replaced objects as a background for
instructional proced,u re.

Topical method.
When the inductive method was first introduced
iri:to grammar texts, authors felt greater freedom of style in presenting new material, but they still clung to the major classifications of
orthography, etymology, syntax, and prosody. Reed and Kellogg (18751877) were among the first to break away from the traditional organization and to begin their book with the sentence instead of with the letters
of the alphabet and the forming of words, for, as they said, "the
sentence is the unit of discourse, because words can be classified only
from their function in the sentence, and because the pupils should, from
the outset, see that what determines the words in the sentence and the
sentence itself is the thought" (13b:4). This deviation from what
had for years been looked upon as the proper way to present grammar was really the introduction to what was known in other fields as
the topical method, a method in which the subject was taken up by
topics rather than by major classifications. For many years the sentence '
was the first topic introduced, and even today it is presented within the
first 15 or 20 pages of a text.
When the topical method was in vogue, an attempt was made in
textbooks to complete the discussion of one topic before going on to '
the next. The table of contents in the Scott-Southworth series (1906)
shows clearly how a book was organized by topics. The advanced
volume in this series was divided into four parts - sentence structure,
parts of speech, lessons in composition, and narratives. Each part was
divided into chapters and each chapter into divisions that were still
further broken down until every detail of organization was included.
For example, in the chapter dealing with nouns, the main divisions
concerned the kinds, inflection, u ses, parsing, and summary. Under the
heading "Kinds" were three subheads, "Common and Proper" (18b :78),
"Collective Nouns" ( 18b: 80) and "Concrete and Abstract Nouns"
(18b :81). All topics were handled in much the same way.

Spiral method. - One of the serious difficulties encountered in teaching by the topical method was that pupils were necessarily introduced .
to very complicated phases of a topic before taking up the elementary
facts concerning the next topic. In an attempt to overcome this difficulty, texts were broken down into lesson-length divisions. With this
break-down came the idea of presenting the elementary phases of all
topics before going on to the more involved points. This led to what became known as the spiral method, in which topics were taken up again )•
and again as the pupil progressed through the text, and each repeti·

123

tion brought with it additional and more difficult information on the
subject. Thus the child was no longer confronted with new material
far beyond his comprehension. The method also had the advantage
of giving the pupil the benefit of frequent reviews of material already
studied, and it proved so satisfactory from a teaching standpoint that
it is still used in one form or another in every grammar text published.
Functional method. - Within the last 25 years another theory of
teaching has grown aecidedly popular. This is the idea of presenting
grammar in daily-life situations, so that the child may have a carryover from the grammar he is taught to the English he uses in his everyday contacts. Several authors, even as early as 1875, saw the advantage
of this plan, but it was not adopted universally, nor did those who attempted to introduce it use it consistently through a text, until comparatively recently. The fact that there had always been an abstractness and formality about the teaching of grammar probably made it
difficult at first for authors to adjust the subject matter to this modern
,. point of view, but the method has been wholeheartedly accepted since
it has proved its value in making the teaching of grammar more practical and more usable.
Although in other subject fields this method of presenting subject
matter is usually called the activity method, in this study it will be referred to as the functional method because it grew originally out of a
study of the function of each word or phrase in the sentence.
In the early days the child was taught his parts of speech before
being shown how they could be put together to form correct sentences.
, Under such conditions, grammar was purely mechanical. However, since
the part of speech of each word is dependent upon its use within the
sentence, authors began teaching the sentence first, then showing the
~ function of each word within the sentence. By the latter part of the
nineteenth century this idea had led to the study of "the use of language
as the expression of thought" (16a :iii).
Lewis and Lynch (1918) were among those who stressed function in
the teaching of grammar:

\,

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.
'

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Very many of your difficulties with grammar will disappear
if you will remember that the classification of a word, phrase,
or clause depends on the work which it does in the sentence.
This idea has been emphasized again and again in this book.
The part of speech of a word, phrase, or clause is determined
by the work done or function served by that word, phrase, or
clause in the sentence. (21:191)

1

About 20 years later, the Curriculum Commission of the National
Council of Teachers of English recommended that grammar . be taught
always in its relationship to the sentence, since scientific studies had
failed to show that an abstract knowledge of grammatical principles
was of value in actu al English usage.
The idea of making grammar more functional expanded from that
of using the sentence as the basis for study to that of putting sentences
together properly. Because of the function of grammar in all the writ-

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BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

ten or spoken relationships among men, the study of the subject
spread out to include composition writing, public speaking, telephoning,
holding club meetings, and so forth. In all such activities correct usage
and correct grammatical construction is necessary in making one's meaning clear and in expressing oneself in an interesting and effective manner.
At first the activities in which the pupils were to use their grammar
instruction were artificially set up for them. The pupil might for example,
be told to "write such a letter as you might send to a friend who had ·
asked you to go fishing with him next Saturday" (18a :134 ), or "write
a story suggested by this picture" (16a:21). The teacher the n corrected the child's work and returned it to him, assuming that, when
next he wrote a letter or composition, he would not repeat the errors
which had been called to his attention. It was found, however, that there
was a wide difference between an artificial set-up and the real activity,
and authors began attempting to use a more natural outlet for the
functioning of the grammar they presented in their texts. Actual situations were set up and, instead of waiting until the child had made the
error and then correcting him, he was warned in the beginning to avoid
certain types of errors commonly made in that kind of a situation. The
Step by Step in English series (1940-1941) used this method.
Practice making the announcement for your program. Be
sure to:
1. Tell where the program will be given.
2. Tell when the program will be given.
3. Tell what the program will be about.
4. Speak clearly and loudly enough so that all will understand.
5. Do not interrupt your announcement with such expressions as "and-a," "well-a," "er," and the like. (26c:278)
When activities were first called upon rather universally as a back- '
ground for the teaching of grammar, there was a tendency to break
away almost entirely from the study of the more technical phases of
the subject, and especially from the emphasizing of form at the expense
of substance. Authors attempted to give the subject the vital quality
which belonged to it naturally but which had been crushed out by formal •
detail and mechanical presentation. More recently it has been recognized
that a certain understanding of language structurn is necessary to correct usage, and texts have again begun to include more instruction of
this kind. The authors of the Adventures in English series (1939-1944)
explain their stand on the subject in the preface to their fifth grade text:
Correct techniques - word study, punctuation, capitalization, sentence structure, paragraphing, spelling - are cultivated
by practical methods. Thus a wealth of informal and always
functional grammar is woven into interesting speech and writing
activities to promote respect for good usage. These activities
include practice in outlining, record-keeping, making a nd completing form s, writing notices and announcements, and composing simple advertisements. (27c :iii)

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

125

Through practice with material of this kind, pupils were led to
see that grammar is a mean s to an end rather than an end in itself.
In order that the activities in which the pupil most often took part
might be used as a basis for grammar training, authors of texts made a
study to determine the situations in which an individual is .most often
called upon to use his knowledge of language. Activities found to be
common among both children and adults were : holding conversations,
writing letters, telling stories, giving instructions or making explanations, participating in group discussions, etc. These have therefore been
used in most of the more recent t exts for the purpose of showing the
pupil the need for and value of correct usage in everyday life. This
accounts in part for the seeming tremendous expansion of subject matter in the study of grammar. The actual grammar teaching has not
expanded; in fact it has been decreased considerably, because much of
the intricate detail has been omitted, but the application of grammar to
daily-life situations, the functional use of grammar, is being made more
and more prominent in textbooks.

Techniques and Devices Common to All Texts
From the time the earliest of the grammars was published, there
was an effort on the part of authors to make their texts as usable as
possible. This desire at first manifested itself in an attempt to prepare
a "complete" grammar, one which would meet any need encountered
in the field. Such texts were little more than good reference books. They
were not very useful to the immature and uneducated student, nor did
they have any particular attraction for him unless he was in search
of the information they contained. Authors realized that such texts
lacked appeal and practicality in so far as meeting the needs of the
elementary school pupil was concerned, and they therefore worked
steadily toward improving their grammars in this respect.
Although many and varied changes took place through the years,
there were a few that were found in one form or another in almost
every text. In general, these could be grouped under four main classifications: (1) the simplification of material, including the simplification of content, of sentence .s tructure, and of vocabulary; (2) the standardization of grammatical terms, the breaking away from the old Latin
and Greek terminology and forms and the acceptance of certain terms
used rather generally today; (3 ) the use of quotations in teaching various phases of content, and the sources of those quotations; and ( 4)
motivation, including various means of attracting the child's attention and of making him want to study grammar.
Simplification of material. - ·Apparently no attempt was made in
the early texts to present grammar in a form intelligible to the child.
Since the only persons studying the subject were those who wanted to
study it, the idea of authors seemed to be to give thei"r readers as
much technical information as possible. The vocabulary used, as well

126

BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

as the content of the grammars, was entirely beyond the comprehension of the child.
· 'ft

should be used; but when a negative meaning is intended, the
article should be omitted: Thus, if I say "She spoke with a. little reserve," my meaning is positive; but if I say, "She spoke
with little reserve," my meaning is negative. "Few were
pleased," and "A few were pleased," convey very different
ideas. ( 3: 93-94)

However, the need for simplification was felt even a s early as
when Dilworth wrote his New Guide to the English Tongue.
~n tht; several Praxes or Lessons of Monosyllables hitherto
pu~hshed 111 our Mother '.fongue, instead of rising Step by Step,

The Imperative Mood is used for commanding, exhorting,
entreating, or permitting: as, "Depart thou; mind ye; let us
stay; go in peace."
Though this mood derives its name from its intimation of
command, it is used on occasions of a very opposite nature,
even in the humblest supplications of an inferior being to one
who is infinitely his superior: as, "Give us this day our daily
bread; and forgive us our trespasses." (2:74)

Dilworth tried to carry out his idea by beginning with words of
letter ~r one syllable and working up gradually to the longer ones,
he considered the words solely from the point of view of size not takinto consideration the fact that a comparatively short word 'might be '
rarely u sed and ther efore unfamiliar to the pupil.
Kirkham (1823) expounded at length on the ty e of material included in grammars, closing with the rema rk that "it is, therefore, '
absurd to instruct children as if they were already profound philosophers
and logicians" ( 4: 35).
one
but
ing
one

In his illustrations of the various subjects contained in his
work, our author app e ar~ to h ave aimed, not a t a flo wery style, nor
at the appearance of bemg learned, but at being understood. The
clearne_s~ and perspicuity of his remarks, and their applicati0n
to fam1har obJects, are well ca lculated to arrest the attention
and aid the unders.tanding, of th e pupil, and thereby to lessen'
t~e l~bour of the 111structer. The principles of the science arc
simplified _and, rende~·ed so perf ectly eas y of comprehension, we
should . thrnk no ordmary mind, having such help, could find
themd1.fficult. (4:3)
One of the first moves toward simplification was tha t of
the more complicated construction s and rare uses of words, but this
was a difficult matter, for such material had become a t r aditional part '
of a grammar textbook. Kirkham (1823), for example, had filled
nearly a page with "Remarks on It" (4 : 104) in which he had tried to
give the background for and an explanation of every possible use of the
word "it." Other authors gave equally detailed information in other
fields.
·
Note 4. When the _number . o,r quantity of any thing is intended to be expressed 111 a positive manner, the article a or an.

...,('j
. ,'i

Strictly speaking, present time is merely the point at which
the past and the future meet; and if we take the smallest imaginable point of time for the present, this portion will contain some of the past and some of the future. Thus, if we assume this lwur as the present time, a part of the hour is past
and a part to come; so if we take this minute or second. But
we may take any portion of time - a day, a year, or a century
- and consider the whole of it as constituting present time, and
the rest of time as past or future. (8:68)

Children are taught to Jump before they can go; and if they
prove uncapable to take such long Strides, as reach sometimes
from Monosylla~les of two, to others of seven or eight Letters,
before they are mfonned of those that come between, they must
!>e thu~ped and lugged forward, without being once instructed
111 the nght Knowledge of the most common and useful Parts of
our Tongue. Certainly this is a s barbarous in Literature as it
would be cruel in Behaviour, to bid a Child take care how it
comes up Stairs, and then to beat it because it cannot stride up
seven or eight Steps at once. (1 :iv)

Apparently, Kirkham was seriou s in his critici sm and in his efforts to overcome the difficulties in grammars, for the
in commenting on his text, said:

127

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The English language has about 880 adjectives, ending with
ous ; 640, with able ; 600, with ed; 3 80, with ive; 380, with ic or
ical,· 360, with y; 325, with ent or ant; 250, with al; 200, with
ic; 200, with less; 130, with ful; 140, with ible; 135, with ly;
70, with ish ; and 30, with some. (11 :126)
By: the middle of the century, however, authors were becoming
fairly well agreed that such material did not belong in textl:iooks
written for children, but it was many years before they were able to
omit this type of content without feeling that they should explain why
they had done so. Pinneo (1850) claimed that "no space is wasted with
tlie discussion of curious or unimportant points, which, however inter' esting to the critical student, can not but encumber an elementary work"
(9:5); Harvey (1868) stater! that one of his aims had been "to make a
practica l tex tbo olc - a useful manual for the learner, not a reference
book for the learned" ( 12: iii) ; Whitney (1877) expressed the opinion
that "certa inly, an elementary work is no place for dragging forward
, to attention matters of dis puted usage" (14:v); and Wisely (1896)
pointed out that "all pha ses of historical grammar have been purposely omitted, because that view is not necessary in the organization of
the subject, and it is thought that the child, at his age, has not a sufficient
basis for such a discussion of the facts of grammar" ( 17: 3).
No information of thi s type was included in the modern textbooks
except, per haps, now and then as an interesting item that pupils might
enjoy rather than as a fact to be learned. Content in the recent books
was kept within the understanding and experience of the child and
1 included only those phases of the subj ect which he would need in daily~ life situations (see Figure 11).

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BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

pf; 11.f

•,......~~.,_.I••"-""' ,,. ,;df! ~·f.J.1 1., "'·"" N
7 1.,,,W< t·....
~i>f/

1~.. ~·

i1,~ ~P><I ..,,.

1.

, ,.

~!~•'"'''I

tl"fi,>Ml:.t<oll"~ .<>l!f

...

,,r

,....1,,..,,

[A parenthesis] serves to inch,1de one Sentence in another,
without confounding the Sense of either; and yet it is necessary
for the Explanation thereof: And should be read with a lower
Tone of the Voice, as a Thing that com~s in by the Bye. (1 :88)

*"'' C.J!id'"'

~"•ll<>• <"ll•

.. iWr='O}

11~, ~..-.in>

,..,,,J·•>.: •li&1>

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th~n

"1ill ill,!fr•'J't:\ro::.·•l•f1 ho> \•H'<•;:

.

.,.. """
ll "'tl •

~

Why are not the different praxes of etymological parsing
severally reckoned among these methods? ( 5: 227)

i - .... t lf
I

..,.u .., .. u111 .. ,.,.... ,••..,.
tll1Hot4 <'1 wo11hl b• l•wll

Until recently, little was said in the texts concerning simplification of vocabulary. However, there was a great deal of difference in the
wording used in early grammars and in those in the latter half of the
nineteenth century, when such statements were found as:

tW11hl' o• -•dl'l.o-ll •n~ffd

-r • ·•U •lt~ !ttt d
11>1, •>ro,.Mnkul• v•lf
""tfll · •t.od.lw'lc,.H
"'! ~hi d f . . hl hH• b,,.,. l .... • d
....11 ,., , ,..._, •<- 1>e 10~ ~ 4
n.11lt , • •11t~I

to

lltn i..-h»'<d

hlo-t ..if

} i..

,, 1,,r"f~ 1 J,;o lf

,,.......... ; ... 1.,..,
.....,,,.,,.,-..-~,

You have already learned that a noun or pronoun and a
verb sometimes make a complete sentence; but we are about to
show you that they are often used as the foundation only of a
sentence, which is completed by adding other parts. ( 13a: 39)

,.,.. , , ..... 1.i·.-..,

..,.. ,,.,, ~ ,«•l<il

MA ....... lo-.f :t<

''"' .. ..... . !,~~ ,;,.. .... ,

., ..,,.;r.., .;r<"''"

,., • .,; ..,, i, ..,,, ti..;. :<1.:: ...11,-.1

1•,· .. ~ .

,, .,.~ ;i <::""'

!"-.6"

ihr.

~

} /rt \'

... •1"' ''"'"'!..,\ ..1·. ,,

Here the statement is direct and the vocabulary comparatively
simple. Although an improvement in this respect had been noticeable before any attempt at grade leveling in grammars, it became much more
evident after that time. However, no effort was mentioned in the texts
concerning the µse of a scientifically determined grade-level vocabulary
until within the last 20 or 25 years.

i),~ A ~H ll:f ><J!\I! i:l>'l

...~ .. y tt1 uo:i....I i11 iq1t•:tk in11 •1r 1!w
Smp I ~ tl '-'\'f' t u.<c.'1 1 with ;1 ht•lplnµ
word. N'4t~r ~ ,,·"f· Sw"f i.:S UM'< I nfu·r ttK- h."·lp:r.;.:
worth lttll". Am-f", Aod. i,~, vn11. ""· ~ ;,. rtl11.11.
Hut just L'I hurnan t•;I)!:. ha \'(' ind1•titot11fo11t. idt::L.<!. m

..-• ulftt!,

tN.w- wotd

So i' fllllf

hi~ h:w~

170.~ u~ · 1atJ

II. .\"""'
1·.f 1!1" frillt>'...·i11,: "<>n:I~ : <hw; • •.

:.w..dly.

Ill. Makt· u11 a 11h.orl

,. ~~

or jini;:k;. usinr;i- diifr1'-:lf

form.~ur lfi.,g um! ~'"' ' ·

Not only was unnecessary grammatical information omitted and
vocabulary simplified, in textbooks but in the recent texts new phases of
the subject were introduced as simply as possible. They were usually
taken up casually, and in a way to attract the pupil's interest before
actual in struction was given. For instance, the Daily-Li! e Language
Series (1934) gave a very simple explanation of the need for care in
the use of pronouns:

diffttettt t!W':min~.

To m ake your meaning clear, kee p in mind one important idea
with reference to pronouns: the name for which the pronoun
stands must be quite clear to listeners or readers. If you say,
"John's father took his roller skates to be mended," someone
may picture the father playing with roller skates. Of course you
mean that the skates were John's. It would be better to say,
"Mr. Baker took John's roller skates to be mended."
Change the following sentences so that the name for which
the pronoun stands is made quite clear :
Marjorie and Jean took her aunt to the station.
H erbert cannot draw so well as James. He has real talent. (24c:89)

(one hnlf site)

Fig. 11. Old and new methods of teaching verb forms.

But content was not the only problem in simplification, for the
way in which statements were expressed was also important from thl1
point of view. Sentence structure used in directions to the pupil waa ·
sometimes very involved in the early texts, and the vocabulary used waa
far from understandable to one not acquainted with technical grammar.·

r

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,,

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An interesting example of the introduction of more elementary
material was found in the Adventures in English series (1939-1944) :

'

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I

The Comparative somewhat increaseth or diminisheth its
Positive in Signification; a s, longer, or more long; shorter, or
more short; wiser, or more wise. (1 :96 )

One of the easiest sounds to make is the tiny word I, which
is as small as a word could be. We use it perhaps more than any
other, and yet we sometimes have trouble with it. (27a :72)

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BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

In the most recent of the texts analyzed, the attempt of authors
to make the subject easy for the pupils was more pronounced than in · •
any of the others. After calling attention to some of the more common pronouns, they said:

These words are very important in spite of their size.
They stand for persons and things, and they are called
pronouns. You don't need to remember the name unless you want
to, but you do need to remember how such words should be used.

(27c:239)

This simplicity in teaching in the modern texts has been an important factor in making the study of grammar less burdensome and more
effective in recent years.

