I

I

I

, I

'

THE PRINCIPLES OF
RHETORIC
\VITI!

CONST RUCT IV E AND C RlTJ CAL
WORK IN COMPOSITION

BY

ELIZABETH H. SPALDING, A.B.
l'RATr l NSTJTlJTE, BR OO KLYN

AUTH O R OF "Tll f: J>KOHl.EM OF F.l.EMENTA RY COM l'US ITI ON "
AND " THE LAN GU AGE S PE LLER"

BOSTON

D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS

1906

AUTHOR'S NOTE

COPYRIGHT, I 905,

Bv D. C.

HEATH

& Co.

"THE art of instruction for the secondary school," it
has been said, "may be summed up in one sentence:
Inspire enthusiastic activity." It is not enough, however, to inspire such activity;. provision for its proper
exercise must be made.
The material that forms the basis of this book was
collected in my own classes during a period of years,
for the purpose of arousing and satis"fying the pupil's
interest and activity with reference to rhetoric and compos1t10n. Later, at the request of teachers, the material was put into the form of. a book. That the book
might meet general conditions in the classroom, it was
submitted before its publication to able instructors and
critics, teachers of English in a number of widely separated centres.
Their suggestions were valuable, and
are incorporated in the book as published.
Because many text-books already in use contain
admirable presentations of rhetorical principles, with
exercises on some of them and with lists of composition subjects, it is by no means unnecessary for the
author of a new rhetoric to state what differentiates
his work from other books on the 'same subject. Perhaps the most distinctive features of this rhetoric are
the following: iii

iv

AUTHOR'S NO TE

It is ·planned to meet a gradual increase of skill
on the part of the pupil. As soon as he has gained
knowledge from the working out of one composition
problem, that knowledge is utilized in the solving of
another. His study of Diction, for instance, is made
to bear directly upon all subsequent exercises in composition.
2. It provides for the establishment of good habits.
For example, not only is the subject of paragraph
sequence taught, but, throughout the book, th e writing
of a sequence of paragraphs is repeatedly called for,
and topi cs a re given which in themselves form a sequence. In this way the thought of orderliness is kept
in the pupil's mind, until he has acquired, with reference to paragraph sequence, not merely a definition, but
a habit.
3. It recognizes the fact that knowledge which one
cannot apply at will is not a part of one's actual equipment. Therefore, hardly a rhetorical fact is presented
which is not utilized over and over again.
4. It groups composition subjects carefully, with
reference to their especial adaptability to the particular
problems with which they are associated. Moreover,
it almost invariably offers a somewhat wide choice of
subjects. Tasks are set, but the sense of freedom
that is felt when a writer may take from a number
of subjects what pleases him best, relieves their irksomeness.
5. It criticises fro·rn the standpoint of a fellow-worker
intent upon results, not upon fault-findin g .
6. It encourages self-reliance, since every writer must,
I.

AUTHOR'S NOTE

v

sooner or later, depend largely upon his own judgment
and taste. No exercises are given to pupils until independent work may rightfully be demanded, until the
. principles on which the exercises are based have been
explained, illustrated by means of quotations from good
authors, and again illustrated through similar exercises
worked out by other pupils in their own classrooms. A
good deal of time and thought were expended upon the
collection of the student material used under exercises.
Simple, direct work often was preferred to what might
be stronger and more dramatic, yet less safe to insert
in a text-book. I b eli eve this student material to be
especially serviceable, aside from the fact that it gives
opportunities for criticism and reconstruction.
The
very admiration that a pupil feels for Wordsworth or
Browning, for Burke or Macaulay, makes him realize
his own comparative impoten ce, with a consequent
sense of discourage ment; but let him hear what one
of his peers - a boy like himself - has written, in an
honest and more or less skilful way, and he is eager to
try something of the same sort himself. The masterpieces are still before him as models.
7. The rhetoric offers opportunities for the application of rhetorical theory to complete pieces of literature
- "Silas Marner" and "The Vision of Sir Launfal."
It is often desirable during a recitation to have an
entire class find an illustration of the truth of some
statement. The story and the poem mentioned are
valuable for such investigation. The rhetoric is complete in itself, however, and the use of the literature
referred to is altogether optional.

VI

AUTHOR'S NO TE

Althoug h many of th e a nswers c~mtai n ecl in the five
chapters called "Answers to Pupils' Inquiries" were
suggested by questions in my own classes, other matter
has been inserted to ma ke the chapters comprehensive
enough to meet ge neral needs.
Th e following pages represent not only my own work
a nd th oug ht, a nd my interest in the secondary school ,
but also the careful consid eration a nd helpful contribution of many teachers and pupils. T o all who have
assisted me I a m very grateful.
TH E PRA'IT I NSTITUTE,
BROOK LYN.

CONTENTS
PAGE

CHAPTI!R

I.

Four Essen tials of Literary \Vo rk : Unity, Climax,

II.

Proporti on, Sequence
The Con necting of Paragraphs, Chapters, and Ca n-

III.
IV.

Answers to P upils' Inquiries, I : P unctuati on
Forms of Sentences: The Loose, th e Balanced, an d

33

th e P eri odic Sentence
Answers to Pu pils' Inquiries, II : Punctuation (Co n-

43

V.

tinu ed) ; Capitali zation
Description : Point o f View, ·scale, Selection and

49

VI.
VII.

Answers to Pupils' l nqui ries, I I I : The Proper Use

tos; Co herence.

5
21

Arrangement of Details

55

of Some Words and Clauses
VIII.
IX.

Diction
Figures of Speech

74
86

X.
XI.

Two Kinds of Descriptive Writing
Stories told as Metaphors: The Allegory, th e Fahie,

95

th e Pa rable
Answers to P upils' Inquiries, IV: The Future Tense,

100

XII.

th e Historic Present T ense, Sequence of T enses

107

Xll I.

The Qualities of Style: Clearn ess, Rapidity, Empha-

X IV .

Narrat ion

sis, Smoothness, Force, Life

115

138
vii

CONTENTS

Vlll
CHAPTER

PAGE

XV.

The Composition: Introduction, Conclusion, Sum-

XVI.

Answers to Pupils' Inquiries, V: Letters and Notes.

165

The Study of Poems

176

Poetry: Kinds of Poetry; Versification .

190

maries, Transitions, Outline
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.

Arrangements of Words Sometimes classed as Figures

XX.

of Speech: Antithesis, Climax and Anticlimax,
Interrogation, Exclamation
Exposition

XXI.

Argumentation

APPENDIX- English and Library 'Work

155

209

·,

214
234
261

THE PRINCIPLES OF RHETORIC

INDEX
WITH

CONSTRUCTIVE AND CRITICAL
WORK IN COMPOSITION

I

INTRODUCTION
Language is the keenest expression of life.
l:!ENJAMIN ll>Jo: WHEELER.

is rhetoric valuable as a study? It tells what
.is known about the art of expression in language. It
shows how one may learn to speak convincingly, and
write with clearness and .vigor. " All men stand in
need of expression," says Emerson. "In love, in art,
in politics, in labor, in games, we study to utter our
secret. The man is only half himself, the other half is
his expression [of him self]. "
A knowled gf! of rhetoric increases the power to
appreciate literary work and, as a consequence, adds to
the enjoyment of literature; for essays, novels, plays,
poems, live from age to age not only because they hold
thoughts and feelings of deep interest to mankind , but
also because they reveal those thoughts and feelings in
a masterly way.
The study of rhetoric is, th erefore, .of practical value
and has a direct bearing upoi1 life and growth.
The Century Dictionary thus defines rhetoric: " The
art of discourse ; the art of using language so as to
influence others."
WHY

"

()

Rhetoric
defined

54

PRINCIPLES OF RHETORIC

V. (See page Sr.)
I.

Correct the following sentences: -

W e came ·to an oak, wh ose g reat boughs sheltered us from the
.

s~rm.

2.

,I

The grain was piled to the wagon 's top.

VI. Why do 11ortlz, south, rast, and west begin with capitals
Wh y do th ey begin with sm all le tt ers in 2 ?

CHAPTER VI

in I?

The North , th e Sou th , the East, and the W es t sent relief to
th e sufferers.
2 . H e looked tow;i rd th e north, th e sout h, the eas t, and the
west, but saw nu ree nforcements.
I·

l'OINT OF VIEW , SCALE, SELECTIO N
/\N D ARRANGEMEN T OF DETAILS

IF one recall s a n ovel, dra ma, or narra ti ve poem Dofefinition
describe
among the class ics, one reali zes that, asid e from its
story, the work g ives pleasure beca use of its descripTo describe is to portray in la ng uage.
Benjamin Ide vVheelcr says," Lan guagt.: is art' s I most Lan gua ge
a s a mra ns
A painter attempting of cxprcs ·
supple, most famil iar cl ay ."
sion
adequately to illustrate a ny but the simplest a nd briefest
piece of literat ure would need a lifetim e in whi ch to do
it. How long would it ta ke him to paint "the delu ge
of summer" referred to in " Th e Vision of Sir Laun fa! " ?2
All th e g listen. th e stir, th e g roping- upw a rd of grass
and flow ers, the thrilling flu sh of li fe, th e g reen of
the meadow, the gold of th e sun, ho me-giving leaf and
blade and boug h, warm shade, clear skies, drifting
clouds, - anything a nd eve rythin g th at th e fulness of
summer has cume to mean for us, - would no more
than represe nt that one exp ression, " delu ge of sumMoreover, it wou ld be im1;ossibl e to illustrate
1 The word art here represe nts th e arti st himse ll , therefore the possessive form art's is correct. See page 5 !.
2 ! 'art I, l'relude .

55

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PRINCIPLES OF RHETORIC

ii

the manner in which Christ's words fell from
lips:-

I

His words were shed softer than leaves from th e pine.

Choose
characteristic details

Select
words

wisely

Sculptor, painter, musician, cannot express more
their materials than the honest, patient, and gifted
writer can express with his.
Those who describe in language trust a good deal
the imagination of others. 1 A picture made by the sun
- a photograph - reproduces an object line for line; ".
a writer's description will contain only what is most 1'!
characteristic of that which is described, - what, per- haps, distinguishes it from others of its kind . After
an author has furnished its characteristic features, he
may safely trust the rest of his picture to the reader's
imagination. In describing, it is important
details wisely and to select such words as
rately and vividly convey one's meaning.
ILLUSTRATIONS

I. I found it [the pillar] to be a spout marching directly with the
wind: and I can think of nothing I can compare it to better than
the trunk of an elep hant, whi ch it resembl ed. . . . It was extended to a great length, and swept the ground as it went. leaving .
a mark behind.
DA N IEL' DEFOE: "The Storm."
II. [The following characteristic sounds-" voices of the wild
things of the prairie" - are enumerated as a contrast to the domestic ..
sounds and the rustling of trees and gra55 ljkely to be heard in
other places.]
The whistle of gophers, the faint wailing, fluttering cry of the fall- 1
Chapter v of Philip Gilbert Hamerton's "Thoug hts on Art " considen;
this subject in an interesting way.

DESCRIPTION

57

ing plover the whir of the swift-winged prairie pigeo n, or th e quack
. of a lonely duck came through the shimmering air.
1-f,, MLIN GARLAND: "A Dakota Prairie."
III. Elaine Goodale writes of the columbine
"Skirting the rocks of the forest edge
vVith a running flam e from ledge to ledge."
JV. He was dressed in a canvas jacket, and a pair of such very
stiff trousers that they would hav e stood quite as well alone without
any legs in th em. And you couldn't so properly have said he wore
a hat, as th at h e was covered in a-top, like an old building, with
something pitchy .
CI-!ARl. ICS DICKENS: "David Copperfield."
V.

He sits on a branch of yon blossoming bush ,
This madcap cousin of robin and thrush ,
And sings without ceasing the whole morning long;
Now wild, now tend er, the wayward song
That flow s from hi s soft, gray, flutt erin g throat;
But often he stops in his sweetest note,
And shaking a flower fro m the blossoming bough,
Drawls out, "Mi-eu, mi-ow !"
EDITll M.

Tll O~L\S :

"The C a t-Bird."

VJ. Prepared as he was to s ee an inauspicious and ill-looking
th e ugliness of Anthony Foster considerably exceeded what
Tressilian had anticipated. H e was of middl e stature, built s trong ly,
,, but so clumsily as to border on clefor111ity, and to gi ve all his motions
the ungainly awkwa rdn ess of a left-legged and left-handed man.
His hair . . . escaped in sable negligence from und er a furred
· bonnet, and hung in elf-locks, which seemed strangers to the comb,
.·over his rngged brows and around hi s very singular and unprepossessing countenance. His keen dark eyes were deep set beneath
broad and shaggy eyebrows, and, as they were usually bent on the
ground, seemed as if th ey were themselves ashamed of th e expression
. natural lo them, and were des irous to conce;il it from the observa. ',-_·tion of men. . . . The features which corresponded with th ese
eyes and this form were irreg ular and nnrked, so as to be ind elibl y
fl:· fixed on the mind of him who had once see n them.
I-le raised
-~ person,

$.l
~
.,

PIUNCIPLES OF J{HETOJUC

DESCRIPTION

his eyes as he entered the room and fixed a keenly penetrating
glance upon his two visitors, then cast th e m down, as if counting his
steps, while he advanced slowly into the middle of the room.

In describing an object, as in painting it, one must
a point of view. The writer, however, may move
from time to time, provided he takes his reader along
with him, or he may depict a changing scene.

58

-SIR WALTER SCOTT:

"Kenilworth."

[Note in VI the method of development, the enumeration of the
causes of the man's ugliness.]

59
The point
of view;
it may

change

ILLUSTRATIONS

EXERCISES

I. Suggest other characteristic details for

1, 2,

3.

I . Details that mig ht be useful in describing a coming storm: Cold wind; huddl ed cattle; blacke ning air; the white under side .
of flutt ering poplar leaves; intense stillness; abandoned plough;
flight for shelter; perhaps a little girl darting from the house to
rescue a doll.
2.

Material for a description of a very cold day: -

The color of th e atmosphere is like gray steel ; th e sun seems
farther off than usual, although it does not lack brightness; the
ground is as hard as a brick pavement and everything snaps and
cracks at the least touch ; the breath from our nostrils s hoots out
upon th e frosty air like the puffs of a locomoti ve, but without so
much noise ; the gate squeaks and our shoes create a good deal of
friction on the board stoop.
3. Details th a t might be utilized in the description of a midsummer day: Unclouded sun, not a flutter among the leaves, th e sharp z-z-z
of the cicada, th e slow passing of an occasional team. Rover lying
in a trough of water, birds with open bills and drooping wings, a
barefooted girl with pail.
II. Make a list of characteristic details for a descriptive
paragraph on one of the following subjects ': A Morning in April.
A Person of Interest to Me.
3. Just after the Com mencement Reception.
I.

2.

,,
' ~"

I. Come then, worthy reader and comrade, follow my footsteps
into this ves tibule, ornamented with rich tracery, which opens into
the Hall of Ambassadors. We will not en ter the hall, however, but
turn to this small door opening into the wall. Have a care! here
are steep winding steps and but scanty light ; yet up this narrow,
obscure, and spiral s taircase, the proud monarchs of Granada ancl
their queens have often asce nded to the battl eme nts to watch thl'.
approach of invading armies.
At length we have reached the terraced roof, and may take breath
for a mom ent, while we cast a general eye over the splendid panorama of city and country; of rocky mountain, verdant valley, and
fertile plain, of castle, cathedral, Moorish towers, and Gothic dom es,
crumbling ruins, a nd blooming g'roves.
WASHINGTON IR VI NG :

"The Alhambra."

II. James Russell Lowell's "Summer Storm" illustrates ho"' a
scene may change as the minutes go by; the poem depicts the beginning, progress, a nd ending of a storm, and is a panorama rathe1:
than a single description. In the opening descripti on th e air is still,
" On the wide marsh the purple-blossomed grasses
Soak up the sunshine; sleeps the brimming tide,"
i

but a great cloud climbs up the west and
" Suddenly all the sky is hid
As with the shutting of a lid,
One by one g reat drops are falling
Doubtful and slow,
Down the pane they are crookedly cra\\'ling,
And the wind breathes low."

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PRINCIPLES OF RHETORI C

Then

~h e heig l'.; of the storm,. t he final outbu rs t. a nd th e s ucce eding

total lull

.

are th e co ncludm g description s of th e se ri es .

The l:oint of view affects th e si ze of obj ects as they
appear m a desc ripti on. One may look at a hou se, for
example, from a hill , or from th e ave nue thnt lea ds
to it. In th e first case t he house will seem smaller
than in the second, a nd fewer details will be obse rvable.
Th e opening sentences of "Sights from a Steeple" 1
thus announces th e point of view: So! . I have _climbed hig h, a nd my re ward is small. H ere I
stand, with wean ed kn ees, earth, ind eed, a t a di zzy depth below but
heaven far, far beyo nd me s ti ll.
·
'

Give comprehensive
.view first

61

afterward singled out, and more carefull y observed, its
"Leaps th e wind o n th e slee py marsh, ,
And tra mpl es th e g ra ss with terrifi ed feet
Th e s tartl ed ri 1·er turns lea den a nd ha rs h, '
You can hear th e quick heart of th e tempest beat."

Scale of
descrip tion; how
affected

lJESC Rl l'T.IO N

To account for the fact that obj ects on the street below are described as of life size, H awthorne is careful
to state th at th e observe r looks throu g h a pocket spyglass.
. It is often desi rable to g ive, first, a comprehensive
view of th e entire obj ect and then proceed to th e consideration of its details. Th e last sentence of I , page 59 ,
re presen ts s uch a view. The method of first attending
to th e scene as a whole is familiar to eyery one who has
looked upon a n extensive land scape; for, when he first
saw it, his eye naturally swept in th e entire view, and
1

"Twice-T old Tales."

details.
The details ch ose n n eed arran ge ment. If oue were
describing a ruo m, details might be gro uped accordin g
to thdr :situ ation , th use in the sarn e co rn e r, for i 11 sta 11ce,
bein g grouped togethe r; or accordin g to the impression
made, th ose having a n enli ven in g inHu ence n.ncl those
detracting from the general chee rfuln ess of th e place
formin g separate grou ps; or accordi ng to th eir effect.
[The s tatements mark in the two prcci ·rling paragraphs s11gg \ st
meth ods u f paragr.-ip h dcv clul'rn enl in descriptions.]
l LLOST ltA TlONS

I. T he seco nd par:1gr:1ph of " S ight s fr q rn a S tee ple" ti nts grou ps
details : In three parts of th e vis ible ci rcl e, I d isce rn cultiv:1t ed fi elds,
villages, while cou ntry seats, th e wav in g lin es of ri vul ets, little placid
lakes, a nd h ere and th e re .-i ri sing ground, th at wou ld fain be
termed a hill. O n th e fo urth sick is th e sea. s t.retchin g away towa rd
a viewless bou nda ry, blu e a nd calm. except wh ere th e passing a nge r
of a shadow flit s across its surfa ce. and is gon e . H ith erll':ud a broad
inlet penetrates far int o th e land: on the 1·erge of the harbor, furm ccl
by its extrem ity, is a tow n; and over it am I, a watch man, all unheeding a nd 11nh ePdPrl.
Jn th e first sentence of II a nd the fir s t se nt ence of II I a more or
less comprehensi1·e view is taken ; in th e succeeding sen tences a few
details are given a nd a re grouped in a somew hat ord erl y way.
II. Th e old ma nsio n was a Jo\v, venerabl e bu il ding, occupying a
conside rabl e space of ground, whi ch was su rrounilecl by a dee p moa t.
The approach and drawbridge were defe nded by a n octago n;il towe r
of anci ent brickwork, but so cloth ed with ivy a nd other creepe rs th.-it
it w;is diffi cult to di scove r of wh.-it mat e ri.-il s it w;is co ns tructed .
Th e a ngles of this towe r were each decor.-it ed with a turret. . . .
One of t hese turrets was square and occ11 pierl as a clock-h ouse.
S'I R vV 1\ I.Tl·: R Scor r : "Kcnilworlh."

Meth ods ot

arrange-

ment

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62

Ill. It was beautifully clean inside, and as tidy as possible.
There was a ta bl e, and a Dutch clock, and .a chest of drawers, and
on the chest of drawers th ere was a tea-tray. . . . The tray was
kept from tumbling down by a Dible ; and th e tray, if it had tumbled
down, would have smashed a quantity of cups and saucers a nd a teapot that were grouped around the book. On the walls th ere were
some common colored pictures . . . . Over th e little mantel-shelf
wa s a picture of the SaraltJane lugge r, . . . with a real littl e wooden
stern s tuck on it. . . . Th ere were some books in the beams of the
ceiling . . . and some lockers and boxes and conveniencies of
that sort, which served for sea ts.
CHARLES DICKENS: "David Copperfield."

Description ' IV. Each of the following narrati ve paragraphs co ntains incioften inci- de ntal description; it not only tells what happened but also makes a
dental

picture: -

I. Then th ey came forward to the bow . . . and in formed themselves of the names of each of the fortressed islands as th ey passed.
. . . They made sure of the air of soft repose that hung about each,
of that exquisite military neatness which disting ui s hes them , of the
green, thick turf covering the escarpments, of th e great g uns loafing
on the crests of th e ramparts and looking out over the water sleepily,
of th e sentries pacing slowly up and down with th eir gleaming
musk ets.
WILLIAM DEAN HOWELLS: " A D ay's Pleasure."

r.:

DESCRIPTION

PRINCIPLES OF RHETORIC

2 . At a particularly bad spot, where a ledge of barely submerged
rocks jutted o ut into the river, Hans cast off the rope, and, while
Thornton poled the boat out into the stream, ran down the bank
with the end in his hand to snub the boat wh en it had cl eared the
ledge. This it did, and was flying down-stream in a current as swift
as a mill-race, when Hans checked it with the rope and checked too
suddenly. The boat flirted over ;\nd snubbed in to the bank bottom
up, while Thornton, flung sheer out of it, was ca rried down-stream
toward the worst part of the rapids, a stretch of wi ld water in which
no sw imm er cou ld li ve. From below cam e t he fatal roaring where
the wild current went wi lder and was sent in shreds and spray by the
rocks which thrust through like the teet h of an enormous comb.

JACK LO NDON: "Th e Call of the Wild."

In description, as in other kinds of composition, th e
character of the work is determined by its purpose.
For example, one might write about a neglected child
, 50 as to arouse horror, or pity, or a desire actively to
relieve its needs.

Character
of a

desc ription
determined
by its
purpose

EXERCISES

I . Consider the following work with reference to description : 1. (An attempt has been made to d escribe part of a narrow creek,
with its animal life . The point of view is very nea r the creek.)
A ()'rass hoppe r flo a ts slo wly past on a birch leaf, and th e mudd y
water~5eems alive with pollywogs, which wriggle up and down lik e
so many elevators.
vVheneve r o ne of th em co mes to tl.1e surface a
big old frog perched on a lil y-pad not far away says, with a g runt,
"Going down ! " A mud-turtl e sticb its littl e blac~ head up and
takes a view of the world, on ly to sin k back out of s ight as an ugl y
water-snak e g li des past and disappears in th e mass of reeds opposite.
I in voluntaril y start when a kingfisher di ves with a splas h and then
rises with a poor little minn ow in its claws and flies away to feed its
family on th e tidbit. Th en all is dead sil ence as before, exc~ pt for
~ n occasional splash as a mud-turtl e falls off its log. The stillness
seems only intensified by these few sudden sounds that break in on
the quiet.
[Would you omit the first little? Give a reas on for your answer.]

'1•;

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(The point of view is the doorway.)
I stepped to th e doorway and glanced into a large room that lay
at right angles to the hall I had just left. I was silent, for so mething seemed to tell me that here a tragedy had been enac.ted: the
air was musty, as if th e room had been shut up for a long t11ne; the
old oak furni.shin gs looked gloomy a nd forbidding; the bed-curtains,
of a faded red, seemed to quiver and sway, as if inviting me lo enter,
to draw th em and see what awful sec ret th ey g uard ed; on a table at
my left, I could faint ly discover a large go ld locket covered with dust.
Tiie one beam of sunlight that ent ered the door glittered o n some2.