Standardization of grammatical terms. - As has been mentioned
early English· grammars were written according to the pattern set fo; •
t~em by the old Latin and Greek grammars, although at times the principles of construc~ion and te~minology used in these older languages
could not be applied to English without considerable effort and consequent awkwardness. Murray (1795), realizing thi s disadvantage, , •
stated:

The English tongue is, in many respects materially different
fr?m the learned languages. It is, therefore, very possible to be
m1s~a~en ~ur?elves, and to mislead and perplex others, by an
und1stmgmshmg attachment to the principles and arrangement
of the Greek and Latin grammarians. Much of the confusion
and perplexity, "'.hich we meet with in the writings of some
English grammanans, on the subject of verbs moods and conjugations, ha~ ari sen from the misapplicatio~ of names. We
are ap~ to ~hmk, that the old names must always be attached
to the identical. forms and things to which they were anciently
attached. But 1f we r~ctify this mistake, and properly adjust
the names to the p eculiar forms and nature of the things in our
own language, we shall be clear and consistent in our ideas; and
consequently, better able to represent them intelligibly to those
whom we wish to inform. (2: 109)
However, in spite of the fact that Murray claimed to· adhere "to
the natural si_mpli~it~ of_ the English language, without embarrassing
~he learn~r "'.1t~ d1stm~bons peculiar to the Latin tongue" (2 :86), he
mcluded m his mstruction concerning the ca~e of nouns, the following
explanation:

!he English 1'.lnguage, to express different connexions and
re~a.tions of one thmg to another, uses, for the most part, prepositions . . . .

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

Nominative.
Genitive.
Dative.
Accusative.
Vocative.
Ablative.

Singular.
Dominus,
Domini,
Domino,
Domin um,
Domine,
Domino,

A Lord.
Lord's, of a Lord.
To a Lord.
A Lord.
,
0 Lord.
By a Lord. ·

Nominative.
Genitive.
Dative.
Accusative.
Vocative.
A/Jlative

Plural.
Domini,
Dominorum,
Dominis,
Dominos,
Domini,
Dominis,

Lords.
Lords', of Lords.
To Lords.
Lords.
0 Lords.
By Lords.

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(2 :54)

The unnaturalness of the English noun when forced to fit into the
outline of Latin case formations is shown only too clearly in this
example. Confusion in the mind of the student was the inevitable result of such methods of teaching. Authors recognized this and tried to
overcome it for years. Even as recently as 1877 they were making
such statements in their texts as:
I have wished to give the main facts of the English language just as they are in themselves, not importing into them
anything that belongs to other languages. (14 :v)
The adjusting ·of Latin te1ms to English grammatical constructions
was also a problem for grammarians. Pinneo, as fate as 1850, stated
that "particular preference has been given to English words as technical
terms, whenever practicable" ( 9: 5).
However, suggestions were still found concerning the use of terms
taken from the Latin:
It would be well to call the modifiers of nouns and pronouns

nclnoun.s; and the modifiers of verbs, adjectives, and adverbs,
ndju.ncts. The attachments to the verb can not well be always
called modifiers; and th e modifiers of substantives generally go
with nouns, pronouns seldom requiripg modifiers. ( 11: 104)
Reed and Kellogg (1875-1877), a little later, claimed that the only
changes in classification or nomenclature in their text were those which
seemed to be to the advantage of the pupil. Approximately ten years
after this Tweed (1886) stated that he had tried to "exclude all technical
names not founded on grammatical distinctions" (15 :iv), but the first
concerted elfprt toward simplifying and standardizing grammatical
terminology was made by the Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature, a committee of the National Education Association, in 1917. Although the Pearson-Kirchwey series (i914) adopted the terms recommended by this committee, the Robbins-Row series (1907), which came
out a little earlier, was not so sure some of the changes should be made.
' Their comment was that:

_,
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BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
.
School l?eople generally admit the desirability of uniformity
m grammatical nomenclature, but much doubt still prevai ls regarding the acceptability of some of the terms recommended by
the committee of the National Education Association. If the
new terms recommended by the committee find only partial acceptance they will merely tend to increase the diversity.
We have used the nomenclature recommended wherever it
seemed acceptable in an elementary school text. For the convenience of those who wish to follow the committee further,
we give below our terminology opposite that recommended by the
committee, wherever they differ. (19b:377)

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

or

el11lon

COLON

Note ot long brHth.ln8

CCJIU

11ote or reaplr•tlon

EXCLlMATlQf PODtT
l dmlratlon
!cphoneme
Bxcl•&tlon •ark
1xchmatorJ point
lot& or acbir&t i on
)foh of •xcbm•t1on
PERIOD
FUll point
P1RZNTHESIS

This comment was fo ll owed hy lists of terms recommended and terms
used in their text. In some cases there was complete agreement; in others,
rather wide differences . In general, the Robbins-Row terminology (1907)
was simpler than that of the committee. This text used, for example,
the term "noun clause" and "noun phrase," whi le the N.E.A. Committee recommended "substantive"; they listed four kinds of sentences,
declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory, t e rms that are
still in use today, while the committee called sentences affirmative or
negative, declarative or interrogative, and exclamatory or non-exclamatory; they included five classes of pronouns, personal, demonstrative,
interrogative, relative, and indefinite, while the committee gave all .
these, adding possessive, reflexive, reciprocal, intensive, and identifying;
and, in respect to cases, they used the Engli sh termino logy while the
Committee went back to the old Latin terms of accusative, dative, and
genitive (19b :377-378). In light of the evidence found in grammars
published since that time, it would seem that, while many of the recom~
mendations of the Joint Committee were accepted and their efforts therefore led to a greater standardization in textbooks, their suggestions
were not fo llowed in toto.
An analysis of term inology showed much greater uniformity in the
later texts, but some of this standardization took place before the Joint .
Committee made its recommendations. One of the places in which changes "
in wording showed up rather clearly was in the naming of the tenses.
Except for Tweed's text, which held rather closely to the old terms,
there has been almost no variance in the tense names used for nearly a
century. The . present tense has always been known by that name. The
future tenses (future and future perfect) were originally referred to
as the first and second future, a carry-over from Greek, in the grammars published before 1832 and in Pinneo's text (1850). Dilworth (1740)
used another name and a very impressive one, for the future - the
"to-come" tense (1 :99). He a lso used old Latin terms for the three
past tenses, calling them the preterperfect, the prete1:impe rfect, and the
preterplupel'fect tenses. Murray (1795) suggested that first, second, and
third preterit could well be used in referring to these teoses, and Pinneo (1850) modernized this idea a little, calling them the first, second, and ·
third past. However, Murray's was only a suggestion. He and all the
other authors up to 1845 used the terms imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect. Since 1850 all of the texts, with the exception of Whitney's (J 877)
have used past, present perfect, and past perfect in referring to the ,three past tenses.
·

-

lPOSTnOPHE

lil•rk

curv•1
Mar•u ot par•nth•li•
QJSSTIOM ORX

&roteme
Interrogation
Interrogation point
Jnt.errogat.or1 point
Mark ot 1nt.arrogat.1on
lot.a or interrogation

QJOT.lTlOO 111.l.AK.

Gu1llnet1
. Marin ot q..aot.at.100
Quotation
Q'uohUon point

133

- --- --- -- -- - -- - - - -

-- --

-

• ·:-1

--

Book1 lnal1sed

Fig. 12. Names used by the different books for the various punctuation
marks.

In th e matter of punctuation, too, there have been many differences
in terminology, but in this case there was very little standardization
until within the last 20 years. The many terms used by various authors
for some of the more commonly used punctuation marks are given in
Figure 12. In this figure, the term used in the most recently published
text analyzed is the one given first. Dilworth (1740) gave two names
for many of the marks. Surprisingly, one of these two has usually been
the most universally accepted term since that time. Brown ( 1823) also
used many different terms, but this tendency has grown less with the
years. The terms "apostrophe," "colon," "comma," "period," and . "semi colon" have been used ever since the beginning of this study and have
had no competition for more than a century. "Quotation mark" has also
become standard tenninology, but it was not accepted until about 1850.
The exclamation point, parenthesis, and question mark are still called
by different names by different authors, but there is a definite tendency
for even these to become standardized. The description of the comma,
semicolon, colon, and period according to the length of the pause shows
up in the names given to them by Dilworth. In order, they were called
the note of respiration, the note of middle breathing, the note of long
breathing, and the full stop.
In general, there was not as large a number of variations in terminology in fields other than those already mentioned. The collective
noun, for example, was called the "noun of multitude" ( 4 :32) in a
number of the early texts; the various forms of the noun or pronoun,
when declined were called its "accidents" (7: 204) ; and other interesting
terms were used. However, as has been said, few of these have been

\·,

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134

BULLETIN OF 'fHE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

used in recent texts, as terminology has become simplified, adapted to
the grammatical form of the English sentence, and in most cases fairly
well standardized.
Use of quotations. - Especially in the teaching of parsing, analysis,
and punctuation, quotations were used very generally in the older books,
both- as e~amples and as exercises. Many of these were taken from the
Bible, but the better known authors of both prose and poetry, including Milton, Moore, Shakes peare, Macaulay, etc. were also quoted.
One of the points which authors called to the attention of their students
was that the exercises in their texts consisted "principally of selections from the best writers in the language" (8: 3 ).
Biblical quotations we re found on from 16 to 18 per cent of all
pages in grammars published before 1875, no other type of quotation except poetry taking up more than 5 per cent during those -years.
In the third period, however, less than 10 per cent of the pages contained quotations from the Bible, and in the last period the percentage had dropped to a n a lmost negligible amount. Thi s seeming loss
of interest in the Bible was more or less in keeping with the times,
and may be only temporary, for in the last series published (19391944) the authors included several references from thi s source, as
well as a rather interesting discussion of the Bible as a book:

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

135

Psalm cxi. 10. "The fear of the Lord is the beginning of
wisdom, and a good understanding have all they that do his
commandments: His praise endureth forever." (7:133)
Many Biblical quotations were used as examples of certajn unusual
types of sentence structure or of the incorrect use of certain words.
Pinneo (1850) pointed out some of these, like "Which for Who; .. .
Our Father which art in heaven" (9:194). However, authors were careful to make it clear that the Bible was not to be criticized for these
seeming errors.
In the course of this work, some examples will appear of
erroneous translations from the Holy Scriptures, with respect to
grammatical construction; but it may be proper to remark,
that notwithstanding these verbal mistakes, the Bible, for the
size of it, is the most accurate grammatical composition that
we have in the English language. The authority of several
eminent grammarians might be adduced in support of this assertion; but it may be sufficient to mention only that of Dr.
Lowth, who says, "The present translation of the Bible, is the
best standard of the English language." (2:161)
The Bible was particularly rich in examples of figures of speech
and figures of syntax, and was often used for this purpose. Brown
( 1823) included many such examples:
I

The Book of Books
The Bible is the Book of Books. Does it seem strange to

rou that a poem from the Bible should close our year's thinkmg about language? Are you one of those people who think
that the Bible is a book only for church and the home? It isn't.
Because of its relation to life, it is a book that has a place in
everything we do.
Our bodies wouldn't be of much use without minds to control them. Our minds wouldn't be of much service without an
all-wise Spirit to control them. Whatever ideas we have ahout
religion, whatever personal faith we follow, all of us feel deep
in our hearts the Divine Power that rules the universe. We feel
this Power in the glory of earth and sea and sky; we see it. in
the deeds of men; we know it comes from the Lord, who is
our keeper.
With these thoughts in mind, it is easy to see why the Bible
should have an important place in our daily living. The more we
read of this wonderful Book, the less need we shall have of
language study. Its language was inspired by the deep faith
of its writers; it is beautiful language, wise language, language
that on ly th e Book of Books could have. That is why the poem
[Psalm 121) on the opposite page has been used to close this
year's work. It is a favorit e of manv sixth-grade boys and
girls. It must be a favorite of many other people, too. The
authors hope that it may become a favorite of yours. (27d :276)
In the early grammars, verses from the psalms were often used for
parsing, one of the "specimens of syntactical parsing" in Bullions' text
(1834) being:

My head is filled with dew, and my locks with the drop s
of the night. - Solomon's Song, v, 2.
Thou hast chastised me, and I wa.s chastised, as a bullock
unaccustomed to the yoke: turn thou me, and I shall be turned;
for thou art the Lord my God. - J er., xxxi, 18.
Consider the lilies of the field how they grow. -

Matt., vi,

28.

He that glorieth, let him glory in the Lord. -

2 Cor., x, 17.

Thou art Simon the son of Jona: thou shalt be called
Cephas; which is, by interpretation, a stone. - John, i, 42.
Thus saith the Lord of hosts: 'Behold I will break the
bow of Elam, the chief of their might.' - Jer., xlix, 35.
Behold I lay in Zion a Stumbling-stone and rock of offence; and whosoever believe th on him shall not be ashamed.
- Rom., ix, 33. (5:268)

"
<I

'j

During the second period covered by this study, Biblical quotations appeared on an even larger percentage of pages than during the
first period. This can probably be accounted for by the fact that there
was a general feeling among textbook writers about this time that
examples and exercises .should be shortened. Many of the philosophical
prose selections and verses of poetry that had been used were so
long and involved as to try the patience as well as the ability of
• students, and thereby lessen the popularity of the text. The Bible was
' a particularly rich source of short quotations, and therefore it was
used for this purpose by many of the texts of this period.

"i

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BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

It is intere5lting to note that in the third period, when the use of
the Bible dropped so sharply, the use of proverbs
increased just as sharply, more than three times as many being found
in books of this period as in any others. The desire to get away from
the use of cumbersome, time-consuming examples was also one of the
reasons for the wide acceptance of proverbs as examples. Brown (1823),
in discussing the make-up of his text, said that "in selecting examples
for these exercises, the author has been studious to economize the
learner's and the teacher's time by admitting those only which were very
short" (5:v). Among some of the less commonly known proverbs found
in texts were:
~uotations from

He that scofs at the crooked, should beware of stooping.
Misdemeanours are the pioneers of gros vices.
An humorsome child is never long pleased.

(5:39)

( 5: 39)
(5 :149)

Soldiers in peace are like chimneys in summer.

(8 :242)

Along with proverbs, were found a number of maxims and moral
truths .. These were especially popular during the second period, but were
found m all periods. One of the principal uses to which they were put
was that of showing the different types of sentence structure. Among
the interesting quotations of this kind found in early texts were the
following:
It cannot be avoided, so long as there is Wickedness on
Earth, or Malice in Hell, but that Scandals will arise and Differences will grow in the Church of God. (1:116) '

To countenance persons who are guilty of bad actions, is
scarcely one remove from actually committing them. (2 :222)
An obedient son gives joy to his father and mother.

( 3: 14)

Of all other ill habits idleness is the most inconigible
(5:158)
.
There is a certain majesty in simplicity which is far above
the quaintness of wit. (5:168)
'
But, as has been said, not all quotations used as examples and exe.rcises were short. In the early books many of the selections were
philosophical in nature and seemed to have been chosen for the purpose of making the pupil realize the weight of his responsibilities in
this world. Such quotations were usually long, often sad and depress- '
ing, and frequently carried a moral lesson. Typical among them were:
BY' the Fall of Adam from that glorious and happy State,
wherem he was created, the divine Image on his Mind is quite
cha_nged and altered; and he who was created but a little infenor to the Angels above, is now made but a little superior
to the Angels below. (1 :120)

137

To complain that life has no joys, while there is a single
creature whom we can relieve by our bounty, assist by our counsel, or enliven by our presence, is to lament the loss of what we
possess; and is just as rational as to die of thirst with the cup
in our hands. (3:142)
Who is she that, with graceful steps and a lively air, trips
over yonder plain? her name is health: she is the daughter of
exercise and temperance. ( 5: 36)
I have seen a good old father, his locks white, his steps
trembling, begging, in vain, his only son to abandon the intoxicating cup. (9:171)
And, when those who have rivaled her (Athens's) greatness shall have shared her fate; when civilization and knowledge
shall have fixed their abode in distant continents; when the
scepter shall have passed away from England; when, perhaps,
travelers from distant regions shall in vain labor to decipher on
some mouldering pedestal the name of our proudest chief, shall
hear savage hymns chanted to some misshapen idol over the
ruined dome of our proudest temple, and shall see a single naked
fisherman wash his nets in the river of the ten thousand masts,
- her influence and her glory will still survive, fresh in eternal
youth, exempt from mutability and decay, immortal as the intellectual principle from which they derived their origin, and
over which they exercise
their control. - Macaulay.
(13b :269-270)
As has been said, it was not uncommon in the early texts to use
poetry for parsing or analysis, with the idea that it made the material
' more difficult and therefore more instructive. The selections used were
usually from well-known poets, and almost invariably from a very
serious and sometimes almost doleful poem. Dilworth (1740) gave titles
to many of his quotations, but in most of the books only the author was
given. While selections were included without an author indicated, there
is little doubt that they came from some lesser known or local poets.
Bullions (1834) suggested the use of exercises from any "simple correct writer" for the elementary students, but said that "for the more
advanced student nothing better can be supplied than Pope's Essay on
Man or Milton's Paradise Lost" (7 :85).
The type of poem selected for use in grammars is so interesting thal
a few examples are given here:
Life is Short and Miserable.
Ah ! few and full of Sorrow are the Days
Of miserable Man: His Life decays
Like that frail Flower, which with the Sun's uprise
Her Bud unfolds, and with the Evening dies:
He, like an empty Shadow, glides away,
And all his Life is but a Winter's Day. (1 :124)

...
138

BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

peared in the Pearson-Kirchwey series, too, and three books since that
time have included this type of quotation.
In the recent books the number of quotations has not been as great,
for it would be impossible to make English alive and functional if many
philosophical or serious examples and exercises were used. When story
writing first entered texts, examples were printed in the books, but they
were so typical of the moralizing influence of the early grammars that
they did not encourage the child in freedom of thought. Reed and Kellogg
(1875-1877), for example, used the following:

A Future State Certain.
Brave Youths the Paths of Virtue still should tread,
And not by Error's devious Tract be led;
Till free from Filth, and spotless in their Mind,
Till pure their Life, and of th' etherial Kind:
For this we must believe, whene'er we die,
We sink to Hell, or else to Heaven fly. (1 :125)
ADMONITION.
In the days of thy youth,
Remember thy God:
0 ! forsake not his truth,
Incur not his rod. - G. Brown.

SELECTION FROM THE BROTHERS GRIMM

( 5: 286)

~

Is it not sweet to think, hereafter,
When the spirit leaves this sphere,
Love, with deathless wing- shall waft her
To those she long- hath mourned for here ?
Hearts from which 'twas death to sever,
Eyes this world can ne'er restore,
There, as warm, as bright as ever,
Shall meet us and be lost no more.
- T. Moore. (8 : 182)
Closely akin to these poetic selections were the literary gems, which
also were heavy and often dreary. These, too, were particularly .
popular in the second period, appearing on about 4 per cent of the
pages, but they then dropped out of favor and were not found in textbooks published during the last 20 years. The authors most commonly
quoted were the same as those for the longer selections.
And the fruit
Of that forbidden tree whose mortal taste
Brought death. - Milton (2:63)
All this dread order break - for whom? for thee?
Vile worm! - Oh madness! pride! impiety! - Pope (5:145)
Oh! what a tangled web we weave,
When first we practise to deceive. -

Sir W. Scott.

139

(8 :254)

While almost all the quotations included in early texts were used
as examples or exercises for parsing, analysis, or punctuation, one was
now and then put in for other purposes. A few h ymns and prayers were
found in the books, nearly half of them in Dilworth's text (1740) and
the others scattered through all the rest of the grammars. Fables were
also in Dilworth's text, apparently included solely for their moral value.
While no fabl es were found again until 1900, they then became popular
either as an example of story writing or purely as entertaining read·
ing.
Biography was popular in the Scott-Southworth series (1906), but ·
was found very seldom outside of that one text. Essays and orations
were not included until the Pearson-Kirchwey series (1914), but very
little of such material was used in any of the texts. The first joke ap-' .,

Once upon a time there was a very old man, whose eyes
were dim, whose ears were dull, and whose knees trembled. When
he sat at table, he could scarcely hold his spoon; and often he
spilled his food over the tablecloth and sometimes down his
clothes.
His son and daughter-in-law were much vexed about this,
and at last they made the old man sit behind the oven in a ·
corner, and gave him his food in an earthen dish, and not
enough of it either; so that the poor man grew sad, and his
eyes were wet with tears. Once his hand trembled so much that
he could not hold the dish, and it fell upon the ground and broke
all in pieces, so that the young wife scolded him ; but he made
no reply and only sighed. Then they bought him a wooden dish,
and out of that he had to feed .
One day, a s he was sitting in his usual place, he saw his
little grandson, four years old, fitting together some pieces of
wood. "What are you making?" asked the old man.
"I am making a wooden trough," replied the child, "for
father and mother to feed out of when I grow big."
At these words the father looked at his wife for a moment,
and presently they began to cry. Henceforth they let the old
grandfather sit at table with them, and they did not even say
anything if he spilled a little food upon the cloth. (13a: 143144)
More recently, many stories written by children themselves have
been quoted to give the pupil an idea of what was expected of him. If
stories by known authors were included, a lighter, more entertaining
type was usually selected.
In the field of poetry, few selections were quoted in modern grammars as illustrations of sentence structure. Instead, an entire poem
on the child's interest and ability level was printed for the purpose of teaching the child to interpret and appreciate poetic writing.
More recently such material has been used almost entirely as a factor in
making the text more enjoyable.
Book Houses
I always think the cover of
A book is like a door
Which opens into someone's house
Where I've not been before.