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. 1,1

lJ ESCJ.!.ll' TI ON

PRI NC IPLES O F Rll E T ORl C
thing in a di stant co rn er ; it looked lik e a bright eye .glarin g at mr;
a nd I longed to ent er and see what it reall y was. but l da red not.
[ls r Mlly th e proper word here? F in cl th e · exact mea ning of
really. J\ cco unt for th e punctu ati on of th e seco nd sente nce. ]

j . (A descrip tion g ive n in cidentall y. )
" T o be su re th ere is nothing attracti ve about th e house. There
a re no shad e trees lo be fou ~ d . no vin es ov~r th e porch. a nd th e
paint is of a d11ll gray ish color. J t reall y is not a ,·c ry interes ting
house, as you say . IJu t. Geo1xe. look th ere ! Wh ere do you find
a waterm elon patch like that ? Think of th e cla ys a nd weeks of
labor rep rese nted th ere, and loo k at thi s fence. It is plain to be
sure, but it is a good substant ial one; a nswers th e pu rpose better
than an y of yo ur flimsy ones .
"Now we'll take a pee p at th e inside. My! but it's clean isn't
it? 'If my g randm oth er were here, I think s he would say s he ;vould
just as soon cat from th e fl oor as she woulcl from th e table. a remark
sh e used to m;i ke aft er she had fini s hed cleaning o n Saturdays. In
all probability, fiv e minutes la ter, we boys would be reli evin " our
s hoes of th eir burden o f mud on her floo r, to gran d111 oth er·s d i:inay.
These folk s must be mi g ht y neat and thrift y people; not th e so rt
tha t spend th eir la~ t cent for trinkets and clothes j11st to keep up
appeara nces.
"Well, h ere co mes my train ; ·r hear the whistl e up at th e turnpike. l sh all have to run to get it. Reme mber me to th e folk s,
and tell th e m I'll be on hand next wee k for th at g ra nd wa term elon
carnival. "
[ R~ fe r to th e first pa ragraph of 3. I s really , in th e third
sente nce, th e proper wo rd? G ive a reaso n fo r you r a nswe r.
R e fer to the sec ond pa ragraph of 3. H o w might th e e xce ssive
use of site in th e third se nte nce be avo id ed? Does th e third
se nte nce viola te unity ? Gi ve a reaso n fo r your a nswe r. Substitute a simpl er and m ore direct expression fo r relie711'11g our
shoes o.f llteir burden o.f 1111td. \Vhy sho uld not m<!{!tty as a
m odifi e r o f nea t be c ritic ise rl? G ive a reaso n for your a nswe r.
Refer to th e third paragraph. Why should no t th e use of

:;

the colloq uial exp ression thr .fr>!!.·.r be n it it' ised ? h it, i 11 the
second se nte nce, su ffi c ie ntl y d e fi nite in its reft" re 11 ce? \\' hy
should no t gm11d as a mo difi e r of w11tc1111d,111 be c riti c ised ?
Give reasons fo r yo ur las t two a nswe rs.
Quota ti o n-ma rks fo r the successive pa ra g ra ph s o f 3 a rc use<!
correc tl y, a t the beginning o f eac h paragraph, but a t th e e nd of
l.

only th e b st. J

'I

NoTI<:. _T he use of "t he ones., as an anteced ent. or of " the
one," wh en a prono un will ex press th e mea nin g, is not sa ncti oned .

ExA ~I PLES. _ I. " This book is th e one th at I thoug ht of buyi11g ''
hould be written " Th is is th e book th at I th ought of buying .''
s II. " Th ese g l;ves are th e ones you we re lookin g fo r " sl1 011 ld be
changed to sum e such ex pression as, " Th ese are th e gloves you
were lookin g fo r."
Wh y should not th e use of

011rs

in th e b st sentence of the fi rst

paragraph of 3 be criti cised ?
II. Write a d escripti ve paragraph ; use o ne o f th e fo llo win g
topi cs. F irst, b e sure o f you r pur po3e . If writin g o f r , do
you wish to gain a n a pp ro pri a ti on for th e e nlarge m e nt o r ~rad­
. ing o f th e sc hool yard ? Do you wi sh tl: e r ea<l ~ r t~ e nj oy a
game ? Second, c hoose your p oi~t o f vi ew; this will d e termin e th e a ppa re nt size o f th e obj ects c\ escn be rl. J\re you a t
the ga te o r on th e e nc ircling wall? Thi rd, re n~c mbc r th a t 111 d escription th e d evelo pme nt of th e p ar::ig raph is o fte n b y m e~ ns
of d e ta ils, a nd decide to gro up d e tails with re fe rence to l ~ca ltty ,
to effec t, or to anything else that m ay b eco m e a .guid e to
arran ge m ent. . Fourth, use onl y c hara c teri sti c d e tails; : our
purpose will help you to dec ide \Yh a t d etails a re c haracte n st.1 c .
Write of things as th e y ac tu all y a re . R em embe r th at a cl esc np~
tion 111ay be interes tin g , bu t 11111st be acc urat e .
1. Th e school yard.
2. An hour at th e Zoo .

·

Stat e to
yourse lf
yo ur pur·
pose

Ch oose a
poi nt of
view
Group details

Use charac
t e ri s ti c
details

...

66

PRINCIPLES OF RHETORI C

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9-

Th e captain on whose ship J like to sail.
The ledges.
Our amateur fireworks.
The worn-out boat.
A place where ferns grow.
Where I like to fi sh.
My work-bench.
10. On the mountain top .
1 1. The clam digger.
12. \Vhat I found .
13. A bird I often watch.
A definite
sabject de sirable

Make th e subject that you choose definite, in accordanc~
with your own ex pe rience; name the mountain, d esig nate the
ledges, the part of the Zoo visited, some featur e o f the fireworks, the place wh e re th e object alluded to in 1 2 was found.
A definite subject is likely to lead to definite work.

CHAPTER VII
ANSWERS TO PUPILS' !NQU! RIES -

Ill

The Proper Use of Some Words and Cla,usos

Olt is an exclamation; 0 is followed by th e nam e of o and on
some thing or person addressed. One would write, for
example, "Oh, what a dark, ugly place!" and, "0 earth, thou hast not any wind that blows which is not music."

' In is used to denote rest; into, to denote motion. One
steps into the house. Pictures hang on the walls in the
house.
H ence, whence, !tither, tltitltci-, ·wl! itlll'r, are adverbs of
motion; /1 ere, there, wlicre (adverbs of rest) are not their
-equivalents.

I n and into

·• I

Adverbs of
rest. of
motion

EXAMPL ES - - I. \.Vho knows whither th e clouds have fled ?
II. Whence came he ?

Fartlter has reference to distance; f11rtl!er, to quantity
One travels farther, but studies further.
Like is used as an adjective or adverb with to un - derstood, not as a conjunction in th e sense of as.
"He is like (to) me" and " He struggled like (to) a
are correct. " He does like (as) I do" is in' or. degree.

Fnrther and
further
The proper

use of like

'J

..,

"'

.

-

94

l'1{! NC IJ'LE S OF lUI ET O HI C
EXERCISE

Write a d esc ripti ve JJaragra JJh a bout o ne o f t 1ie following
topics ; use a simil e, a me taJJhor, or pe rso 111·n
· to help .
ication
conve y your m eaning : ~
'· w
A. mo ving shadow windo

S o me ou~door object a fte r a hea\·y fa ll of cling ing s n o w.
~'. Th e C hn s.t mas tree : as I sa w it on C hri s tm as Eve, a nd as I
sa \\ it a ft e r ward in M a rch , cas t .in to a vaca nt lot.
4 Humming -birds that vi s it ou r h on eysuckl e.
5· T h e s un looks o ut th roug h a rift in th e cl o uds .
6. S kimmin g ove r th e ice.
7· Th e sw imming pool. o r Th e s wimming ta nk.
8. 1\ wa lk ove r d ry leaves, or pin e- nee dles, or c ru sted s no w.
9· W hat o ne o f my pe ts loo ks like .
..,

,[

CHAPTER X

o n ti ie g rass. or o n th e c urta in

ti

TWO KI NDS OF DESC RI PTIV E WRITI NG

I

Ir
TH E knowled ge of words and of fi g ures of speech
acquired in the p recedin g ch a pters s hould g ive interest to fresh work in desc ription .
A descri ption may r ep resent fac t a lone or may embody both fa ct and fee lin g . Dryden say s o f Sh akespeare ,1 "When h e describes anythin g, yo u more th a n
see it, you fee l it too." Th e term rnf!jecti71e desig na tes
descriptive writin g th at co nveys fee lin g as we ll as fa ct,
while obj ccti·uc desig nates th at whi ch reco rds fac t a lone.
Wh at is obj ecti ve deals with obj ects or fact s; wh at is
subj ective, with sta tes of mind or feeli ng.
l LLUSTRA TI O NS

T h" fir,t nf th P rn1lnwing, r1 Psrri p1i n ns rl e:i ls with fac ts alo ne .
_Contrast it wit h 3, page So. in to whi c h !·(uskin lus put his 0\\"11
· supreme delig ht ; with th e foll ow in g 11 , \Y hi ch po rtrays wh a t a trave ller going alo ng th e way descr ibed wo ul d fee l : a nd wit h II I. page
¢.whic h re prese nts th e boy's h orror.

I. Look up a nd d own thi s s id e o f th e g lacie r. It is co ns ide ra bl y
riven, but as wp :ul v;.ince th e crevasses \\' ill dim inis h , and we s h:ill
find very fe w o f th e m a t th e o th e r sid e. No le t hi s fu 1 lul urc use.
The ice is a t firs t dirt y ; but th e dirt soo n d isa ppea rs, a nd you
1

"An Essay on Drama ti c Poet ry ."

'JS

Interest
grows witt.
knowled ge

Subjecti ve
a nd obj ecti ve description

Obj ective

a nd
subjedir11"•

defin ed

DESCRIPTION

PRINCIPLES OF RHETORIC
come upon the clean crisp surface of th e glacier. You h;n·e already
noticed that th e cl ean ice is white, ;ind that from a distance it
resembles snow rath er than ice. . . IVill!in the glacier the ice is
transparent.
JOllN TYNDA I.I. : "Passai:e lo the Montanvert.•
I I. You fare along. on some narrow roadway, through stony
labyrinths; huge rock-mountains hanging over your head on this
hand, and under your feet on that ; the roar of mountain cataracts,· .
horror of bottomless chasms ; - th e very winds and echoes howling
on you in an almost preternatural manner. Towering rock-barriers.
rise sky-high before you and behind you, and around you; intricate
the outgate ! The roadway is narrow; footing none of the best.
Sharp turns th ere arc, where it will behoove you to mind your ·::"'
paces ; one false step and you will need no second; in the gloomy
jaws of the abyss you vanish, and the spectral winds howl requiem.
Somewhat better are the suspension bridges, made of bamboo and
leather, though th ey swing like see-saws: men are stationed with
lassos, to gin you dexterous! y, and fish you up from the torrent, if
you trip there.
T!IO~IAS CARL\" J.F.: "Dr. Francia.".
Ill. . . . And so, . . . I came to an opening in the bushes,
where a great black pool lay in front of me, whitened with snow
(as I thought) at the sides, till I saw it was only foam-froth.
And the look of this black pit was enough to stop one from
di\·ing into it, even on a hot summer's day, with sunshine on the
water; I mean , if the sun ever shone there . As it was, I shuddered
and drew back; not alone at the pool itself, and the black air there
was about it, but also at the whirling . manner, and wisping of white·:
threads upon it in stripy circles round and round, and the centre ·
R. D. BLACKMORE: .. Lorna Doone."
still as jet.
EXERCISES

I. Consider the following work : I.

a. A

DESCRIPTION OF TllE

\V AV TO MY ROCK

(\Vritten to convey fact rather than feeling .)
. Follow the north road from the station until a group of pine-trees
is found on the left. Two of the trees have been blazed. Turn into ·

97

You will soon see a cottage with a huge rock
Climb to the top of this rock, scramble halfway down
·its face, sink into the natural chair that you cannot miss, and dream
until hunger brings you back to everyday life.
b.

DESCRIPTION OF THE ROCK AS A PLACE FOR REVERY

(Intended to show feeling for the place.)
The rock on the hillside is a place for rest and dreams. A worn
·part of it- where the Indians that once lived on the hill continually
leaned as they watched from this, their lookout - makes a comfortable niche for the back. The shadow of the rock gives shelter from
intense light. vVithin easy reach of my hand are the bayberry and
sweet-fern, while the entire hill is soft with green grasses.
My eyes never tire of looking over the far reaches of sea. Slowmoving ships carry me to distant lands. I join man y a gay party as
little sail-boats glide by . My life takes the motion of the passing
craft. Everything seems so idle, so care-free.
But the water becomes once more a vacant stretch of blue. The
lapping on the shore, the little gurgling brooks that rnn among stones
to the sea, close my eyes. My castles in Spain grow more splendid,
\ and I reach my heart's desire.
[So is not a synonym of 11ery; it should not be used as an intensive word. The last sentence of the second paragraph would be
stronger if the intensive words were omitted. Note that paragraph
1 b opens with a topic sentence and develops by means of an enumeration of reasons . How do paragraphs 2 and 3 develop?
2.

THE DRIFTWOOD FIRE

(Description embodying fact and feeling.)
What was the subtle fragrance that greeted us as we crossed the
threshold - a fragrance that seemed to carry one away to far-off
lands in the mysterious East, to the rose gardens of Hafiz and the
spicy shores of Ara.by the Blest? It was not the odor of carnations,
though I caught the gleam of a great "glass bowl on the table by the
window, filled with the rich red blossoms. black-red in the gathering
e;Ioom; nor was it the odor of incense curling up with the wreathing

D ESC J{ IPTI ON

PRINCIPLE S OF RHETORIC
s moke-thre;i d from the j oss-stick b ..
!311ddha o n th e ma ntel N . . "t
tll lll ng befo re th e littl e bronze
.
'
·
o, 1 was so n1 e th1n <r mo r ti
1
. .
)eh111d
them
back
of
ti
.
,.,
e 1a n t 1ese,-- •
I
.
'.
ie m, yet c1om1nat111_<T th em.
WI1at was it? It was th e fi . 0 f I 11··r
"'
.
.
Sce nts of · .
I d ·. ·. i e
c twood burn111g on the hea rth.
pine a nc ce at hom th e woods of M .
.

~;1~v~;: 1~~d0 ;1 ~~:;e~s a;~c;1 acin_namo1;. stor~d thr:t:;~; I~~~;::~:~!:~!
1

11

the grea t d eep; tr~plcal ~~~~-: ~ ~~~ · ~~-k~~;I salt sea smells from
t_h ei r driftwood coffins at th e touch of
th ese
agarn Ill th e warm twilig ht.
ie sp111t, a nd hved

1

fro1~

·;h~i, ~II.

~ose

[Th e first
op ens 111t
,· I1 an 111quiry
.
. stw"esting ti
. pa raaraiJh
"'
grap,
'=: . .
1e para1 topic, and develops by answerinc:r I . .
way. How is ti
cl
.
"' t i,1t inquiry in a negative
mbtile.]
1e secon paragraph developed ? Define mbt/e and
3·

NEV IN'S "01' 1J E LT A"

(A description intended lo I10 Id

for th e mu sic.)

.

·

some t1nng of th e writ_er's fe eling

It sta rts in E min or, and before it has )r
.
made you see Opheli a. Tired with h ,) oceeded many bars it has
boughs of the trees s he is s"tt"
a n,,,ing ga rlands o n the pendent
· 1 ma o n o ne of th e
' ·
I I
stretch across th e brook H .
g na r ec trunks that
for the I" I
.
e1 ace is still beauti fu l, but cold! so.
ig 1t of reaso n has faded from it and it is li k . I
y. '
- cold, so ull ess, immobi le A
·
e t 1a t of a statue
1 .
and from th e nerveless fi.
s sl1e sits, she stretches out her ha nd
waters of the brook
~1gers t 1e blosso ms drop and strew the
·
ev111 caua ht these bl
I
caug ht th e expression of ti
"'
.
osso ms as t 1ey fell. he
wa1;dered idly to ~ nd fro I ie vacakn_t face an d th e thoughts that
'
' a wavs see mg so metl ·
it. But sudde nly somethi
· ·
·
· lin g, never reac hing
·
ng passes over her 1 Tl
·1 f
see ms s wept away _ and
ie ve1 o madness
·
II
.
' '
'
vou 11a ve a ]Jaae of
chords th a t lift you u
.t'I
'o
marve ous major
P w1 1 t1iem up
·1 1
beg in _to modubte; you fe el that th ~ v i1
unt1 - ) lit now they
only lifted, it falls sl ow! a .
. e_ ias not b ee n torn away,
ness and dej ecti~n· th a: _ga11l1 unt1kl, w1t\l a d eepe r feelin g of sad. .
' } ou 1a ve now n before .
~ I
smkmg back into t he cl.
' } ou ee yourself
begun to hold firml y ev~~ary ~n~no~o-ne; th e Aowers th at she had
Ophelia's fin ge rs. ~ h ere i~oy u y. rop o nce more, unh eeded , from
wailing of women mingl ed a ·~~;u~e, and th e n it see ms as if the
.
w1 t ie sound of wa te rs . It grows

f: . .

N

tt,

99

fainter and fainter a nd fin a lly dies away; but o ne dee p mufA ed to ne,
like a bell tollin g for th e clcacl, co mpl etes th e story- and th e piece.
[Wou ld not I be more fearless th an y01t, lines 2 , 12, etc.? A
writer is likely to be more careful in hi s s tatemen ts when he acknowl. ·edges th a t thoughts a nd feelings are hi s than wh en he hid es behind
.you or we. vVhat is th e ex.act mean ing of reac!ti11g ? Study th e
seventh sentence with reference to unity. Should it be reconstructed?
Give a reason fo r yo ur answer to th e preceding question . . In th e last
sentence of 3, does it stand for wailing or for sound.? Give cohe rence to the sen tence by usin g a noun instead of it. ls th e repetition
of feel nece ssary? Wh enever such repetition is not des irable, find
a substitute for feel.]

II. So write a paragraph about one o f th e subjects in the
following list that a ny o ne see kin g th e place re fe rred to will be
able to r ecogni ze it from your description; write a second
paragraph in such a way that th e r eade r will b e te mpted to
go to th e spot. In th e first paragraph, facts will be enumerated; in the seco nd the re must be feelin g, makin g him who
reads d esire to visit the place described. In th e fir st exercise
details will probably be grouped acc ording to localit y; in th e
secontl , accordin g to the effec t th ey h ave. In writing the
desc riptio n , re m e mb e r th at speci fi c a n d imita tiv e words and
·epithe ts m ay give strength a nd swiftn ess to the work; a nd
that figures of speech, if na tural and appropriate, will add to
its life.
1.
2.

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9
10.

Th e place I choose for reading or fo r study.
\Vh ere 1 wish to build my house.
The course ove r whi ch I like to sail.
A corner of our schoolroom.
Wh ere l go for my d ay-d reams .
The room in which our club meets.
Th e best place for our te nnis court.
A nook in the park .
My favorite tree.
The hillside o n which violets grow .

Utilize
knowledge
of words
and o!
figures of
speech

139

NA RRATION

not the murd erer. His country m e n g ri e ved fo r Jbyku s. Soo n
le g a th er ed fo r th e co ntes ts in th e a m p hith eatre. a c ircul a r
ture, open to th e sky a nd seating thirty t h o usand people. One
anoth er th e p rizes we re awa rd e d . At las t it wa s a nno unced
a represe nta ti o n o f t h e F uri es by a ch o rn s of fifty pe r f., rrne rs
d conclude th e progra mm e. T he F11ries app"arccl, -- w ith pale
a nd with wri th ing se rpe nts instc·arl of h:1 ir. - :rncl circled
d t he th ea tre. cha n ting: "'\Ve il for him w h o . fr ,·c froc11 crimes ,
s his sou l pure as a chi ld 's. for him we lhrc n"t :q1pro:wh.
~ging; bu t woe t o hi m th:tl di cl secretly tlw drcadf11l eked of
·nrdcr. \\'c foll"'•; h is fn11ts!f'p'-' n i~ hl 1 n rl rhy . If IH' thinks tn
pc bv flight. we t:ckc wirc .g s and ensnare his f11giti vc feet. \\'c
\ (') \ -..:li.!d · "'· : l id 11• :t
! lit·11 • \•:ill \\' 1· \ 1: 1111
ill(' l>;1ck;::rn111HI. J\ !lock "f
Tlic1· d :trkc11 e cl the sky . 1\

CH A PTER X IV
NAlrn. ATION
Definit ion

.

N ARl{ AT ION

1111:1gi1 1.cd
The storv
\VJt

h . i!nrl

wHlwut, a
plot

is th e te llin g of a se q uence of

eve nts, ma king a story.

flf diffc1·, ·11l ·'-'ci i· 1··".
· · '° . .
t< 11 c·:-;:1mp 1,.
l ravels" a u d "Robin son Crusnc" have
,
stead ily interestirw
s
tli
.
[
I
l
3
'
o ' ·
C\ 1111 o (
wh il e "i\ T1l 1· r1I '] 1'. 11 Citic:;,"
•
. . .Stnncs

'.'\!"('

Sir

J,;11 1ii

rCi l "

--

;1 stnr1· I I, I

YLT;;c - ~

<>;( .(_

I

L1cli "f the f" ll1J\\ i1w · . ,, .. I .
"
/ l,li .I .~ I ,l /l 1.s

graµhs
111

. .

' . • . c

l 11 11l1s/11-~

IS

the t1 t·J---·
'- ·'
igiit be m;ulc i11to .s [,- 11 -1·,....

"

r
·

,f

.

.

,'...;I \ ' L'S ill:ticrtaJ

ti 1t.:1

i111·icl uits

' 11· 1[ IJ c/ i !il :t.\es.

EXERCISES

I. Select fro11 1 th e
th;i t pleases yon

II.

111r 1st.

Learn all th:it

ri-·11·agra p Iis,

ur from tl1c: list, the

1·" 11 i·:ni :i buut

·

··

f<»r ,.'

, 1l

\1

(

11

I~

I

(

11i '. ]

11

1.11~i:lllri

ic.us. II\ exci:1i111inl( tii:11 lie li .1ci

j

j

ti:
Iii -

111 !10th

J· JJ111inp; the f litt Hilf·rl \', "' . \\ 1r I 11c:l.11 1,I I ,;,J si1 ·c:·· \fl l.·.,1.1is .
a rich little k1\\ !I ' l]l 1!i1· '~1 · ,1(·,uc.; t ()I 1--1 ; \ j j(_'('·.
T lit
: 1 1.~_~lr:; li Lilt'\','
that Calais ..,.,.a_"i tlw \\ ·r.\· <i(l1i1- \\hic! 1 \\111: ! d .~i\·c tlit·ill :1t1111i . . . ,~j (11 1 11)
France. J\ccordi11.~l\·. Ld \1.- :nd I ! 1. :·di· r ;11.!11~; 1:i1t( 11
hid ~ i · ·· t' f 1l
the town. Thl' people \\'CIT !11:1 1-c :rncl enclm,·cl tlir ci<'c:·,. f1i r :1 yc:rr.
unti l Uy st~n\" :~t i1; 1 1 i11d ir 11('--'"' t1H. 'Y \\t·1· (!ri\ · .. 11 ! 1 --;j:111 · 11d ··1
1;1 11
1

the

chuoc1 1 i1 w idC'nt.

I· Different t rihcs uf (;' '"'lC \\e n · to uni If' .
111 f cs tal games
Corinth. JI1_1 Irns , a si1wr1 11 IS l, l I
tl
-.. . .
' ,i- , p,11 t i 11 1111· cont est~
11· 11:n I~ lite m ec t1ng -pL1 cc he 11as illllldered in :r >in c.. •
hn 1nan lw1ng sa w lilf' deer!. h11t ll11·!-c1s ··111. I
I a . g-rove.
fl ,·
.
· ' · c. rc 11 1'"" a 11()ck of
)111govcrh cad, to 1Jetray h 1s;is.sassin s
T l,
·J
•
1

-

;, \l llH' t >lll'.

i1 1)

. l:lt :>!IC' l ' t:c'cl S the p ;1rJ·
"

lilt~ t!,Uiity.

it:t ve
·

.

tl

'l lie en' i)l:tra ve<i

r 1: ! .'.--..'. { . (~. j

:1 story 11 ith :1 c li 11n :-; · tli. I ·t t i

'

1

Seven G:th!c~." "~
' I· 1 :l .S "id :t rn rT,".
suprc111e ir1lrre;;I , :t cli iri ":.

'•
"''

c 1nr" c er was d1smv

l::dward was an~1 _1· I H ·c.ill.'l' tl1 ,·v l1ad "" 1'1nl( ill Id ""t ".!.'.-linst l1in1.
- and dccidccl lo puni s lt them sti ll f11rlher . I le scn l tl 1c m th e nH' "'".!.'. C
that he would ll()t niq- th e siel(e un l il s ix ,,f lite r ic h es t l11!rl(i lf'rs
1ppeared h e fnre hi1n ll'ith li:iltns a rt11 11H! tllf'ir 111 ·cks. :inrl l1r-:11iw'.
keys of th e cit_1·. J\ l\ H'el ing \\:l s :tl lc cl :111rl sic-: 1· «l111ilcTn·d lo
.·eo, St. l'ierrc hcin~ tltc first lo offrr . \Vl\f'11 . l< ;t rcfuflkrl :llld with

140

l'RfNCf PLES OF H.HETOHJ C

N.1\!{J{ :\TlON

the. h alters arou nd th e ir neck s , they appeared befo re the king to
deliver th e k?s.' .he would have had them I?Ut to d eath at once, had
not .Queen I.l11hp1~a, touched by the sad sight. p lea d e d for, and
obtamecl, their deliverance.

List of f11a d ents

r. Balboa's arril'al in Am e rica. or
2.

Ba lboa's death .

(F'isk e·s "D isco1·ery of Ani e rica . " )

3· The Oregon" to the frnnt" frnlll ar,,111.1d tli c Cape. ·
4. \Val.ter H;d e igh spreads his 1·lua k IJeftne i)1« ·i:n Eli zabeth .
(The Enghsh hi s tories.)

•

.

•

r .

. .

,

.II 1sto .:- o fF'1 a1Hc,
EngLmcl . " )

••

_

·

•

(!"; uiznt's "I !i s torr o(

b

\ ul. ]\., p ...p .

W here

to

C()nsiilcr

not been
el ab orat ed

Ever y
composi tion
should bav e

its purpose

the incident sele cted in response to f, 11;1,c:;e 13 ~. \Vhy
sho uld it be told? Uther things happened \1hid1 11assecl
in to oblivion; thi s eve nt, th o ug h 111i1wr, 1vas clm111i c lcd

·

1\

i11 1111/s

In studying des c ription, it wa s dis c r1\'C rcd that the

Every composition s ho ulrl ha\· e it s pmp nse.

8. Th e m eeting .,f the thrcr kings '"' t he h eld ., f t h" Cloth of
\.old . (C;uiz ot's "I li stcin .,f hwhnd." \·,,1 J J I 1 ,(' · •

li

merely out lined; it is less dilii c ult then to rete ll it ;is a ston·

charac ter of the wurk 11as det e rn1i11cd Ly its 11urpu se .