140

BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

A pirate or a fairy queen
May lift the latch for me;
I always wonder, when I knock,
What welcome there will be.
And when I find a house that's dull
I do not often stay,
But when I find one full of friends
I'm apt to spend the day.
I never know what sort of folks
Will be within, you see,
And that's why reading always is
So int'resting to me.
Annie F. Johnson (27b:183)
Poems like these had their value in having a message that the
child could understand and a story-book element that awakened his
imagination and aroused his interest.
Another kind of poetry quoted in the more recent books was that of
jingles, used to fix information of some kind in the pupil's mind. Two
very commonly known rhymes were used in the Pearson-Kirchwey series
(1914) for the teaching of capitalization. Both poems were also found as
teaching devices in other texts analyzed.
Solomon Grundy
Born on Monday,
Christened on Tuesday,
Married on Wednesday,
Took ill on Thursday,
Worse on Friday,
Died on Saturday,
Buried on Sunday;
This is the end
Of Solomon Grundy.
In the nursery rime printed above, all the days of the week
are mentioned. With what kind of letter does the name of each
day begin? Read the following rime also, and see how the
names of the months are written.
Thirty days hath September,
April, June, and November:
All the i·est have thirty-one,
Excepting February alone,
Which has just eight and a score,
Till leap year gives one day more.
The names of the days of the week and the months of the
year, and the names of all holidays should begin with capital
letters. ( 20a: 37)
The Adventnres in English series (1939-1944)
a jingle for teaching some of the homonyms.
Not only can words mean different things in different connections, but we have sets of words called homonyms that sound
alike, but mean very different things. Here is a doggerel rhyme
with examples:

•

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

141

The Tree Allowed to Speak Aloud
With a groan have I grown
Every pear that you pare;
And the eight . that you ate,
Like a bear, left'me bare.
And the tail of my tale
Ends in tears for ' the tears
In my sail by your sale
Of the pairs of my , pears.

\
·\

Did you notice that two words in the rhyme were spelled
alike, but pronounced differently and ' had different meanings?
These are heteronyms, and you have to watch out for them
when you are reading, especially out loud. If you are not careful, you will mispronounce them. (27f:13)
The moral teaching included in almost all quoted material in the
early grammars dropped out of texts almost entirely. Authors continued to include good prose and poetry, but it was lighter and more
enjoyable and was often used as recreational reading or as training
in appreciation rather than as examples of complicated grammatical
constructions.

Motivation. - Motivation is a omparativel new thing in textbooks,
as i
as been only within the ast 50 to 75 years that the need for it
has been felt to any extent.
Early grammarians showed no particular desire to make their grammars attractive either in content or in appearance. h most popular
books were those which contained the greatest' amount of accurate ino ation on the subject. Like texts in other fields, grammars were
really reference books in that field, to be used by persons who needed
·or desired the information and who often had to get it without the
aid of a teacher. Thus, the student was already motivated by his individual interest; all the textbook writers had to do was to furnish the
information he was seeking. Grammars therefore included a great
amount of material justifying or giving authority for statements made
concerning unusual spellings or constructions, in order to prove the
worth of the texts.
Grammarians were not unaware, however, of the difficulties encountered by students. Kirkham (1823) was particularly cognizant of
their problems, and often gave them a word of advice or encourage. ment:
If you study faithfully six hours in a day, and pursue the
directions given, you may become, if not a critical, at least, a
good, practical grammarian, in six weeks; but if you study
only three hours in a day, it will take you nearly three months
to acquire the same knowledge. ( 4: 127)

For your encouragement, allow me to inform you, that
when you shall have learned to conjugate the verb to love, you
will be able to conjugate all the regular verbs in the English

142

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS _OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

143

Bullions (1834) built his text around the idea that a feeling of success is a great motivating force:

Book, desk, sin, church, witness, glory, sky, money, wife,
knife, strife, life, fife, cargo, negro, folio, quarto, trio, no, men,
ox, mice, teeth, geese, p, q, 6, 7,
*, brother-in-law, courtmartial, wagon-load, ox-cart, handful, ipse dixit, tete-a-tete,
piano-forte, man-servant, Knight-templar, Miss Seward, Mr.
Casad, Sir Isaac Newton, Dr. Benson, Mrs. Henderson, brother,
die, fish, genius, index, penny, pea, Sarah, oh, my, ah, calculus,
arcanum, criterion, thesis, analysis, antithesis, parenthesis, nebula, phenomena, calyx, strata, silver, vinegar, hemp, darkness, oil, ashes, assets, bellows, clothes, scissors, shears, tongs,
news, molasses, lungs, alms, corps, mumps, measles, odds,
riches, series, suds, tidings, wages, ethics, politics, mathematics,
optics, physics, pedagogics, sheep, deer, couple, salmon, trout,
gross, hose, yoke, hiss, adz, sash, embryo, grotto, oratorio, buffalo, mosquito, tomato, potato, valley, chimney, money, duty, spy,
cow, foot, bandit, cherub, formula, memorandum, focus, terminus,
erratum, medium, axis, genus, automaton, hypothesis, basis,
crisis, ellipsis, Mrs., Mr., eaves, custom, letter, number, pain,
part, liberty, virtue, vices, attorney-general, head, belief, brief,
bluff, cliff, staff, ditty, daisy, baby, buoy, turkey, berry, fairy,
soliloquy, tray, Chinese, Japanese, forget-me-not. ( 17: 113)

. The study of E'.nglish Grammar, prosecuted in thi s way,
will. pro':'e both pleasmg a:id profitable. The pupil, knowing what
he 1s domg, and elated with success, will proceed with activity
and cheer fulness; and in a comparatively short time will find
himself a GOOD GRAMMARIAN. (7 :vlii)

The old Greeks got on with very little punctuation. They even
ran their words together, as in the following passage. Try rewriting this interesting little story, separating the words, and
putting in punctuation where it is needed.

language, for they are all conjugated precisely in the same
manner. ( 4 : 147)

+,

In the prefaces to a number of the older grammars, reference was
made to the fact that the book had been designed in such a way as to
make the pupil want to study. Kirkham (1823) tried to develop a spirit
of inquiry:
Its leading object is to adopt a correct and an easy method
in whic.h P.leasure is blended with the labours of the learner:
and which 1s cal~ulate~ to excite in him a spirit of inquiry, that
shall call forth mto vigorous and useful exercise, every latent
energy of his mind; and thus enable him soon to become
thoroughly acquainted with the nature of the principles, and
with their practical utility and application. (4:9)

MrPopewhowascrookedandcrosswastalkingwithayoungofficer
theofficersaidhethoughtthatinacertainsentenceaninterrogation
markwasneededdoyouknowwhataninterrogationmarkissnarled
outthecrookedcrosslittlemanitisacrookedlittlethingthatasksquestionssaidtheyoungmanandheshutupMr Popeforthatday. ( 18b: 24 7)

Pinneo (1850) had still another plan for holding the student's
terest:
Intere s~ in the study, it is hoped, is secured by the variety
and attractive nature of the exercises. The didactic, illustrative
an.d practical me!hods of teaching are united, that each point:
bemg presented m these several ways, may interest and impress the mind. (9:5)
·

All these suggestions helped, but the greatest. sing le force in creat-ing a desire to study was that of rivalry. As has been said, it was a
great honor in the early nineteenth century to be considered a good
grammarian. Students worked hard at their lessons because they wished
to receive this honor.
While no mention was found in the early books of a con scious effort on the part of authors to furnish material for competitive learning, it seems quite possible that the longer, more complicated quotations
used as exercises in parsing and analysis may have been included for this
purpose. Time and again the directions to teacher or pupil showed
clearly the fact that competition was used a s a means of teaching, for
such statements were made as: "Let the struggle be to .. . " (13a:54)
and "The competition is to . .. " (13a:76) .
Some of the exercises proved to be a real struggle. In fact, in :
examples like the following, it seemed texts were attempting to
the endurance as well as the ability of students.
Write the following words in two columns; in one column,
write the singular form of each 'vord, and in the other the
plural:

These came at a time when the theory of mental discipline was
widely accepted and authors believed hat "more important . . . than
anything else is the training in thinking" (19b :9). The pupil was thus
given his mental gymnastics and good material for competitive study
in the same exercises.
It is not to be supposed that rivalry dropped out of teaching as a
means of motivation. Some form of competition was used in every grammar studied, but in the recent ones games and contests were planned,
and other means of putting the work on a play basis were suggested. In
fact, by the beginning of the twentieth century, textbook writers were
putting forth great effort to make their grammars interesting.

As has been said, the need for awakening the pupil's interest was
not felt at first, but by the time compulsory education became rather
general and grammar was a required subject in the public schools,
many childr en who had no interest in the subject were having to study
·· it. The need the r efore arose for making a more attractive text and
' for finding means of presenting the work in an enjoyable form.
1

During the latter half of the nineteenth century many new ideas

!, entered grammar texts. These included some of the things discussed

'..I elsewhere in this ana lysis, such as the introduction of pictures both as
aids in instruction and as interest factors; the use of forms and models
; for pars ing, analysis, etc.; the use of la rger type, wider marg ins, and

.
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BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

145

more open space on the page so that the text did not look so heavy ..
and difficult; and the enlivening of the subject matter by basing study on '
facts and situations within the child's experience.
Drill was placed on a play basis, and children were taught games
in which they received practice in correct English (see Figure 13).
Reed and Kellogg (1875-1877) were the first to use this method of
holding interest, but after the Robbins-Row series (1907) almost every
text included it. A game suggested in The Open Door Language Series
(1926-1928) was on the use of "have" and "haven't":
Go to your Next Neighbor. In playing Go to your Next
Neighbor, the leader asks the players in tun1 for different
things, such as sugar, tea, coffee, bread, butter, flour, and
crackers. vVhen the leader a sks, "Will you lend m e some sugar?"
the player must be careful to say, "No, I haven't any. You will
have to go to your next neighbor." The point of the game is to
see if the leader can ask questions around the class without
any one's saying I haven't got any or You will luifto. The
number of mistakes is counted each day and written on the
board until the record is a perfect one. (23a:8)
The A dventures in English series (1939-1944) used what it called
a "ladder game" to teach cor rect pronunciation of certain often mispronounced words. The words were to be written on the rungs of a ladder drawn on the blackboard . The pupils were to start at the bottom
and try to climb the ladder without missing a rung (27b :70).
The Step l>y Step in English series (1940-1941) S\lggested a game
designed more for developing imagination and interpretation than for
furnishing drill on mechanical phases of English:
Perhaps you would like to play a gesture game. Choose
a list of topics to talk about. Then, on the playground or anywhere beyond the hearing of the rest of the class, let one member talk about one of these topics to another, using whatever
gestures seem natural to him. The rest of the class can then
guess which topic was being discussed. Here are some suggested topics for a simple gesture game. You can think of
more difficult ones.
The Fish That Did Not Get Away
Hitting a Home Run
The Shot That Won the Tennis Game
The Man in a Straw Hat on a Windy Day (26e:108-109)
In this series also was the suggestion that pupils make a list of as
many words as they could think of that could be made from the letters':
found in the word "steamship." The pupils were then to put the words
in their list in alphabetical order (26b: 33).
The use of riddles and puzzles came a little later, but they tOQ ,
were really a fo1m of drill in which enough of a play element was in ·
troduced to make it a little less tedious to the pupil. Most of these
were nothing more than questions and answers, but the Adventures in ..

(approximately two fifths size)

Fig. 13. Devices used for gaining and holding the pupil's interest.

English series (1939-1944) put the mateifal more nearly in true riddle
form than did the others.
Akin to riddles and puzzles was an interesting exercise found in the
Step by Step in English series (1940-1941):
1. I am the part of your letter that says "Hello." Write my
name.
am used to begin the name of every person. Write my
2.
name.
3. I am a complete thought. Write my name.
4. I am a short way of writing a word. Write my name.
5. You will find me at the end of every asking sentence.
Write my name. (26a:232)

The developing of projects entered texts with the Hyde series
(1888-1896) and has been given increasing emphasis through the years
since that time until, in the Step by Step in English series (1940-1941),
it was mentioned on nearly half of the pages. Projects included planning
parties, programs, and club meetings, making valentines, writing plays,
etc.
Dramatization was used as a fo1m of motivation in most of the
texts published in the twentieth century. Instruction was always woven
into such forms of motivation:

146

BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

Have you ever tried to act a story or a fairy tale? Today

y~u are to act the story of the elves and the shoemaker. There

will. be five actors, and the other children in the room will be the
audience. What are the five parts which the actors are to take?
The actors should talk somewhat like this: (22a:l8)

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

147

Movie" (26e:97), "Using the Library" (26b:161), and "Celebrating
Christmas" (26b:116). Such units taught the social uses of English and
in this way they made the pupil see more clearly the need for an understanding of the grammatical principles upon which correct usage is
based.
'

The idea of usin g a central theme for in struction did not enter texts
until the early 1900's, but it was not until the 1920's that various
phases of grammar t eaching were held together in this way.
In the early grammars th e on ly r elation that one sentence in a
group of exerci ses had to another sentence was that it illustrated the
s.ame rule. Th~re was no continuity of thought except along grammatical
Imes. Not until the Pearson-Kirch wey series (1914) was th ere evidence
of an attempt to arouse th e pup il's interest by havin g an interesting
theme run through th e exercises. Even here the idea embraced nothing
mor.e than the exe rci ses, which, whil e dealing with the same general
?Ubject, were unrelated so far as dependence upon each other for meaning was concerned.

The cartoons in the Daily-Life Language Series (1934) and the
Adventures in English series (1939-1944) were particularly effective
in attracting the pupil's attention and getting him interested in the
content of the text. In fact, the physical make-up of the recent texts,
both inside and ~utside, has been such as to create a desire to read
the book . .
Recently it has been the object of authors not only to make the
pupil want to study his text but also to make him realize his need for
correct English.
In the eighth grade text, the Step by Step in English series (19401941) startled its students into realizing the need for pl~cing words
in correct order . in a sentence by saying:

Find the verbs in the following sentences :
1. The earth is a great ball.
2. It seems flat to us.
3. The stars are distant suns.
(20a:232)

There is more to language than the knowledge of words because important is used are words which in order the.
The words in italics make no sense at all, do they? Read
them backwards. Do you agree with what they say? (26f:20)

This ~ype of o~ganization of material around a central theme proved
of value m arou smg and holding the interest of the pupils and consequently became very widely used. The Op en Door Langunr;e Series '
(1926-1928) was the first to weave whole chapters of instruction around •.
a subject like "Playing Indian" (23a: 38 ) or "Bird Neighbors" (23a:84).
The t_eaching in these chapters covered much the same grammatical '
material as was found in other t exts for the same grade, but the exa~ples, the exercises, the composition writing and Jetter writing, the
. proJects, and so forth, all dealt with some phase of the central theme.
~or instance, in the chapter on "Playing Indian," a project on Indian
l'.fe in.eluded training in reading for information, reporting information, .listening, understanding, etc. (23a :38-42). In the fi eld of grammar itself, the exercises in this chapter taught the correct use of "a" and "an" with such exercises as:

The Adventures in English series (1939-1944) explained, in terms
the child could understand, the use of punctuation marks:

··--·-·-·-------old bow
________________ new bow
··--··- ---··----wigwam

........... Indian boy
.... ...papoose
...... old chief
(23a :43)

Poetry, games, a story hour, the writing of an invitation to another
class to visit the Indian village made by the class, etc., were all in- ,
eluded in the teaching of this unit.
1
In the most r ecent of th e texts, the units of instruction were more
on the level of the child's interests; that is, they concerned things which
the. child often does in his out-of-school life. The Step by S tep i:n Ennli-sh .
series (1940-1941), for example, contained chapters on "Let's See a

One of our best friends is the traffic officer. Even if we
live far out in the country and do not see him very often, we
know that when we visit crowded city streets he will be on hand
to help us.
Capitals and punctuation marks are like that. When
thoughts and ideas crowd into a sentence too fast, along comes
a capital letter or a punctuation mark to keep the sentence traffic
straight. (27b :76)
Daringer (1938) showed the pupil what a vast difference one word
could make to the meaning of a statement:
An adjective is a word which modifies a nouri or pronoun;
that is, it changes or limits the meaning of the noun or pronoun .
Notice what a change in meaning an adjective modifier can
make - all the difference, in fact, between swee t milk and sour
milk, hot water and cold water, many apples and no apples.
(25: 36 )
Thus the fact was brought to the pupil's attention that a knowledge
of correct English is necessary in almost all everyday situations. He
was made to see that the information he gained in his grammar
study would be useful to him no matter what he did in life and that
it would greatly increase his chances of success. This created in him
a desire to study because he realized the advantages to be gained in
being able to use English correctly.

\"

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BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

Tecliniq11e11 and Devices Emphuized in Different Periods
Among the techniques and devices used in teaching grammar, there
were some which were popular in the early texts, but which lost favor
as m ethods of teaching and textbook content changed. These were replaced by others which were more effective in light of the newer
psychology in teaching. Many of these techniques and devices were of
sufficient importance in their day to be worthy of a place in any discussion of trends in grammar books. They have therefore been included
here and are arranged approximately in the order in which they were
first introduced into texts.
Use of Parsing. - Parsing wa s strongly emphasized in early texts
but has been dropped entirely, none of the grammars published in the
last 20 years having included such material.
Murray (1795) was among those who boasted that his text presented "a new and enlarged system of parsing" (2 :7) . Be not only included a great deal of discussion on the subject, but he even set up
parsing in more than one form:'
In the following passage, all the parts of speech are exemplified:
I
2
I
2
5
2
3
72
8
The power of speech is a faculty peculiar to man; and
5

5

7

4

74

was bestowed on him
3

8

G

3

3

2

by his beneficent
2

s

n

7

1

149

be required to supply the words omitted, and parse them, as If they
were all expressed" (3: 136) .
The form set up by Kirkham (1823) for parsing nouns and verbs
was as follows:

SYSTEMATICK ORDER OF PARSING.
The order of parsing a Noun is - a noun, and why? common, proper, or collective, and why? gender, and why? person, and why? - number, and why? - case, and why?
Rule: - decline it.
The order of parsing a Verb is
a verb, and why? active, passive, or neuter, and why? - if active - transitive
or intransitive, and why? - if passive - how is it formed? regular, irregular, or defective, and why? - mood, and why? tense, and why? - person and nµmber, and why? - with what
does it agree? - Rule: - conjugate it. (4:50-51)
In recommending this scheme for parsing, Kirkham stated:
The systematick order laid down in this work, if pursued
by the pupil, compels him -to apply every definition and every
rule that appertains to each word he parses, withoµt havin~ a
question put to him by the teacher; and, in so doing, he explams
every word fully as he goes along. This course enables the
learner to proceed independently; and proves, at the same time,
a great relief to the instructer. ( 4: 11)

Creator, for the

n

n

54

greatest and most excellent uses; but, alas! how often do we
5
47 I
;J
7
2
pervert it to the worst of purposes!
In the foregoing sentence, the words the, a, are articles;
power, speech, faculty, ma,n, Creator, uses, purposes, are substantives; peculiar, beneficent, ,qreatest, excellent, worst, are adjectives; him, his, we, it, are pronouns; is, was, be8towed, do,
pervert, are verbs; most, how, often, are adverbs; of, to, on, by,
for, are prepositions; and, lmt, are conjunctions; and alas is an
interjection. (2:43)
Parsing was . given on about 17 per cent of the pages on which the
sentence was discussed in the first period books and on more than 23
per cent in the second period, but it lost its popularity rapidly after
1875. In the third period it was mentioned on less than 10 per cent of the
pages, and in the last period on less than one half of one per cent.
One reason for the great amount of space given to parsing in the
first two periods was that the subject was taken up in such great detail. Pupils were not only supposed to identify each part of speech in
the sentence, but also to define it, classify it according to the form used,
and give the rule which applied . Comly (1805) even suggested that
"when the sentence under examination is elliptical, the pupil should
1
In an earlier edition of his English Grammar , rvfurrar placed pronouns. ahead
numbererl his example accordingly.

0f

adj ective~ and

When applied, this method of parsing was very cumbersome.
"That great nation was once powerful; but now it is
feeble."
Great is an adjective, a word added to a noun to · exp.re~s .
its quality - pos. great, comp. greater, sup. greatest - 1t 1s
in the positive degree, it expresses the quality of an object without any increase or diminution, and belongs to the noun "nation," according to
Rule 18. Adjectives belong to, and qualify, nouns expres1>ed or understood.
Wa.s is a verb, a word that signifies to be - neuter, it
expresses neither action nor passion, but being, or a state of
being - third person singular, because its nominative "nation"
is a noun of multitude conveying u.nity of idea - it agrees with
"nation," agreeably to
·
Rule 10. A noun of multitude conveying unity of idea, may
have a verb or pronoun agreein,q with it in the singular.
Powerful is an adjective belonging to "nation," according to Rule 18. Feeble belongs to "it," according to Note 1,
under Rule 18. Is is a neuter verb agreeing with "it," agreeably
to Rule 4. ( 4 :74)
Not only was the method of parsing made as intricate as possible,
but the exercises to be parsed were often selected especially for their
length and difficulty. It seemed textbook writers made a sort of intelligence test out of some of the exercises included in grammars. Two
particularly difficult parsing exercises were:

\

150

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

151

BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
If a brother or a sister be naked and destitute of daily
food, and one of you say unto them, Depart in peace, be ye
warmed and filled; notwithstanding if ye give them not those
things which are needful to the body; what doth it profit?
(7:142)

My lords, says he, with humble submission, That that I
say is this; that that, that that gentleman has advanced, is not
that, that he should have proved to your lordships. (3: 151)
It was not uncomm on for parsing exercises to be based on poetry
which was sometimes ve ry hard to und erstand and a lmost invariably
philosophical or religious in nature. Many of the poems, as well as the
prose selections, were 10 to 15 lines in length. Kirkham (1823 ) introduced poetry into his exe rci ses w ith th e state ment:
I will now present to you a few examples in poetry. Parsing
in poetry, a s it brings into r equisition a higher degree of
mental exertion than parsing in prose, will be found a m ore delightful and profitable exercise. In thi s kind of analysis, in order
to come at the meaning of the author, you will find it necessary
to trnnf!7wge his lang uage, and supply what is und e rstood; and
then yo u wi ll ha ve the literal meaning- in prose. (4:166)

Kirkham was not alone in g1vmg parsing· unu s ual emphasis and in
believing it advisable to go into great detail. Almost eve ry author in
the fir st half of the nineteenth century considered th e subject a very
important phase of grammar teaching. Even as late as 1868, when Harvey published his English Grammar, there had been littl e change in
the way the subject was taught.
However, the extreme wordiness of th e method began to be ve ry obj ectionable to some authors becau se it took up much time needlessly.
Bullions, back in 1834, s uggested that "it will save much tim e, w hich is
very important in a large school, if the pupil be taught to express all
that is necessary in parsing th es e and other words, thus: PalJ1 er, n
u.01111., mrrs c11li11 c, si11!J11lnr, th e 110ini nnli 11e ; .. . " (7: .18). Later, author~
tried out the plan of us ing abbreviatio1rn, so that a se ntence was parsr.d
by using "rv" for regular ve rb, "ptp" fo1· pas t perfec t ten se, "sp" for
s imple participle, etc. ( 11 : 168) . Thi s method did not prove sati sfactory,
howeve r, because the pupil had to learn abbreviation s as well a s know
the use of the words, and in the end had even more to do than he
would have had with the original me thod of parsing.
Reed and K ellogg ( 1875-1877) were among th e first to make
practical suggestions as to w hat information could be om itted in parsing :
But we mu s t be allowed an emphatic protest against the
neeLlless and mec hanical quoting, in parsing, of "Rules of
Syntax." When a pupil has said that such a noun is in the nominative case, subject of such a verb, what is gained by a r epetition of the definition in the Rul e ; "A noun o r a pronoun which
is the subject of a finit e verb is in th e nominative case"? Let
the reason s for the disposition of word s, when given at all, be
specific. ( 13b: 208)

'1
i'

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(one half size)

Fig. 14.

.
mming sentences.
Methods of parsing, analyzing, an d d iagra

152

"B ULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

Early in the nineteenth century grammarians began stressing the
point that one could not parse correctly until he understood the use of ·
the words in the sentence, for some words could be used as several
different parts of speech. Wisely (1896) gave a great deal of space to
his. explanation of the reasons why analysis was better than parsing,
basmg his statements on the fact that the sentence is the unit of
language.

.\

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'11

It might be thought that in working with "Parts of
Speech'.' in grammar, we are dealing with words. A little reflection will show. us, however, that we are not dealing with a
word as the umt. If we ask, What part of speech is the word,
"fine?" we ~re unable to tell until we see it in a sentence. If
we say, It ts a fine dciy, the word, "fine," is an adjective. If
we say, The fine was ~-e~itted, it is a noun. If we say, I fin e you
ten dolla.r s and costs, 1t 1s a verb .... If we ask, Jn w hat case is
the word, "pen?" we cannot tell until we see the word used in a
sent~nce: If we say, My pen is gold, the word, "pen," is in the
no?1m.at1ve case. If we say, I write with my pen, it is in the
obJective case. Much more might be said to show that whenever we ~re d~aling wi~h words in the subject of grammar, the
sentence 1s still the umt. We deal with words only as parts of
sentences.
_This, .then, is the distinguishing mark of grammar. It has
for its umt the sentence. No other language subject deals with
the sentence or has it for its unit. (17:40)

With the emphasis on the sentence, analysis began to take precedence over parsing in the study of grammar (see Figure 14). Instead of deteriorating into a simple statement of the part of speech of
each word in the sentence, parsing became a part of analysis. In some
books it was termed "syntactical parsing," in others the two subjects
were combined under the heading "pars ing and analysis," but it was not
included as a separate topic in any of the more modern grammars.
Use of analysis. - As has been said, by 1850 most of the grammars
were combining the analysis of the sentence with the study of parsing.
As Reed and Kellogg (1875-1877) stated:
y.'e do not believe that the chief end of the study of gramm.ar 1s to be a?le to pars~ well, or even to analyze well, though,
without quest10n, analysis reveals more clearly than parsing
~he s~ructure of the sent.ence, and is immeasurably superior to
it as mtellectual gymnastics. We would not do away with parsing
altogether, but would give it a subordinate place
(13b ·207208)
.
.
Analysis received its greatest emphasis between 1834 and 1910 but •
it, like parsing, was dropped from textbooks after the more functional
point of view in teaching became popular.
In the earlier t exts, analysis was used so extensively that words as
well as sentences were analyzed. Pupils were supposed to take their
words apart, telling what kinds of letters, sounds, and syllables made

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

153

them up. An example of such analysis was found in Greene's text (1853),
which was among those to give the greatest emphasis to analysis.

MODELS FOR ANALYZING SYLLABLES. "

An ..................is a syllable consisting of two elements: A ................ .... .is the essential element, - it is a vowel. (Give its
sound.)
n ............. ........ .is a consonant, and represents a subvocal; it is
affixed to a. (Give its sound.)
Break .............i s a syllable consisting of three parts: ea ................... .is the essential part, - it is a diphthong (why?),
'\
improper (why?); e is silent, - a only is sounded.
(Give its sound.)
Br .................. .is a union of two consonants, both representing
subvocals, b and r, (Rule 1,) which are prefixed
to ea. (Give their sounds separately, then together.)
k .... ................. ;s a consonant representing an aspirate, and is
affixed to ea. (Give its sound.) (10:9)
Kerl (1864) explained the difference between parsing and sentence
analysis, as did several other authors:
SECTION VIII.
The most important parts of speech, and the principles
which affect them in their combinations, may be presented
in the following brief and comprehensive scheme: -

N~~ds } - words, changes , phrases, and clauses.
Pronouns
2. Adjectives - ~ ords , changes, phrases, and clauses.
3. Verbs - words, changes, and phrases.
4. Adverbs - words, changes, phrases, and clauses.

1. {

Parsing takes in words and their changes; or it aims to
give us such a knowledge of them, that. we may kn?w !tow to
avoid mistakes in making sentences, or m our comb111at10ns of
words to express thoughts.
Analysis disregards changes, but recognizes words, phrases,
and cla.u ses, with their relations. (11 :30-31)
Kerl was enthusiastic about the use of analysis and gave it a great
deal of attention in his text:
We have now presented that general analysis of language
which is recognized among all enlightened nations as the best
yet discovered for practical popular use. We have also endeavored to present this analysi~, especially in. the la~t ten pages,
with all the help of a new, simple, and ph1losop.h1ca_l system.
The intelligent teacher can r~ad1ly see that. parsing 1s but .an
examination of a word accordmg to the var10us changes which
belong to its class of words. (11 :42)

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BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

As in the case of parsing, long Involved exercises were used in
teachin~ of analysis. Reed and Kellogg (1875-1877), whose text appeare? m the la~ter part of the century, included some of the longest
exercises found m any of the texts, but this was the last book to use ·
such unwieldy statements.
Detailed outlines for analysis were included in many of the texts.
t~e ea~ly grammars these included definitions and rules as well as
1denbficabon and explanation of the parts of the sentence but later
a~ i~ parsing, some of the unnecessary detail was omitted. 'By the be~
gmnmg of the twentieth century, the "model for analysis" had become
somewhat simplified and very specific.

!n

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:~

. Model for Analysis. - "A fool speaks all his mind, but a
wise man reserves something for hereafter."
1. This is a compound assertive sentence.
2. Formed by uniting two simple a ssertions.
3. TJ:ie essentials of the first assertion are fool speaks
mind.
4. The subject fool, is modified by the adjective a.
5. The ve~b spea_ks i.s modified only by its object mind.
6. The object mind 1s modified by the adjective aJl and
by the possessive his.
'
7. The essentials of the second assertion are man reserves something.
8. TJ:ie subject ma:n is modified by the adjectives a and
wise.
9. The verb reserves is modified by the prepositional
phrase for hereafter.
10. The object some thing is unmodified.
11. The conjunction but unites the two assertions. (18b:73)

'I '

d
;.o

"

The Scott-Southworth series

(1906)

was one of the last texts

~o teach sentence analysis to any great extent. The subject was found

m four of the books published after this date, but only one of these was ,
put out within the last 20 years.
Use of diagramming. - Kerl (1864) was the first to mention
gramming, a sort of "charted" analysis, in teaching sentence structure,
but he recommended the use of letters instead.
In some books, diagrams are used to teach Analysis. But

thes~ are useful only _. an introduction, and as furni shing a

~onc1se mode of rec1tahon. For this last purpose however it
is probably more .convenient to use letters; and ~e therefore
present the followmg scheme, for written exercises.
.
Let S stand for sentence;. P,. for preposition; X, for any
independent element; C, for principal or independent clause · c
for depender;-t clause; c', c", c'"! etc., for degrees of depende~c~
below the fiist; and =for equivalence.
L~t pn represent "proper noun"; en, common noun; cnl,
collective .co~mon nou?; pp, personal pronoun; rp, relative
pronou~; ip, mterrogabve. p~·onoun; ap, adjective pronoun; mg,
masculme gender; fg, femmme gender; cg, common gender· ng
neuter gender; 1 p, first person; 2p, second person; 3JJ, third

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

155

person; sn, singular number; pn, plural number; nc, nominative case; pc, possessive case; oc, objective case.
Most people, who embark in the voyage of life, wish to advance rather by the impulse of the wind than by the strokes of
the oar; and many are foundered, while they lie waiting for the
gale.
S=C, c; C, c.

People - en!, cg, 3p, pn, nc - subject of wish. Rule II.
Who - rp, cg, 3p, pn, Rule VIII., nc _,. subject of embark.
Rule II.
Voyage - en, ng, 3p, sn, oc - object of in. Rule V.
Life - en, ng, 3p, sn, oc - governed by of. Rule V. (And so on.)
An excellent way to teach analysis and parsing, is to furnish
pupils with blank copy-books: give them a pithy sentence
Gaily, or as often as convenient; let them write it into
their copy-books, and analyze and parse it as here shown. To
examine this work expeditiously, let the pupils exchange copybooks, and criticise one another, while you go through the lesson and comment upon it. (11: 108-109)

~our

It is hard to agree with Kerl that his scheme is more "convenient"
than that of diagramming. Like the shortened system of parsing, it involves much more learning on the part of the student, and, for one
who is not thoroughly acquainted with the symbols used, it is very
confusing.
Reed and Kellogg (1875-1877), who were the first to make real use
of diagramming, apparently considered the idea excellent, for they included the subject on 56 of their 613 pages. This was the greatest emphasis given to diagramming by any of the texts analyzed. The authors
of this series were careful, however, to state that their text could be used
profitably by a teacher who wished to omit this phase of the work, although their experience in its use had convinced them of its value.

In written analysis, the simple map, or diagram, found in
the following lessons, will enable the pupil to present directly
and vividly to the eye the exact function of every clause in the
sentence, of every phrase in the clause, and of every word in
the phrase - to picture the complete analysis of the sentence,
with principal and subordinate parts in their proper relations.
It is only by the aid of such a map, or picture that the pupil can,
at a single view, see the sentence as an organic whole made up
of many parts performing various functions and standing in
various relations. Without such a map he must labor under the
disadvantage of seeing all these things by piece-meal or in succession. ( 13a: 8)
In spite of their great faith in this means of teaching sentence construction, Reed and Kellogg recognized the fact that it could be abused,
and they brought out this point in their preface:

Analysis by diagram often becomes so interesting and so
helpful that, like other good things, it is liable to be overdone . . . . When the diagram has served its purpose, it should
be dropped. (13a:9)

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BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

157
I

In presenting the diagram, very simple sentences were used at
first, such as "Waves dash," "Lions roar," and "Grammarians differ"
(13~ :22). The sentences gradually increased in length to include
modifiers and clauses, until some of those di agrammed were rather
long and involved.

. . . one type that appeals to immature and less imaginati ve pupils; a second type that appeals to the creative instinct
of pupils near the class median in ability; and a third type that
calls forth the initiative and thought power of the most advanced pupils .. .. able to undertake tasks that are both appealing and profitable. (23b :iii-iv)

The diagram was not given any attention after this until 1914
when the Pearson-Kirchwey series included it, but from that time 0 ~
almost every text. at least touched upon the subject. Some grammars
taught only the simple signs used in diagramming - a vertical line
pla~ed between the subject and p redicate; a line slanting toward the
subject, u sed to separate the subject complement from the verb· and a
perpendicular line, ending at the base line, to separate the object of the
verb from the verb itself (25 :86). Others underli ned the various parts
of the sentence with different kinds of lines to indicate their use. Styles
have changed more in diagramming than in most phases of grammar,
and even today no standard method is used.
While this method of teaching sentence construction is still used
and was fou~d in every text published within the last 25 years, it ha~
never been. given as much emphasis as in the Reed-Kellogg series (18751877) . 1:h1s fact may be accounted for, in part at least, by the inc~·eased u~tere~t in making English alive and expressive, and since
d1agramm111g is necessarily mechanical, it deals with the framework
rather than with the beauty and clarity of the sentence.

'

comment on the subject was found in The Open Door .
(1926-1928), which was published soon after the EsHa_bit s series, at a time when interest in the subject
This text claimed to contain three types of material:

I

Almost every text published after this date mentioned the fact that
provision had been "planned to admit of flexibility in u se to meet .. . the
needs and capacities of different groups and individuals" (25 :iv).

1

A nation-wide survey was made to find out just what material . ·
should be included in these minimum essentials, and, when determined, ·
many educators accepted them as a necessary part of every English
cou~·se. Few of the texts studied, however, made much mention of the
subject, although the Essential Language Habits series (1923 ) stated
that the accepted minimum essentials constituted "the backbone of the
series" (22a :iii).

Considera?Ie
Lanf!uage Series
sential ~ng~age
was at its height.

... ~

The Open Door Language Series recommended its program particularly for use in small classes where "pupils may work independently,
each progressing at his own rate of speed" (23b :iv) .

.
Providing for indivi'd ual differences. - When the problem of meetmg the needs of each pupil individually was first given consideration in
education, . the solution suggested by those in the field of English grammar teachmg was that of providing certain "minimum essentials." These
were to be the core around which the rest of the course was built and
the part which every pupil would be expected to master.
'

About this time, in the early 1920's, the problem of individual differences was being given a great deal of attention in education and its
effect was evident in textbooks. The problem had been discussed now
and then in grammars for a number of years, but no very good solution
h~d been found . Grading of texts had helped meet the situation, but this
did not, of course, provide for differences in the rate of learning of
children in the same grade.

. ......