5 · How J\loncl el found King Richard. (Chambe rs's
p;icclia. l\Iycrs·s ' · C e n.-ral History. ")
6. King A l fr ed and l he ':tl,·cs·.
(\J
'"
: nntgninl'ry·s
England.")

7. Charlemagn e and lhe b zv princes.
Fr;1nce.··i

Greek and Roma n hi s tori es t ell of 111an y intn cs li11g llCct11n·mcs,

such as t h e g ivin g of ea rth and wale r to th e i'e rs i;111 e n vo ys . the [~~~d~~~~r
'"" saving of J{om e by the geese. the e scape of 1lippias from assass i11a- tion, th e lashing of the l lell e sptJnt uy tJrdcr of Xe rxes . lncidrnt s
may. be found in Frank Sto ckt o n's" St o ri ('s uf \lc 11· Jerse.1·." Ld11;mf
Eggl es t o n 's " First Bu u k i11 1\111crica11 I li s tu 11·." :\ liss Yu11gc's " 1\ P refe r
Book of Golden Deeds,'' a11d l\Ltrgucritc l~ o 111· ct '.s " T ;il es .,f :u1 1 l id 111 c 1ct cn t s
Chat e;rn. " It is clesiralJle, h o11c 1·cr, tu use :in t·1T11t that l1;<s 1,,·1·11 t hRt have

•

J.

.)1 •

d llZOt S

lont('.<>!Jll·n.,, ·'llist, 1ry of
·

9 . 1-'rcdcrick J~;1 il; ;1riJs <. ; ;l :111d 1J 1,_. r:n.·Pn<.; .
,\J.,11 h·s · · 1liswric:ti ·1 :ilrs ." )

becau se it is s ig nifica11t.

J<alci ;:-:11 spreads hi s

If the in c ident he "\\';1J tcr

c lo ;1k lief ore (~tl'.:t:n F!iz :1 licth," it

rn :iy ill ust r:1te the \·:1lu e uf an alert m i11d.

( ( Jr:i rn! irrc;\..; Enc\··

clup:uli:1.

Io . Th e upc ni1Jg uf tl1e d y kes d111 i1 w the sii·gc o f
(l\.fotl!'' )"s "Rise c• f the Tl11 t cli l\ri1 1il ,Ji, , .. \\J i. J J .)
11. Th " Stnn· ,, f \ri(ln
(l~ : :lfin c l: · , 1 ·\1
... )

EXEl?ClS E

State in one sentence . if possil>lc. what the incident selected Unity i

I.

in respon se to I. p;igc r 3'"• means t" 1·rn1. The: sta k «1c11l l<L«ic
will r''i ' ri ";s ,., 11n thcm r r 11~t'T .~ 1.
I 1 nr1 nthrr thl'ml' ]1:· 11 11m
duced. tlte work will have unitv; f"r· ;1s l1:1 s lJccn s:1id, rnwm·ss
o f lh uu gJil in th e :iC lll Cll<l' , Ulll'/l l'SS uf tu j•i r· Il l llJC j':lr:1,:.;r:11,J1,

2.

and 011e11 css uf theme in l h c e ntire co1<11'os1ti(l11 insur e 1111ity.

The Diule wnla ins m ateria l for the fol lowi ng ·
T he clisu w n .v u f Jos eph l<> liis hrrthrcn .
The finding of Moses.
3· The ln«ning ln1s lt.
4 . Samson 's riddl e .

5· The d eath "f S:imsnn.
6. The handwriting on th e '"a ll.
7· lJadd pours m<t the water l1rn1<g lit from the spring.
8 , Th e d cs tru c t1un of l'ha r;1uh 's liust.

In st ory-telling- it is helpful n o l u 11]\· to kn r1 \\' o nc· s
th eme. but al s o to ha\T thought out a s ui L1ble titk . Th e
appropriate title nny not, however, reveal it self al first;
but the theme should be clear lu the writer before he
bcgi11 s his \lurk .

t hr i.'ll t 1 P
ccimpo ::: tion
fl

!1<\

! II

t

<.;

ll.l Yl S ! OllS

Kno .,•: the
theme . and

if possible
tlle t 1tle ,
befor e
beginni n g

a story

PRINCIPLES OF RHETORIC

NARRATION

EXERCISE

Discuss the

~~llow'.ng statements of i~cident, t heme, and title,
I

If you are familiar with the inc idents referred to . '
themes and titles.
I.

II.

~cid ent. -

The sav ing of J ohn Smith 's life by Pocahontas.
.1eme. - And fl little c hild s hall lead them.
Title. - In th e Nick of Time.

Incic~e nt. - Walter Raleigh spreads his cloak before Q
Ehzabeth.1

Th eme. - Grace and a qt11'ck
the quiver of a states man.
Title. -The Magic Carpet.
II I.

' sug ges t ot 1er

ueen

't
WI are powerful arrows in

InEcidl'enbt. -I Walter Raleigh spreads his cloak befo re Queen
1za et i.

T~ eme. - Great oaks from li ttle acorns grow.
Title. - How a Cloak Helped to Make a Ma F
.
' n amous .
IV. Incident. -The finding of King Richard by Bl d l
Th
F · hfi
on e.
:::;~· - ait ulness, however handicapped, will make a
Title. - The Second Stanza.
V. Incident. -Anin c1'd en td unng
·
.
the besieging of Calais b
Edward III.
Y
Th:me. - ?reater love hath no man th an to lay down h'15
hfe for his brother.
Title. -The Six.
VI. Incident. - The opening of th e d k
Th
y es.
eme. - The patriotic Dutch would 1·.atl1er
give their .
·
.country to th e sea th an to the enemy.
Title. - Why the Sea was Let In .
VII. Incident. - An incident of the siege of Leyden.
Theme. - A trust must be kept whatever the cost
Title . -Th e H eroism of Van der Werff.
.
I Sir Walter Scott, in Chapter xv of "Kenilworth " tells .
. . . d
way the story of Walter Raleigh and his cloak.
'
m a spmte

.

143

VIII. Incident. -The Children's Crusade.
Theme. - ·whoso shall offend one of these little ones
which believe in Me, it were better for him that a millstone were hanged about his neck and that he were
drowned in the depths of the sea .
Title. - The Ch ildren of Disappointment .
IX. Incident. - How the Tarpeian Rock came b y its name.
Theme. - Traitors are despised even by those whom they
help.
Title. -The Name of the Rock.
X. Incid ent. - The warning given by the geese at Rome.
Theme. - Though ma n sleep, his gods are to be reckoned
with.
Title. -The Gods Watch.

XI. Incident. - The finding of Moses.
Theme . -The hidden kindness and sympathy of a proud
heart may be brought to lig ht by the wants of a little
child.
Title. - A Child Alone on a River.

XII. Incident.-The finding of Moses.
Theme. - Nothing is risked wh en you leave in the Lord's
hands what you cannot do yourself.
Title. -The Coming of the Prin cess.
XIII. Incident. -The finding of Moses.
Theme . -All things work together for good.
Ti tle. - The Cry of the Child.
[Although the three compositions on the find ing of Moses treated Honesty
gives origi.
of th e same incident, yet, as each writer selected the particular phase nal results
of th e subject th at most appealed to him, his results were quite his
own . The two compositions about Raleigh also were very unlike,
because one writer considered the value of quick wit and th e oth er
the effect that a trifling act may have upon one's future .]

In attempting to make a story, if a writer has found his
material and has stated to him self his purpose, he has

Know the
climax

144

accomplished a g ood deal. The next step to take, pro.
vided his story h as a plot, is to cl'ecicl e wh a t is its point ~;

<:

Where the
climax may
come

Other
material
and the
climax

of greatest interest; th a t point will, of co urse, be the
climax. The climax of a work need not be at its end;
it should not, howeve r, come so far from the close of a
composition th at \ vhat follows it becom es uninteresting. ,

. 1 h lei be clear yet it
[Alth ough _the s_ubolrdi;::~e;ate~1~h:p~uconcisely or' swiftly
.
J
should be so mgemous Y r '
h tt f 11 it ought to 11ave .
. ~that it claims onl! t e a en I~
l tails elaborate it as the
VI. If yo ur out\ me has too ew c e , . '
.
l
6 was elaborated.
outline on pages 145 anc 14

The c limax of a story is the a uthor's g uide i~ selecting ,
m a te ria l. H e will us~ only what helps h is climax. In ·
"Silas Marner," the climax - Ep pi e's c hoice of Marner .
- is emphasized by the facts that G odfrey, years before,
h a d th e opportu nity t o claim Ep pie as a baby, but refus ed it, a nd that Marn er has his sorely la m en ted gold
- the tre asure which once filled his life - restored,
before h e is con fronted with the pos sible loss of Eppic.
,,.
(See page 7.)
EXERCISES

I. Decide what shall be the climax of your story.
[The work required in the rest of these exercises is to be
clone onl y in outline. Similar work prepared by oth er students
is represented on pages 145, 146, and 147.]
II. Make a list of the, material coll ected for yonr story.
III. Study your list of material with reference to its climax;
reject what does not in any way bear upon the clim ax.
IV. So arrange the material retained that the work will have
an order, a sequence. This may be done without rewriting, by
merely numbering each bit of material to indicate the proper
orde~
·

145

NARRATION

l'RI NC IPLE S OF RHETORIC

·

OUTLINES

I

1
Th e c rnel co mmand.
3· \Nhen the child was horn to Amrarn :rnd Jo c 1,1 1· 1>Cl
4·
there \Yas not pe rfec t happin ess I ll th e hu1m:.
anrl ch:irac\er.
. .
, . . hC'ir a<>c
t; . ~ l iri:im anc 1 na1on. 1
.~

o. The nnking of tht'