Adjusting to grade level needs. - It is evident from the discussion
of content in the early texts that no effort was made at first to meet
the needs of the student. He was considered capable of understanding
all the t erms used by the trained grammarian and information was
given him jrom that point of view.
However, as has already been mentioned, it was not long before
textbook writers realized the need for more nearly meeting the student
at hi s own level. The first real evidence of this was in the introduction
of the inductive method, which attempted to use what the child already
·knew as a basis on which to build new information. It was not easy to do
this when students of different levels of ability and education were using the same text, and therefore authors began dividing their texts into
two volumes. Pinneo (1850) was among the first to use this plan, but
his Analytical Grammar of the English Language included in this study,
was not a two-book series. The first such series analyzed was that of
Reed and Kellogg (1875-1877). This text included a volume for the
elementary grades and orle for the advanced grades.
Hyde (1888-1896) was the only other author studied to put out a
two-book series before the beginning of the twentieth century. After
this, however, almost all texts appeared in at least two volumes, and
the later ones appeared in six, one for each grade. In this way it was
much simpler to keep the book on the level of the child for whom it was
designed.
Until the 1920's no mention was made in the grammars of any
scientific effort to establish the standards for material to be included
at each grade level. Th e Open Door Language Series (1926-1928) then
stated that it had "furnished standards tha t are psychologically adapted
to the different ages of the pupils" (23c:iii).
It was not uncommon for authors to state that "great care has been
taken to avoid the use of words too difficult for the pupils" (24a :viii) .
However, it was soon realized that the child's readiness for new material
and his understanding of vocabulary were not the only things to consider in adjusting texts to grade level n eeds. Students were growing

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158

BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

in other ways besides educationally. With a greater background of experience and a more mature physical, emotional, and mental development, their interests changed also. The newer texts made a great effort
to keep the work for the various grade levels as nearly within the
limits of what might be desired by a child of that grade as possible.
The Daily-Life Language Series (1934) claimed to offer "a studious
adjustment of content and prncedures to the gradually unfolding
capacities, interests, and needs of the pupils" (24a :vii). Great care was
put forth in all the recent books to take these facts into consideration. In
the third grade text, of the Step by Step in English series (19401941), for instance, were found chapters on "A Christmas Party," "A
Pet Show," and "Helping at Home," while the sixth grade text included
chapters on "Biography - The Study of People" and "Patriotism." These
topics were among those found through scientific study to be most interesting to pupils of the age for which the text was designed .
Use of "catchy" ways. of introducing subjects. - It is a well established fact in the psychology of learning that one understands and remembers new information better if he can relate it to some fact or experience within his knowledge.
While such a relationship was established now and then in the
early texts, it was found very seldom and was always given as in~
struction, usually in explaining a grammatical construction. Reed and
Kellogg (1875-1877), for example, said that "we classify bird s according to their form, color, etc., but· we group words into classes, called
Parts of Speech, with respect to th eir u se in the sentence" (1 3a :30),
and Wisely (1896) likened a table and its parts to a sentence and its
parts (17:13-14).
Modern analogies have had more life in them - they give the
child an imaginative experience that helps fix the new teaching in his
.mind:
·
The Court Circle of English Words
1. During the past year you have renewed your acquaintance with six of the characters who make up the Court Circle of
English Words. You will learn more about two of the
characters of the circle in the present chapter. In this Court
Circle the Verb is the Queen and is almost always the most important word in a complete sentence; next come the noun and
the pronoun, who may be likened to the King and the Prince or
Princess. At least one of these three members of the royal
family accompanies the Queen in almost every complete
sentence.
Most sentences have Gentlemen and Ladies in Waiting,
gracefully nodding and bowing. These are the adjectives and
adverbs. They are supposed to serve the royal family and sometimes even to help each other. Prepositions are like pages; th ey
summon other parts of speech into the circle. Conjunctions are
like servants also, because they are always busy putting things
together about the palace. An interjection may be likened to
the Court Crier, who shouts out loud the news. Some people
liken the interjection to the Court Fool! He is mostly in the way.
The Queen, almost always accompanied by her husband, the
King, or by a Prince or a Princess, attended usually by gallant

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

159

Gentlemen or Ladies in Waiting and surrounded by Pages,
rules over the Court Circle. · (24c :231-232)
Did you notice the twin traffic officers in the story . of
Bowser and his little visitor? The .t'l"in traffic officers look hke
this: " ". They are called quotation mairks.
Quotation marks tell the reader to listen -;- s?meone is tal~­
ing. One pair of marks is placed at the begmmng of what !s
being said, and another pair is placed at the end. Here is
an example.
"Please tell us another story," said the children. (27b:107)

,,I

Short catchy poems were sometimes used, a few examples of which
have been given in the section on the use of quotations. T~e Step by
Step in English series (1940-1941) used this method of teachmg present
and past tense.
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS
The pirate tore
His hair and swore
At men who wore
Their swords ashore.
When did the action ~f the above lines take pl~ce? ~very
reader knows that the action took place at. sm;ne time m. the
past The verb forms tore, swo1·e, and wore 111d1cate past t!me.
The~e forms are called the past tense. Tense means time.
(26e:189)
Does the action of the following lines take place in the past
or in the present? Which words give you the answer?
She sadly swears
That no one cares
How much she tears
The clothes she wears.
The forms sweairs, tears, and weairs a~e called present tense,
which means that they tell of action wh~ch tak~s p~ace. at the
present time. Swears is used only when its subject 1s smgular
and is neither the person speaking nor the person spoken to.
(26e:190)
One of the favorite ways of teaching careful pronunciation was in
the use of tongue twisters.
Tongue-twisters are good for exercising the mu~cles with
which you speak. It is necessary to be slow and deliberate .at
first in order to utter the sounds correc~ly, but after. pract1c.
hile you can repeat every word without stumblmg .. How
~~n~ ~f the following combinations can yo_u ri:peat without
stumbling? Say each rapidly after first trymg it slowly:
Rubber baby buggy bumpers.
A canner, exceedingly canny!
One morning remarked to his granny,
"A canner can can
Anything t~at he can;
?" .
·But a canner cant can a can, can he.
(27£:35-36)
The same psychological principle of teaching new content i.n famil~ar
and in.teresting circumstances was found in the Adventures in English

'.":1

160

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

161

Now, five grains of common sense will enable any one to
comprehend what is meant by case. Its real character is ex· ·
tremely simple; but in the different grammars it assumes as
many meanings as Proteus had shapes. ( 4: 41)

i''

c....,.. _

I.
an AJroc1a1. cto,.
2. Oof<IG - •d~. Ntllon?

I
!

I

a. r_oi..n-.
·
' · llaa u<I Jim -'- coili...
$, .__

yoU ftiet' iHtt Ill

-...t

w

II. Rad U.- ... .._. aloud and

"' "°""'
' °"""
l. t~ i ...ld ... bulr
in

blank.

Jul~ sa)'J t.Mt • - beeft
i - Youh«n inrii.>d T<t!

2.

...:.
i!Mt~

•

l _ bem, butram~tobe.
$. \\1io _ llff'UU~t1

.t.

lll. Copy in your notebook lb< NJ.a ,,..
ha.u, Jimn.•1. Md Mmt'L
,

..;:~•
};v

(app roximate ly t wo fifthS size

Fig. 15. A catchy way of teaching the use of the apostrophe in
contractions.

series (1939-1944) in th e use of cartoons for illustrating
grammar or .usage. (see
Fi gm.e 1")
.
cordin
.
v . Th e presentmg
of ma terial acg t? this ~nnc1ple. has taken many other forms in recent te t
an d promises to mcrease m popularity.
·
x s,

attr~~~~:n;l ~ement'. -

With the growing interest in making texts ·,,
. d. ? e pupil has come a greater understanding of the child 1
as danh m
. b1v1dual, and with that understandin g h as come a sort of com· ··'
e~i~P eh.veen. the au~hor of the text and the pupil whom he is at. p g to m strnct. This has led to a friendly helpful
. t f .
111 the books which may be described as a perso~al elemen~~m o view

;:m

This personal quality d.d
t
t
1930's Autho1·s had t . d t r no en er texts to any ext ent until the
·
·
n
e
o
secure
d ·
covered by th·
l . b
. sue h an a tt•t
I u e 111 the early years
is ana ys1s, ut without much success One
was that of giving directions in the first or second . personmi:as~!a~s~d
t:ep.m
l ore folrmal tkhird person . However, this method failed because th!
· t II t
.
.
P 1 was a ways ept on the level f
was "told" wh t t
d
o. an 111 e ec ually mfenor being, who
h
a
o o. Instruct10ns often began with
ph~ases as, "Let the pupil be required to . . . " (10·214) s~~e ~uc
w~1le there was a note of exasperation, not so much ~ith the ce ·1m a
with other grammarians who did
h
.
pup1 s as
Kirkham (1823) f . . t
not appen to agree with the author.
, 01 ms ance, made the statement:

Though not directed at the pupil, temarks like this did not add to a
feeling of friendliness, and the author's assurance that his own ideas
on the subject were correct Jed to a lack of consideration for others that
prevented a true understanding of his pupil's problems.
The first grammar to show clearly that the author had a sincere
desire to help the pupils individually with their problems was the
Daily-Li[ e Language Series (1934), which often made suggestions a s to
"how to improve." Such comments were found as "You will find that you
will do better in school if you will think of both your writing and youT
spelling in all the work you put on paper" (24a: 161).
Even in this series the personal element entered in only here and
there. Much of the instruction still had the teacher-pupil relationship
found in the texts of the nineteenth century. In the last two series
analyzed, however, the attitude of the author toward the student, for
whose benefit he was preparing the text, was that of friend to frien·d.
In some of the recent texts, correct usage was taught not solely
from the standpoint of correctness and conformity ~ith 'rules, but also
from the angle of courtesy and social correctness. The Step by Step in
English series (1940-1941), for example, brought this out in the following:
·
Have you noticed the polite way in which a man always lets
a lady go first when they enter a room or an automobile?
When you have candy to share with your friends, do you always offer it to them before you take a piece yourself? One of
the best ways to be polite is to remember "Others first."
When you speak of someone else and yourself, you will
speak politely if you will speak of the other person before you
speak of yourself.
The Polite Way
The Wrong Way
I and you
You and I
I and Jack
Jack and I
I and he ·
He and I
It does not make any difference whether you are a girl or
a boy. Always say the name of the other person first. (26a:88)
This text also included helpful hints about study habits, advice
concerning the learning of the names of people, and suggestions as to
friendly ways of meeting different situations in everyday life:
Whether you study at home or at school, you will find that
your work will be easier if you have regular habits of study.
Have you ever noticed how walking seems easier when you
walk in step with someone? It is the same with work. Rhythm
counts. Make up your mind to do your studying at a regular
time every day and to work for a certain number of minutes.
(26e:25)
Part of your vocabulary is you}: list of names of people
whom you know. This is a very important part of your

162

BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

163

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

vocab! ulbary. Successful people are often those wh
peop e y name. (26e:l 2 )
o know many
.
The Adventnres in English series (1930-1944)
•. .
m the fourth rade book
.
used a clever means
In the front ~f the text oft ~:~;lete pupil feel hi.~ text was his friend.
supposedly by the book itself:
a m essage w11tten to the student,
Let's Get Acquainted!
I am only a book Look t
f
·
at my cover glance throu 1a me or JUst a f ew minutes. Look
before you ;ead any more g bu1ry pagebs. Pklease do it right now
finished.
'
come ac here when you have
What did vou really se ? L t
really saw was some cloth e. e me tell you, please. All you
"Oh ,,
' some paper, and some dried ink.
I
1
' you may say "you are w .
hers, words sentence ' ·
~ong.
saw etters, numters, and m~ny other ~bi~~cs~~.res, stones, exercises, poems, letto hJ~5y%i.u I~i~os:\:~ ~hese ot~er things, but your mind had
pictures, and all the other ot le~1
Jto read, these letters, the
much ink, wouldn't they? r~~o s,3 b ang¥age would be .iust so
paper. Language gives m~ meanlng. e on Y so much cloth and
My two authors made me
I
h
.
study. They want you to k so can e 1n you m your language
title page a co ri ht
now me as well as you can. I have a
table of c~ntentfYa ~ne fi:re,f
~ 001~ss;ge for your teacher, a
0
words to spell a~d an inde
s or vo u to read, a list of
•
me, and talk about them with Fmd ~ach one of these parts of
finished discussing them you \ ':lolubr c assdmates. When vou have
vi
e rea Y to start Study 1
'
I 11ope
·
you w1'II enJoy
using me very much. (27b:x) ·

net

Instruction in this text and i th S
.
(1940-1941) was seldom d
t" ;
e ~ep by Step in En,glish series
the pupil was usually inf~;:e~ J~f t~1:e:ycph;ngfco~·re~t usage, for example,
o eiro1 commonly made:
. Look at the word 1-i-b-r-a-r-y H
,
this word? A re
. f
· ow many rs are there in
r'
h
.
you. ca1 e ul always to pronounce both f th
s w en you say this word? So
I d
o
ese
first r. The
z·b .
· . ~e peop e o not pronounce the
y say i en y . This is not correct. (26b: 184)

Th~ Adventures in English

series (1939-1944) stressed the need for
relaxat10n, and throughout th b k
reading or suggestion s as to e th oo s was found material for restful
began "It ·s t "
f .
o er means of relaxing. These sections
'
I
ime o1 another study recess Th. t"1
radio recess" (27b · 1 49 )
"It' t•1
.' ·
is me we shall have a
s me agam to stret h th
I
·
·
' or
m our minds" (27b: 15l) .
c
e P ay muscles
Thus the idea of working and I ·
·
this series. Such
P ayi~g to~ether was carried out in
.
1
authors and pupils ath~~s::ee 1~~nal ~el~tionsh1p was built up between
completed the wo1·k of ~noth:. ie. s~ ool year ended and the pupils had
' g1 ace, tie authors wished them well:
With all best wishes for a happy vacation,
David Sinclair Burleson
Laurie Cash (27d:276)

Mechanical Form in Which Material Was Presented
Teaching content was presented in a number of forms through the
years, the popularity of the form used and the variations adopted being in keeping with the general method of teaching in vogue at the
time. Some means of presenting material were used only during certain
periods, while others were found in texts of every period. Among the
more common form s used are those given in Table X.
TABLE X. PERCENTAGE OF PAGES IN GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS ON WHICH
EACH MECHANICAL FORM OF PRESENTATION WAS FOUND

Form of presentation
Exercises ..
Examples.
Questions ..........
Illus trations .. .
Definitions ......

···· · ····· · ····· ··

· ·········· ··· ·· ···• ·· ·

i~!r:;·::~;iii:::i~~i~ .•.•···

Books of
first
period

Books of
second
period

Books of
third
period

Books of
fourth
period

All
books

22
28
13
1
14
31

43

53
22

35
40
18

35
25

35
32
17

·25

14

~o

3

22
19
I

16

6

28

9

7
2

15
8

9

12

16

l/'
\ii'

17

10
10
10

According to Table X, the most decided drop in popularity of any
of the means of presenting material was in the use of notes. As many as
30 per cent of the pages in textbooks published during the first period
contained notes, while only 2 per cent of those in the last period used
them. Rules also lost favor during the years covered by this study, dropping from 31 per cent in the first period to only 7 per cent in the last.
Illustrations, on the other hand, came into use during the 150 years.
During the first period pictures were on only 1 per cent of the pages,
all in Dilworth's text (1740), while in the last period 28 per cent of
the pages were illustrated. Although review, drill, and tests did not
make as great a gain as did illustrations, this means of presentation
also was used much more often toward the end of the period covered
by this analysis than at the beginning.
Exercises. - So many different types of exercises were found in the
various texts that it would be impossible to discuss them all separately.
A few of the principal ones should be pointed out, however, in order to
show changes that took p lace in this type of material.
A kind of exercise to appear in the very early textbooks was that
of false syntax, or sentences to be corrected according to the rule of
syntax under which they were given in the book. Authors of the first
texts analyzed not only used this kind of exercise almost exclusively,
but they sang its praises:
T o demonstrate the utility, and enforce the necessity, of
exercising the learner in correcting false S11ntax, I need no
other argument than the interesting and undeniable fact, that
Mr. Murray's labours, in this department, have effected a complete revolution in the English language, in point of verbal ac-

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164

BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

curacy. Who does not know, that the best writers of this day,
are not guilty of one grammatical inaccuracy, where those
authors who wrote before Mr. Murray flourished, are guilty of
five? And what has produced this important change for the
better? Ask the hundreds of thousands who have studied "Mr.
Murray's exercises in False Syntax." If, then, this view of the
s u ~ject i~ correct, it follows, that the greater portion of our
ph1losoph1cal grammars, are far more worthy the attention of
literary connoisseurs, than of the great mass of learners.
(4:35-36)
In almost every book in which false syntax was found, th ese exerci ses were included under the rule which applied, or, if they appeared
at the end of the book or of the section on which they were based,
the student was directed to the proper rule, so that he would make no
mistake.
The errors in exercises in false syntax were often so obvious that a
student who failed to correct them properly would probably have failed
at anything, for an understanding of the rule was not even necessary.
For instance, exercises found under the rule concerning double comparatives and superlatives in Bullions' English Grammar (1834) included the following:
It argued the most sincerest candor to make such an
acknowledgement. After the most strictest sect of our religion
l_ived a Phaz:isee. He !ilways po~se ssed a more serene r temper.
Tis more easier to bmld two chimneys, than to maintain one.
(7:115)

!

The plan of always g1vmg the rul e which applied was not wholly
acceptable to some of the authors. Brown (1823), for example, gave
many of his exercises und er designated rules, but he also included
some "Promiscuous Examples of False Syntax" with the statement, "It
is here expected that the learner will ascertain for himself the proper
form of correcting each example, according to the particular Rule or
Note under which it belongs" (5 :214) .
Several authors included "promi scuous examples," but the later
ones did not give the pupil a ssistance in discovering and correcting errors in the exercises. All exercises were of a rather se rious type, even
when short sentences were used.

Promiscuous examples of fnl se Syntax, to be corrected 1111 the
rules a?Ul notes.
Teach me to feel anothers woe.
By exercising of our memories they a1·e improved.
Wisdom and virtue is superior to every other endowment.
(3:128)
False syntax was a popular form of exercise throughout the early
1800's, but later its desirability began to be questioned. Hyde (18881896) was among those who said that "it is believed that incorrect forms
should not be placed before chilciren" (16a:iv) . By 1875 this type of ex·

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

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ercise had been dropped entirely, although for some time after this
authors continued to explain that they had omitted it intentionally.
Contrary to popular belief, the type of exercises known to~ay as
new-type questions are not new. Brown, in 1823, used the com,Plehon exercise in much the same wa
s it is used today. In the study of
prepositions, he included the following ·exercise:
Insert suitable prepositions in the place of the · follciwi.ng
dashes : Plead ............ the dumb. Qualify thyself ........ :--· act~on
............ study. Think often ............ the worth ............ time. t Liv~
............ peace ............ all men. Keep ............ compass. Jes n.o
............ serious subjects. Take no part ............ slander. Guilt
starts ............ its own shadow. (5:123)
Smith (1832) also used this type of exercise, but he was sometimes so indefinite as to be a little confusing, as, for example, when
he said, "Will you fill up the following with one or more word.s that
will make sense ?" (6 :60). Greene (1853) made the mistake of mclud· sue h exercises
·
ing too many bl an k s m
as " .................................. .. fades"
(10:115). Most authors, however, made very good use of the comple"1 tion exercise, a form that has been popular in texts up to the present
time.
A deviation from the true completion exercise was used in many
of the texts of the twentieth century. In this form, instead of inserting a blank, parentheses were used, with both the correct and the .incorrect form s of the word given. The pupil was supposed to und erlme
the correct form or cross out the incorrect form. The Daily-Life Language
Series (1934) made another variation on this form, either placing the
word (usually a verb) at the end of the sentence and asking the pupil
to write the correct form of that verb in the blank in the sentence, or
using the blank with the first letter of the word to be filled in. In the
latter case the sense of the sentence would be such that there could be
no doubt ~s to the word to be used, the correct form being the only
question involved .
In the most recent of the texts, exercises involving a choice of
words were put in the form of a story instead of in sentences not dependent upon one another for their full meaning. The int~rest element
in such exercises attracted the child's attention to the pomt where he
noticed the thought as well as the problem involved and thus was made
to see a value in correct usage beyond that of merely answering the
question correctly.
Rewrite the following story, choosing the correct word in
each case:
Granddad's First Skating Experience
Nothing (ever, never) pleases Grandd!ld bett~r than to go
· along with (us, we) boys on one o~ our tnps, (w1t~out, unless,
except) it (is, are) to tell about his b~yhood experiences. During the recent cold spell, when the big pond (froze, frozen)
over we (went gone) skating and invited Granddad to go along,
for 'he looked '(like, as if) he wanted to go. When he (s~en,
saw) that (we, us) boys (were, was) (real, really) anx10us
for him to go along, he gladly accepted and soon (fell, fallen)
(in, into) one of his jolliest moods.

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"I wonder what kind of skater you (was, were) in your
young days, Granddad," inquired Bill, who (was, were) rather
proud of the capers he (himself, hisself) could cut on the ice.
(27e:l48)
Oral exercises were first introduced into grammar texts about 1830.
Brown (1823) mentioned them, but scarcely used them, and Smith (1832)
used them only as a teaching device. By the middle of the century,
however, oral exercises were commonly found in texts. Greene (1853)
explained their use:
·
An oral exercise, in which it is supposed that the learner
is about to enter upon a new field of inquiry, is first given. In
this nothing is to be taken for granted, nothing presented
dogmatically .. .. The way is thus prepared for the definitions
which immediately follow. They give expression to the very
distinctions which, In the oral exercise, the pupil has learned to
make. (lO:vi)
When first adopted by textbook writers, the type of oral exercise
included in texts was definitely a part of the inductive method of teaching and was so different from the oral exercise used today that an
example is included here:
Notice what I write: "John took John's hat, and put John's
hat on John's desk." Do you think this is a correct sentence?
Ans. - No, sir, we do not. What words are unnecessarily repeated? Ans. - "John" and "hat." Write the sentence on your
slates as you think it should be written. Sarah, you may read
what you have written. (Sarah reads "John took his hat, and
put it on his desk." The teacher writes it on the blackboard.)
Now, the words used in the place of "John" and "hat," are
called Pronouns, which means "instead of nouns." What shall
we call all words used instead of nouns? Ans. - Pronouns.
(12:49)
Oral instruction of this type was not found in the later texts, although most of the books introduced part of their exercises with some such
statement as "Tell," "State," or "Select." In such cases it was probably
left up to the teacher to decide whether the pupils were to do them
orally or on paper. Only two texts, the Hyde series (1888-1896) and
the Pearson-Kirchwey series (1914), arranged their material under the
headings "Oral Exercises" and "Written Exercises."
A common use of the type of oral exercise in the early 1900's was
to help impress upon the child the correct form of an often misused word.
For example, after a list of short sentences on the use of a pronoun as
the predicate nominative, Robbins and Row (1907) said: "Repeat the
above sentences until you can say them from memory. It is better to
repeat them aloud, so that the ear becomes accustomed to the correct
form" (19a :144). The Pearson-Kirchwey series (1914) used a similar
exercise for teaching "It is I," telling the pupils to "ask and answer
the following questions aloud until the form of the replies seems
perfectly natural" (20a :204). This was followed by "Who is there?"
and similar questions .