V. Be sm e that yom clim ax is emphasized,
~~~II~~
things are subordi nat ed to it. Th en the work will h:we proportion.

li:~sk e t.

I· Launchi ng the basket.
8. Miriam·s vigil.
.
·er· th e JJa\ace.
g. Th e beauty of the s cene; ll ie m '
10. \Vhy the Princess was there.
11 .
.
12

3.

14.

.-

144)

Incid e nt. -The finding of Moses.
lo th e h eart of the
. Tl ieme. - 1-Iel1Jless ness always appeals
" eternal feminine."
Ti tle -AL Daybreak.
.
. I . The Euypt ians' oppress ion of the l sraehtcs.
~ · The n;;v P haraoh h;i.cl forgotte11 J oseph .

l

"'
·

(S ee I, page

Consider
subordinate
material

15.
6
I

.

17 .

H er maids.
Th e sig htin~ ,,f the basket.
Tlw L~nclin g ol the basket .
The ~ilop ti on.
T he namin g of th e child.
Miriam approaches .
.
. f
. l . 11 othcr of the crreat happmess.
S h e 111 orms 1e1 1
"

Description o f th e law and th e king.

I. \Vh:it
· went on ·111 ;rnrI a l)ill l t tlie child's home.
JI.
Th e home ,,here the child WC\" horn.
Before light, the rushes a re gathered.
3· The bask et: of mud inside a nd co:tkd

J.

2.

4· ' \' li e proct..· :-:....; i()l\ to tlw ri\Tr.

5

'fl1e J;n111chinc; of the li ttle ba rk.

~ .

.
''ii

Ii

t.11 .

.

' \ '!

Climax

The outline
more in
de tail

"

·• '·

qG

l'l{/:\Lii'LL~ UF l<lll ·:TO f<. IC
It l

LJ7
Th e l1c:iu1if1ii p:ihcc.

'- .\:'l1r the l'ri11 ccss '"" ' rl 1\clli 11g th en"
., l IH' l';_u ! (J{ t lw j J.i/:tu· sc"11 11-l>lll
.
.
'
t/i c ri vcr.
IV . I II(' fate o f t h1· l<;1.skt'I
1

The littl" l>:hi«·t 1,1, rt· " j(ltl r·r ic_\
M iriam 's l"okrnil.
3· \Vhat dav it w :i s .
0

4· Th e Prince.'1t; "l'l"·o:ic hcs.
5· \Vhy she chose til;lt si>ot '<ii· I
6 1
" >atliing .
. 'ht> s ighting n f the lias kcL

a . It was st rand ed i11 th e r11shl's.
(; _ A maid ap pro:i ch es the lnsl·ct
7· The landing.
' ·
8. Tht: l'ri11,.,.,, """"'·e r' ti I I
9· The child crii·s .
. ie >as (t'l,

f'lw P rin cess 11 :1 1n"s the cl1ild
1\l"·'l'S ( .1/o ~ irat er,
!!
s:J\ 1»1) .
rr . ~li1i:i111.1 1 •111 -. i:11i ws:111d . .. ,.
- .
10.

a

l !l ir_....;t · .

S jl t

.t \.s to

di(' l)1 in cc.l:-; ;i lJout

\I . \\ ' I. l.l t f,,jJ, rn s Iii" iPci<J , 1Jf .·1f (ii <' ti \ -l_T.
1
· The- hut. 11itl1 1111' 11101 i, ,. .
1 \\"('t'jlillg.
2 . The f'1thrr; lhe son.
3· Miri:1m nish es in.
4· Happiness.

5· The mother goes .

II. l11cident'. - ·1·1ll' COllllil"Of
·
\\'ill' ·

Theme . - How a clear"'! ~ - l i.un tl1c Ci>1 H jll <Tor· to 1-: 1Jgi:11Jd.
" ic.i c a11d · 1 stc:id
.
Eng lan d's hist, 11 -1._
•
· Y purpose 1nfi11enccd

A final outline given
in deta11

Titl e . ~ ::

Spm :111~1 a Si lke n Tl 11";1d.
1. \V 11!1arn·s shiµ . . ·
· ·
u ussrng the E n ..,lis h U1ann._.l.
T. Th e day.
"'
" The s liiµ .
3- D11kc \\'iJJiain.
II. Down in th e hold R o bert na11( \\in
_. E
.
.
' Jlli-Ji
t h e sailors s t _.
,.., ·s!in i:in, is
te 11·mg
· · o n es a 1Jout sup ers! it io ns.
j

1

The histori cal account has 1 ,
_
, . •cen so mew hat alt ere d.

llri ef rl cs ui 1>1 i"11 ,,f :
T hc hu ld .
b. The s:iil"rs I h..rc.
r. J\:iJci11i11 l1i11 N ·if.
111. ,\ h tc r s cc11 e in 1; :il d11i11 "' '"" ill
1 . J;a Jih,i n and S ir lZicli:ml ll :inl 1l11111 1 i l 1 it t i11 .:~ ;1_g.1i11 .-;t
\Villi ;1111.
2 . The plot.
IV. Ni.u:ht before \\.illi:1m land s .
r. I k c;cr ipli•m ,,f c;cc ll cs "" shij' .
., llarthburl ;111cl f;;i!dll'in hyinu: tll\'i r s1i:1rc ,, f silk""
thread in th e l;uw of the sm:ill l1,,;1l t lut is t" i :1r 11·
\Villi:1111 I« sh«rc.
V . \Villi:11n c1nli;1rkinu: f,,r shrn 1'.
I. Sli u;ht rn n trn\-c rc; y :ts l" ,.,·J wth cr 111' s h:1ll 1•; 1· ,ir his
I.

rl .

s purs or 11ol.

a . l .:i11fr:1n c \Y;1r ns l1 i1 11 111 1! t 11 11 111 ! h r' l n ~~11
;._ 1;:1lrk in li11 ;1 ll\ 111 r su: 1dcc; l1in 1
tl1c111
2 . l·:,,ili:1r k:1t io ll.
a. \ \' illia111 sta 11 ds i11 th e Ji,,,.,. nt t\,,. IJ,,;; t l'" U: ' r \,,
j11rnp uff the 1nin11 te th e lio:it trllll'i)(' s s h"n"
/1 . La 11f1;111c :1g:i i11 11 a 111 s \\ illi :1ll1 nf tr1·:11 l1.-r1·
,._ \Villiall1 ju m ps. liccn llll'S c 11 l:ll! t:; icd in th""""" of
thrc;1d . and falls spra\\'ling upo11 till· L nglish
beach.
VI. Scq1"'l.
l. Lxch1n~tio n s of horror frnrn s:1 ilo1:; , rn;idc· cll JH'r'litiuus !>1· lbl rh1 i11.
2. (l11ick rec,,1·en· l)f \Villi;111J.
3. His chanQing of the intcrprct:t tion of his :iccidcnt.

I«"""'"

Many sto ri es keeµ readers 1ll su spen se until the
climax; hint at deve lopm ents; an d h a\·e a g-oo d deal
of mm-cment. T hey so caref ull y re .L;:ml the clim a\
that, when it co mes , th e re:u le r ma v pen-eive th e reaso11
for all the re st of the work, perceive tha t dc sniptions,

What
~tories

may do

1·1.; 1;\l/ / '/,I-,') ()/."

l'ill<l1J/ <l1 '

14')

co111·c rs:11 i 111 1 ~ , etc., :11 1 ha1·c he lped to lll:1kc the climax

pos .~i hl c a 11d int crcst i11g.

EXEFlCISES

/11 l/1c Jirst chapte r of" l hr f f,,,1,P nf th1• _c; , ..,c 11 (;;iii/ cs,"'
! Li11l/1,<111 c 1•pcll l_1 all 11dc., 111 l li t· :i ll CCs lcns of hi .-< cl1:1r:ictus ;is sowing" th e ;tcnrns uf ;i 11 11_1rc 1·ll d 1t 1ing gru1\'l/1 , 11 h ic h 1n;iv rhr kly or ersh u low th rir pos terity .. ; lie t hu s leads o ne to ex pf'c t tr:igcdy in hi.1.
rom:rncr .

II. To w;ird th e en d of C hapter vi in" A Talc o f Two C iti es," a
chi e f ch;ir:icte r s:iys, " I li:tve so 111et im cs sat a lone here of an evening, li s te ning, until I ha ve made the ec hoes out to be t he echoes of
all th e fo o tstep s that arc co ming by a nd by into our li ves." The
main pa rt of th e chapte r e nds with thi s inq uiry: " Sha ll we e ver see
such a nig ht again toge th er ? " Dickens ( in a sepa rate detached
parag ra ph that cl oses th e chapter) ;rnswe rs: " P erh a ps . P erhaps,
s ee th e g rea t crowd of p eople. wi th its rus h a nd ro:i r, bearing down
upo n t he m, too." After fi n is hi ng th e s to ry. on e rea li zes tha t in this
chap ter Carton's sa crifi ce al so is foreshadowed.
Ill. Th e last sentence of the firs t pa ragrap h in C hap ter xiv o(
"Silas Ma rn er" hints a t impo rta nt
to come; s o does
th e following s entence from th e preceding chap ter: "H e rem embered
that las t loo k at his unhappy. ha ted wi fe so we ll th a t at th e e ncl of .
si xtee n yea rs every lin e in th e worn fa ce was prese nt to him wh ea
h e told th e full story of this nig ht. "

cleveloprncnt~

Wh en the

story
begins

The real story does not always begin with th e first
word of a narrative. A story beg ins when something
occurs th at starts a train of consequ ences. If one has
ever set off a string of firecrackers by means of a slow
match, one has had a hom ely i!Iustration of th e statement
just made. Nothing happened in th e ex periment until
the first firecracker was ignited; then a train of consequences followed.

. f ,t
.. " I.·" ,.s. I Jisc11ss tli r ir strong
·
1 r 1· 1· lirw
Rc"ld t he f,, JImv rng
N lltl' that
.
.
. . ,
'
-~·
~lJCTUf'~t
l lll]\l"<)\.'(_'Jll{_ 111 ,.
I the ir we8k frnt1J11 "· , ,.,_,..
. . ..
an1
.
, ·!
\"i"llJ'fll!'; fllr tl1es 1· rr-.1c;r111s
the work ts so1111" iat ,..
... ·· 111· int rllil <wl 1«11s .
·
I
l J 1·c 1111111'1' '''·
.
! e•s p1r
I. Tlw \\"rttcrs I () ] )!) );]
th e i11rp11ry, J1m1n :t1\"
1 r \ . " \\ itli
·
.
,
,
Lcui
1
1s
hi s ".J1 :111 " · I C
.
, . l , statements
[ I Jc ()11lll<.CJ
.--.
,, . . . t 'J'lCqli >ll Cistu1s t 1c
11" 1
I
l tn f licr?
is t o ])('• t ir 111g1 .
. I . .
iu 11 o f J " :lll uf
t lC . CO ll S··11 !"~ J""tt
'
read e r's a lt e 11t1 011 a t u 111 e tlJ Ji Jll
.
·

·ti v<e j llrl"c . ]

Arc, a nd m :1kcs hrm a n ac . .. . ,.. . -c t eve ry thin g th a t d id not Wha t t o use
. II. Th e y h ave Lee n willin g to rei e
.
h . t 0 carry o11t th e ir p mpos c .
a k fo r th e m se lves.
ac tua lly h elp t e m
.
'
.
lize
I ll Th ey le t th e ir c h a r::i. cte rs s p e
·r tl . ar e sure dUtiirect
dis
H.:y '
IV.· Th e y utili ze the l11·storr· c pr cse
. nt te nse r
co u rsc an d

-~ . th a t it is des irabll e to dot so.m ak e

th e hi stor i c

l

t

·ro nm e nt lC

th c lallll- pres ent

C ll V I

V. They c m cavo r o
'
eec h sc ap e, fu rni shings, costume s, sp

fit th e tim e a nd th e Crea t e a

I

su ita ble
back groun d

Be dic
ca ref
ul
P ace.
l s u c h wo rd s as h e lp to con vey th e ir of
ti on
VI. Th ey try t o u se on y d.
I vh e n th e r e is a reason for
rneanm
. g , and to r e p eat wor s on y '

the re p etition.

.
reg ular m e th o rl of
h o ft e n h as n o
[The narrati ve p a rag rap
't f c ts in a n o rd e il y way.
d e ve lo pment. It m a y m e r ely g roup 1 s a
(See page 12 .)J
J. DAMO N A ND P YTHIAS

S acuse a prisoner wai tccl for judgBefore Diony~ius, tyra nt of yr, . '
ly a ccused of treaso n.
•.
ti
P yth aaorean,
wrong
. 1
t
0
ment - P ytlu as, ie
tence _ hi s pun1s imen ,
.
l I , lips came t 1ie se n
From th e prouc ru er s . .
thron loo k to see him shnnk or
death! Now d id th e wa1tmg 1 1 g k ed onl y for a s hort delay,
r 'fied ma n y, ie as
I
tre mble ? Calm, c ig m. ' '. . " Wh ere is th e securit y fo r '. iy
for time to arra nge his affairs.'
.
" I ha1· e a fri end ," replied
d I
ornful Dro ny s ru s .
B t
return ? " ask e t ie sc
. . ~ . • · . ,, Bold s ta tement ! · LI
P ythias, " wh o will pl edge hi s life o1 mrn e .

PFlNClf•Li:s or RII E TUl\ll.

N;\J~ l~J\ TI ON

forth from th e crmrd. to confirm hi s 1rord .' . stcpp"d t he noule Damon;
and eagerly cbimerl the rig ht tll t:i kc l '1 tl11.is s pl.ll e . A p;ining
hand-cla s p. ;1 frw hrief won Is. ;11J d Pyt Ii i•1s 11 ;is g 1111c. le:i 1·ing- Damon
a prisoner in his "tr:irl . pit ied ;1nd s1 ·uil"1·il al by tl1c townspeople.
" H e is a foul ," s:iid they." fn r tl 1e nll11·r 11 :11 "' 1 n 1ctu rn ."
Now lhP swift-'.'>'inc;r·rl h11111 .s IJ..1\ .11111 1111_· d:n.s . tho11gh bri ng-ing
no word f11_11J1 ilre alisrn t ; till :it l: rst the· 1'111_[ d11·11 11c;1r. ;ind Damon,
trustin g still in his fri1 ·11rl's h"11<1r. i"·• ·1i:rn d tn I"') th e penalty.
"He 11ill _11·t he li('rc ; "' · if 111 · 1·1 >r1l(·s 111 1[, ii is 1111· 11i1Jds an d wa ves
that h;1n~ kPpt hi111 ." S11ch 11;1' lii s illya l ;111.s11Lr tu all insinuat ions
of treac/1<'1T.

·
lJi s Ji :1.gc;.1r1\
· j
S/) in s it s tilrny 1Ycl> in p:itJf'nci
·
. l'\CS
A linv s ptcn.
.
nf tlir ;it tr·r 11pt 111 s111n tlw ' 1ist.11111·
11
w:itch
pnsistcnl
I" titi<1ll
I /i s cri ti1 1· irll•'l/dil'. 11c:in· 1i](lll ".hh r I ' "
'
N n. IH1l
1
t > l1< "llll
fr<l lll JC'1ll1
(
' . .
. . ' . ' \\ "I 1t \\Ill t 111.s l 11 1)(
· . 1t i·cil ,11 1 t lie lrt t 11· '""ct.
I
I
est 1s Ct't
. 1 Six ti111es it L1ik i'l1I '11 leng th C.:,ll(tt'-'-' <Jf•\\lh 1h 11l 'H :-. irn
• ·
. .·
. i i 11•]·· iq tl1c L:i1 1\ );rt'(' i' (' .
l)f': ·f;iin·
hrid~c .'- \',:il~:--> i ~' .l' . ,
I ,·1 1·1w11d1·d tl!l \ n11 r
·ts
f
0 r lh t · ~cn11i-.:l1 \H'l l l l ('
() lillk Stlicln. the ak
.
.
· . · l this is tl11· 1 r i.srs nf
'
· . C'(Jl](lllt"lt
•d \11 111....,t
ain· thrc;ul. H111 1' l""
.
. ·I!. ,lJJ(

it~

l

-

'

'

.

'

i · ·I

· 111 · ·11 1 e;1 d, · l1.111hli1 ·d

thcw:ir. ! he 1.. 11.J"c:1.s1.
i
.'» 1·, ·'//l1u·.li111 · (1.:111<1 i 11, 1 1·.1s
. l ;l ]]{. l ,.. fl/IJJ,/J/1
{
['>7Nd /1 117•1·11 , llH' ' . ,
,.
. ,
.
l · i1. 111ii1r's •lllt1 o _..
· ·
- ·
'1c 1iii rri I'·' r:i c;1, i pr" ;i 11· 11 "
' c
.
tfr.'71'1'1 !IS /r1/'rl / .1, I ll II .
- 'II "111 1t 111 si1 111:1111·, tl 1.l t t/ir·\
..
.
'J'I . Ji ·1 \· 1. l HTll t!~l·fl ·"() i!L . . ' ·
I
Yl'S slons.
H·:. ·/ · " , 1-ed . I· i 11 iJ tllr
_ 1lwrr1 s.·r.'"I ' 11 ,• ·stni ri"~ .'~\il• • ·~.1 1 t 1 1ll·:-..
• ·
.
ha1·e lier·"rn1 li.1r ''"
.. '1 .
i11 I ii i.' uJ1111 •1hll t1111 J
ls lire h isto ric ]' l'l»SClll t1'thc u111 LC, I l
.. , . I ..
10

,\nd now llllt :1 (.. ,,. hricf n10111cnts rc rnarn: ;1 .silen t multitude
w:iits to scr tlw t>n d of th is ni:1rl111:111·s f"lly. Th e ase is rcadr. the
hea dsman begins t1 1 hind hi s 1i1't i1n. whl'11 Iii! :i ll.1·ing spl'ck in the
t!ist:111cc. ;1 thick clnnd nf 1\liirii11g rl11st , a clr lk r ,,( '"'"''-,:ind a
horsu n.111, il1-ck .. t1 1rith fna1n. d:i.sl11·s into 1·icw . Nmv the reckl ess
ricll'r lr:1 s 1e 1chcd the in;irkct -place. and g.1.sping. "Still in time,
1
thank lwa1·c11 '' tl11 1J11s l1i111s1·/fi11t<> l> :i rn o11 ·s o11 tst rctcl1<'<I anns.
!\h. loq: too grc:1t f,,r minis! Frun1 tlr1· c_1·cs of caclr Iris soul
looked ou l. :rncl if t1i D:i mon this pul 1lic proof ,,f his fri l' ncl's liunur
was dear indeed, how g-lad was th f' noble P ythi;rs In wclconw death,
his co mrade safe. "A h, f'vthias. now mus t th o u d ie! ., a11d D a mon's
eyes, before ;liight witlr tir e thoug ht , ,f his «1111i11.g .s: 11rific ... fill ed
with tears. Hut." Not so!., ni1·d a voice- tl11• 1·1Ji1·1· 1Jf J >i1J111· ~iU!.
"Lin', 1uya1 h earts ! lil'e on tn tc:ich ns the !cs.s un cf trnefricnrlship. ''
~

.,

{

, ,

<

""ti

.
.· ·f n:nratin~
is in,;crtcd b1T:111o1 ti
The f11ll1l\rn1g
very ln"
.
a sw ift muveme11l that is plcasmg .

3· T11 1·:

Ct(\' OF TtlF

(

1.1.~

'1111 .11

" Cllth· the w:itns 1l ,, 11·cd :
·~\':is ·it pi ti· fllf t /1 c 11111t lwr

ll!{ll('E 1\i\'J) TllE Si'fllt·: I(

A wean•. tr:ivPl-st:1i11erl 11·:u1d. ·11·1. his cl1<1l1c., tnr11 tc tatters by
hram hl es a nd cr;igs. his c1 1·s J;";rn· fr1J111 '"' ' 111 s/1·1· 11. Ir is un1r;1ge
gone bec:l!lsc o f l1:it/l"d l1<111cs :llld :l11 1/iiti"1". - .';iwi1 11:is the ki11g.
To lrirn th e rl1· snlt'rl l1 11t "( ;1 l/i gli/:rn•I .sl1cpiiLTd .s1·1·1;,,.i1 :1 S\\' <'Ct
haven . Exhauskd. Ire flung l1ims1•/f r!<111·11 and sl1 ·pt ii L:11·i!v on th e
pile nf hl'atll<'r in :1 d:uk cnr11 cr oi' tlr" lrt11nldc d11 clli11 g .
Morning lig ht n"''JlS in . ;rn.J '11111!_1 he '11qkc11s. turning- his eyes
to the unfamiliar surrnunrling-s. 111 ;: d:1ze . T hen it :ill comes over
hi111, the wei.t:("hf of his burdc111 ; and he siuk5 Gack, weary with the
thought of war.

g ii l..;;. tht·

]
.

J ' r i11u ."' ·"'

Tlic l' r i11u'.'c:. . '('t·i11 .'..!. t lw
-

her nuids 1•1 l •r i111~ it 111 '""·
.
. 11
\J1 \\"(')( ' fj]]1.'1] \yjJl1 \\ 1i11dt r: \\ l1c1t \\! l\l 1 it L1Jnl»;11 ' /l: rc;"t Iv
thr'1· rrc1Y11"rl round Ill s1. .,c. l .( ) I \\ l1<'1l tiJC\' r:tiscd the tllp, tlrcre

-~·

b1·· a iittlc rhilrl .
..
I"
. "''fis rnw nf tir e il l'l m·11· cl11idr1'11. :1 11 111 .
I . I . 111 d" wl11t J 11ill. "
"lam Fh~ r:wli 's d:i11c; rl<.L ,, t I , J-il!l'd ? TlrP ch rlrl, fright11 11
Shnnld she kc<'p it or· .c:in· rt up
'
. t"tll cd tir e J'rincess .
ened ill· the str:1 ng" f:ic<'.s. cnel.
I Co 1111lassion
"I 11ill keep it!" she cried.

l 'RINCl l'LES OF RHETOl\I C

N ;\!{ IC\T I O N

Th o u ha s t s pok e n we ll , swee t Princess, for g rea t is th e \~·ork ho·«
will perform; he shall lead God's chose n peo pl e fro m th e ir bondage.

Suddenlv th e trum pets IJ!arc rl , a nrl the so und ro lled nn1 nrl th e
great w;ills.;rnrl rli"rl ;rn" y in th e dnn ,g rn ns nnrln lh (' g :1l<'S . Th e n

[VVas it pity, line 2, is hardly cl ea r: · " Did tl1 ey rl o it in pity '' ·
preferabl e. The r epetiti on o f f(Jrced, lin e 4, of there, line 5, and _
cried, lin e r8, is not necessary . Th e wo rd cliild. is used repea ted!
bu t, like l'r i11cess, it has th e effect o f a proper na me and it s repe tition.
is not displ easing.
~

I kn ew that the h nm ha ri come . \VP \\'ere led o ul, my li 1."lhC'r ;rn d
. l, into the a rena. The hum of a million voic.es h ea t the a u-. and tlcr
upo n ti er aro und us rose the multitud e, cla1.1.l 111 g 11~ th e wh1te11ess of.
·.their holidav ra iment. l\ly eyes turn ed tu th e Empernr, lwi g lil ii _y
- mag nifice nt., am! I h"terl him , fnr he \\·;iitccl with lan g uid inte rest lo

"Ii'"''

from the writer ot 3 s;iys : " I h ave spe nt mu c h time trying •
- sec me die. l\l y brot h r r smil r d g riml y, :i ~ chcn ' 11 "' 11
J,m,l
in ci rl e nt and follow the out line . J h:1'"' f:ii l"d. Thi s is ·- .,,
·- from tlie srJl'c!:t!<ll·c; .
Th ('r \\·rre impciti<'nt fo r th Pir spor t . 1
hav e bee n able to do. " Answer the
;;,~~!!liil!!!!!~ thmwht ;w :i in nf """H' ch;rn ce o f esca pe: perh:q>s the Lrnpri'< ir
Ly the qu oted n ote : migh~ rel e~t. fur we were i.J rulh ers; liul the: t rn111pcts_ bLired ag:iin,
a. Why are ou tlin es ma de ?
and we forgot ""'rs<>lw s. an ti l.J inrl rage sc '. zcd us. \\~c wcnl lll :id . I
b. Sh ould an outline be adhered to m erely because it
I graspe d th e net, and my brother c 1rcl erl cunnrngly round m e
made out?
, with th e jave lin.
.
c. \ Vhat, if ;iny: hi11g, would he a
Th e ,·ast cn.>\nls are still ll<J\Y. atid T ''< '<" on h· th ~ .C'. li ttc r of my
in one's orig in al plan ?]
bro th e r's javelin , now h e re. now th e re. hut nearer a ncl 1warcr. 11.e
is gathering for th e sprin g now: inse ns iblv. I brace m yself.; th ere 1~
A n ote
to te ll th r
th e bes t I
sug gested

4· A

GLAD I A TUIU AL CONTEST 1

\Ve were Lrulhers, we t wo, ;ind g hrli ;i tor, , a nd we re to meet in
d eadl y combat fo r th e a11111sc111 e 11t nf tlw pop11 l:i c(', tk1t day.
lay iu o ur Juu geo n waitin g to r the g ua rd to com e for us. Echoing
f1earfully thru1 1gh the gluumy passages came the c ries o f the wild
beasts, fu r io us with h unger. I s hud d ered; a nd my brother ~aid;
with a lau gh, " 'Twere goo d to di e a g ladiator; what think'st th ou ?"
He was tall and strung, my broth er, but l h ad tl1rown him in man
a fri endly wrestle, wh en we were boys at hom e.
we ll match ed , and the gu:mls had kno wn th is
from our h o me in far .di s tant Thrace.
I3ut thi s was not th e ti me to talk o f ho me, for t here lay th e death·
giving n e t, th e trid e nt , th e g litterin g ja\·e lin. and th e armor.
"The gods mi ght rel e n t a nd sa ve us at the la s t," said m v brother.
My heart leaped , b11t, "\Ve have b urnt no sacrifice,' ' sa i ~l I, "and
th e th oug ht is folly.''
1

Gladiat orial co nt es ts were freel y indu lgecl in until the
H o norius, when T elemac hus, a Christian priest,
and stopped a combat.

rush,a

·~~;·~~· a
-::;

lies at

shuck, a cl as h o f steel , the nel fli es th ro u;;h the :111:, an cl lw
feet, writhi ng in i1 s frilds . The pcuple " lml their l.Jl«tv us
The Emp eror! l s it t lrnmhs up n r

111 y

down? l cannot rai se 111y ey~s . l\lnst l kil l hirn °
g o rl s , th e roya l ha nrl is turnin g . Ah! the thumln::oes do wn !
dream , I lift my tride11l; I l1 ea1 · a voice. wea k \\'I th anguish,
broth er ! " :rncl th en - but wh:1t is t hi s? a rush of fe('t. a
~ hand ·,,,.;i, 11 inu rn v dP ~ ce ndini;: arm! T elemach us, th e pri esL h:i s
_thumbs
ye
As in a
"0 mv

o

'

.,.....

l)

•

saved me.
[In the first two sentences of th e s ixth paragraph 1ww occurs
Ts the r e petition necessa ry? Where is the hi sto ric
I s it corr ec tl y used? Nole the prmisions fu r

The following paragrnphs are an introduction tu the story of
- the Boston Tea l'arty : 5· l\

TEA

l'.-1wrY

Why have men gath ered at the corn e rs of t he s treets anrl :irounrl
the sto.res to talk s~ e;uncst !y· ? Th ere is lo be a p:nty to -ni g ht , but

l'l\l i\! CJl ' l. LS <JI' l·'. lll:ll l i;I C
TH.) i11\· i t:-iti o n s ;in ' se nt o ut.
~r r 1 .'. '. 1 1l il -Lt( ··il 1 · 1i . t i ~ 1 q· s ti!f ('f. l '."J. tA
will lw worn; th e re \\·ill lw ll<> <Ltllcin!.'.. 110 m11si1, ;i11tl 1111 fca sti n~.
\Vli;1t llw 11 is the C:tU Sl' <>f s11ch e xci k 111 ,. 11 1 ;· y " 11
:tli()ut thi s 11:1rt_,. \\"llt'rc th ere ;ire n11 ,~ :l \TtiL· ~ ( ! 1 ;i!t r:i c ! )
jo in o ne o f th e gruups and ic;u-n 1nnrt... ,.;t1wernin1r it
[-In \ Y l1 ; tt w;i y . ()J" w; 1y ~ . :in· th1' prt'U'di11 :..:- i 11t r (i~l 1 11.t l ff\"
likely to be serviceable lo the story that is tn he fnld ?J .

c· 11 /\ l' T l .R
C(nf l' OS JTl ( ):\! :

EXERCIS ES

J. \\' rite the story you li:n e pla111ll :d .
I l. lk r ;iuse t he in cid en t taken fr om liis lury has f11rni sh~ -~R:.;.;.­
yuur. plot .or climax, thought may lie cn1wt·11 t r;1tc t! 11 p on
way m whi c h the s tory is tnlrl.
RcJd "' n th e 11'\lrk d o ne in
response to L to see whether th e knowledge that has been -,,,,,.~i&:;;,.,._
gained of diction , figures of spcel'h , and q11alit ies "f style en - ~
ables yon to improve it. J\fake any pussibk impro vem e nts .
TIr . \\'rite a brief Liographical sketch.
A11ecd1Jls

d efin ed.

An Anecdote is a very short story that has hut a s in gle
point. The point of an anecdote sh ould be qui c kly made -

!llli

andi ·

. EXAMPLE. - James. Duke of York, aft Prw;ird the .!::l oomy
b 1goled Ja1:1es 11 of England . whil e rlril'in g nnr rb y t h rnug h Eas ]
ch ea p on Ills 11''1} fr o m nnc rcs pcct aLle p,11 t u f Lulld o 11 to a noth er
n:ct his ehl.cr brothe r, King Charl es II, with s1111J e disre p utable ass '
c1ates. Comrng n11t ,-,fa la1' ern. Ch;irlcs ,c:;a \T J ;im rs ;i n 11nd ig n ifittl
and mocking salutation. J atnes ordere d his cmrh 10 stnp. n·huke<l - .
his brother for fret1uenting resorts so questionabl e and be ing in com· ;,,,_
pany so villainuus , a11d warned Charles of the danger from assassi
'
nation to which he cxposerl his royal perso n . Charles Jisle ncd c.
good-humored~y until the probability of assa"inalion was s 11 ggcslcd.
Th e n he excla11nerL" No, no , Jamie. they win ne,·er harm me. They ·---'~~~
know that 1f they k1lled me th e y would Juv e m u fnr kin g l"
This kee n re tort summed up the political situ:ition in -Fn~ land.

Forms of

narration

Novels, short stories, biographie s, accounts of travels,
au<l histories are the most important forms of narration. -

.\V

I N T J\( ii JI CTIO N .

( .I )'\;(L\ :s JI)'\;,

S U~ l i\ l :\IZI ES. T JZi\!\ SITIU '.JS. UL I U l\ J:

M AN\' co 111position s re<Juire careful pl:inning .

Fir st , usr r111 or'5
ot

.'.l

plan

the writer slwuld d ec id e 11 h y li e 1niles, \\' hat h e \\is h c s
t o c lf ect h y hi s piece ol wor k.
l !i s purpo se 1J,:i11 g
quit e clear t o himself , the next thing is lo ac h il:v e it.
Som e w <ty will lie the swift e st and h e st. \Vhcn he rind s
that way , the most difficult part of bis work is acco1n plish cd. Therefore , it is cco 11 \>111 ic:1 l - - :is w e ll :1s wi se

con sitler, t o plan , and t D rn ;i k e :m o ut line .
In a work of considerable len g th - 1hou g h not in a
sto ry and not ;i.lways in ;i co mposition that is brief - it
is natura l to beg in hy s tatin g one 's purpose or thi.:rn c .
Then \\'riter and r eader c:rn go ;ilo11 g to ge ther, fo llowinc;
the clefinetl path toward an aeknowlcclg-cd g oal. Su ch
a preliminary statement is called :rn introduction.

-to

I LI .{I STI( ATI\ I NS
J.
beliPve, ladies and g e ntlrrncn. th:tl 111\' firs t duty this evening
is 10 cisk yo ur pard o n for t he ;11nhi g 11it,· of titl e u1 1d n "h i ch tl 1e s11Liect nf mv lecture ["Of Kings' Treasuri es "J lias been annmmcc(L
For indeed l am not goin g tn t;iik nf kinl'.'· known as rcg11 <111l,
.
nor of treasuri es. understood tn contain \\t·:1llli: J,11l o f quit e a1»1lli1 ·r
ord e r of rny;dty and mate rial u f ri c hes th :u> th usc· usu :dl1· ac k tw\\l-

15 5

Statement

of purpo se

or th em e

The intro ·
<l ucti on

Tiii·: UJ:'lll'USITllJ 'i
1\ 1HI I kul ,.,, . 11 int· I • I I
Cll <c< <>

"dl!;crl.

· 'J
;is; 1<>111 ;1ll c ntiu11 for a Ji'ltl
w l11 c on -tri t>t
;uid (·.ts som
. e t.1m1·s o rw C<>11tri1·
. ,
e
.. '
e, i11 t· i..
.
t o "CC
t
·I
·
.
clt-.llll!; .l
"
" a 1·u1' e piece o t sce n c rT) t 0 I . I
. .
.
I
'
.I '
.
'
.
1J( (' \\ ii ,lt I \\;111tcd lllOS( t
s t1J\\, \\ It I ~11cli im pe rf ec t u111 11i11u
as l n 1io-ht·. ll l 1'I . I J . o
0
t
II
I
I
o. ·. It
\\C
1a uuex ·
Pec Cl v reac ii>r th e he"t i•o i u t of ,-i _ . 1
as I Ii;;"" lw;11 d . ..'. -- , - .
"".:'Y wrnc1Ing- paths . . . . Hut
h _ _. _
- it s.ud. b} men pracused 111 ·p u b li c addre ss. that ·
I
ea1c rs ,u e 1l1-·v1· r sn rn 11c h t1ti"u crl . . I . 1111
.t-; n
-· C IH eaq1r to follow
_ _
.
" .~
. spea k e1 "lio o-11-es tlic 111 no cle1. t I .
b
\
0 llS j'llrpose I \VI II tak ti
r ha -~---.
e_ k1e s ig t rnask off a t once and k l! mu plai11Jv lint I. ' _ t t
0 spea
ab l ti
'
'
'
w,m
to rou
' 0u
1c tn·as11res liidden in boo k. . . I . I
_
.
th em
I ti 1
.
.c;' am ,1 Jo ut the way we find
· anc
e 11,ty we lose them.
1

J OHN R USK I N:

"Of Kings ' Treas u rie•. ~

JI. J{ev ie w th e opening lin es of Viro-il 's "Jl7 . I" (1)
"" ·
_nc1c
M 1'lt on 's ' ' I 'a racl 1·se Lost " · ( z) .
·
I.

2.

157

I

~=~~~

I~ si ng of arms, a nd of the rnan who first
Carne from tl.1e. coasts of Troy to lta ly .
And the Lav1111a n shores, exiled by fate.
Of Man's first disobedi en ce, and th e frnit
Of that forbidden tree wh ose morta l taste
Drought d ea th into th e ·world and all
'' ·
w·
1
our woe,
it I 1ass of Eden, till one greater Ma n
J~es tore us, and regain the bliss ful seat, Srng, Heavenly Muse.
EXERCISE

~rite the introductory sentence or paragraph for a compos1t10n on one of th e subjects in the following list. Let the ·•
s~nte.nce or p~ragraph reveal the purpose of your composition
1 h\mtroduct1on for I may show whether you believe the land~
mar sho.uld be preserved or destroyed, and may lead to an
~~um.erat10n a?d consideration of the reasons for your opinion.
e mtro~uct1~n for z will, perh aps, make known what phaseof ~he sub1ect IS to be treated; possibly it is the wisdom of
havmg such tests uniform or the desirability of abolishing them

The prelimin:iry par:1gr:1pli f"r !) \\'ill , \Try lik('h'.
<lcllnc llic lcr Ill /11.':;/1it•<1 1.1 ;Ll\d LkcLil c tli a t thc ,_onili ti ,, 11 cl t he
roads (u r su1u c other matt er of imporL1111 c) "ill l 1c rc·• i,:11·c rl.
For 3, 4, ant.l 5, the inlrut.luction rnay slate tha t unly ~t few
a re Lu Le cunsidcrcd, ancl 111ay tell \\'hat ll1u:;e pui11ls
r. The Prcscn·;iti<Jn of the (lid I .andrnark.
2.

Co llcg" Enlr:lllce l ~x:< 111i1i;ttion s .

>·

l\ly Visil to the l'ott c ry Works .
4 . The Aqu;iriu111.
S· \ V\1;it I slllJu!d Like to J: ,· c"rn c.
6. Our 1:--l ig-hways .

E ven th ough writer ;-end reader start together for the
same destin ation, one or th e othe r - probab ly bolh may becom e confused, may lose the way, unl ess devices are empl oyed to ma rk out the path, and to g ive
opportunities for a g la nce backward as we ll as forward.
Such devices are summaries, a nd transition sentences
and paragraphs.
A summary reviews ; it states, more or less rapidly,
what has been done.
, When a writer or speaker advances from one to
another of the la rg e divisions of his work, it ofte n becomes desirable, if not actually necessary, to indica te,
by means of a transition paragraph, the step he is to
take. More often, in connecting the minor divisions
of his composition, th e transiti on senten ce is req uired.
Summaries, and transition pa ragraphs a nd sentences,
assist in giving clearness and coherence to long compositions.

The summary
The tran :
sition se n ~
t ence a nd
paragraph

Clearness
and coherence in the
long composition

Ti ll·: COMPOSITION

l'l{INCll'IYS OF l\IIETOIZIC

159

A very important part of the composition 1s its close,

T
clhecon
us ion