167·

In the last 60 years, oral work received its greatest emph~sis in
the field of composition and story telling, and, since th~ ?~gmnmg ~f
the century, it appeared most often in connection with acbv1t1es of vanous kinds such as club meetings, programs, and so forth.
Abou~ the middle of the century suggestions were found in ~ few
texts for carrying on exercises on the blackboard or on slates. Pmneo
(1850) included some of these, introducing them with some. su~h a
statement as, "Those exercises which admit it, should always be written
on a slate or blackboard, or on paper" (9 :10). Greene (1853) suggested that the teacher "let the scholars exchange slates, and correct
each other's errors" (lO:xv).
Blackboard work was also mentioned in Keri's te~t (1864), bu.t it
did not appear again until the Pearson-Kirchwey senes. (1914). Smee
that time a few exercises of this type have been found m most of the
texts.
Dictation as a form of exercise was introduced by Hyd~ (18881896), who used it particularly in the teaching of c?rrect form m letter
writing, punctuation, capitalization, and spelling: Sentences ~r
paragraphs were read to the pupils, who were to wr~te them on t~e1r
papers correctly. Most of the grammars published durmg the twentieth
century included dictation, the Pearson-Kirch:W:Y s:ries (1914) and t?e
Step by Step in English series (1940-1941) g1vmg 1t the most emphasis.
Copying, which was, in a way, a kind of dictation, since th~ form
of the material to be reproduced was already set up for the pupil, was
introduced by Reed and Kellogg (1875-1877), but it did not become ve~y
popular. Exercises were selected which contai~ed a great deal of detail,
so that the pupil could be graded on many pomts.
Pupils may be required to co:py choice sele.ctions from
literature, and to note carefully cap1tals1 punctu~t10n, and th.e
use of adjectives, etc. We offer the followmg exercise as a spec1~
men:
We piled with care our nightly stack
Of wood against the chimney-back, The oaken log, green, huge, and ~hick,
And on its top the stout back-stick;
The knotty fore-stick laid apart,
And filled between with cut'ious art
The ragged brush; then, hovering near,
We watched the first red blaze appear,
Heard the sharp crackle, caught. the gleam
On whitewashed wall and saggmg beam,
Until the old, rude-furnished room
Burst, flower-like, into rosy bloom.
Whittier. - Snow-Bound (13a :59-60)
Copying was not found in many texts, however. Pre~umab~y it w~s
dropped because, while similar to dictation, it was less desirable m that 1t
did not call for as much understanding of rules and form.
Hyde (1888-1896) was the first to include exercises for memorization. While pupils had always been expected to memorize t.he rules and
definitions in their texts as a part of their grammar teachmg, the type

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of memorization Included by Hyde was entirely different, for its purpose was that of teaching children examples of beautifully written
English within their range of comprehension. The value of this type of
exercise was recognized, and passages to be memorized were included in
most of the texts published since Hyde's time, but few texts gave it as
much emphasis.
Now and then in exercises the pupil was told not only what kind of
errors to look for but also how many. Pinneo (1850) did this in a note
at the bottom of the page, in which he stated that, "of the preceeding
examples, six are correct" (9:186). Other authors, however, made
this helpful information a part of the directions.
Direction. - Two of the sentences below are correct. Give
the Cautions which the other sentences violate, and correct the
errors: - (13b:157)
Five of the following sentences are correct and five are
wrong. (25: 173)
Exercises of many other kinds were found in the texts, most of them
applicable to only a certain type of content. Perhaps the largest group
of such exercises was that based on the sentence, since there were so
many angles from which such study could be taken up. In the earliest
of the texts, exercises based on the sentence were almost invariably in
the form of parsing or sentence analysis. Selections for this purpose
were often quoted and usually long and involved, as can be seen from
the following:
.
"Let gratitude in acts of goodness flow,
My love to God, in love to man below:
Be this my joy, to calm the troubled breast,
Support the weak, and succour the distress'd;
Direct the wand'rer, dry the widow's tear,
The orphan guard, the sinking spirits cheer.
Though small my power to act, though mean my skill,
God sees the heart, he judges by the will." ( 3: 143)
The common fluency of speech in many men, and most
women, is owing to a scarcity of matter and scarcity of words;
for whoever is a master of language, and hath a mind full of
ideas, will be apt, in speaking, to hesitate in the choice of both;
whereas common speakers have only one set of ideas, and one set
of words to clothe them in, and these are always ready at the
mouth. So people come faster out of a church, when it is almost
empty, than when a crowd is at the door. - Swift. (8 :250)
When we see one word of a frail man on the throne of
France tearing a hundred thousand sons from their homes
brea.king asunder the sacred ties of domestic life, sentencing
my:1ads of the young to make murder t~eir calling, and rapacity
then· means of support, and extortmg from nations their
treasures to extend this ruinous sway, we are ready to ask ourselves, Is not this a dream? and, when the sad reality comes
home to us, we blush for a race which can stoop to such an ab-

ject lot. At length, indeed, we see the tyrant humbled, stripped
of power, but stripped by those who, in the main, are not unwilling to play the despot on a narrower scale, and to break
down the spirit of nations under the same iron sway.
Chwnning. (13b:275)
The first evidence of having pupils construct sentences rather than
tear them apart in order to show their understanding of sentence
structure came in Smith's text f,832) :
SENTENCES TO BE WRITTEN.
Wi_ll you compose a sentence exemplifying Rule VIII.?
One, Rule IX.? X.? XI.? XII.? XIII.? XIV.? Will you compose
a sentence on the use of the dog? One, on the clouds? One, on
night? One, on wind? One, on snow? One, on ha,il? One, on ice?
One, on skating? One, on fishing? One, on courage? One, on
cowardice? One, on filial duty? One, on indolence? One, on
schools? ( 6: 115)
Such an exercise as this was, of course, so restricted by the fact
that certain rules had to be illustrated, that the pupil did not have much
opportunity to be creative, nor did he necessarily prove his understanding of the rules since he could follow the pattern of the examples
already set up.
It was not uncommon for pupils to be asked to draw upon a given
list of words in making up sentences (11 :10), to match the nouns and
verbs in a given list and make correct sentences (13b:33), or to arrange scrambled sentences, like those found in the Reed-Kellogg (18751877) text:
Make a sentence out of the words in each line below:
He Sunday church goes the on to
Indians America intemperance are thinned the out of by
(1;3a:74)
Hyde (1888-1896) included many rather constructive types of exercises on the sentence, such as "write sentences containing the following words used as relative pronouns : - 1. Who with the antecedent boy"
( 16b: 148) or "Use the words it is with I, he, she, we, or they, in answering the following questions: -- 1. Who is knocking at my door?"
(16a: 119), or "Rewrite the following sentences, changing the verbs to
the passive form" (16b :47).
One of the cleverest types of exercisea on sentence writing was
found in the Essential Language Habits series (1923):
121.

Writing Sentences

Betty was asked the following questions in a test. Write
the statement which you think Betty wrote in answering each
question.
1. How many glasses of water should one drink each day?
2. Why should one eat plenty of vegetables?

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3. How often should you brush your teeth?
4. How many hours do you sleep at night?
5. How much milk should a child drink each day?
Write a question about each of the following subjects: sunshine, sleep, breakfast, fruit, bathing, fresh air. Then exchange
papers with a classmate and write the answers to his questions.
Be sure to check your work. (22a:142)
After the beginning of the twentieth century there was more evidence
of an effort to teach students to apply their knowledge of rules. Among
oo:ercises of this type were the following:
Point out the errors in the use of the possessive, and give
the rule violated. ( 18b: 95)
Copy the following sentences, using the right word from
those in parentheses. Be prepared to explain your choice.
(19b:258)
Prove that each of the following sentences contains all of
the eight parts of speech except the interjection. (23c:212)
More than the mere understanding of sentence structure was tested
in exercises. As the Pearson-Kirchwey series (1914) stated:
[Exercises] are not confined to practice that requires mere
recognition of various grammatical elements, and to analysis
and parsing; but they enter the borderland of composition in
their constructive capacity. Thus, the pupil is required to change
sentences from the natural to the transposed order or the reverse, to expand sentences by changing adjectives and adverbs to
adjectival and adverbial phrases or clauses, and to gain through
many other exercises the skill that leads to ease and force in
speaking and writing. (20b:v)
The study of the sentence led to the study of words and their
value in making a statement clear or interesting. This was, in a way, a
phase of composition writing, yet it was also a part of sentence making. The later texts contained a number of exercises for the sake of
helping the pupil express himself well, such as:
Write after each of the following verbs as many adverbs
as you can think of to carry out the idea suggested by the words
inclosed in parentheses; as,
I walked (so that I should disturb no one).
I walked noiselessly, carefully, lightly, gently, softly,
quietly.
1. The boy whistled (as though he were happy).
2. She sang (in a way that gave pleasure). (20a:252)
The following sentences tell facts. By using picture words,
make them interesting. The whole class may work together on
these sentences.
For example:
"We heard the noise of the train," could be changed to,
"Roaring and shrieking, the train thundered past us."

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

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1. There is snow on the mountain.

2. My dog came to meet me.
3. The baby is crying. (26b:83)
Sentence structure also involved p~nctuation and capitalization, and
a number of exercises were based on instruction in these t~o fields. One
of the more common kinds of exercises was, of course, the printing of a
sentence or passage without punctuation or without capitalization, and
asking the pupil to mark it correctly. Examples of this were found in
the very early as well as the very recent texts:
By doing or at least endeavouring to do our duty to God
and man by acquiring a humble trust in the mercy and favour
of God through Jesus Christ by cultivatinp; our minds and
properly employing our time and thoughts by goyerning our
passions and temper by correcting all unreasonable expecta-.
tions from the world and from men in the .midst of worldly
business habituating ourselves to calm retreat and serious recollection by such means as these it may be hoped that through
the Divine blessing our days will fl.ow in a stream as unruffled
as the human state admits. (3:169)
Divide the following group of words into paragraphs, using periods, commas, question marks, quotation marks,
apostrophes, and capitals properly:
the members of miss parkers class were discussing the choice
of a biography to be studied by the class i think thomas
edisons life would be interesting to read said clarence johnson
why do we have to study about men most of the time asked
marjorie lewis cant we read about some famous woman for a
change at this point miss parker remarked dont you think the
life of a famous man might be the boys choice and the biography
of some noted woman might be the subject of the girls study it
was decided that the boys would read the life of daniel boone
and the girls would read the life of clara barton everyone in the
class was satisfied with this plan. (26d :212)
A modern type of exercise, designed to make pupils realize the real
use of punctuation in a sentence was found in the Step by Step in English
series (1940-1941) :
·
By adding, moving, or omitting commas, change the meaning of each of the following sentences:
1. Sam, hit the ball.
2. Put your hat on Donald.
3. The order was for ice, cream, chocolate, cake, and a
dozen oranges. (26e:169)
In the early books, lists of correct and incorrect pronunciations
were given instead of exercises in pronunciation. In the more recent
texts, however, exercises were given covering the more difficult commonly used words as well as the short and often carelessly pronounced
words. Robbins and Row (1907) included several such exercises, one,
for instance, beginning, "Pupils may pronounce the words in turn from
their . books, or better, from the blackboard every day for a week"

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(19a :64). The Adventures in E nglish series (1939-1944 ) included two
lists, one made up of such words as "just," "can," and "catch," the other
made up of short words rhyming with the correct pronunciation of
these words. Pupils were to see whether they could pronounce the words
correctly and then match them with the rhyming words (27a:45).
Beginning with the Reed-Kellogg series (1875-1877) and continuing
through the remaining years covered by this analysis, many kinds of
exercises concerned composition and letter writing. At first topics for
writing were assigned or suggested in the text. La ter, much greater
freedom in the selection of topics was allowed. Often a pattern as to form
and organization was · given, with a few guiding words as to what kind
of subject matter to u se in filling in that pattern. One of the more interesting exercises of this type, since it was different from the usual
narration and description a sked for, was the writing of a fable. An
example was given and the pupil was asked to use it as a guide in writing his own fable.

100.

ORIGINAL FABLES.
The Two Buckets

"How dismal you look!" said a bucket to his companion as
they were going to the well.
"Yes, and with good reason," replied the other. "I was reflecting on the uselessness of our being fill ed; for let us go
away ever so full, we always come back empty."
"Dear me! how strange to look at it in that way!" said the
first bucket. "Now, I enjoy the thought that however empty
we come, we al.ways go away full." - Aesop.
Read the fable of "The Two Buckets" carefully. Using it
as a model, write the two original fables suggested below.
Imitate the model as closely as possible in style and in the arrangement of paragraphs.
Indent each paragraph and be es pecially careful to inclose
in quotation marks all direct quotations.
I. The Trees.
Two trees.
They lose th eir leaves in the autumn.
They get new leaves in the spring.
II. The Coasters.
Two boys.
It is fun going downhill.
It is hard work climbing up. (20a :146-147)
Although the exercises discussed here give a general idea of
various types found in different periods and on different subjects, they .
include only a few of the many kinds found in the grammars studied.
Numerous other interesting exercises could be cited, but most of these ·
were merely a variation of a type already discussed.
Examples. - Whenever rules or principles of grammatical construe- / ,"
tion were given in textbooks, they were accompanied by examples " ·

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

173

illustrating their application. The value of these examples was recognized
throughout the years covered by this analysis, although it was during
the second period that they received the greatest emphasis. Between
1835 and 1875 texts averaged at least one example on every other
page, but during the first and last periods of the study only. about one
page in four contained such material.
Kerl (1864) explained the use and value of examples in a rather
flowery but enlightening manner:
Illustrations and exercises are the natural and acceptable food of the young mind, and the proper relief to t~e essence of abstractions. Show a child the essence of roses m an
apothecary's bottle, and he will hardly know it.; but ta~e him
to the bush on which the roses bloom, and he will be dehght~d .
In con sideration of all these things, and of the favor with which
the author's former views in the same direction have been received he now ventures to offer the public a small manual in
which' the classification is exceedingly compact, in which all
that belongs to the same topic is ~arefully gro1;1ped together;
and in which every important subJect has . received the t_rue,
the best simplification, - that of ill~strati.ons and exercises,
of the most beautiful, pithy, and practical kmd. (11 :4)
In the early texts a surprisingly large number of examples were
quoted, many of them being selections from poetry. In the first f ew
books examples were long and difficult to work with, the theory being that every possible phase of a subject should be shown, but it was
soon realized that shorter examples were just as valuable. It would seem
that authors thought it possible to help their students live a clean, moral
life by selecting only philosophical, religious, or moral examples for
their texts, for by far the largest proportion of examples in the early
grammars were of this type. Many of the selections were sad and even
morbid in thought, although there were a few in a lighter vein,
such as "The rainbow on the clouds, is a beautiful sight" (3:14) .
One of the first subjects included in grammars was that of parsing. Parsing was done in great detail, and usually the example used
was one that included every part of speech. A fav9rite was the fourline poem:

0 how stupendous was the power
That raised me with a word;
And every day, and every hour,
I lean upon the Lord. (7:74)
Bullions (1834) parsed . this as follows:
O, an interjection - how, an adverb - stupendous, an
adjective, in the positive degree, compared by more and most;
as stupendous, more stupendous, most . stupendous,_. --;- u;as,
a verb intr., third person singular, imperfect, .md1cat1ve,
(agreeing with its nominative power here put after it). - the,
.a n article, the definite, - pow~r, a noun, neuter, s~ngular,
the nominative - That, a relative pronoun, neuter, smgular,
the nominative: here used for which; its antecedent is power

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- 1·aised, a verb, trans. imperf. indic. active, third person,
singular, (agreeing with its nominative that) - me, the first
J?ers.onal pronoun, masculine, or feminine, singular, the obJecbve, (governed by raised) - with, a preposition - a, an
article, the indefinite - word, a noun, neuter, singular, the
objective (governed by with) - And, a conjunction - Every,
a distributive pronoun - day, a noun, neuter, singular, the
objective, (because the preposition through or during, is understood, or, obj restrictive §50.) - hour, a noun, neuter,
singular, the objective (because da.y was in it, and conjunctions
couple the same cases of nouns, &c.) I, the first · personal
pronoun, masculine, or feminine, singular, the nominative lean, a verb intr., first person, singular present, indicative Upon, a preposition - the, an article, the definite - Lord,
a noun, masculine, singular, the objective, (governed by upon.)

(7:74)

Some of the texts went into even greater detail, and the process
of parsing became so intricate and time-consuming that several of the
authors suggested a shortened form. Kerl (1864) was among those who
wished to shorten syntax, but his method, like several others, gave the
student more to memorize and an extra step to take in describing a
tcnn (that of changing the statement into an abbreviated form), so
that in the end the shortened process probably took more thought even
though it took less time to say in words and less space to print. Kerl
illustrated his shortened syntax as follows:
Let rv stand for "regular verb;" irv, for irregular; ta,
for transitive and active; tp, for transitive and passive; int,
for intransitive; im, for indicative mood; sm, for subjunctive;
pm, for potential; ipm, for imperative; pr, for present tense;
prp, for present-perfect; pt, for past tense; ptp, for pastperfect; fr, for future tense; frp, for future-perfect; em, for
emphatic form; prg, for progressive form; person and lrnmber,
as heretofore; ss, for solemn style. Let sp stand for "simple
participle;" cp, for complex participle; i, for infinitive; pr,
for present; pt, for perfect or past; and use, as heretofore, the
abbreviations for parsing nouns and adjectives.
Let them return better equipped
Let - irv, ta, ipm, pr, 2p, sn; and agrees with tho u, understood.
Rule X.
Them - pp, cg, 3p, pn, oc - governed by Let. Rule IV.
Return - i, pr, int; and depends on them, and partly on Let.
Rule XI.
Equipped - sp, pt, tp; and belongs to them. Rule IX.. (11 :168)
All the early texts contained examples of analysis, and, like examples
in other phases of grammar, they were usually quoted and almost always of a very serious nature. Brown (1823) used a passage from Dr.
Chalmers:
"Even the Atheist, who tells us that the universe is selfexistent and indestructible - even he, who instead of seeing the
traces of a manifold wisdom in its manifold varieties, sees
nothing in them all but the exquisite structures and the lofty

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

175

dimensions of materialism - even he, who would despoil creation
of its God, cannot look upon its golden suns, and their accompanying systems, without the solemn impression of a
magnificence that fixes and overpowers him." - Dr. Chalmers,
Discourses on Revelation and Astronomy, p. 231.
Analysis. - This is a compound sentence, consisting of
three complex members, which are separated by the two dashes.
The three members are united in one sentence, by a suspension of the sense at each dash, and by two virtual repetitions of the subject, "Atheist," through the pronoun "he,"
put in the same case, and representing this noun. The sense
mainly intended is not brought out till the period ends. Each
of the three members is complex, because each has not only
a relative clause, commencing with "who," but also an antecedent word which makes sense with "cannot look," &c. The first of
these relative clauses involves also a subordinate, SUJ?plementary clause, "the universe is self-existent and indestructible," - introduced after the verb "tells" by the conjunction "that." The last phrase, "without the solemn impression,"
&c. which subjoined by "without" .to "cannot look," embraces
likewise a subordinate, relative clause, - "that fixes and overpowers him," - which has two verbs; the whole, antecedent
and all, being but an adjunct of an adjunct, yet an essential
element of the sentence. (5:128-129)
Kerl (1864) carried his idea of shortened syntax into the field of
sentence analysis· also:
The father strove his struggling grief to quell,
The mother wept as mothers use to weep,
Two little sisters wearied them to tell
When their dear Carlo would awake from sleep.
A compound declarative sentence; consisting of three independent clauses, two of which have each a dependent
clause. The last dependent clause is used as a noun, the object
of to tell. S = C, C, Cc. (11 :199)
The transposing of sentences was another phase of teaching which
was found in most of the early texts. In the first grammars this was
usually taught from the point of view of showing the student how to
rearrange his words in a sentence in order to make them have a certain effect. In the later books it was more often included with the idea
of helping the pupil make his meaning clear by placing modifiers near
the words they modified. It was, of course, very simple to illustrate the
latter type, by giving an example of a poorly constructed sentence, such
as "I found a cent walking over the bridge" (13a:116). The older type
of transposition, however, required a longer and more involved statement as an illustration. It was not uncommon in early grammars for
selections from poetry to be used for this purpose:
Address to the Almighty. -

Pope.

What conscience dictates to be done,
Or warns me not to do,
This teach me more than hell to shun,
That more than heav'n pursue.

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BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

1. Abraham Lincoln was the sixteenth president of the
United States.
2. He was born February 12, 1809.
3. He died April 15, 1865. ,(16a :38)

Transposed

0 God, teach thou m e to pursue that (the thing) which
conscience dictates to be done, more ardently than I pursue
hi:aven; and teach thou me to shun this (th e thing) which conscience warns me not to do, more cautiously than I would shun
hell. ( 4: 167)
Besides the use of "models" to direct the pupil in carrying on
some rather complicated process in grammar, examples also illustrated
the less involved phases of grammar. Among these, th e principal parts
of verbs, both regular and irregular, were always included. As might
be expected, in light of the fact that English grammars were developed
so closely along the same pattern as the Greek and Latin, the example
used almost invariably in the early texts to illustrate the con.jugation
of the regular verb was "to love." Time and again books carried the
following illustration of the principal parts of a regular verb:

The regular active verb LOVE, conjngated affinnat·i vely.
Present

Preterit

Principal Parts
Imper. Participle

Love

Loved

Loving

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ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

I

Early in the twentieth century a new source of 'material for
examples was drawn upon - that of statements selected particularly
because they were within the range of the child's interests and experiences. The Pearson-Kirchwey series ( 1914) was among the first
to use actual examples of children's work.
Extensive use is made of models selected, some from the
masters of English, some from writers of Jess~:r: note, and some
even from school children's letters and composit10ns. (20a :v)
Other grammars adopted the same plan, and all the recent texts
used examples that would attract the child's attention and impress him
with the use of correct forms in language construction. The Step by
Step in English series (1940-1941) illustrated, in a short story, how
to use various forms of the verb "rise" correctly.

Perfect Participle
Loved
(5:75)

Another example found often in connection with verb fo1ms was a
Sentence illustrating the use of "shall" a nd "will ." This example, "I
will drown! Nobody shall help me!" (18b:l79) was particularly effective because it attracted attention by being ridiculous when the incorrect forms were u sed.
In general, examples continued to include a number of Biblical
quotations, and the use of proverbs increased considerably during the
third period, probably because they had the educational and moral
value of the older type of ex ample and the advantage of the shortness
of the newer type. A new type of example also entered texts about this
time, that of statements of historical or scientific fact. This came at a
time when educators were first attempting to correlate the various
subjects in the curriculum, teaching history in the English course, English in the arithmetic class, and so forth. Reed and Kellogg (1875-1877)
included many such statements as:
Were it not for the warm waters of the Gulf Stream the
harbors and the rivers of Britain would be blocked up with ice
for a great part of the year. (13b:117)
Elizabeth's favorite, Raleigh, was beheaded by James I.
(13b:208)
Hyde (1888-1896 ) used this type of example even in teaching correct punctuation:

Notice how the different forms of the verb rise are used in
' the following paragraph. Notice also how the different forms of
the verb raise are used.

The First Morning in Camp
We were up and stirring an hour before the. sun ha:J- risen.
We washed our faces in the icy. water of a sp:r:mg w~ich rose
beside the camp. Our tent, which we had raised with some
difficulty the night before, was quickly ta~en down and rolled
into a neat bundle. The smoky smell of frymg bac.on :ose from
the camp fire. Our horses, which had been raised m city bar!ls,
snorted nervously as they nibbled at the heavy grass which
surrounded them. (26d :81)
Similarly, The Open Door Langua.ge Serie~ (1926-1928) used li~es
from a fairy tale to illustrate correct punctuat10n (23b:18); the DatlyLife Language Series (1934) printed a selection showing what a page
of a magazine would look like if it were not properly punctuated
(24c:25); and the Adventures in English series (1939-1944) gave a clear
picture of the difference between itemized facts and a well-written ., description using those facts, by quoting the two beside each other on the
page.
Compare these two descriptions:
Height: 47"
Weight: 50 lbs.
Hair: red
Eyes: blue '
. Age: 9 yrs.

Tall as a fence post, hefty as four pecks .
of potatoes, his hair like the rising sun, with
freckled face and happy grin, Jim bore his
nine years lightly. (27c:201)

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ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

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181

(1940-1941) a few of these were full color pictures but most of them
were black and white sketches included for their interest value, while
in the Adventures in English series (1939-1944) the majority were
cartoons or sketches in black and one color.
A few photographs were included in six of the texts, all published
recently. The first picture in full color was found in the PearsonKirchwey series (1914), and two or three each were included in the
Daily-Life Lan,q uage Series (1934) and the Adventures in English series
(1939-1944). The only text to have many full color illustrations however was the Step by Step in English series (1940-1941).
At first, illu strations were used almost entirely for instructional
purposes. In fact, up to 1930 only about one out of 10 pictures was included solely for the purpose of adding interest to the text. However,
the change to the use of pictures to make a text more attractive gained
favor quickly when it came. The Daily-Life Language Series (1934)
was the first to include many interest pictures, averaging about one
for every three instructional pictures. With the publication of the last
t wo series analyzed, however, the proportion was changed, there being two or three times as many interest as instructional pictures.

(one half size)

Fig. 16. Illustration s from Dilworth's N ew Guide to th e English
Tongue (1740).

hand-written letters, as examples of correct form in letter-writing. Many
such letter_s were _found in Hyde's text (1888-1896) and in most of the
te~ts published smce that time, but the more recent books have contamed less material of this kind than did those publi shed around the
turn of the century.
Hyde (18~8-1896) also included 11 human-interest pictures to be
used as a ba~1s for composition or story writing. As th e a uthors of
the Pearson-K1rc~wey series (1914) said: "These exercises not only afford an. ~pportumty f?r car_eful observation, but they serve to cultivate
~he p~p1l s. power of mvent10n and imagination " (20a :vi) . The idea of
mcludmg p1ctu~es for this purpose was very popular for a period of about
20 years, but smce 1914 only t~vo texts, the Daily-Life Langunge Series
0_934) and the Step by Step in English series ( 1940-1941) have used
this t ype of material extensively.
'
,. The use of illustrations has grown very rapidly in popularity,
\\1th all 'except two of the tex ts of the twentieth century including them
These two, that by Lewis and Lynch (1918) and that by Daringe; ·,
(1~38), were the two design ed for the upper grades and confined
stnctly to a. study ~f grammatical construction. The great increase in
the ~se of 1llustrations showed up particularly in the last two series
pubh shed. Each of these contained approximately 700 illustrations, or
almost one to every other page. Jn th e S tep by Step in Engli.~h series

Definitions. - Definitions were just as much an integral part of
early grammar texts as were rules, each new topic being introduced by
a rule . and a definition. In introducing a new topic the rule was given
first, then a definition of any terms that might be used in that rule,
then an example of the application of the rule, and finally, exercises
in its application.
While every text contained definitions, the greatest emphasis was
placed on them in the second period, when about one page in four contained at least one definition. The percentage of pages containing this
type of content was the same in the first and third periods, 14 per cent,
but in the last period it dropped to 9 per cent. Bullions (1834) gave this
form of presenting material the most space accorded it by any of the
texts, and Whitney (1877) gave it the least.
Murray (1795) felt that definitions and rules, as stated in the ·
grammars of his day, were difficult for the student to understand, and
he tried to correct this weakness:
With respect to the definitions and rules, it may not be
improper more particularly to observe, that in selecting and
forming them, it has been the author's aim to render them as
exact and comprehensive, and, at the same time, as intelligible to
young minds, as the nature of the subject, and the difficulties
attending it, would admit. He presumes that they are also calculated to be readily committed to memory, and easily retained.
- For this purpose, he has been solicitous to select terms that
are smooth and voluble; to proportion the members of the
sentences to one another; to avoid protracted periods; and to
give the whole definition or rule, as much harmony of expression as he could devise. (2 :4)
Others, also, saw the problem of including involved statements
for the pupil to memorize and apply in his study of grammar. Greene

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(1853) even suggested that "it will be well at times to omit the definitions" (10:31), but of course neither he nor those who followed
him carried out this suggestion to any great extent.
In every early textbook, the field of grammar was the first subject
defined, so that the student could gain an idea of the subject matter
he would find in his text. Most of these definitions were similar to that
of Smith (1832) :
·
English Grammar is the art of speaking, reading and writing the English language correctly.
It is divided into four parts; namely, Orthography,
Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody.
Orthography treats of letters, syllables, separate words
and spelling.
'
Etymology treats of the different parts of speech, with
their classes and modifications.
Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, government,
and arrangement, of words in sentences.
Prosody treats of punctuation, u'tterance, figures and versification. (5:17)
'
Kirkham (1823) was less formal and more practical in his defi- .
nition, and in this was far ahead of his times:
Gramn:iar teaches us how to use words in a proper manner.
The most important use of that faculty called speech, is, to
convey our thoughts to others. If, therefore, we have a store
of words, and even know what they signify, they will be of no
real use to us unless we can also apply them to practice, and
make them answer the purposes for which they were invented.
Grammar, well understood, enables us to express our thoughts
full~ and c!early; and, con~equently, in a manner which will defy
the mgenmty of man to give our words any other meaning than
that which we ourselves intend them to express. To be
able to speak and write our vernacular tongue with accuracy
and elegance, is, certainly, a consideration of the highest
moment. (4 :18-19)
Every part of speech, every part of the sentence, every punctuation mark, in fact, every topic taken up in the grammars was accompanied by a definition. Some of these in the early texts were very interesting:
Q.
A.

Q.
A.

What is a Colon?
The Colon marked thus (:) is a Note by long Breathing,
as is exemplified below.
What is the use of a Colon?
It distinguisheth a perfect Part of a S entence, which has
a full Meaning of its own; but yet leaves the Mind in
Suspence, and Expectation to know what follows. (1 :87)

A . Parenthesis is a clause containing some necessary info1mabon, O! useful remark, introduced into the body of a
sentence obltquely, and which may be omitted without injuring the grammatical construction; (6:192)

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

183

A syllable is a letter or letters · pronounced by a single impulse of the voice, and forming a word or part of a word; as,
I, man, though.
A word is composed of one syllable, or more, and is used
as the sign of an idea; as man, manty, manliness. (9:8)
After the inductive method of teaching entered textbooks, the attitude toward definitions changed somewhat. Wisely (1896) even went
so far as to say that a teacher might change a definition if she thought
she could state it better or if she did no.t fully agree with it as stated
(17: 5). No longer was a student started out with. "a ........................ is a
. . . " Instead, he was led from the known to the unknown, so that
often he understood what a new topic concerned before he learned the
name of it. Examples of this method, taken from the Adventures in
English series (1939-1944), show how the pupil was made acquainted
' with conjunctions before he was told what such words were called:
Notice how the italicized words are used in the following
sentences:
1. I shall eat an apple and a pear.
2. I shall eat an apple or a pear.
3. I shall eat neither an apple nor a pear.
4. I shall eat not an apple but a pear.
The words and, or, nor, and but are called conjunctions.
A conjunction is a connecting word. A conjunction may be used
to connect related words or related thoughts . in a sentence.
(26d:117)
In the story that Fred told about his trip to Mexico, he
spoke of people, places, and things. As he spoke of them, he
used name-words, or nouns. A noun is a word which names a
person, a place, or a thing. (26b:18)
When people talk together, they talk about many things.
One may tell what he is doing or has done, what he likes, or
something that has happened to him. Another may tell what
he has seen or heard, or what other people have said or done.
Such talk between two or more people is called conversation.
(27b:8)
This method was very popular in recent texts. Sometimes the definitions were so worded that the pupil did not realize he was learning a
new term, but he understood its use so thoroughly that he had no
difficulty in remembering it.
Rules. - In the early grammars every phase of instruction was set
up by rule, and as long as the deductive method of teaching was in
vogue, this rule almost invariably introduced the new topic. The examples
and exercises were always labeled as to the rule involved, and sometimes
as to the note or observation under a rule.
As Brown (1823) said, authors had the idea that "the only successful method of teaching grammar, is, to cause the principal definitions and rules to be committed thoroughly to memory that they may

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

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BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

ever afterwards be readily applied" ( 5 :v) . As early as the beginning
of the nineteenth century, however, textbook writers were beginning to
realize that "no advantage arises from burdening the memories of
children with a multitude of precepts which they do not comprehend" .
( 3: 3), and therefore they increased the number of examples and exercises in the hope of clarifying the material and helping the student to
remember it. The thought that they could have relieved the situation
by reducing the number of rules seems not to have occurred to them.
In the early texts lists of rules were given under the topic to which
they pertained and were usually numbered. Sometimes as many as 35
rules would be found under one phase of grammar, such as syntax.
It is difficult to compare the texts on the basis of the number of rules
in each because some authors generalized, including exceptions or
minor uses of a rule as remarks or observations based on that rule,
while others included each exception or use as a separate rule. Then
too, in the newer texts rules were often repeated with slight modifications and considered as separate rules.
The percentage of pages on which rules were given dropped sharply,
from 31 per cent in the first period to only 7 per cent in the last. The .
greatest decrease, a drop from 22 per cent to only 9 per cent between
the second and third periods, came at a time when the inductive method
of teaching was beginning to show a decided gain in popularity.
Every textbook analyzed, except that by Whitney ( 1877), included
rules concerning punctuation, capitalization, and syntax. In the field
of punctuation, most books gave from 10 to 20 rules for the use of the
comma and from one to four each for the use of the period, the colon,
and the semicolon. Brown (1823) also included two or three rules each
for the dash, the parenthesis, and the exclamation point, rules that
were now and then found in other texts, too. The grammars also averaged
10 rules each on the use of capitals and from 15 to 35 rules concerning
syntax.
About three rules for the forming of plurals were found in every •
text except Wisely's (18!)6) . Up to about 1875, grammars contained
from seven to 11 rules each about spelling. In connection with this, from •:
six to seven rules about syllabication were usually given also. However, there were very few rules concerning either spelling or syllabication in recent texts.
Great pains were taken to make everything fit into a pattern that
could be introduced by means of rules. Dilworth (1740) went so far
as to include seven rules "for promoting the strength of sentences"
(2:360). Even as late a s 1875, when the Reed-Kellogg text was published,
rules were given a very important place in textbook organization. Sometimes, however, authors found it difficult to follow this pattern. Kerl
(1864) seemed chagrined at his failure to make his rule for the use
of conjunctions independent of his definition:
Rule XIV. or sentences.

Conjunctions connect words, phrases, clauses,

1.

185

This Rule is the same as the definition, - an imperfection that can not be easily avoided, for a satisfactory definition ·
can not well be based on any thing but the syntax. (11 :187)
A few of the old rules found in ,many texts of the early 1800's
are particularly interesting because they · no longer are accepted. Among
these were the following:
Rule XVII. When the verb to be is followed by a verb in
the infinitive mood, which, by transposition, might be made t}le
nominative case to it, the former is generally separated from
the latter verb, by a comma: as, "The most obvious remedy is,
to withdraw from all associations with bad men." "The first and
most obvious remedy against the infection is, to withdraw from
all associations with bad men." (2:263)
2. [Rules for use of capitals] The first word after a period;
and, if the two sentences be totally independent, after a note
of interrogation or exclamation.
'
But if a number of interrogative or exclamatory sentences
are thrown into one general group; or if the construction of
the latter sentences depends on the former, all of them except
the first, may begin with a SllJall Jetter: (3:176)
The parenthesis generally denotes a moderate depression
of the voice; and, as the parenthetical marks do not supply the
place of a point, the clause should be accompanied with every
stop which the sense would require, if the -parenthetical
characters were not used. It ought to terminate with the same
kind of point which the member has that precedes it: as, "He
loves nobly, (I speak of friendship,) who is not jealous when he
has partners of love." ( 4: 217)
In the latter half of the nineteenth century there was beginning to
be some disagreement among the authors of grammars concerning the
advisability of including so many rules. The coming of the inductive
method of presenting material was, of course, ·t he fundamental cause
of this dissension because it stressed understanding rather than
memorization. Reed and Kellogg (1875-1877) were not alone in their
belief that "the regretful recollection of months and years spent .. . .
in the tiresome and unfruitful memorizing of iron-clad rules and unapplied principles has moved many more to decry the study of English
grammar" (13b:4). Whitney (1877) also stated that "no one ever
changed from a bad speaker to a good one by applying the rules of grammar to what he said" (14:iv).
As the inductive method and the tendency to "lead the pupil to
form his own rules" gained favor ( 16b: 75), fewer books set up numbered rules at the first of a topical discussion, but all texts continued to
include them. The wording changed radically, however, so that in· the
newer grammars the style used was so different from that of early texts
that the rules were hardly recognizable. No longer were they stated in a
formal, dictatorial form. Instead, they became helpful and practical
in nature.
By 1907, texts were asking pupils to make up their own rules after
they had studied a certain phase of grammar until they understood it

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ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

Reviews, drills, a·nd tests. - In the early books, what was termed
review amounted to approximately the same thing as the tests and drills
in later books, as it was made up of questions on the material presented
up to that point in the text. Later, when the terms "test" and "drill"
were adopted, some books contained what they called "Rev.iew Tests"
or "Drill and Review."
The exercises and questions already discussed were often given as
a form of review, especially when they appeared at the end of a section
of the book and covered the content of that division. Kerl (1864) included questions for review · at the bottom of the pages, but usually
indicated where the answer was to be found.

thoroughly. This way of presenting rules was still used in the most
recent of the texts analyzed.
Do you know the way to write the names of the months,
the holidays, and the days of the week? Look at these words:
January
Thanksgiving Day
Monday
Now can you make a rule?
Begin the names of months, holidays, and days of the week
with capital letters. (27a :38 )
In this way a pupil was made to realize that there is a standard
form to be followed in certain grammatical constructions. By the time
he finally arrived at the rule involved, he not only realized the need for
such a rule but he al so had a background for its use that helped him
remember it.
Notes. - Notes were found in every text except the Step by Step
in English series (1940-1941), but were given far more space in the
first period than in any other. The percentage of pages on which notes
were found dropped rapidly and steadily through the years, the first
period texts having notes on 30 per cent of their pages, the second
period on 19 per cent, the third on 15 per cent, and the fourth on only
2 per cent.
Smith's grammar (1832) had a proportionately larger number of
notes than had any of the other texts, as 139 of its 192 pages included at least one note. Kirkham (1823) included notes on about every other page, and three or four other texts had as many as one to
every four pages. The last text to contain a large percentage of pages
with notes was the Reed-Kellogg series (1875-1877).
The majority of the notes were placed at the bottom of the page,
but in a few of the books they were dropped into the text wherever they
applied. Footnotes in books published in the first half century of this
study were usually u sed for explanatory purposes or as a means of
including references to the decisions of other grammarians concerning
some of the finer points in grammar. These discussions often deteriorated
into open criticism of the opinions of others on minor technical points.
Brown (1823), who showed evidence of believing his own decisions to
be superior to those of any other authority in the field, included many
rather caustic criticisms of others. Some of his notes were extremely
long, continuing from one page to the next, and many were not a necessary part of a text on grammar.
Notes ·addressed to teacher or pupil entered grammars about 1845.
According to Butler, whose text was published at this time, they were
used to help remove difficulties in syntax or parsing (8:3). While .notes
to the pupil were found in ver y few texts, notes to the teacher were
a part of almost every grammar published up to 1926.
Notes were variously called "observations," "philosophical notes,"
"remarks," "notes to rules," "suggestions," "cautions," "hints," or "remember," the first few of these being found in the early texts and the
others in the later books. In the last period, however, notes, where included, were seldom given a caption.