called its conclusion. In the conclusion , it is often
desirable to summarize what has been clone in the entire
work (as in t he first part of I I and th e iirst part of Ill
under the fol lowing illustrations ). to restate one's purpose and emphasize the fact that it has been accomplished, to make an appl1cation of what has been shown
to be true (as in III), or to app eal to one' s read ers or
hearers (as in I),-in short, to do whatever will vitalize
-~ the writing as a whole.

II (Transition)
Most of the remarks which we have hith characte r of Milto n. apply to hi
1. . c1ton1ade on the public
shall rJroce l t
.
m on } as one ot ;1 large bodv. \V e
. l"1,11.-!l ies
· wl11ch
.
. . 0·
him fr
1e(. o nollce so me
. of the pecu
cl1st111uuished
om i1s contemporaries
An l t
I
·
to take a s ho rt survc1· of tl . . .. . c ' c•r t nt purpose, it is necessary ·
was at that time cli\·iJed. ie pa1 tics m to \\ lllch the poli ti cal worltf
Tl!O:IL\S BAlllNl;TON l\!ACAULAY: "Essay on

Milton.~ --

I~I. The second chapter of "Silas l\Iar,
.. .
.
1 . •·
manes close to;:;etlwr. The ."
..
ci cout.uns t1\· o sumsuits of Marn .. ·
1·
. . e1,..,hth paL1gi;1ph s11m111arizt's the ree, s so itary lite at J<.aveloe. tl ..
l
. .
. .
Sllmmanzcs them '<o'
;io-;i 1' 11,lHl
' l.Cfl l11l ' ; l ! H
_l l l l - '' ' J ie_ lcntl 1 µ.uagraµh
two summaries. comes this t. "t' -_ 1 rn c ' oq11ent 1-. Alter the
I
·
· t ans1 1ona p·irngr;ipl
h· 1
t 1e reader for Chapter iii : _
'
w 1c 1 prepares
c

'•

ch "B u t a b out the Christmas of that fit-I eent I1 year a second e •
.
· a
· ange came over Marner's life ' an d 1.
us Illslo1
v bec11ne '-! 1gr
smgu1ar manner
with
the
11"
f
h'
.
lb
,
,
u
en
'Ill
... '
ie o Is ne1g l ors."
Chapter m describes h
M
, ·
of his neighbors..
ow
arner s hfe became blent with tha
EXERCISE

. a paragraph that is both
Select. . from an Et
, igris h c1ass1c
summanzmg and transitional or find such a
h .
"Silas Marner," Chapter xiv.'
paragrap

]LLUSTRATIONS

]. The following par:1gr:1ph is the conclusion of Rusk in' s "()f
Kings' Treasuries." Its introduction was given on p:1ges 155 and 156.
"I could shape for \"Oll ot he r plans : . . . but t11is hook plan is
the easiest and ncedful\est, and wuu ld prove a cons ickr:ihk to1 1ic lo
·vou h;11·c gnl its corn
what we ca ll our British Co nsti tution . .
laws repeaied for it; try if yuu c:rnnot get corn h 11-.s cstaiJlishcd for
it. ckalin;:; in a 1wlter br ead ; --- b rc:td mad e of th:1t nlrl cncl1:rn ted
Arabian grain, the Sesame. which opens doors : --- - doors , nut uf

robbers '. but of Kings\ Treasmics : ·
11. These, th e n, were the two prime charact eristics \\hich sum 11p
the tendencies of Burke's age: an e normous tlc l'elopmcnt of industry, and the first germs of a substitution of the gove rnment of a
whole people hy itself for the exploded and tottering system of
government by privileged orders. The seeds thus sown h;i vc com e
up with unequal rapidity, yet their maturity will not improbably be
contemporaneous. The organization of Labor and the overthrow of
Privilege are tasks which we may expect to see perfected at the same
time, because most of the conditions that lie about the root of the
one are also at the foundation of the other. When we can grapple
with the moral confusion that reigns in one field, the obstacles in
the other will no longer discourage or baffle us .

JOHN MOR LEY:

"Edmund Burke."

16o

THE COMPOSITION

PRI NCI P LES OF RHETORI C

Ill. If then the powe.r .of speec h is a g i,ft as great as any that, ·
ca n be na.med : 1f th e on g 111 of lang uage is by many p hilosophers
eve n co nsidered to be not hin g s hort of di vine ; if by mea ns of
words th e secrets of the heart are brought to lig ht, pain of soul
'. s relieved, hidd en g rief is carri ed off, sy mpath y co nveyed, counsel. . .,;
imparted, expenence recorded, and wi sdom perpetua ted; if by great "
auth ors the many are draw n up in to uni ty, national character is .
fi xed, a p eo ple s peaks, th e past and th e future, the E ast and the • ,
W es t, are broug ht into co mmunica tion with each other, -it will
not a nswer to make light of Literature or to neglect its study;
rath er we ma)'. b~ s u~·e th ~t: in p ropo rti on as we mas ter it in any
la nguage a nd 1m b1be its sp mt, we shall ourselves beco me in our own
meas ure th e mini sters of li ke be nefi ts to oth ers . . . who are united to
us by social ti es a nd are within th e sphere of our pe rso nal influence. - .
C A RU I NAL NEWMAN:

" Lectures on Uni vers ity S ubjects."

EXERCISES

!·

:t~'te what constitutes the introducti on of Washington
Irvmg s · The Stage-Coach" in "Th e Ske tch- Book," and what
form s th e conclusion of Webster's first Bunker Hill oration
or give the introduction and the conclusion of two of the~
essays : I. The SjJecta/{lr, N umber 108.
2.

Carlyle's" F.ssav nn Hurns .··

3. Macaula y's " E ;say on ~ l i lto n. "
4· l\ T:i caulay's "I::ssay on /l.ddi so11. ·'

H epzibah as she actually is at heart.
1. T en der-h earted and capable of much self-sacrifice.
a. H er love a nd care for Clifford.
b. H er lo ve for Ph rebe.
2. Dista nt and rese rved onl y with those she is afraid will pity h er.
a. H er friendship with Uncle Venner.
Conclusion.
[The introducti on and the conclusio n for this outline mig ht have
been thus indicated : Introd uction : Purpose stated : to sho w the apparent and th e
real H epzibah.
Conclusio n: The cli ffi q1lty I fin e\ in seeing an y hum or in thi s
portraya l of a mos t path etic perso nality; my failure t o share H aw..
th orne's feeli ng when he thus writes of H epzibah opening th e sh op :
"Heave n help our poor old H epzibah, and forgive us fo r ta ki ng a
ludicrous view of her position! As her ri gi d a nd ru sty frame goes
down u po n its l1 a nd s an d kn ees, in qu est of th e absco nding marble s,
we posit ively feel so mu ch th e more inclined to sh ed tea r~ of sy mpath y, fro m th e very fa ct th at we must needs turn aside an d laug h at
her. "
Note that under 2 but one subdi vision (a) is given . In a n outline, th ere should be no a with out a b to succeed it. In thi s case,
the a may be inco rpora ted wi th th e 2 , t hus : • 2. D is tant a nd reser ved onlv wit h those s he is afr aid will pity her,
as is shown L>y lier friendsh ip fur Unck \·c1111cr.J
2.

I.

/\. SKETC ll OF TIEl' ZlllAH

(" Th e House of the SeYen (;ables'')
1. Introdu cti o n.
.
II. Hcpz ibah as she is seen hy the world.
1. I n fe re n ce~ regarding h ~ r chara cter from her ci ppearance and
fr om one of he r hab its.
a. H er sc.,wl, her stiffness. her un lie nd ing ;1sp 1·r·t.
/J. H er habit 11f keeping ;-i ]nn f fr.,111 her fe] J,,w - 11H·i1.

J\Ll<' I ·~

J'y~rllE<l ~

( '·The l louse uf tlic Snell (;,ii .Jes'')

ll. Discuss the following outlines : -

I. 1!er en,·irnn11w11t.
1. Crnclc.
~

J) i st~stefu l

to lll'r.
She ]i;1 d hcc n ,·cluc:1tccl in Full'[lC;,, She J'""' d li c;i11f\«
I I. I ll' r des ire d sm rou ncl inu;s.
1 . 1:1011c rs.
~· i\lusi1·.
3· ,\II oth er tl1in!!;S 11 fi1wil :11111 1kl i1:1tc.
r1 .

162

PRINCIPLES OF' i<IJJ<TU!·UC
Tl IE CU,\I l'USl'l!UN

lll. Character.
1.

Pu re, dignified, and maide nly.

2.

Intiuential.

\Vhcn she was sad: -

a. Her Jlo\\'crs druop<'ci.

3·

i·, .!~e r

harpsichord h(•c; 1111 l. mcbllch "IL
lcr ,,real lault. kiughty j!l'ide.

IV. Her influence 011 J\T:rule .
I. J\ ltracted I 1i 1n by : _
a. I !er cultmc.
b. !-ler rcfin c·1nc nt.
c. Her be;rnty.
2. Angered him by : _
a. Her pride.

t·stin ,~

b. Her dislike for him.

t , ., ·

-- ·'

. k'

11n1 triu1llpliant.

4.

V . H e r influence on postcrit;·.
1. H er old s · ·
l'
,
. urrotl!H ings SCl'n1crl haunted 11.v her.
2. l he harpsichord played dolefully wl1er
house.

i

death came to th e

3· H er lloll'crs bl oo med · fi
in ull when .!.'.n·:it J·o.i· c:11nr· t u t 1re
ho use.
[Wh:1t l'rror is there in arrangemcnt o r in thl' ti.s t· rif
letters in this second ou tline?]
ligures or

3·

DOCTOR !WANETTE

( " A Tale of Two Cities ")

I. In Paris.

. t
.
gar re ; s 110\\'S 1us shatt ered mind, the resuh
o f long imprisonment.
II. In L o ndo n. A new m an.
1. His life

In th e

bef~re Lucie's marriage.

a. Shows hi s affect ion .
b. Shows his kn owledge.

a11 .- .;\\"l 'L

. I·

lll ;-t ·111.~

/. 1 he result, making him re1110rseful.

Ill!

c'1:1r;tctc r ? ·· ;u1d it s

fin outlines. similar di1·isiun s arc .!.'.i1-c11 sirn iLtr forms "f l".;prcssi"n.
Therefore. 1 under 1l l should licco1n c. " I li s expcril'nce i11 La Force,"
to correspond in form \Yith 2. 3, -I· 5.j

3· Caused him to tr v to hrt>.ik her will .
a. His succl'ss

Trouble ;it the time of Lucie's lll:trriagc and !u s recovery
frn111 t h c. trn11f ,J,.,
a. Slwll's his sc11sihilit1·.
/1. Sho\\'s his sk ill in lundling hi s 011n c:tsl' .
11 l. !11 !':iris :q~:t in.
r. !n l.:1 hircc.
.. I lis i11tlucncc ;rn1011g the Jl"l'ul:icc .
3. JI is ,·ictt•rl'.
..J.. The rc;1clic1n.
5. The fli!,'.ht.
IV. Conclusion: The q11cst iu11. '· \\'hal 11i;1kc·s l Jr. ~ T: rnclte <lll i11tcr2.

a. Safeguards from moral h~nn.

f11sn1HY

TIIF

l 1 1<l'1Aln·

STUI>\'

l11trod11c ti on ·
The wc Jl;uc of the people dl'f!l'!lrls direct!\· upon their .c:ovcrn111cnt.
I. The hcst guvcrn111cnt is a dc111on:1cy.
1. J\thc11i:m ( ;ru·ce .
" Rcpuh li can H.ornc.
3. L11g l:md .
.+· The l_lnitcd St;1ks.
II. J\n enduring rcpuldic must I)(' a .c:ood one.
J. Mexico and the l l nitcd Sl:itcs.
2. The Central and South 1\nwrican l'cplllilics.
Ill. The quality of a rcpllblic rlepe nrls 011 its pco1ilc.
I. The people must understand the laws and functions of
~ove rnn1 cnt .

a. Th e only way to urHkrstand the laws and functions of
.go\·ernment is through the stuclv of history.

IV. History is th e s tudy th at in cludes all othe rs.
Conclusion: His tory is the heart of :tll education.
[\Vhat e rror is th e re in arrangement or in the use of ligurcs or
letter in this last outline?]

PJ\lNCIPLES OF RHETOJ{JC

lll. Make the outline for a
lowing subjects : -

compo~ition

o n one

An Incident in my Life which would Make a Good Story.
The Mos t Interes ting Perso n I have Known.
3. My Favorite Character in His tory.
4. Wh ere I Like to J,,, rln ring ~ ~t<•1111.
I.
2.

Tl11· \\ ' 1il . l .\ I · · ' I :1.i".- .

6. The l< e;idi ng nf l,oc!frq'.-, \Viii at th" l<:i inh nw.

/\N<;WFJ~c;

Trl l ' l'l'IL<;'

l'JWll~Tr ';

-- \ '

Lin .. '.:>ii.ts Marn er,·· L'kipter xx, Nancy s:1_1·s . "You won't

it known , then, about Eµ pic's being your cbughtcr?" and
answers, " 1 s haJJ put it in my will. " J
Abs ti-act
defined

An abstract g ives the esse ntial parts of some
composition, but is not, necessarily, an outline.
EXERCTSE

vVritf' a parag-raph lh:d 'h:il! lie an ab;,tract uf so me speech
with which you are familiar, 01· uf on e uf the De Covcrlcy _
l'apcrs.

Lette rs

.
TH r: fo 11 owrng;
moclcl ,.,oives a s uita ble heading, address,
. 1 t
, .
. f..
en aand closing for a Ilene ll Y letter · The .proper ..Jill
a . ihs
· first anc1 ti1a t for .succeeclrn .g pai ,i,,.. r.q. "·
.
for the
t1011
Note that the lir st \1·urd o[ th e upen 11 1,.,
arc indi cate d.
l f th t.:
~ rag ra1 1 h comes. a J'tt
' le t" th e left (lr th e ei·11c -n . ...
p .. , . ss - th e sa lutat1011
. - a1H l thcit Stll.'ccec
addre
. - ,·111g Jl.lI. tg rap h s b cg .lll at the rcgu l ar l i,·11",tgrat>h 111 , u f.., 111.

H O\V

to i n

dent para
~rap h s

Heading .
a ddre ss,

M\'

and closing

DEA i{ KA T!I ARINE:

f or a

friendly
letter

\Ve thank \'Oll m oo;t w:n11 1l1·

Yesterday, in the aftern oo n.
Faithfully yours.
AGNES

G.

CO:ll STOCK.

166

PRINCIPLES OF RHETORI C

LETTERS

It is correct to arrange a note like this: 94

EUCLID

A VENUE,

C L EVELAND,

Omo.

MY DEA!{ KATH A RI NE,

Miss

A GN E S CoM s T r>r K

9.+

------ --- --- ----- ----- -- ----- -----

Eu c L1 u 1\ v 10.
C LEl' l:: L ANll

--- --- ----- -- --- ------- -- ----- ---- -- -- --- ---- ----- --

U 111U

---------- ------ ---- ----- ------ ----- -- ------- ------Yours sincerely,
A GNES

G.

Co~1 s To c K.

January 23, 1906.

When to
write out
the date

Different
ways ol
closing a
letter

Punctuation of
heading
and s uperscription

The date may be written out when it is plac ed at tlh1'~511!
end of a somewhat formal fri endly letter; as, Januar
the twenty-third, nin eteen hundred and six.
A wr ite r need not be confin ed to one or t wo ways of
subscribin g himself. Yours cordially, G rate full y yours,.::~~i;=.­
Yours faithfully, Yours with sin cere regard, a nd many
other expressions may be appro priate.
Authorities 1 on th e s ubj ec t of letter-wri tin g sanction _
the omission of punctuation marks (exce pt the period
after an a bbreYiation) fro m th e li cadi 11 g
from its superscription . For e xample :
94

E UCLID

ihl ' .

C l . E VFLA N I J O H IO

1

See F. H. Callaway: " Studi es for L ett ers," Ch "pt cr ,- i.

Tf the superscrip tiu11 is pun c t·ua t Ct l ' the mark s arc
a s indicated bel ow : --

l\ l1 ss S ,ll L \ 11 C ,11< FY.

52 J\1-:n:1<1 ·: S 1
j\f ,\ l( J.1 \ () 1(11.

Tn a f 1--Iell C11 y le tte r • o n e not onl ·y tell s w hat will he -of
.rn t ercs t l 1) on e's• co rrcs· 1w 11cle n t, hu t a lso zis
ks a bo u t him
_

a nd h is lifc_ 1
1 Tn "~t u rl i e s fo r {,ett r rs 1· ~re rn:-111 v i· l 1a r m i ng ~ckdi t1 ns frp:n t(h.r
curr csp11rn lc n cc ,if wdl -kn u\\· 11 me n an rl \\. <1 m c n. ( ,-..;,.,
cc f(l o tn1 )ll' . p;tP,..., t_; It i >)

What a

fri end ly
letter
re qu ir es

I i

168

LETTERS

PRINCIPLES OF RHETORIC

500 PINE ST., SVHACUSE,

February 5,

EXERCISE

Meet one of th e following requirements : I. As guest at a mutual fri end 's, write a letter
mate.
.u. From a foreign city that you both have wished to visit,
wnte to a cousin at home.
III. Write to a brother or sister who has been ill and has
gone away from hom e to recuperate. Let your letter cheer·
a nd entertain.
,I

I:

Arrangement of a
business
letter

more formal th a n one of friend.'
ship, and may be thus arranged:_
500 PINE S T., SYI{ACUSE,

s.

F eb. 5,

N.Y.,

1902.

GHEEN,

23 Lovejoy St.,
Cambridge, Ohio.

. I

I

Mv

DEAR

Sm:

. . .
Please send me circu la rs describi ng your new
fl om-s1fte1
. k ti iey arc I
. s. If they prove to he
· what I ti 1rn
sl 1aII wish to carry a line of them.
'
Very truly yours,
J\~!HIWSE FEHNALI).

Subscriptions for
bu siness
letters

Ro11ERT s. G1rnEN & Co.,
23 Lovejoy S t. ,
Cambridge, Ohio .

MESSR S.

Form of
address
when
writing to
a business
house

GENT L EMEN : -

Gentlemen, bein g som ew hat m ore formal, is often preferable to Dear Sirs as a form of address.
EXERCISE

~ letter of business is

MIL ROBEHT

N .Y.,

1902.

Other ways of subscribing oneself in a business letter
are: Respectfully yours, Yours most truly
dient servant, Yours with respect.
-'
Had the letter of Ambrose Fernald been addressed
to a business house instead of to one man, it might
have opened thus:_

Write the reply to Mr. Fe rnald.
[Remember that a business letter should be so legibl e that it
is easily read, and should be clearly and concisely expressed. J

When writing on busin ess to a n official of high rank,
one uses Sir alone, in th e address, not Dear Sir.
Dear fifadam is the proper imp erso nal form of address
for either a married or a n unmarried woman ; 111iss is not
used thus, impersonally.
When writing to a stranger, a woman mzi.y, to avoicl
(l\1r s.)
Mary B.
or
misun de rstand in g, sign herself thus:
(M iss)
Munroe. A married woman often signs both her ow n
given name a nd that of h<:r hu sband, in this way : -

i\clclrcss .
~II {' .

S11 ,\ S 1\ . ;\ I L'c; !( ll !··..

Whe n to use
Sir alone

The us e of
Madam

Ways of
writing a

woman 's
s ignature

!

l'lZl:\ CJl'LE S OF EllETOIZIC

170

How to
enclose
postages tamps

I/ l

She does this because, while it is
her own name, it is proper for her correspondent to
address her by her husband's name, if he be living.
If a postage-stamp is enclosed in a letter, it is well
not to make it adhere, but, in a convenient place on the
paper, to cut two slits a 1ittle longer than the width ot
the stamp and about a sixteenth of an inch apart, and '
slip the stamp under the band thus formed . Sheets
of postage-stamps have . an edge of waste paper with_
adhesive matter like that on the postage-stamps. BY.
attachin g merely this adhesive edge, postage-stamps
may be properly enclosed in a bu siness letter.
The following are suitable forms for notes of various
kinds : -

II
62 ·w1LnING SnrnET,
GALESBURG, NEW YORK.

MY DEAR MI SS STOWE,

The beautifu l picture ca m e thi s morning.
won d e r wheth e r you know that l h;i\' e b ee n to see it repeateclly this winte r and h ave hop ed th;it some one of my
fri e nd s would purchase it, that it might no t be lost to me.
T o own it lll yself is r;ire good for tun e, for whi ch I thank
you.
Though I prize my picture hi g hl y, l v;i, Jue the nok that
c;ime with it even more .
Sincerely yours.
l<:ATl!Alt!NIC

Ill

January ::8. 1903 .
MRS. CHARLES

H. GOODALE.

203 H .\WJ·:s

Secretary of the L owell C lub.
llE AIZ

MY JJE,\R l\'lllS. COO DALE:

It is a disappointment to me th;it l cannot
re tain my m e mbe rship in the Lowell Cl ub after February
first.
R egretting that l must send my n:sig nation, I am
SinccrC'ly· yours,

l\ln. JL\\l\ J11'1i:
My young; frirnd . J\l r. Fsl;il1rnok., \\ill prcsrnt

wen· in \V:ishi11 ,2;lll ll Li s t 11·;11(1'1'.
Mr . J·:st:tl>rnok is tn st1 1d1· i11 Nr·w \'nrk :111d 11il l .~r;it1·­
fulh· JT( 't'i, · r· ~lll\. j 11 f()rtn:t!ion tli:tt ynu ;1 1T :di\1· lti gi,·e him

.

St ' IJH UHY.

.
.
111stn1ctnrs.

s:1n1c city .

'1--r

J

;\

\\·nr1 I

r1·

()Ill

, .f l\I

lll:n·

s;\\"l'

hi111

fni111 s ome s1-r i <1llS 1nist:tkc .

\Vh :itc1Tr
[The nam es of citv and stale a1-c o mi tte d from the h c:1di ng of I,
because both the writer o f the le tt er anrl it s recipient live in the

foll'..\.

this 111 )[<' to ,.Ill!. l' crh :ips ynu 11ill n·1111·JlliH'r t\1.1l :\lr.
Est;i\irnnk"s ,; 11 ,tJwr 11·:1s most k i11d t11 our so1i;.; 11hilc ll1t\'

n'.~;1nlin _g

MAHTll 1\

STHFET .
\\'J:\( ' l!FSTEH .

Mv

----..
·,'"·m
=====o"l1w·r

J JJ·: LD .

S;itunhy, Fcbru;iry the sr\'en \ ep nth .

ro FouHTH PLACE,

A resignation from
a club

An ac knowledg .
ment of a
gift

\Ill!

do fu1 1111 fri r 11'1. I sli.ill '1i 'J>I' >c i:t k .
SilH't'l'l'i\' \'lllll'S.

IJ1 ·c; H\' J.11 "'""·

A note of
introduc-

ti on

l 'l .: l~U l ' LES

l /2
Superscription for
note of In troduction 1

' _,

1- '

UF i{l!Lllli{IL

Th e supersc ripti o n on ti ie em·e Jope o,f t J1e precedi ng may

be: ~

··

impossible lO turnish a model for ~l JI Uk u f
Its arrangement may be like th at of II, but
what is said must be t;u eulircly lhc writer's own th:it
no one else can dictate it. Nothing but genuine feeling

A note c!
sympathy

makes a note of sympathy acceptable.
!\IR. CHARLES HAMM ON D
EXERCISES

I. Write a note to a friernl in acknowledgm ent of a 1iirlhf11trod11ci11g llfr. Estabrook

day gift.

II. \Vrite an inform:il note to an cx-mcmlwr of your chss,

in vit ing him , o r her, to a class" spre;irl."
III. Write an informal acceptance of an invitation to the

IV
A note or
congratulation

Nr:w YORK CITY,
April IO, 1904.

256 BHOADWAY,
DEAR COUSIN HAL:

Aren't you a fortunat e boy! I a m glad that
are to h~ve so much pleasure. A su mm er in Norway
will _,be a del.1ghtful experie nce and you earned it by last
yea1 s sple nchd record. I hope that all th e winds will bl
f
h . 1
ow
rom t e ng it quarter, and that you will e njoy the trip eve n
more than you anticipate.
We expect to be in th e city next week, and shall, of
course, visit your fathe1·'s ofli1ce. A re we l'1kely to find
you there ? ·
Affectionately yours,

"spread" referred to in IL
IV. Write a resignation from a Shakespeare Club.
V. Write a note intro<lncing one friend to another.

y~u

H.ICHAIUJ SUTI-IERLAND.
1, T~ ~ntrnduce

friends in a social way, one may write on
one s v1s1tmg-card, thus:
Introducing
Miss Edith Long.
uf \Vorcester
to

111 iss J\fary Fi eld,
Smith Coll ege ,
Ni rthnnipt on.
1

Formal Notes

Visiting and at-home cards are so often utilized to
take the place of notes of invitation that one is not
likely to write many of th e latte r. Formal invitati ons

Few formal
notes of
invitati on
required

-:. are usually engraved and change somewhat, from year
to year, in wording and arrange me nt. If for any reaso n
one har1 to write a formal note of invitation, it mi g ht be
somewhat like the following: Mr. and Mrs. Aiken
req11est the pleasure of Mr. Seymour's cumpany
al dinner
on Thursday, Marc-11 the te nth , at
eight o'cl ()c k.

506 llurn11 1\1·L"11ue.

Dinn Pr
invitation

174
Invitation
for a recep -

tion

l'l{lN C ll'LES OF l\l-IETOR!C

A N SWERS TO PUPILS' IN(.lU ll\lJ·:S

You ;ire invited to attend the
Annual Reception of th e Radford Club
at the residence of Miss Clarke
55 Arlington Street
on the eve ning of Felm1ary the fourteenth.

Miss vVhite accl'pts with pkas11re
and with th anks ~!rs. Forrest's in vitation for Mon1hy nl'xt.

175
An accept
a nee

\V:1shi ngton A venue,
June tlic thirt1Tntl1.

212

The favor of an answer is rL·qucslcd.

Requeot for

an answer

The kind of invitation re cci\·ed imli c~il e s the ]'roper
form for th e reply: a formal invitatiun sllggests :1 for m:il
meaning "please reply," was formerly useLl a good
~ reply; an informal note requires an informal answer.
deal. Now, however, an English eq ui valent like thal
The sign & s hould not be substituted within the body
in the j)reced in g form is j)rcferred.
~~·~
of a letter for the conjunction 1111d.

R. s. ' '· f'., the abbreviation of a French

The form
for a reply

Caution

-~~ts--

[Nole that comm;is are omitted from the re cept ion iin-itation,- .~-~--=;;.
th e sep;irntion made by the lines being considered sufficient. - but ~'-~t{j·~
are used in th e invit;ition that fnllows. Th e n· is 110 fi,erl rule fur
such forms. It is. howev er. alwavs correct so to express and punctuate au invitation that it cannot be misintcrprctcd.j
0

Form of

invitation
suitable
for a

visitini:: ·
card

A rei::ret

Mrs. John BnTr.
vVcdnescby, J11 nc th e trnth,
four to six.
J\l us ic.
I 1 2 .E men· Place.

A formal note of regret and one of acc e ptance
given below : 1 Miss \Vhile regrets that a l're\'ious
engagement prevents her, :lcceptance
o f Mrs. Forrest's kind in vitation for
1\1 onday. Junc th e t 1Y cnlie tli.
212

\V;1s11i 11.!.!:lo11 1\ H .'llllt',

June th e eighth.
1

In such fnrmal nr1tcs, th e date ~h1 iuld :-ilways he writ!l'n u11 L

may be used on ly for the st reet n umber.

vVhile a friendly Jetter s hould be answe red within a
reason ab le le n g th of time, an invitation, a husiness nllte,
asking for information, requires an immediate

Prompt

re plies

necessary

EXl'US!Tll>N

I

I

....

I

I

-

CHAPTER XX
EXPOSITION
Exposition Distinguished from Pure Description
Exposition
a kind of
description

THERE is a kind of descriptive writing that is call
exposition. Of the following illustrations, the first is'
piece of pure description, the second is an example .
exposition; the first tells of a particular Puritan
"the Puritan Captain," - the second treats of Puri '
in general.
ILLUSTRATIONS

I. Short ?f stature he was, hut strongly built ~.nd athletic,
Br_oad 111 the shoulders, deep-chested, with muscles and sinem
Iron;

!

Brown a~ a nut was his face, but hi s russet beard was already
Flaked with patches of snow, as hedges sometimes in Novem
LoNGFELLOW: "The Courtship of Miles Stan

II. We would speak first of the Puritans, the most remarkable
of me.n,_perhaps, which the world has ever produced. The odiciull
and nd1;:ulous. part_s .of their character lie on the surface. . . . l
ostentaho1'.s s1.mp1Ic1ty of their dress, th eir sour aspect, th eir
·twa.ng, ~heir stiff postu:e, their long graces, their Hebrew names;
Scnptmal phrases which they introduced on every occasion, tJ
conte1~1pt of hm~an learning, their detestation of polite amusement!!
were mcleed fair game for the laughers. But it is not from
laugh ers alone that the philosophy of history is to be learnt .•
Those who roused the people to resistance, who direct~d
214

2 I

5

measures through a long series of C\'l'ntful _1·c;ns. \\hn fm111cd. nut nf
·'· . the rn usl unpromising nulcri:tls, the Ii nest anny tl1at Li1rn11t· h:ul
~ .ever seen, whu tratuplcd du1111 l\.i11g, Cln1rcl 1, and ,\ risl.<JLT:1cy, 11 " "
·-- . . . made the name of England terribl e lo every nation un the lace
- of the ea rth , were 110 vul gar fanatics . . . .
The l'uritans were men \\huse minds had derived a JH' Culiar
. character from the daily contemplation nf superinr bein g• anrl
eternal interests.
Not cont ent with ackn<l\1·kdginJ,;. in general
· terms, an ovnruling Providence, they habitually ascribed eve ry
event to the will of the G reat Deing, for whose jJOWer nothing was
too vast, for whose inspec tion nothing was too minute . . . . Instead of catching occasional glimpses of th e Deity through an obscuring veil, th ey aspired lo gaze full on his intolerabl e brightness,
and to commune with Him face to face. H e nce originated th e ir
co ntempt for terrestrial distinctions. The difference between lhc
greatest and the mea nest of mankind see med to vanish, wl1en compared with the boundless interval which separa ted the whole race
· from Him on whom their own eyes were constantly fixed . .. . On
. the rich and the eloquent, on nobles ;ind priests, they looked down
. : with contempt: for they esteemed th crnse hT s rich in a mo re prcciu1is
treasure, and eloquent in a more sulilimc 1a11g11age, 1wliles !ty the
- right of an earlier creation and priests by the irnp11sitiu11 of a
mightier ha11rl . .
Thus th e Puritan was made up of two di!Tere11t men, the one all
self-abaseme nt, penitence, gratitude, passio11, the o t her proud. cairn,
inflexible, sagacious. H e pros trated him self in th e dust Lefore his
Maker; but he set his foot on the neck of his King.
MACAULAY:

:.::i
j

!'

"Essay on l\.iilton."

It is evident that exposition has to do with the class
rather than with the individual.
EXERCISE

Consider each of the following paragraphs an(l classify it
or exposition. Give a reason for each

Exposltion
deals with

general
terms

~~

216

PlnNCIPLES OF RHETORI C

[It will be an eas y matter to classify the parag raph
bee n d etermin ed, either that it treats of a class or a type -or that
it pictures something individual.]
1. a. Our cat is black except for a spot of white on th e tip of~
nose and her lon g white whi skers, whi ch stand out on both sidei o(.
h er mouth. She sits contented in front of the kitchen fire, waiting
fur th e mice that frequent a hole there.
b. The cat belongs to the tiger family; th e likeness is showa
in its bright eyes, li g ht tread , and express io n of face. It inherits all
th ese characteristi cs, hut sin ce it has been domesticated it has lost
some o f its fierceness and strength of body . Its domestic life baa ·
made it more dependent on people than on itself.
2. a. It s tood all alone on th e top o f a steep hill , an old sp~
tree, black, gaunt, defiant, its clean-cut sides outlined against I.he
gray of the dee pening t wi lig ht.
b. Do you mea n to tell me you don't know what a spruce•tree
is ? It is an evergree n, very much like a fir; but its needles lie
more bristly and grow all around the ti ps of th e branches. Next '·
time you come upon what you call a fir, look closely and see I{ lt
isn't a spruce.

3·

WOODPECKERS

Woodpeckers are birds resident in all pa rts of our country botti
in summer anrl in winter. Look for th em in orchards, amonc
tangles of wild grapev ine, and in patches of low wild berrl
vVh erever th ere are boring lan1rc, beetles, ants, and fruits of poisooivy, dogwood, or ch erry, th ese birds may be fou nd .
Woodpeckers are cree ping birds, lik e the nuthatches, brow• creepers, and kin glets, but these do not impress one as "havi .
been thrown at a log and stu ck th ere," as do th e downy pcckeDI ~
wood . The nuthatches are most liable to be confused with
peckers: th eir peculiar mocle of loco motion, how ever. will at o
ri isti nc;11i sh them: tllf'\' pcrsiq in st:rn<iinl'. "n 1l11· ir head s all the
\DY du11 n th e s ides uf their \\ell -s tuck cd rd ri gcr:.tturs.
A st ills
sig n of th e identity oi the woodpecker is the way he sits upon .bis
tail, using it as a brace .
This artisan bird is very heavy . He has a straight chisel biu,
sha rp-pointed tail-feath ers, short legs, and wid e fl apping wings. _

EXl'OSlTION

ia gayly dressed; his coloring is always brilliant a nd inclin ed to he
gaudy. Usually he shows mu ch clear black a nd white, with d:ish es of
··carlet or yellow about the head. Sometim es th e colors arc solid ,
as in the red-headed woodpecker; sometimes, in spo ts and st ri pes,
cas in th e dow ny and hairy; but there is always a co ntrast, never any
blending of hu es .
[Is it possible to disco ve r from th e nex t to th e b s t sent ence of
the second paragraph to what their, them, a nd they refer? So
-recon struct th e sentence that it shall have co herence. Classify the
.figure of speech in th e same se ntence. G i\'e a reason for th e use o f
the commas in th e third sentence of t11 e first paragrap h. O bserve
µiat however in the second paragraph is not an inhoductory word.
(See page 28.) ]

4. A

TROLL EY- CAR

A troll ey-car is a huge yell ow beetle, with a long horn like a fi shpole projecting from hi s back. By means of thi s pole he is ab le to
move along, fast or slow, as he wish es. Wh enever he moves, he
utters a groaning sound . H e travel s on certain well-defin ed paths,
and wh enever he mee ts an unh appy mortal, he cru shes him in hi s
tracks. H e has two wings, one fore and one aft, but, strange to say,
he does not use th em for th e purposes of locomoti on . Along his
ides are openings, which afford a view of hi s interior.
At night, as h e prowls along seeking whom he may devour, hi s
one large eye throws ou t a s trea m of fire far in ach-an ce, a nd li ghtning plays about his fee t. Thuncler proceeds out of hi s mouth.
If you ever meet him, you will know him. Take my advice and
t him alon e . H e is a dangerous animal.
[Substitute something more simple a nd direc t for th e worn-out
pressions 11111Iappy "1(Jrfal, lin e 5, ancl seeking iu//(}m lie mav d e.Tlottr . !inf' 9. \Vhy is there no comma in the first line between lm[[e
and yd!o~. •.f]

5.

F R IENDSlll P

Unlike Love, Friendship walks with b oth fee t on the ground; it
does not idealize, but sees face to fac e, clearly and rationa ll y. Fri end.ship does not look for roses merely; it expects to find thorns. Love

218

PRINCIPLES OF RHETORIC

EXPOSITION

219

I

~: i

·~

cri es out to Reason lo guard and guide lest Love
Frie ndship holds the hand of Charil y close, and <lares not I
hold, for it has need of Charity even unto the end.
[In the.: last sentence, J,ov c is repeatc<l for the sake of d ~
\Vould the us e of direct di scourse give equal clearness? \Vitb·
discourse the sent ence would read : Lo ve cries out lo Reason,"
and guide, lest I lose my way! " \V"uld the s e ntence ~ain .
life by the use of direct di scourse as indicated? Give n r·ea1i!*iili~
your answer. l 11 I hese exe rcises, which of the paragraph!!
discussion are allegorical?]
Description used for the Purpose of Exposition·

A person may be described for the purpose of
ing one or more of his characteristics. In that c
features, bearing, conversation, and acts are portii
not primarily that they may pass before the read
picture, but that they may indicate or expound a
his character. One may describe a scene for the
pose of showing its influence rather than for the
of reproducing the scene itself. Such descriptive:
ing as that just referred to is classed as expositio

=

=

ILLUSTRATIONS

I. The speaker . . . was one of those figures
world instinctively makes way, as it would for a batteringwas not much above the middle height, but the impression
mous force which was conveyed by l)is e<1pacious chest and
arms bared to the shoulder was deepened by the keen sense
resolution expressed in his glance and in every furrow of hil
and brow.
II . A vague and indescribable awe was creeping over
Everything began to be affected by the working of my mind;~
whispering of the wind among the citron-trees beneath my

something s1n1sler.
The groves presented a gulf of
adows; the thickets , indistinct :iml ,gha s tly shapt's. I was ,t;hd
close the window, hut my ch:unb cr itself became infected. There
a slight rustling noise overhead ; a uat suddenly c1rn:rgecl from
_ roken panel ot th e ceiling, !litting aliuut the room and athwart
y solitary brnp; :ind as the fat eful bird :ii most !1011tcd my f:tcc
"th his nuisek ss wing, tlie g n>lesque f:ict·s carved in high relief in
e cedar ceiling, whence he had emerged, seemed tu moµ and muw

I

.,.,

:+

i ~;, ;
1,;_,

:1F:

I:
,I

IRVING: "The Mysterious Chambers" ("The Alhambra").

\ The preceding explanations and exercises of this
hapter should have made it evident that the purpose
f exposition is different from that of description in
neral. The purpose of description is to portray, to
_icture; the purpose of exposition is to explain, to show
e exact meaning of the subject under consideration.

i

r

I

I
'

The purpose
of exposi-

1!~!
I
II

~

I,.. I

..J"l

'• ~ ~ {1
' i

tion

'"!

; t~

!J
l·I
1

·'

1.;.1

I

~I

EXERCISES
,I

Write two paragraphs; let the first be a description, the
Subjects may be chosen from the fol-

·i,
1:1

The House in which I like to visit.
My Plum-Tree .
The Rose on my Desk.
My Brother's Owl.
Where we play Tennis.

Houses.
Trees .
The American
Beauty Rose.
Owls.
Tennis Courts.

rl

;.,i

I
I

.,
;,.1

~1
. i;

,•ii

· · IL George Eliot, in Chapter x of " Silas Marner," writes
"Poor Dolly's exposition of her simple Raveloe theology."
md in Part ii, Chapter xvi, more of Dolly's exposition.
III. What exposition occurs in stanza iv, prelude to Part i ;
za vi, Part i ; and stanza viii, Part ii, of "The Vision of
Launfal" ?

i• ~,'

ii!

; I~

. .;1:::1

:;:i ~!
.ii ll
.if :'ij

rlir~l

: 'li!

.:iN
I

i:.I~

'ti
;:, ~ ~111
I•:, I

i·,1:I

191 I

I
l

220

EXl'!JSJTlON

PRlNCIPLES OF RHETUl·UC

IV. In Act iv, Scene i, of "The Merchant of
Shylock says : "You know the law, your expos iti or.
H at h been most sound."

What is the subject of the exposition to which he refers
A Method of Exposition

The method of exposition pursued m the
paragraphs is often desirable. The writer first cl
the wolf among animals and shows his resembl
to the clog, an animal with which
She then excludes him
quaintecl.
"dog," and gives the characteristics that
wolf.
WOLVES

Of all animals,wolves are among th e wildest, wariest, and
widely removed from human associations. Th eir range e ncircles
world in the Arctic Zone and extends southward into the tropics,·
Think of a large, long-legg ed, bare-boned clog, having a lonj · .
that hangs over its haunch es instead of being curled upward, you hav e a fairly good picture of th e typ ical wolf. Yet it 111llJ
di stinguish ed from the clog by its lank body, its sloping fo
and oblique eyes. While the natural voice of th e wolf is a·
howl, it may learn to bark if confined with clogs - in fact it~
all the characteristics of a dom es ticated clog if tam ed when f
lt has been said that th ese two animals so closely resemble. ·
other that naturalists have been known to mistake th em.
;:,,. .1'
Very powerful, with strong and formidably armed jaws, wolvet "··
everywhere destructive and consequently are universally del
They run with great speed and in th e. chase show as much cu
as th e fox , while in mental qualities they equal this animal in
respect.
''
They roam over wide areas, often suddenly appearing where
have been seen fur years, and as quickly vanishing ; but this."

221

ot seem strange when we realize that these wile! hc:1sts often coYcr
-"from twenty-five to forty miles in a single night. Tn the neighhorood of dwellings they appear only after twilight, but in secluded
laces they are on the hunt all day.
\Vo Ives cat any sort of fle sh, irrcspccti\·e of its kind or conclition,
nd, when presseu by hung er. eat vegetables and even moss.
[\Vould it be well to substitute "one for the ot her" fo r them in
the last sentence of the second paragraph ? \Vou ld you substitute
different word for 1111~rtake in the same paragraph ? Express a
principal for t!tis in the fourth paragraph. Note that the second
paragraph is developed by means of comparison and contrast.
Such a method is often employed in the expository paragraph.]
Definition in Exposition

One good way to explain is to defin e. It is often
both natural and useful to begin exposition with a
ILLUSTRATIONS
: I. First, then, of the distinction between the classes who work
·and the classes who play. Of course we must agree upon a . defini~ tion of these term s, - work and play,- before going farther. Now,
roughly, • . . play is an exertion of body or mind made to pl ease
ourselves and with no determined encl; and wo rk is a thing done
because it ought to be done, and with a determined encl. You phty,
as you call it, a t cricket, for inst a nce. That is as hard work as any,thing else; but it amuses you, and it has no result but the amuse!Dent. If it were clone as an ordered form of exercise, for health 's
sake, it would become work directly. So, in like man ner, whatever
we do to please ourselves and only for the sake of th e pleasure, not
or an ultimate object, is play, th e pleasing thing, not the usefol thing.
Play may be usefu l in a secondary sense (nothing is, indeed, more
eful or necessary); but the use of it depends o n its bei ng sponta~eous.

.J OllN HUSKIN: "Work."

directly from immediately with reference to mean-

Definition
useful

222

EXl' OS lTl UN

l'RINCll'LES OF R llET OWC

II. Chapter xi of St. Paul's Epistle to the 1-l clircws expounds ·
mea ning of faith. The openi ng sentence is a definition, a brief
position in itself: "Faith is the substance of things hoped for,
evidence of things not seen."
What a

definition
should be

exclude a ll that is not t y pical, of what is
should, moreover, be concise and exp r essed in wo ·
that are sure to be understood . "An octagon is a pl
fi gure h aving eight sides" fulfils the r eq uirements of
· good definition. It first classes th e octagon with pl
figures, thus, very briefly, excluding it from everytbi
but plane figures and giving a good d eal of exact ini
mation about it; it next dis tin g uish es it from
plane fi g ures, by mentioning the fact that it has
sides.

·

otb _
cigb

A d e fi nition should not make us e of the word that
to be defined (or of any other word from the same root
for the purpose of explaining th a t word. For examp.
the statement "Working is doing work" does not m
clear the meaning of worki11g: it is little better than
r e petition ; it neither defines nor explains.
EXERCISE

In a written paragraph, defin e the words
exposition, as applied to rhetoric.
Exposition in Answer to " ·Wha.t? " a.nd " How?"

One uses exposition when one answers such

as: What is flax?
process.

questi

What is a cloud? and when

tells how to w eave, how to weld, or

EXERCISES

I. Consider the following expositions, explanations of how
do things: -

11111

A definition should include all that is

2 23

.!,,. '·

11!1

.I

"

...,,
,,;

__

:;·

1.

H ow

TO DI N I> i\IA<>A ZI N E A1n1 CLF.s AT l-1 0~11 ·:

I saYe maga zine articl es on seve ral sul.>j ccts, -- such as geography,
geology, histo ry, and art, - a nd, wh e n l ha ve collected several on
ne subj ect, I bind them together. Perhaps you would like to utilize my plan.
Obtain sheets of rou gh neutr;il or soft-colored p;iper. an cl get a
stationer to cut it into sheets th e dim ens ions of which arc seven
inch es wide by teri inches long. This size will cover any magazine
article excep t from such peri od icals ;is .Scic11u. Use a parti cular
color for each subject, - blu e, fo r ins tance, for geogr;iphy, - and
th en it may be known at a glance what set of art icles is wished fur
reference.
Place the art icles togeth er. Now it will be noticed that the
pages do not fo llow in the rig ht order, being from different sources ;
therefore, renum ber them in lead pencil. Smnetimes a p;ige of
utterly foreign matter will have to be included in order to get the
nclusion of th e desired subject. Plan to have two of these p;iges
,containing irrelevant matt er co me together, and stick their edges
. with paste. Be sure not to use mucilage, as it is stiff when dry and
very likely to discolor.
Select a covering paper. Rule a decorative border of ink lines
carefull y planned, and, if a n appropriate picture or printed word per"
taining to the subject can be found, paste it on th e coyer. Print th e
title.
Punch holes in th e cover at points two inches from e;ich top
dge, and one-half in ch from th e h;ick . Now lay asid e th(' front
cover ; it might become disfi gured in the following work. Punch all
!he ma gazi ne articles; use the back cover as a guide. K eep the
·outside edges together. This will make ragged pieces of paper
showing out of th e back of th e binder, but your long shears, or,
better, an obliging printer, will trim these unsightly places.

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PRINCIPLES OF RHETORIC

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EXPOSJTION

225

Fasten articl es and covers together with
As ou r persimmon-tree was not by ;rny means a small nnP, he
fastenings than arc actually necessary; so
_would first hunt lnr a hamhoo pole of the required length. wl1ich he
-~~!··~:-_ thoµght was strong enough for his purpose _ Tlwn , with an '"''"
may be added as they arc found .
An index, inserted at th e back and giv in g subject
- he would split une end of the pole as nearly in the midd le as possible,
title, is of great usefulne ss.
taking care not to split it too far, as hamlrno splits f:1irl y easil y. lie
[Is th e repet ition of se71cr11l in the first paragraph necessa
• then ;pence! th e split and in se rt ed into the "pc11i11g. :1t right :rngl1·s
For what does 1! in the first se nt ence of the sernnd p'1ragraph s ·
_ with th<' leng th of the pole. a small stick that was a littl e longer
than the diamrter of thP. hamhoo pole. taking care that the stick
for sluets or for paper? So rewrite the firnt sen tence of the
paragraph that it shall have coherence. Should commas be ;.;~lllM- protrndN\ a little from both sides of th e fll1t' 11i11~. Then the ~plit
with the dashes in the third sentence of th e second paragraph
was .kept open and he had a Y-shape, but the horns of the Y were
(See page 49). Gi1·e a re;iso n for your a nswer. So reconstruct
very s hort and close together.
His implement prepared, he would select a persimmon , would
secon d sentence of the third paragraph that it shall have unity. la
the sen tence last referred to, where should the participial phrue
raise th e pol e with the split encl upperm os t, and firmly catch, in
placed? l n th e third sentence of th e third paragraph, i11c/11ded
the split of th e bamboo pol e, th e stem on which th e persimmon
condnsion detract from the smoothness of the sentence, because...
- hung. He would then turn th e pole on its axis, thus twisting and
accented syllable in each has the same sound and ls promi
breaking off the stem caught in the split. Next, he would carefully
Find a substitute for one of the words.]
lower the pole with the persimmon hanging from th e split, and tak e
his reward by tasting the fruit.
2. How TO PEEL AN ONION
[In the last sentence of the first paragraph , are both the first and
The principal thing in peeling an onion is to remove its·
the second tlzem clear as reference words ? Rewrite the sent ence;
covering in such a manner as to save yourself from tears.
avoid the unn ecessary repetition of tl1cm. Th e word split is used a
With this encl in view, fill a dish with clear water and procure
· good many times in the seco nd and third ijaragraphs. Docs th e
small paring-knife. With the onion in one hand and the knllit i.
writer repeat th e word carelessly or inten tionall y? Give a reason
the other, you are ready. Plunge the onion und er the water, cul
for your answer. Find a substitute for split when ever another word
slice from the top and another from th e root end, then tear the
will .serve the purpose. Give a reason for th e use of each comma in
skin off until only the smoo th white bulb remains in your
the first and second sentences of th e second paragraph.]
You may laugh and chat as you work.
[In the first sentence, the principal tlzi1zr; is a vague exp
4. PRESSING SEAWEED
Something more definite - "an important object," for instance
might be substituted .]
My process of pressing seaweed is very simpl e. I select a spray
that I wish to keep, and bring out the few things I need for the
3· How SOME PERSONS PICK FRUIT
.. work, to th e cool, yet not too breezy, back porch . All I need are a
In some parts of Japan , where th e climate is moist and even,
basin of clear water, a cam el's-hair brush, and some stiff white noteboos and persimmon-trees thrive. A persimmon-tree grew lo
paper. I put the seaweed into th e basin, and when it has spread
yard, and I have often tasted of its ripe fruits. Our Japanese '·
out all its strands, I slip th e paper under it, then, tipping it gently
vants enj oyed th em, and one of th em would often get the frul"
for th e water to run off, I lift paper and weed out. \Vi th my little
th e way I am going to describe.
'
brush I smooth out the tiny frond s in the shape and position I wish

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PRINCIPLES OF RHETORIC

them to lie in; and lastly, I take the paper with the seaweed on
place it in the sun to dry.
[Is process, Ii ne 1, or metlwd the proper word ? Substilu
things in the second sentence a more defi nite word. Give a
for the use of the commas in the third sentence. \Vhy is there
comma after stiff .? In the fourth sentence, is it clear to wbai last it refers ? So recon~truct the fourth sentence that you gicoherence by usin_g a noun in stf'ad of the hst it. Would -It
correct to begin a new paragraph with 1 select and another-::] put! Gi\·e a reason for each of your :rnswers.J
-:;-~~~
Clearness
and ac. curacy essential in
exposit ion

II. Try to explain one of the following simple and fam
processes so clearly and accurately that any one utilizing _
exposition will attain a .satisfactory result: I. Sharpening a lead pencil.
9· Lacing a shoe.
2. Sewing on a button.
I O. Trimming a lamp.
I I. Making a flower-bed.
3· Putting up a swing.
12. Climbing a ladder.
4. Paring an apple.
13 . Sending up a kite.
5· Blowing a bubble.
6. Hanging a picture.
14. Covering a book.
7. Tying a" four-in-hand."
I 5. Making an envelope.
8. Saddli ng a horse.
16. Planting a tree.
What the Writing o f an Exposition Requires

Selection of
material

Language

A

such material as
his subject.
In exposition,
simple; one should never be vague, since
of exposition is to make a meaning clear.

EXl'OSITION
Comparisons and contrasts are like ly to prove useful Compari
sons and
in exposition. If one shoul<l choose the su bj ec t " C har- contrasts
. ity;" one might compare Sir Launfal's two gifts to the
J eper, contrasting the first gift, the uncharitable, with
· he second, the charitable; and thus mi g ht brin g out
the vital differe nce between ch:uity and its opposite _
Naturally, the simile and the metaphor are likely to Simil e and
metaphor
be serviceahle in calling attcntioll to rcscrnlJla11ccs~ An example often helps in expounding an id ea.
In Examples
the exposition of faith, Chapter xi of the Epistle to the
Hebrews, more than a dozen examples of what constitutes faith are given. Paragraph developm ent by means
of examples is frequently found in exposition .
In writing any other than a very brief exposition, an
outline is not merely desirable but necessary (see page
160, 11, 1, an outline for the exposition of a character);
the topics should have sequence and be well connected;
the transitions from one part of the work to another
should be carefully made; and a summary should be
given whenever it will he lp the reader by afforrling him a
view of ground previously covered. One should remember that the beginning of the composition and the end
are important parts, the end being most conspicuous.
EXERCISES

I. Write, as skilfully as possible, a brief description and a
brief exposition. Choose a subject for each from the following
list. Make 11-n outline. Remember that description pictures,
exposition explains, or unfolds a meaning.

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PRI NC JPLES OF RHETORIC
1.

2.

3·
4.

5·
6.
7.
8.

9.
10.

I 1.
12.

13 .
14.

15 .
16.
17.
18.
19.

EXPOSITION

229

Friendship.
Exposition m akes use of description and narrat ion. Description
Our Friendship.
and narra Description
is used at the begi nnin g of the sccund tion in
The Friendship of Damon and Pythias.
exposition
Knights.
paragraph of "\Nolvcs" (pag-c 220), and narration ocTh e Most Knightlike Man I Know.
curs in the expository paragraph :it the opening of C h:l.pSir Launcelot, the Knight.
...
ii!.i!!ii.@11-o=
tcr
i, "Sibs MJ.rncr."
thi> Kin!!:.")
Sir La11nfal, the Knight.
EXERCTSR
Lmnfal.")
J\s has been said, exposition utilizes description and narCharity.
ration;
indeed, one usually find s the seve ra l kinds of comJn that
[Co ns11lt Chapter xiii of First Corinthians.
position
aiding one a noth e r. Th e followin g selections nre,
exposition St. Paul explains that charity is essential, tella
how eve r, easily classifi ed as c hi e fly narrative, d esc riptiv e, or
what it is, what it is not, what it docs not do, what it doa,
an~l. what .is its .rank \rith reference to the other two great '•
expository . Make the classifications anti g ive a reason for
spmtual gifts, faith and hope.]
each of them.
The C harity of my Neighbor.
1. The sea rem embers nothing.
It is felin e. It licks your feet,
My Mother's Charity.
-its huge flanks purr ve ry pleasantly for yo u; but it will crack your•
The Charity of the Ancient Mariner.
bones and ea t you, for all that, and wipe the cri111soncd foam from
Ancient Mariner.")
its· jaws as if nothing had happened. The mou ntains gi\'e th eir lost
The Charity of Dolly Winthrop.
children
berries and water; the sea mocks th eir thirst and lets them
My Landlord.
die. The mountains have a grand, stupid, lovabl e tranquillity; th e
Mr. Snell, the Landlord of the Rainbow.
sea has a fascinating, treacherous inteli'igence. The moun tains lie
Marner.")
about like huge ruminants, th eir broad backs awful to look upon,
Landlords .
but safe to handle. The sea smooths its silver scales until you canLoyalty.
not see th eir joints, - but their shinin g is that of a snake's hell y,
The Loyalty ofa Member of our Club.
after all. . . . In deep suggestiveness I find as great a difference.
The Loyalty of a Hero.
The mountai ns dwarf mankind and foreshorten the procession of its
The Loyalty of Miss Pross to Lucie.
lon g generations. The sea drowns out humanity and time ; it has
of Two Cities.")
no sympathy with either; for it belongs to eternity, and of that it
sings its munutunous song forever and ever.

II. Write an editorial paragraph for a school paper.
th a t th e scho ol needs a library or other gift.
furnish models.

Good newspapcra

[The brief editorial brings to notice some event of the day and
comments upon it concisely and pointedly.]

OLIVER \VEND.ELL HOLMES; "The A ulocrat of the 13rcakfast Table:·

[Classify the figures of speech in th e preceding quotation. Does
Holmes write of a special sea and a special mountain or of the sea
.and th e mountains in general ?]
2. "Do you hear me call? Come here!" cried Sikes.
The
animal ca111e up from the very force of habit ; but as Sikes stooped

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PRINCIPLES OF RHETORIC

EX P OS lTfON

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lo attach th e
started back.
"Come back!" said th e robber, stamping on th e ground.
The clog wagged his tail but moved not. Sikes made a runnin(
noose and called him again.
The ·clog aclvancecl, retreated, paused an instant,
scoured away at his hardest speed.
The man whistl ed again and again, an d sat d ow n and waited
the ex pecta tion that he would return . I3nt no clog appeared, and
length he resumed his journey.
3. The third qualification of an epic poem is its greatness.
anger of Ac:hilles was of such consequence that it embroiled
kings of Greece, destroyed th e heroes of Asia, and engaged all
the gods in facti ons. The settlement of .tE ncas in Italy produ
the Ca;sars, and gave birth to th e Roman empire. Milton's su bj
was still greater than either of th e form er; it does not determine the.;
fate of sing le persons or nations, but of a whole species. The united
powers of hell are joined togeth er for the destru ction of ma
which they effected in part, and would have co mpleted, had
Omnipotence Itself interposed. The principal actors are man i.n
greatest perfection, and wonian in h er high es t beauty . Their e
mi es are the fall en angels ; th e Messiah is th eir friend, and the
Almighty their protector. In short, everything that is great In:
whole circle of being, wheth er within the verge of nature or ou
it, has a proper part assigned it in this admirable poem.
J OSEP H ADDJSON: .. Th e Action of Parad!se ~.

t·

Shook bea m and rafter as it passed,
The merrier up its roaring draught
The great throat of th e chimney l;rng hrrl ;
The house-dog on hi s paws ou tspread
Laid to th e fire h is drowsy head,
Th e cat's dark si lhouette on tl w wall
A couchant tiger's seemed to fall;