187

'

.... In what 'relations may a noun or pronoun be used, in
sentences (95)? What is a Rule, in grammar (95)? Repeat Rule
I.; - II.; - Ill.; - IV. ; - V.; - VI.; - VII.; - VIII.; Note I.; - II.; - III.; - IV. What antecedents are singular
(96)? - plural? (11:239)

Review became an integral part of textbooks long before drill and
tests appeared. It was mentioned in books of all periods and was included to some extent in almost every grammar analyzed. Reed and
Kellogg (1875-1877) mentioned, in connection with the study of the
sentence, that in this phase of grammar "success depends largely on
the character of the reviews" (13b :41). Nearly 40 years later, the Pearson-Kirchwey series (1914) stated:
·
Adequate repetition for the purpose of developing good
habits of speech and writing is secured not only by means of the
usual summaries and reviews but also through constant reminders of the points already taught, so that errors may be consciously avoided. (20a :vi)
By far the greatest emphasis on review, however, was found in the
last two series published, the Adventures in English series (19391944) containing reviews at the end of each division of the work. By
this time the word "review" was not as commonly used as it had been
earlier. Various more "alive" terms were used, such as "Checking Up"
(27c:129).
·
Although drill was given in only two books published before 1914,
the Reed-Kellogg series (1875-1877) and the Robbins-Row series (1907),
and on only one page in each of these texts, its value was recognized by
some of the early authors. As Harvey (1868) said:
Neither the erudition of the teacher, nor the exhaustive completeness of the text-book used, can compensate for the lack of
drill in the class-room. (12:iii)

Such material was included in
called drill in many of the books.
considered drill. Lewis and Lynch
, preface that their text contained a

1

the majority of texts but it was not
Often review material or tests were
(1918), for example, stated in their
greater amount of drill, to "establish

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the essential habit of using the principles learned" (21 : iii), yet when
this material appeared in the text it was not called drill.
After 1923, however, every grammar except Daringer's (1938) included drill material, The Open DMr Language Series (1926-1928) including it on 130 of its pages, and the Step by Step in English series
(1940-1941) on 161 pages. In this latter series such material was referred to as "Skill Drills" and was, in a way, a form of review.
The value of drill in relation to other types of material in grammar texts was evidently a point con sidered by grammarians, for in the
late3t series published the statement is made that "the aim in all books
of the series has been to supply a proper balance of social activities and
drill matter" (27f:iii).
On the whole, there was very little difference between what authors
included a s test material and what they called drill material. Tests as we
know them today, however, were not included in grammars until about
1923. In the early texts question s were given covering the material
studied, but, excep t for the 14 pages in Brown's text (1823) which he
titled "Examinations," these were more in the form of review than of
actual tests. The Scott-Southworth series (1906) and th e Robbins-Row
series (l!J07) contained one test each, but the Essential Language
Habits series (1923) was the first to include test material of the kind
found in modern textbooks. The Da.ily-Life Language Series (1934)
contained more material of this kind than did any other grammar, but
both of the most recently published texts gave space to tests.
At the time when the newer type of tests first entered textbooks,
the Es sential L anguage Habits series (1923 ) carried the following •
statement in its preface:

Experimental r esearch studies have been made which show
that a liberal use of tests greatly improves the qua! ity of instruction in language and grammar and thus insures greater achievem ent. . . . The tests included have been made to fit the text
and at the same time conform to the approved practice of the
objective, or new-type, tests. They represent a variety of types.
(22a :iv)

Included in the text were completion, true-false, matching, and other '. ·
kinds of new-type test questions.
One of the main purposes of the tests in the later books was that '
of giving pupils an opportunity to check themselves on what they had
learned, the idea being that a pupil is stimulated to greater effort when
he is con scious of the progi·ess he is mak ing. The Step by Step in English
series (1940-l!J41) was particularly clever in this respect, suggesting,
that the pupils keep a notebook in which to write the things they had l
learned and the things they had not yet completely mastered. The pupils
were then to "see how fast you can change things from the I Am Learning part to the I [{now part" ( 26a: 34 ) .

Chapter VII
Summ~ry

WHEN compared with the old-style grammar book of a century
and a half ago, the modern English text seems at first glance to be an
entirely different type of textbook. Not only is the book itself mµch more
attractive in its physical appearance, but the subject matter has
changed radically and the point of view from which it is presented is
far removed from the pedantic, set method of attack found in the early
texts.

English grammar, when first studied, was approached · from the
same angle as were Latin and Greek grammar. Although it was found
very difficult at times to fit English constructions into the pattern of the
older languages, no attempt was made to change the pattern set up. The
terminology used in the study of the foreign languages was also carried OVJ)r to the study of English. This treatment of English grammar
was still in evidence in the first few texts analyzed in the · present
study, especially in Dilworth's New Guide to the English Tongue, (1740)
which attempted to use the six cases of the Latin noun, the six moods of
the verb, and so forth, in teaching the language.
Grammars were first written for those who had an interest in the
subject as a philosophical study or for those who were in need of a
good reference book on correct grammatical form. Among the intellectuals, there was considerable rivalry for the honor of being recognized
as a good grammarian. Those who studied the subject often did so in
order to improve their standing with this group, and authors of texts
were inclined to encourage their students to seek the honor. As Kirkham (1823) said, after commenting on the value of studying grammar, "Go on, then, boldly, and with unyielding perseverance; and if
you do not gain admittance into the temple of fame, strive, at all
hazards, to drink of the fountain which gurgles from its base" (4:62).
Much of the technical grammar in textbooks was of a controversial
nature, with philosophical discussions concerning certain rare or involved constructions. Many details were included in the texts because
authors wanted to prepare a grammar to be used either without the
aid of a tutor or with very little teaching assistance.
After public schools became rather generally established and children were required to attend, this type of grammar was no longer
so desirable. Instead, the study became more practical, as students
needed to know how to express themselves correctly and clearly rather
than to unde rstand the intricate mechanics of the language. The idea
on which texts were written came to be that of leading the child to
think his way through the subject and, still later, of giving him the
grammatical information he would need in meeting everyday situations.
The changes in almost every phase of the physical make-up of texts
(189)

190

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BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

were very noticeable. Early grammars always appeared in one volume,
the content being much too difficult for the beginner. However, since about
1900, most of the texts have been put out in at least two volumes, one
for the lower grades and one for the upper. The two most recent of the
grammars analyzed were published in six volumes, one for each grade
from grade three through grade eight.
Modern texts were somewhat larger than were those in the early
years covered by this study. Most of the books averaged from 200 to 250
pages to a volume, but the recent ones have shown a slight tendency to
be larger. The length and breadth of the book have also increased, the
size today being practically standardized at about 7% inches in length
and from 51h to 6 inches in width.
In outward appearance, the texts have become much more attractive. The first of the books were covered in plain tan leather. Early
in the nineteenth century paper covered cardboard was used for covers
and publishers took advantage of the opportunity to print on the
covers, giving not only the title and author, but much other ij,lformation, sometimes including advertising. Shortly after the middl"° of the
century, publishers began using cloth covered cardboard, a material
that is still in use today. Decorative designs were put on the cloth
covers and bright colors were used instead of the pale, grayed shades
of the paper covers. In the last two series, each of the six volumes appeared in a different color.
Inside, the books made even greater improvement in appearance.
In the newer books, the printed matter was set up in such a way as to
make the pupil want to read the text. Most of the type was of a size that
was easily read, and there was little variation in either size or kind of
type, while in the older books many kinds and sizes were used, most of
them being small. Margins were wider and material was no longer
crowded on the page. Hyde (1888-1896) introduced the use of illustrations in making the book more interesting, and this idea met with such
increasing favor that the last two series studied included illustrations
on approximately half of their pages. Color appeared in the illustrations
early in the twentieth century, and has been used to some extent -in almost every grammar since.
Titles of texts became much less stereotyped and more inviting.
While still short, those on the recent texts were worded in such a way
as to show the pupil that the book contained something of use or of
interest to him rather than that it merely gave information concerning
grammatical constructions. Subtitles, which were very long and detailed
in the early texts, were dropped altogether.
As has been said, the content of the texts changed radically. In the
early books all content was pointed directly toward the teaching of grammatical principles and their application. Vast amounts of detail~d information were given, including the discussion of many intricate and
seldom-used forms. Grammar was always divided into four main divisions and was taken up in the same order: orthography, etymology,
syntax, and prosody. Grammar was taught for grammar's sake, no attempt being made to add life or interest to the subject. The books were
serious and formal. The examples and exercises used were usually based

ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

191

on religion, philosophy, or moral precepts, and a weighty, gloomy, and
often unhappy atmosphere permeated the entire text.
·
By the middle of the century, however, authors had begun to realize
that a knowledge of correct construction does not give one an ability
to use correct English in his everyday life. If instruction were to be
practical, it had to be put more nearly on the level of the child's understanding and be so related to his daily-life experiences that he could see
its value. Authors therefore began in earnest to simplify their texts.
The old Latin and Greek constructions and terminology that had applied so poorly to English grammar were gradually discarded, and a
simplified, more logical organi~ation was used. The difficulty of breaking
away from the traditional grammar caused confusion for a time. As
Kerl (1864) said, when simplification first became pronounced, "some
teachers are altogether for simplification; some, for condensation; and
some, for nothing at all" ( 11: 3).
However, by the middle of the century, the desire to give the pupil
the ability to use the English language with. ease and accuracy was taking precedence over that of giving him accurate information concerning
the mechanics of grammar. With this change, of course, came the need
for teaching an understandable grammar.
The emphasis on English usage focused . attention on the use of
language in all activities both in and out of school. Consequently, more
and more attention was given to teaching the kind of English which
would function in the child's life. At first, the emphasis was placed on
the use of good grammatical form in classes outside the grammar class.
Hyde (1888-1896) stated that "careful attention should be given to the
language used by the pupil in all recitations" (16a :iii). Later, daily-life
activities were brought into the course. The Essential Language Habits
series (1923) claimed to teach correct language effectively through a
"thorough-going utilization of conversation, letters, club work, debates,
and other language activities" (22a:iii). The most recent texts have
branched out still further. The Step by Step in English series (19401941), for example, stated that it drew upon "the language experiences
of the home, the school, and the community at large, as they affect the
child himself" (27a:iii) _.
About the beginning of the twentieth century, the subject matter
in grammar texts broadened tremendously. Up to this time, as Wisely
(1896) said, the study of grammar had "becom~ largely a study of
dry form; a mere classification of words; a kind. of jugglery with
symbols. What wonder that most boys and girls, with normal minds,
hate it!" (17:23) . While much of the traditional material continued to
be found in texts, and grammar was still the main part of language
study, it no longer dominated the texts. Composition, the first evidence
of an attempt to guide the child into any creative use of English, entered texts about 1850. Shortly afterward, letter writing and, still later,
story telling, were added.
The study of the sentence and of the parts of speech have always
been given from one half to one third of the space in grammar texts.
Sentence construction, however, gained decidedly in the last two periods of
the study, while syntax, which dealt with the breaking down of the

192

BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
ONE HUNDRED FIFTY YEARS OF GRAMMAR TEXTBOOKS

193

sentence and its parts, dropped just as rapidly. In the later books, parts
of speech were taught only in relation to their function in the sentence,
while this relationship h ad not been emphasized at first. After the sentence as a whole came to be recognized as the unit of language, the
emphasis was placed on its use as a means of expressing one's thoughts
accurately and interestingly, rather than upon its mechanical make-up.
While the study of prose and poetry was given more stress in the
later books, the emphasis in teaching was placed on the use of expressive English and on the understanding . and appreciation of well
written material. The study of words, too, received increasing emphasis,
but the increase was almost entirely in those phases of words needed in
developing a functional English. Foreign extraction of words, for instance, was seldom mentioned in later t exts, while spelling and the use
of clear or vivid descriptive words were given more emphasis than in the
early days.

Smith (1832) introduced the inductive method, a system based on
the sound educational principle of building up from what the pupil already knew to what he was about to ' be taught. However, it was not
until the middle of the century that this. method was accepted generally.
After that time, some form of the inductive method of presenting
material was used in every text. No longer was a pupil confronted
with a rule or definition before he had sufficient knowledge to interpret
it correctly. Instead, his knowledge was built up gradually until he saw
the application of a rule and the reasons for· its use before he was
given the rule itself. When this method first became popular, much
teaching in various fields of education was done by the use of objects,
as this gave a tangible basis for instruction. It was not found very successful in the field of grammar, however, and was soon dropped.

With the exception of letter writing, socially useful activities were
seldom mentioned in texts before the twentieth century. However, in
the last 20 to 25 years they have been given a great deal of stress. All
kinds of everyday experiences have been called upon as means of teaching
~ functional E~glish. The ~ore recent books conta~n instruction inyioldmg club meetmgs, plannmg programs, telephonmg, making personal
introductions, and so forth.

The topical method, which was the next major method of teaching to
be adopted, took up subjects one at a time and completed the discussion of each subject before going on to the next. While this method
was used rather extensively in the latter half of the nineteenth century,
it was not very satisfactory because the pupil was led into involved
material in one topic before he was taught the elementary phases of
another topic.

The purpose of teaching material of this kind was expressed clearly
in The Open Door Language Series (1926-1928):

In an attempt to overcome this difficulty, the spiral method was introduced, a method that is still used today. According. to this plan, the
pupil was taught the elementary phases of each topic, then advanced
to the more complicated phases. Learning became cumulative, much
emphasis being placed on review. The psychological principles involved
were sound. When material was presented in this way, it was possible
to divide the work by grades, and therefore studies were made to determine the amount of material that should be included in each grade.

Through the medium of club activities, newspaper study, recreational reading, and various investigations based on community interests, the book gives the pupils a thorough training
in English. Mo reover, it develops in the members of a class a
spirit of cooperation, and ability to lead, both of which are essentia l characteristics of the future citizens of our country.
(23c :iii)
Fully as important as changes in content in bringing about the improvement of grammar textbooks were changes in methods of presenting
the material. The early grammars were always very formal and logical.
Material was introduced according to a set plan, with each new topic
introduced with rules and definitions. This ded u<:tive method of teaching
took no heed of the fact that the pupil was not necessarily interested
in the subject he was studying or that he might be a mere beginner unacquainted with the .terminology or with the simpl er aspects of grammar.
Examples and exercises followed the rules and definition;; and were
always based on them, so that no particular understanding was required of the student. All he needed was an ability to apply a rule in a
place where he was told it should be applied. Examples and exercises
were often very long and involved in order that they might include
every possible application and exception to a rule. Many were quoted,
the majority of those in the early books coming from the Bible, although some also were taken from well-known writers in the field of
literature. All such quoted materia l was on the adult level, the child's
interests never being considered.

The functional method, which became prominent in the 1920's and is
more popular today than it has ever been, was really a form of the
spiral m ethod, but it dealt with a different type of subject matter. In
the spiral method, the grammatical information taught, though simplified,
was not radically different from that taught in texts a century earlier,
but the form in which it was presented was, of course, very different.
In the functional method, all kinds of new content intimately related
to the daily life of the student were added to texts. Closely connected with
such instruction was the teaching of courtesy, which was found as a
phase of many of the activities included in the texts. Here the pupil
was taught that correctness in language is not necessarily correctness in
grammatical construction. It involves also good taste and the considerate
or appropriate use of English as well.
Many techniques and devices were used in the textbooks. In the
early books such things as parsing and analysis were more prominent,
but more recently the emphasis was upon using "catchy" ways of introducing subjects and attracting the pupil's attention, and upon making the
text as personal as possible. Simplification was a major means of making
material more interesting, and the standardization of terms aided
greatly in making it more understandable. Quotations were used throughout the texts, but in the early days they were always of a religious or

194

BULLETIN OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

philosophic nature and were used to illustrate sentence construction
while in the later texts they were lighter and more entertaining and
were used to introduce into texts a form of relaxation not too far removed from the subject of English teaching. Definitions, rules, and notes
:-vere co~mon in early texts ; in later books more emphasis was placed on
1l~ustrat10n.s and means of testing one's knowledge. Motivation, too, was
given considerable thought in recent years. Here the need for a knowledge of correct speech in everyday life was emphasized, in the hope
that the pupil, seeing the value of such knowledge, would be motivated
to learn more in the field.
Every attempt was made in recent texts to show that grammar involves more than a study of form . Technical discussions were avoided but
pupils were taught certain definite standards of grammatical 'construction, so that they might have a basis on which to judge their own
speech and writing. Emphasis was placed on clarity, beauty, and vividness of expression rather than on the technical phases of the sentence.
!'--s the Adventures in English se1:ies (1939-1944) stated: "Language
is more than sounds and symbols. Man has breathed into it life and intelligence. The rhythm of creation animates it" (27b:iii) . Authors today a~·e making a sincere effort to help students to feel this vitality and
force m language, and to make their use of English as effective as possible.

A List of Bulletins in the Field of Education
Indiana University
By KATHLEEN DUGDALE
The School of Education at Indiana University has published the
following bulletins. All of these may be obtained from the University
Bookstore for 50 cents postpaid unless otherwise noted. .
Proceedings of the High School Principals' Conference (November 23
and 24, 1923). Vol. I, No. 1, 1924. 85 p. (Supply exhausted.)
Investigation of Nursing as a Professional Opportunity for Girls,
Part I, Technical Study" Part JI, Voca.tional Information Bulletin. By
Florence E. Blazier. Vol. I, No. 2, 1924. 69 p.
Proceedings of the Eleventh Conference on Educational Measurements. Vol. I, No. 3, 1925. 141 p.
Proceedings of the High School Principals' Conference (November 14
and 15, 1924). Vol. I, No. 4, 1925. 49 p. (Supply exhausted.)
First R evision of the Bibliograph11 of Educational Measurements.
Compiled by the Bureau of Cooperative Research. Vol. I, No. 5, 1925.
147 p. (Supply exhausted.)
Proceedings of the Tw elfth Conference on Educational Measurements. Vol. I, No. 6, 1925. 76 p.
The Effec t of Population upon Ability to Support Education. By
Harold F. Clark. Vol. II, No. 1, 1925. 28 p.
Proceedings of the High School Principals' Conference (November 20
and 21, 1925). Vol. II, No. 2, 1925. 77 p. (Supply exhausted.)
A Cross-Indexed Bibliography on School Budgets. By Harold F.
Clark. Vol. II, No. 3, 1926. 66 p.
A Compatrison of the Results Made on Certain Standardized Test.~
by Pupils in the Bloomington High School Who Were Taught in Classes
of the Same Grade by University Student Teachers and by Regular High
School Teachers. By Carl G. F. Franzen. Vol. II, No. 4, 1926. 19 p.
Proceedings of the . Thirteenth Annual Conference on Educational
Measurements. Vol. II, No. 5, 1926. 103 p.
·
When to Issue School Bonds. By Harold Florian Clark and Paul
Royalty. Vol. II, No. 6, 1926. 16 p.
Students' Attitude Toward Examinations. By Grover T . Somers.
Vol. III, No. 1, 1926. 48 p.
Proceedings of the High School Principals' Conference (November 12
and 13, 1926). Vol. III, No. 2, 1926. 27 p.
Index Numbers in School Administration. By Harold F. Clark. Vol.
III, No. 3, 1927. 35 p.
Topical Analysis of 234 School Surveys. Compiled by the Bureau of
Cooperative Research. Vol. III, No. 4, 1927. 111 p. (Supply exhausted.)
Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Conference on Elementary Super-.
viJion. Vol. III, No. 5, 1927. 64 p.
Proceedings of the Fourteenth Annual Conference on Educational
Measurements. Vol. Ill, No. 6, 1927. 66 p.
Some Phases of the Junior College Movement. By I. Owen Foster,
Harold F. Clark, Willard W. Patty, and Leo M. Chamberlain. Vol. IV,
No. 1, 1927. 125 p. (Supply exhausted.)
Second Revision of the Bibliography of Educational Measurements.
By Henry Lester Smith and Wendell William Wright. Vol. IV, No. 2,
1927. 251 p. (75c)
Bibliography of School Buildings, Grounds, and Equipment, Part I.
By Henry Lester Smith and Leo Martin Chamberlain. Vol. IV, No. 3,
1928. 326 p. (75c)
- ' Proceedings of the High School Principals' Conference (November 18
and 19, 1927) . Vol. IV, No. 4, 1928. 54 p.
(195)