And, for th e wintf'r tirt>si dP mr et,
Between th e ;111dirnns' straddling feet.
The mug of cider simmered slow,
The appks sput te recl in a row,
And close at hand th e basket stoncl,
\Vith nuts fr om brown Octuuc:r's wood.
J OHN GREENLEAF Wll l'ITlfm : .. Snow-Bound."

5. R e1;enge is a kind e of Wilde Justice; which the more Mans
Nature runs to, the more ought Law to weed it nut. For as for the
. first Wrong, it cloth but offend the Law, hut th e N 1'7'1'11£;1" of th:it
wrong, putteth th e Law out of Office. Certainly, in ta king R c11et1,E;<',
A Man is but eve n with his Enemy; I3ut in passin g it over, he is
Superi or: For it is a Prince's part to Pardon. . . . That which ts
past, is go ne, and Irrevocabl e; And wise Men have enough to doc,
with thin gs prese nt, and to co me : Therefore, th ey doe but trifl e with
The most T olerable
themselves, that labor in past matters . . .
· Sort of R ci!t'llgc, is for those wrongs which thert' is no La w t"
rem edy : Dut th en, let a man take heed, th e J\,-7 •01.i;1· be such, ;is
there i.s no law to punish . . . . Thi s is ccrt;ii ne; Th :i t :i i\fan th:it
studicth Rcvo,i;c, keepes his ow ne \ Vounds g rcenc, which othcrn isc
·Would heale, and doe well.

[Note the development of the paragraph in 3 uy means of sped
FRANCIS BA CON : " Of Revenge" (published 1625 ).
=:===::===::;:;11:=.
examples.]
6 . Now I furth er saw th at betwixt them and the g;ite w;is a ri vc r,
4 . Shut in from all the world without,
but th ere was no bridge to go over, and the river was Yery deep. l\t
We sat the clean-winged hearth auout,
the sight, therefore, of this rive r, th e pilgrim s were much stunn ed ;
Content to let the north wind roar
but the men that went with them said," You must go through , or
In baffled rage at pane and door,
you cannot come at th e gate."
While the red logs before us beat
Th e pilgrims th en began to inquire if th ere was no other way to
The frost-line back with tropic heat;
the gate? To which they answered, "Yes ; but there hath not any,
And ever, when a louder blast

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232

save two, to wit , Enoch and Elijah , bee n permitted to tread that
since th e foundati o n of the world , nor shall until the last trum
shall sound.'' Then the pilgrims - especially Christian - l>eg:uf
despond in th e ir minds, and look er! this way anrl that; l1ut no.
could be found by th em by which th ey could escape the river.
th ey as ked th e men if th e waters were all nf a d ep th ' They
"No;" ye t th ey cnulrl nnt h elp th em in that case : "fnr," said
"you s hall find it d eepe r or s hall o wer. :is vnu IJC li cv e in the King··
the pl:tce."
7.

EX l'OSITION

PRINCIPLES OF RHETORIC

L o ng lin es of cliff breaking have left a chasm ;
And in the chasm are foam and yellow sands;
B eyond, red roofs about a narrow wharf
In cluster; then a mould er'd church ; and higher
A lo ng street climbs to one tall -towered mill;
And hi g h in heaven behind it a gray down
vVith Danis h barrows ; and a haze l wood,
By autumn nutters haunt ed, fl o urish es
Green in a cuplike hollow of the clown.
ALFRED TENNYSON:

[Find an epitl}ct in 7.

walk of :i G ray, 1 what a difTere ncc ! \Vhat a rlifTcr"11 cc· ll('t1vec n till'
of a shipbuilder and the B crrnooth cs o f Sh;1kcspeare,"
" Full of nnises.
Sounds . and sw eet airs . that give de light and hurt nut: "
. he is le of el ves a nd fairie s. that chase d the tid e to an rl f rn nn tlw
.seas h ure : uf cural -l .. •11 cs a 11d th e kn ell ,,r "''l 111 11 11>1 1,; : ., f ,;p iri h
anc ing on th e sctncb, a nd si 11 gi11g a 111i•l st the h u,; l1c·s of tlil' 11i11il :
Caliuan, whuse uru le ll :tlure e nchaatlll t: ll l ha cl llt <!d e jJUe lical j
Ari el, wh o b y in cows lip lJc lb, and rode upo n Lil e ba l; uf l\l iran d :i,
wlio wept when s he saw F e rdinand work so hard , and hcgged l1im to
let her help. . . . Such a rc the discoveries whi ch th e poets make
for us; worlds to which th a t o f Columbus was but a handful of brut e
LEl G ll H UN T : "On th e Rea lities of I magi nation."

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ur

Lectures, orations, essays, -whether critical, instruc. tive, or conversational, - editorials, book reviews (sec
Appendix), and text-books contain a good deal of

Where to
look for
exposition

Define barrows and dincm.]

8. But a classi c is properly a book which maintains itself by virtue
of that h appy coa lescence of matter and style, that innate and e..quisite sympathy b etween the thoug ht that gives life and the fi
that conse nts to e very mood of grace and dig nity, which can be
ple with o ut being vulgar, elevated with ou t being distant, and wbidl
is som ething n eith e r ancient nor modern , always new, and incapable
of growing old.
JAMES R USS EL L LOW E LL : "Essay on s

1
2

See Gray's "El egy in a Country Churchyard."
See Shakespear e's "The Tempest."

9. The po ets are called creators, b ecause with th eir magical w·~~!!!I!!!!
th ey bring forth to our eyesight the abundant images and beauties
creation. They put them there, if the reader pl eases; and so are Ulefl.
ally creators. But whether put there or discovered, whether createcl
or invented (for invention means nothing but finding out), there thlj' ·
are. . . . Be twee n th e tree of a country clown and the tree of a
Milton or Spenser, what a difference in point of productiveness I
Between the pl odding of a sexton through a churchyard and the

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235

IV. L1s tl y, we have no sort of experience i11 fa1·or uf force as a11
instrnment in the rule of our colonies.'
EXERCISE

CIIJ\l'TER XXT
ARGUMENTATION

1

=

What Argumentation Is
Argumentation defined

Discu ss the following a rgumentative parngraphs . Thev were
written as preparation for more fo rmal 11'<Jrk. i\bkc a list of
=::::f1'5illl:::
advancer! in r and in 2 ; add oth ers which
occur to you .

exposition makes clear one's meaning, it d
not, necessarily, lead others to adopt the ideas one UDo
folds or explains. To convince another, Argumentatiolf:
is used ; for argumentation is the process of
anothe~ believe what the speaker or writer believ'
Exposition is employed to reveal a meaning; argu~ ·
tation, to establish a truth. In defining and in rec~tio
exposition is repeatedly employed; in class discus~i
arguments are presented and the principles of argu
tation are used.
An Argument is a reason offered as proof or disp
of an assertion (called a Proposition). Arguments.
made for the purpose of convincing others.
WHILE

makiol

Argument

defined

EXAMPLE. - Burke gives th e following reaso ns, arguments,
prove that force is "a feeble instmment" for preserving Ame~ ; .
I. First, Sir, permit me to observe that th e use of force aloal;·
but temporary.
II. My next objection is its uncertainty.
-.
III. A further objection to force is that you impair the obj~
your very endeavor to preserve it.
' .
1 MacEwan's "Essentials of Argumentation" ( D. C. Heath and
pany ) and Baker's "Principles of Argumentation " (Ginn and
are useful for reference.

Proposition : Psyche's child i\glafa is the heroine of "The
1. Is Psyche's child the heroine of "The Princess"? Some
hold that this is the case, but according to most theo ries a heroine
is the centre of interest round which other things revolve - all
relating to her, or in some way intensifying her characteristics. It
is true that Psyche's child has a prominent place in the poem, and
is continually referred to ; but that does not make her th e heroine,
for each time that she is spoken of, some menti on of the Princess is
sure to follow, and th e child is thus made th e signpost to the presence of the Princess. It is the Princess of whom the beautiful descriptions are given and it is the Princess around whom the fine web
of the story is spun. At the very beginning. the Princess is definitely placed in her position of heroin e by .the words,

" Take Lilia tlzm for lzeroi11e, clamored he,
And make lier some great l'ri11ccss, six feet high,
Grand, epic, homicidal, and be you th e Prince to win her."
[What is the strongest argument in the preceding paragraph ?
Give a reason for your answer. J
Who is the heroine of "The Princess" ? Psyche's child, I
Whenever the story nears a crisis, th e child makes its apWe see it at Ida's feet, when she sits on her throne of
In the heig ht of her anger it cries, and her wrath is
'vVhen Ida sings her song of triumph from the battlements, the child is in her arms ; she carries it with her to the scene

· · 2.

think.

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Conciliation with the Colonies."

234

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AR< ;LJMENTATION

of the fight. Through it, Cyril pleads Psyc;he's cause with !<la, a .
by its influence the heart of the l'rincess is at last softened.
The songs also make one think the child is the heroine. In
first, the sight of the little grave is the signal for reconciliation i ll
second is a cradle song; while in another, when all else fails, n
boy's face brings to a mother the relief of tears.
"O fatal babe," says Mr. Dawson, in an introduction to "
Princess," "more fatal to the hopes of woman than the doomful ho
to the proud towers of Ilion; for through thee the walls of pride
breached, and all the conquering affections flock in."

modern nation would be perccptiLly diminis hed
sing le generation had run Ly. "
2. Theodure Roosevelt stated recently that, as a result of hon1·st
·.· enforcement. th e work of the magistrates who sat on Munday in the
citv courts for the trial of offenders was decreased by n11c-half. Dr .
· Crafts finds , from carefully prepared data, that where Sunday-closing
laws do not exis t or are not enforced, far more crimes are committ cct
on Sunday than on any other day of the week; \Yhil c he has also
found , that where snch laws cto exist and are even moderately enforced, there are few er crimes on Sunday than on other days.

Proof : the Value of Evidence
:A writer's

purpose his
guide
Purpose, to
prove
Evidence
necessary
for proof

In argumentation, as in the three other kinds of com.
position, the writer's purpose is his guide in the selecti ·
of material. The purpose of argumentation is to prove
somethi1ig; hence, he who argues chooses what is vab~....
able as proof. Evidence must be collected to prover •
point; mere assertion is likely to have no value. On
own opinion, for example, is worth little, unless one 1*. ,
recognized authority on the subject under discussion
but statistics, the affirmation of an expert having i~
mate knowledge of the matter under consideration, of!
other equally reliable testimony may be accepte,d evidence tending to establish the truth or falsity O
proposition.
EXERCISES

I. Which of the two following paragraphs is the more
able as evidence?

Give a reason for your answer.

"Were a congress of physicians or sanitary surgeol\S
questioned," says an authority, "they would doubtless replJ. .,.
were it not for a periodic pause as often as one day in .seY, ,
1.

before

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237

<l

II. Do the work asked for in
the following re(juirements : -

1

and

2

2. From the asides of Trebonius and Brutus infer something
regarding the character of each man. _From what evidence do
you draw your inferences?
Casar.
What, Trebonius!
I have an hour's talk in store for you.
Remember that you call on me to-clay:
Be near me, that I may remember you.
1

Macaulay's "Lays of Ancient Rome."

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and in one other of

1. The following lines are about Horatius, th e R oman patriot,
as he swims the broad Tiber with thirty thousand foes on the
bank behind him. What do you infer from the stanza regarding the character of Sextus, - a Roman, yet an enemy of
Rome, - and that of Lars Porsena, a leader of the Etruscans
seeking to attack Rome? Upon what evidence do you base
your conclusions_?
"Curse on him ! " quoth false Sextus;
"\Viii not the villain drown?
But for this stay, ere close of clay
We should have sacked the town!"
"Heaven help him ! " quoth Lars Porsena,
"And bring him safe to shore;
For such a gallant feat of arms
Was never see n before." 1

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ARGUMENTATION

PWNCIPLES OF J{HETORIC

Trebonius. Ca~sar, I will : - (Aside) and so near will I be,
That your best friends shall wish I had been further.
Casar. Good friends, go in, and taste some wine with me;
And we, like fri ends, will strai ghtway go together.
Brutus (Aside). That every like is not the same, 0 Cresar,
The heart of Hrutus yearns to think upon! 1

3. Make a list of Lowell's reasons for saying: "Earth gets its price for what earth gives

4. Collect evidence from "Silas Marner" to
either of the following statements : -

[Remember that a few specific instances that acconl with a
general statement do not establish that statement.]

5. Toward the end of Chapter vii, "Silas Marner," G .
Eliot says: "There was a hot debate upon this." Write a
paragraph in which you present argumentatively the side ol
Mr. Dowlas or that of Mr. Macey.
The Proposition : Exposition In Argumentation
Proposition

Make clear
the meaning of the
proposition

The statement to be proved or disproved is called
proposition. The proposition should have the for ·
a statement, not that of an inquiry.
It is useless to argue a proposition until its
is clear to both writer and reader - or to speaker
hearer ; frequently, therefore, it is natural t<! · 0

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one's argument with an expository paragraph that defines and explains the terms used in the proposition. 1

Shakespeare's" Julius C"CSar,'' A.ct ii, Scene ii.
"The Vision of Sir Launfal," Part i, Prelude. See page

130-

Argument
often opens
with expo·
sition

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EXERCISES

I. What proposition is contained in the following sentence
:md what evidence is advanced to prove the proposition?

II. Write not more than three paragraphs aLout one propo-

a. Seed brings forth a crop after its kind.
b. Where yo ur treasure is, there will your heart be.

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"Mankind in the aggregate is always wiser than any singl e man,
because its experience is derived from a larger ran ge of observation
and experience, and because the springs that feed it drain a wider
: region both of time and space."

us. "~

The reasons that Lowell gives constitute evidence
to prove his assertion.

defined

239

in the following list. Try to make the work brief, but
clear, strong, and convincing._ Select a subject about which
you actually believe and feel something.
Remember: 1. That the purpose of argumentation is to prove something.
2. That one must collect evid ence to establish proof.
3. That a knowledge of exposition shoukl help one to define
. and explain.
·
[A method of development frequently used in the argumentative paragraph is : statement of proposition in a topic sen tence; presentation of arguments to establish the truth uf the
proposition ; restatement of proposition as a conclusion.]
I The Harvard-Princeton debaters, in th e ir contest uf March 28, 1905,
thus defined their propositi0n: -

Resolved, That th e free el ectiv e system is th e lies! available plan fur the
undergraduate course of study.
It is und erstood that
I. The Free Elective System is one based o n the prin cipl e that each
student should select for himself all his studies through o ut his cnl!ege
course.
2. Th e Free Elective System, thus defined, ex ists even when a minor
part of the studies of the fr eshman year is presc ribed.

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ARGUMENT A TI ON

PRINCIPLES OF RHETORIC

I

List of Propositions

Animals afford reliable weather signs.
The work of helping th e world forward does not wait
done by perfect men.
3. (Refer to" The Sir Roger De Coverley Papers .")
a. The abuses of Sir Roger's day are the abuses of our on
time.
b. The titl e !migl1t is a fitting one for Sir Roger.
[A method of paragraph develop ment: First, by means of exposition, make clear th e meaning of knig!it; th en show the kind of
character possessed by Sir F oge r ; finally, draw a conclusion.]
4. Universal history is th e his tory of g reat men and their work,
5. The qualifications for the right of suffr:ige in the United Stata
should be [Comple te the preceding proposition in accordance with yOllit
own belief.]
6. The history of th e apple-tree is connected with that of man.
7. (Refe r to T enn yso n's" Th e Princess.")
Ida's apparent obstinacy originated in generosity.
8. An important lesson lo be learned in life is the art of ecoao-"
mizing tim e.
9 . (Refer to De Quincey's" J oa n of Arc.")
a. The use of a good many French words in
"Joan of Arc " is allowable.
b. De Quincey keeps his reader's thought on Joan of Arc
self rather than on her deeds.
10. Vivisec tion should be prohibited by law.
11. (Refer to "Silas Marner.")
a . Th e villagers of Raveloe were ·superstitious.
[First, define s11jJerstilio11s.]
b. Dunsey's so-called luck w;is, in truth , ill-luck.
[If the terms used in b be defined and ex plained, little more._,
remain to be don e.]
'
c. The visit to Lantern Yard is distracting and harmfUf • .
the unity of th e story.
d. Th e visit to Lantern Yard helps to preserve the unit)'. of
the book.

The Value of Illustration and Example

1.

EXERCISES

2.

I. Find in "Silas Marner," "The Vision of Sir Launfal," or
elsewhere, an _illustration or example in support of one of the
following statements : "Reverent love has a politeness of its own."
"No disposition is a security from evil wishes to a man whose
happiness ha ngs on duplicity. "
3. "The gift without th e giver is bare."
1.

2.

II. Write a paragraph to show the truth of

1, 2,

or 3, under

I. Utilize the illustration found in answer to requirement I.

The preceding exercise called for the finding of an
illustration to support a statement. It is necessary to
realize that one such example, thou g h it be helpful as
an illustration, may not prove anything in itself; it may
even be an exception. Moreover, if an instance is used
as proof, the conditions it represe nts should have resulted in such a way as to support what one desires to
prove. Furthermore, the result of its conditions should
be less likely to aid in the establishment of one's point
than the result of the conditions represented in the
argument itself.

Illustration
not neces sarily proof
1, 1i

The kind of
illustration
to choose

EXAMPLE. - Or what man is there of you, whom if his son asks
bread, will he give him a stone ?
Or if he ask a fish, will he give him a serpent ?
If ye th en, being evil, know how to give good gifts unto your
children, how much more shall your Father which is in heave n give
· good things to them that ask Him?
[The less promising set of conditions described in t11 e example the human - result in good; the more promi sing but otherwise
similar set- the divine -may th erefo re be trusted.]

1:

Al{GUMENTATION

PRINCIPLES OF RHETORIC
The Value of Analogy
Analogy

defined

Analogy
seldom
furnishes
argument

exists. But inference is not argument.
me nt from analogy (similarity), the sets
one uses, as well as the conditions in which
place, must be alike:
I LLUSTRA TIO NS

c.:.

I. Because to-day you are stung by a bee, as your fingers
over it in attempting to pluck a fl ower, do not argue that, whenever ·
you attempt to pluck that flo wer, you will be stung by a bee. A,
bee is not always on, or near, the flower. (Conditions unlike.)
•"
II. Toward th e end of Chapter vi, " Silas Marner," George~
says: "The la ndlord's analogical argument was not well received bf
th~ farri er." The preceding paragraph of th e chapter contains t1- '
analogical argument: Because th e landlord's wife cannot Amell
cheese, some persons cannot see ghosts! (Condi tions and happe...
ings unlike.)
Analogy
useful in
exposition

Though seldom useful as argument, analogy may ho ~
valuable in making a meaning clear.
EXAMPLE. -Fresh as the first beam glittering on a sail,
That brings our friends up from the underworld,
Sad as the last which reddens over one
That sinks with all we love below th e verge;
So sad, so fresh , th e days that are no more.
ALFRED TENNYSON: .. The

Princess, H ~

P articu lar Instances as Pro of
The use of
particular
instances
as proof

A n umber of particular instances may be brought for•
ward to prove a general statement. For example, if one
were to see grain in the fields bending westward, and

243

the lower clouds floating in the same direction; if on e
· were to moisten a finger, hold it up, and feel the air
~· blow on the part toward the east ; if one were to see the
surface of a pond ruffled from the east a nd all weathercocks pointing in that direction, one might reason from
' these particulars and make the state ment : The wind
blows from the east.
One should not induce too much from a particular or
a set of particulars. In order to establish proof, one
.' must, usual ly, give numerous or very convincing examples, so that one's statement is safely supported. For
' instance, a wea thercoc k might be out of ord er, and from
it alone one could not rightfully draw the conclusion
, that the wind blew from a given direction ; grain might
· bend westward beca use the prevai ling wind had been
from the east, thou g h t he wind at the time mentioned
might come from some other quarter; but from all the
fa.cts enumerated in the preceding paragraph, one might,
with confidence, draw the conclusion: The wind blows
from the east.

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Cite a
sufficient
number of
particulars

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I. Make a list of particulars to support

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or

2,

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(List of Propositions).

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EXERCISES

240

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Then [in June] , if ever, come perfect days.
Not only around our infancy
Doth heaven with all its splendors lie.

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A way to
prove a

particular

1-'RINCIPLES OF H.1-IETORIC

ARGUMENTATION

Utilization of a True General Statement

IV. The two hostile factions in our basketball club must
become reconciled, or the club will cease to ex ist.

One may sometimes prove that a particular instanc
should be classed under a general statement known to~
be true. Refer to the method of treatment suggeste
for the third subject on page 240.
considers what qualities the knight in general possesses;
then he shows that Sir Roger does, or does not, have
those qualities; finally, he draws the conclusion that has
become obvious.
EXERCISE

Write a paragraph that tends to prove or disprove one of th
following statements.
Note the suggestions for paragrap
development.
I. A law for the protection of the health of a community fs
consistent with liberty.
[First, make a general statement - assumed to tie true - showing what a thing consistent with liberty must be or must have; theil
show that a law for the protection of health does, or does not, med
the described requirements; fin ally, draw the conclusion.]
· .

II. Inaction on the part of America at the beginning of tht"J
war between Spain and Cuba would not have been detrimentaL,,..
to her in effect or in opinion.
[First, assume the following general statement to be true: "Great '
and acknowl edged force is not impaired, either in effect or in op
ion, by an unwillingness to exert itself "; next, prove that Ameri ,
ranks with the great and acknowledged. forces among nations; finall
draw the conclusion that will have become evident.]
'·

III. It is incumbent upon - - to observe the conditio.
of the treaty of--.
[Fill the blanks to suit yourself; write of that treaty about wbldl
you know the most. Make use of the general statement: "A
is the promise of peoples."]

245

[Make use of the general st;itement: "A house divided against
itself cannot stand."]
The Value of Concrete Instances In Argumentation

A single concrete instance that violates a general state. ment furnishes evidence against it and is, therefore,
- useful in disproving the statement. Socrates, in his often' quoted discussion with Euthydemus, convinced the latter
of the falseness of his conception of justice, not by arguing at length against the definition of Euthydemus, but
. by brin ging up one or two cases of evident injustice
· that fell within the definition and one or two obviously
just cases that fell without the definition.

Con..,ete
instances
as proof

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Debating!

A Debate is somewhat formal work in argumentation.
It gives arguments on both sides of a question.
In a debate, each side not only presents direct proof,
but seeks to disprove - refute, or rebut -what the other
side advances as proof.
ILLUSTRATION

Fisher Ames, in his speech on "The British Treaty," anticipated
, and refuted opposition in the following paragraph : It is vain to offer ;is an excuse, that public men are not to be
reproach ed for the evils that may happen to ensue from their meas1 Mac Ewan's "Essentials of Argumentation" (D. C. If ea th and Company) and Alden's "The Art of Debate" (Henry Holt and Company) are
useful for reference.

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Debate
defined
Refutation

or rebuttal

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ARGUMENTATION

PRINCIPLES OF RHETORIC
ures. · This is very tru e where the evils are unforeseen or inevitable, ·.
Those I have depicted are not unforeseen ; they are so far frona
inevitable that we are going to bring them into being by our v~.
We choose the consequences, and become as justly answerable fol- ·
th em as for th e measures that we know will produce them.
[Note th e paragraph development: in his first sentence, M.r.
Ames states an excuse that may be offered by his opponents and
th en refutes that excuse. ]
EXERCISE

(Refer to the following quoted paragraph.)
I. What argument is it that Burke foresees may
against him ?
II. How does Burke refute the argument that he
pates?
"Sir, I can perceive by their manner that some gentlemen ob~
to the latitude of this description, because in the Southern Colonlt$
th e Church of England forms a large body and has a regular esmi,; ·
lishment. It is certainly true. There is, however, a circumstanot
attending th ese colonies which, in my opi nion, fully counterbalancet_
this difference and makes the spirit of liberty still more high and
haughty than in those to the northward. · It is, that in Virginia ··
the Carolinas they have a vast multitude of slaves. Where this ...
the case in any part of the world, those who are free are by far tbt
most proud and jealous of their freedom ."
The Question (Proposition)
Question
should be
debatable

Question
should be
declarative

For debate, a proposition should be chosen
the truth of which reasonable men may differ.
question gives each side a fair chance in the argumc~
The statement of the question to be debated sqould:
preferably, be declarative in form, and should not oil · ,
alternatives.

247

EXERCISES

I. State the following proposition declaratively : Is the
United Sta tes right in trying to preserve th e integrity of China?
II. From the following prop_osition, make one that will be
declarative and will no t offer alternatives : Should manual training be introduced into all hi gh schools or shou ld those schools
devote themselves merely to the meeting of college requirements?

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Duties of the Individual Debater

The individual debater must, first of all , know what he
is to do. H e should be sure of three things: ( 1) what
th e proposition to be debated means; (2 ) what his side
is to prove, if possible, and what his opponents will try
to establish ; (3) what his own part in the work is.
If his side upholds the affirmative of the question, it
must prove the truth of the proposition, for usu ally the
responsibility of proving - the "burden of proof" rests with the affirmative. If he and his associates
represent the negative side of the question, their chief
duty is to break down the evidence of the affirmative,
thou gh they may also advance arguments to support
th eir own position. His own especial duty is to know
all that he can about both sides of th e question, understand just what part of the team work he is to do, make
a careful plan (called a briefl) for his g uidance, and
" have convincing evidence to support each of his points.
The debater should study his proposition, discover
Lamont's ed ition of Burke's "Conciliation with th e Co loni es" (Ginn
and Company) co.ntains an admirabl e brief in its introdu ction, pages lviilxiv.
1

Three
important
duties

General
responsibility of
the two
parties to
the debate

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Special
duty of the
individual
debater

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Pl{J NCIPLES OF
Sugges tions to the

individual

RHETOI~ I C

what truth most needs provin~, and .try to
........- -. harm o ny ;rnd peace of all whn ;uc dPsti nerl tn Jiu' unrler it. L l'i 1is
He should ascertain, by inves ti gating the question, what ~'!!B!. make our ge nera tion one of th e stronges t ;ind brig ht est link s in tli:it
is the strongest evidence for th e other side, and be ready·
to refute that. He should work conl1de11tly, but should
overrate, rather than und errate, his opponents and their- opportunities.
The Time for Re futation

The formal
rebuttal

It is impossible to state, in general, wh en refutation
should be made. A debater must use hi s judgment. If
his opponents e vidently have scored a point with audi·
ence and judg es, it may be well to refute that point at
the earliest opportunity. The final speaker for each
side usually gives a somewhat comprehensive rebuttal . .
Value of Persuasion

Use persua-

sion as well
aa argument

ARGUME N T A TI ON

The debater seeks not only to win belief, but also to
affect the hearts of his hea rers, a nd perhaps rouse them ·
to action. Therefore, his a rgum ents s hould be so presented that those who listen will be moved by his own
conviction and feeling. A direct appeal to the emotions
may sometimes be made, especially as a climax and
conclusion.
ILLUSTRATION

And now, Mr . President, . .. let us devote ourselves to those
great objects that are fit for our consideration and ou r action; let us
raise our conceptions to the mag nitude and t,he importance of the
duti es that devolve upon us; let our comprehension be as broad as
th e country for which we act, our aspirations as hi gh as its certain
d es tiny; let us not be pigmies in a case that calls for men. Never
did th ere devolve o n any generation of men hig her trusts than now
d evolve upon us, for the preservation of this Constitution and the

gulden cli;iin "hich is de s tined. I lo11J ly lielieH , ttl g r:ippl e t he i"'"pie of all the States to thi s Lonstil11tiun !o r ages tu come . \.Ve ha ve
'- a great, popu lar, cons titut ional go ve rnm e nt. guarded l1y la"' and hv
jud icature, ;i nd defend ed by th e affec ti o ns of tl1 c ll'h<>lc l" '"l'k · No
- mo narchi cal throne presses these States tog et her. no iron ch:iin of
military power encircles th em ; th ey li1·e a nd sta nd und er a g:overnment · popular in its fo rm , re presentativ e in its character. fou nd ed
upo n pri nciples of equali ty, a nd so constru cted, we hope, as to last
D AN I EL \ .YEHSTER: "Th e Constitution ~nd the U nion ."
for ever.

To gain practice in makin g an ap pea l and to acquire
pow er in persuading, it is well frequently to choose but
a single point for presentation, and so trea t it that whoever hears it not only will be co nvin ced, but will be
rou se d to sympathy and consequent action.
R e member that real conviction and feelin g, simp ly
but stron g ly expressed, appeal to one's hearers, whil e
(page 76, VII) may not even gain

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caution

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EXERCISE

I1

Write the fin al argumentative paragraph for a compos1t1on
on one of the' following subjects; make an appeal, seek to
persuade your hearers : I. The desirability of obtaining a suitable home where
groups of children from the city tenem ents may have a summer
outing.
IL Let the boys and girls have th e freedom of the village
common, of the city park, or of the lake.
III. Our Alma Mater.

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[Consider III to be a toast . Write o nl y the closing paragraph
of a response to th e toast; mak e that paragraph a n appeal to th e
loyalty of your fellow-graduates. Seek L>y your appeal to rou se

I.,

PRINCIPLES OF RHETORIC

ARGUMENTATION

interes t that will lead to the building of a ,g ymnasium or assembl1'· :·
hall, or to the raising of an endowment fund.]
.

themselves agree with one side or the othe r, but to
determine which side has made th e better argument.

IV. Take some action to prevent the extermination of our''
woodlands.
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V. Insist that the law against the use of soft coal in our citJ ~.

Classroom Debates

A class is a debating society; in a classroom , quesbe enforced.
tions are always being propounded for explanation
The Speech
(exposition) and discussion (argument). Informal class
Although his work should be carefully planned, the:§.,_ ' discussions will gain much in ease, dignity, and force,
Thorough
preparation successful debater is not too rigid.
If he dependt 'f " if some formal work in debating be undertaken.
and an outline, or
altogether upon a written speech that he has committed::_
brief, better
EXERCISES
than a
to memory, he may, as the debate develops, find h~·
speech
I. Discuss the follow ing work : committed self unable to meet the requirements of the changing .
to memory
1. Pr(}position. For th e welfare of th e country, the United
situation. His opponents are always to be reckon.;cJ;
,' States should end the present coal strike 1 by compelling imwith, and they do unexpected things. If, however, the.
mediate arbitration.
debater has gained much information from observatio
a. A N INTRODUCTORY PARAGRAPH
discussion, books, and thought; has an outline in h . .
W e of the affirmative wish to prove to you that a settlement of
mind, from which he has constructed and delivered ~f
th e prese nt coal strike s hould be mad e compulsory. My colleagues
himself many a speech; and has a realization that ~g;.
will show th at th e strike is so g reat a detrim ent to th e miners themciseness is necessary, that he has little time and sho
selves, to th e operators. and to th e general public that it has become
use it to advantage, - then he is likely to .do his bes
' a national di sas ter and should be met by legislati ve acti o n. I \\'ill
open th e d ebate by giving a brief account of th e work at the mines,
Plain
words
and
a
clear
construction
are
essential
Style in the
the hours, the pay, the employees, and the demands of the strikers.
debate
debating. If, however, a writer is in earnest and fi
what he says, his work is likely to have life. Eloquc
b. ON THE PRECEDING PROPOSITION
is not a matter of mere words, but of words vibra
HONOHABLE J UDGES A ND CLASSMATES: It is _my endeavor to
show: first , that compulsory arbitration of this strike by the United
with the thought they carry.
· Judging the Debate
The outcome of the
debate

The duty of the judges is not to decide wheth
proposition is true or false, not to decide wheth

' States is impossible; and seco nd , that, were it possible, und er the
·existing conditions it is so impracticable as to be useless .
Th e government could not settle this strike by compulsory arbi· ~ration, because th ere is no nation al compulsory arbitration law, and
1 The strike of 1903-1904 in th e Pennsylvania cual fields .

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formal work
in debatmg

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ARGUMENTAT ION

any such law passed now cou ld apply on ly t~l future strikes, for, if il
were applied to t h is strike, it woul d be an ex post /ado law, such as
the Constitut ion forbids Congress 'to pass. This one fact is enough.
to decide the question. But even if th is were not true, the govern•
ment woul d ha ve no right to interfere, because it is in the power of
the state of Pennsylvania to end th e trouble. M y colleague hall
described three different ways by which the P ennsylvania legislatu~ / .·
could encl the deadlock. None of them has bee n tried. Unti l the
state of Pennsylvania has exhausted its last resource, the national
government has no right to step in ; for, however desirable to th
country at large interference might be, the entire business is unde
the jurisdiction of the state of Pennsylvania, and remains so un ·•
the nat io nal government is appealed to by that state government.
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[The speakers quo ted in 1 and 2 follow one method: they
take the audience into their confidence by outlining their plan.
While it is o ften desi rab le to do this, it is not a lways neccssarJ.:,
One might prefer to surprise his a udience.]
2.

A paragraph of appeal.

Finall y, mothers, I appeal to yo n. In J uly and August, when .
sun scorches the city, wh en you take your own ch ildren to wi
blown fie lds and shore, wi ll you not remember the chi ldren
city streets? Their joyless lives are rendered yet more into!
by sun-baked brick walls and impure air. Your mi te may mean I
to one or more of them . vVill you not he lp them? "lnasmu~
ye h ave done it unto the least of these, My little ones, ye have d

or

it unto Me."

IL Note the carefulness with which every assertion in the'
lowing quotations, whether serious or humorous, is upheld
Proposit ion
Proof
Evidence

evidence:a 1. I n all these external respects his case was .• •

VefJ

from th e hardest. Poverty, incessant drudgery, and much .
evi ls, it has often been the lot of Poets and wise me n to strive
and their glory to conquer. Locke was banished as a traitor "
wrote his ·' Essay on the Human Understanding" sheltering
self in a Dutch garret. Was Milton rich or at h is ease wbcll

253

composed "Paradise Lost '' ? Not only low, hut fa llen from a
height : not only poor, but impover ished; in darkness and wit h
clangc1:s compassed round, lie sang his immortal song, and found
fit ~ucl1e n ce, t hough few . Did not Cervantes finisl1 his work, a
maimed soldier a nd in prison? Nay, was not the "Araucana"
which Spain acknowl edges as its Epic. written without even t he a:d
of paper; on scraps of leather, as the stout fig h ter and voya"cr
snatched any moment from that wil d warfare ?
"'
2. Sti ll , we do not think that the blame of Rurns's failur e li es
chiefly with the world. The world, it seems to us, treated him with
more rather than with less kindness than it usuall y shows to such
men. It has ever, we fear, shown but small fa vo r to it~ Teachers:
hunger. and nakedness, peri ls and rev ilings, the prison, the cross,
the po1son-ch;ilice h;ive, in most times and countries, been. the
market-pr ice it has offered for vVisdom. the welcome with which it
has greeted those who have come to en li,!:'.,. h ten and l)urify . Homer
and Socrates, ·and the Christian Apostles, belong to old clays; hut
the world 's Martyrology was not com1Jleted with t hese. J'oae.1
' o ·
Bacon and Galileo languish in priestly dungeons ; Tasso pines in
the cell of a madhouse; Camoens dies begging on the streets of
Lisbon. So neg~ ectecl, so "persecuted they the Prophets," not in
Judea on ly, but Ill a ll places where men have been. vVe reckon
that every poet of Burns's order is, or shou ld be, a prophet and
teacher to h is age; that he has no right to expect great kindn ess
fron: it, but rathe.r is bound to do it great k indness ; that Burns, in
particular, expenenced fu lly the usua l proportion of the world 's
goodness; and that the blame of his fai lure, as we have said, lies
not chiefly with the world.
3· Let it not be objected that h e did little. He did muc h, if
we consider where and how. If the work performed was small , we
must remember that he had his very materials to discover; for the
rr:eta l he worked in lay hid under t he desert moor, where no eye but
Ins had guessed its existence; and we may a lmost say, that with h is
own hand he had to construct the tools for fashion ing it. For he
found h imself in deepest obscurity, without help, without instruction, wi thout model; or with mode ls only of the meanest sort.
TIIOMAS CARLYLE:

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"Essay on Burns."

r
Evidence

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Evidence

Proposition
Proof

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Evidence
Evidence
Evidence

Conclusion,
co ntaining
restate ment of the
proposition

Proposition
Proof
Evidence
Proof
Evidence

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PRI NC IPLES OF RH E T OR IC

[ O n pages 107 a nd 108, of Anderso n's " A S tudy of E nglish
\ Vo rds" ( T he American Book Co mpa ny), is an illustrati on of
Ca rlyle's use of sy nonyms as a basis fo r a rg um ent, and of Matthew ,
Arn old's careful choice of words in a rg um ent.]
Propositi on
b 1, Th ere is a moth er-id ea in eac h particul ar kind of tree,
whi ch, if well marke d, is probabl y embodied in th e poe try of everr
Proof
lang uage. T ake th e oak, fo r instance, and we find it always stand- ~ _
ing as a type of strength and endura nce, I won der if you. ever
th oug ht of the sin gle mark of supremacy whi ch distingui shes this .•
E vidence
tree fr om th ose around it ? The ot hers shi rk th e wo rk of resisting
g rav it y; th e oak defi es it. It chooses the horizo ntal directi on for,
Evidence
its limbs, so th at th eir wh ole weight may te ll , - a nd then stretches
th em out fift y or sixty fee t, so th at th e ' strain may be mighty
enoug h to be wo rth resisting. You will fin d, that, in passing from
th e extre me dow nward droop of the b ranches of the weeping-willow
to th e ext reme upward inclinati on of th ose of the poplar, t hey sweep
Evidence
nearl y half a circle, At 90° th e oak slops short ; to slant upward
a noth er degree would mark in firmity of purpose; to be nd down~ . ~
ward, weakn ess of organi zation.
Proposition
2. P eople th at make puns are like wan to n boys that put copProof
pers on th e rail roa d tracks, They a muse th emselves a nd othtr
chil dren, but th ei r little tri ck may upset a freig ht train of convcfis:a..
li on fo r the sake of a ba ttered wittic ism . . . .
·
Evidence
The g reat moralist says : " T o trifle with the vocabulary which la
t he vehicle of social intercourse is to tampe r with th e currency oC .
.hu ma n in te llige nce, He who would viola te th e sanctities of bit
mother tongue would invade the recesses of th e paternal till without ·
remorse, and repeat th e ba nquet of Saturn without an indi gestion.1!1·, ~Evidence
And, once more, listen to th e histori a n : "The Puritans hated
pun s . Th e Bishops were notori ously addi cted lo th em, The Lonlt
T emporal carri ed them to th e verge of li ce nse. Maj es ty itself m
have its Royal quibble . 'Ye b e burl y, my .Lord of Burleigh,'~
Quee n E li zabe th , ' but ye shall make less stir in our realm than mi
Lord of Leices ter.' , .. Sir Phili p Sid ney. with his last bra
reproached th e soldi er who brought him wate r for wasting a c:uq ·,
full upo n a dying man , , . . Th e fata l habit beca me univerul.
Th e language was co rrupt ed. The infec tion sp read to the natlobll

255

ARGUMENTATI ON

co nscience . Political double-dealings naturall y g rew out of ve rbal
double mea nin gs . The tee th of th e new drago n were sown by th e
Cad mus, who introduced the alpha bet of eq ui vocatio n. Wh at was
levity in th e time of the Tudors, grew to regicide and revo luti ~ n in
th e age of th e Stuarts ."

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O LI VER WENIJEl.L H OLMES: "Th e J\utocrat of the Breakfast T able ,"

c. T he poe try of Milton d iffers fro m tktl of Da nte as th e hi crog lyp hics of Egyp t d iffe red fr om the pict ure-w ri ting of Mexico. Th e
images whi ch Daute employs speak fo r themselves; they sta nd
sim ply for what th ey are. T hose of Mil to n have a sig nifi cat io n
whi ch is oft en discerni ble only to th e initiated.
Their valu e
depe nds less on what they directly represe nt th a n on what th ey
remotely sugges t. H o\vever stra nge, however g ro tes qu e, may be
th e appeara nce whi ch Dante und ertakes to describe, he ne1·e r
s hrinks from describing it. He gives us th e s hape, th e color, th e
sound , th e smell , th e taste; he counts the numbers ; he measures
th e size. His s im iles are th e illustrati o ns of a traveler. . , .
The E ngli sh poe t has neve r t hough t o f taking th e measure of
Satan . He gi1•es us merely a vague id ea of vast bulk, In one
passage, th e fie nd lies stretched out huge in leng th, floa ting many a
rood, equal in size to th e earth-bor!1 enemi es of J ove, or to th e
sea-m onster which th e marin er mistakes for a n island. \ Vhe n he
add resses himself to battle against th e gua rdi an a nge ls, he sta nd s
like T eneri ffe or Atlas - reaches the sky . . ..
T HOMAS BAB I NGTON MA CA U L AY:

" Essay

Pro posi ti on
P roof

E vid ence

Evidence

o n M ilto n . "

[A reference to Macaulay's " Essay on Milto n " will show th at
its auth or devotes at leas t two pages to th e g iving of evid ence in
support of the propositi on quo ted above.]
III. Does eac h o f th e foll owin g co mpar iso ns furnish a basis
for argum ent or for infe rence (p age 242) ? G ive a reaso n for
your a nswer. D oes th e precedin g m a teri al o f a prove its co ncluding statem ent? D o th e seco n d an d third se nt en ces o f /J
furni sh p roo f for th e statem e nts th a t p reced e a nd foll ow th e m?
a. D id you never, in walking in th e fi elds, co me across a large
fl at stone, which had lain, nobody knows how long, just wh ere you

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PRI NCIPLE S OF RHETORIC

ARG U ME N TATION

found it, with th e grass formin g a little hedge, as it were, all round
it, close to its edges. - and have you not; in obedience to a kind of
fe eling that told you it had bee n lying th ere long enoug h, insinuated
your ~ti ck or your foot or your fin gers under its edge and turned I .
over as a housewife turn s a cake, when she says to herself, "It
clone brown enough by this time " ? What an odd revelation, and
what an unforesee n and unpl easa nt s urpri se to a small community,
th e very ex istence of which you had not suspec ted, until the suddell
dismay and sca ttering among its members produced by your turniac
th e old stone over! Blades of g rass flatt ened down. color)
matted together, as if they had been bleached and ironed; hidCOlll
crawling creatures, so me of th em colcopterous or horny-shelled,turtl e-bugs one wa nts to call th em, so me of th em softer, but
nin g ly spread out and co mpressed like Lepine watch es; black glossf
cri cke ts, with th eir long fila ments sticking out li ke the whips of fourhorse stage coach es; moti on less, slug-like creatures, young lal"fltl.
perhaps more horribl e in th eir pulpy sti llness than eve n in the Infernal wriggle of maturity ! Hut no sooner is th e sto ne turned and
th e whol eso me light of day let in upon thi s compressed and blinded
community of creeping thin gs, th a n all of th em which enjoy the
luxury of legs__: a nd some of th em ha,·e a good many - rush rouocl
wildly, butting each other and ' e,·ery thing in th eir way, and end in a
genera l stampede fo r und erg round retreats from .th e region poisoned ·
by sunshine. N ext y ear you will find th e grass growing tall and
green where the stone lay; the ground-bird builds her nest where
th e beetl e had his hole ; th e dand eli on and th e buttercup are gro..·
ing th ere, and th e broad fans of insect-angels open and shut over
th eir golden disks, as the rh ythmic waves of blissful consciousnesa
pulsate through th eir glorifi ed being . . . .
Th ere is mea nin g in each of th ose images,- th e butterfly as wdl
as th e others. The stone is ancient error. Th e grass is human
nature borne down and bleached of all its color by it. The shapes
which are found beneath are th e crafty beings th at thrive in dark•
ness, and the weaker organisms kept helpless by it. H e who turns
th e stone over is whosoeve r puts the staff of truth to the old lying
incubus, no matt er wh ether he do it with a seri ous face or a laugh·
ing one. Th e nex t year stands for th e coming time. Then shall

th e natur e whi ch had lain blanch ed and broke n ri se in its full stature
and native hues in th e sun shin e. Th en shall God's min st rels build
th eir nes ts in the heart s of a newborn humanity. Then shall beauty
- Di vinity takin g outlin es and color - lig ht upon th e souls of men
as the butterfl y, image of the heatified spirit risin g from th e dust,
soars from th e s hell that held a poor g rub, which woul d never have
found win gs had not the stone bee n lifted .
You neve r need . think yo u can turn ove r a ny old fal se hood \\'i thout a terri ble squirmin g a nd scattering of th e horrid little pop ulation
that dw ells und er it.

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OLIVER W ENDE i.I. H O UIES: "The A utocrat of th e Breakfast Table."

b. There is on ly one cure for th e evils which ne wly acquired
freedo m produces : and that cu re is freedom. Wh en a prisoner
first leaves his cell he ca nn ot bear th e light of clay: he is unable
to discriminate colors, or recog ni ze faces. Ilut th e remedy is, not
to remand him into his dun geon, bu t to accustom him to the rays of
th e sun . The blaze of trnth and liberty may at first da zzle and bewilder nat ions which ha ve become half blind in th e 11 ouse of bondage. But let th em gaze on, and th ey will soon be abl e to hear it.
TH OMA S nAH I NGT ON M ACAU LAY : "

Essay on

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I V . Write out th e cle rgy ma n 's argument in d e fe nce of the
Spectator in" A Mee ting o f th e C lub" ( Tlie Sir Roger De Coverlq Papers). - Utilize the anecdo te that Addison t ells, or substitute another.

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[Although anecdotes prove nothing, yet, if appropriate and well
told, th ey emphasize points that have bee n made.]
Most librari es co ntain
V. Arrange for a class debate.
Matson's "Re fe ren ces for Literary ·workers," "Brie fs for
Debates," and other useful mate ri al.
It is well to study
speec hes, lik e those coll ec ted in "Representative Am e ri can
-Orations" 1 and "Represe ntative British Orations," 1 to analyze
them, a nd to classify th e ir parts, as th e parts of th e quotations
on pages .252, 253, 254, 255, are classified .
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G. P. Putnam's Sons.

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PRINCIPLES OF RHETORIC

One of the following propositions suggested by pupils may
prove interesting to debate : -

R esolver/: 1. That city sid ewalks should be take n ca re of by th e city rather
th a n b y hous e holders .
2. Th a t a charge a ccount at a store !eads to extra vag ance in the
av e rag e house hold.
3. That coll eges should not require entrance exa min a ti ons
4. That novels should not be put into circulation through public
libraries until two years after th eir publication.
5. That abstin ence from meat as food is necessary to promote
health and right living.
6. That th e influ ence o( grea t poets is dee per and more abiding
than that of successful g enerals.
7. That students who have not obtained in th eir s tudies an average of eighty out of one hundred per ce nt sh ould be e xcluded from
high-school athl etic teams.
8. That in foundin g librari es Mr. Carnegi e made a better use of
his mo ney for phib.nthropic purposes than he would have made had
he founded hospita ls.
9. That the d ege neracy and d ecay o f nati o ns is owing solely to
war.

The de.bater needs
rhetorical
knowledge

As has been seen, exposition continually comes to the
aid of argumentation; indeed, a debater needs to know
all that rhetoric can teach. He should understand clearness, that he may successfully use definition at'1d statement; rapidity, that he may give details swiftly an4
make the most of his time ; force and life, that he may
render the stron g points of his argument effective. A
knowledge of ·narration should enable him to tell an
anecdote to advantage; while skill in description should
bring vividly before his hearers what he himself sees.

AR G UME N TATION

259

But it is nor arg um e ntati on a lone th at utilizes oth e r
processes of co mpositi o n. N arration, desc ription, exp osition, arg um e ntation, eac h ma kes de ma nd s upon th e
oth e rs; while all require a n intim a te kn o wl edg e of word s,
of fi g ures of speec h, of th e forms of se nte nces.
Rh etorica l knowl edge is of little use, howeve r, unl ess
th e ma n th a t possesses it think s a nd fee ls, a nd hones tl y
expresses what he thinks and feels .

L a ng uage !

General
interdependence

Mere
rhetorical
knowledge
inadequate

Th e bl oo d of th e soul , Sir !
Ou VE R vVEN IJEl.I.

H o u1 ES.

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