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LESSONS IN L~;i_NGUAC-;-E

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HORA C E S/ TARBELL, A.M.
8t;!'ER1:-1TENDENT Pl5BL1c Sc uooL s , l' R ov1uEN cE,

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SECOND BOOK

BOSTON, U.S.A.

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PUBLISHED BY GINN & COMP ANY
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1891

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LESNONtj IN I--' r\.NGUA C+E
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HOl{J\CI~ s .. · ~rARlH.:LL, A.M.
8U L'EHI N TE N UE N T

l' l:i HLIC 8c;u ooLs,

PnonuKN c t:,

Lt.I.

SECOND BOOK

BOSTON , U.S.A.

PUBLISHED BY GINN
... & COMPANY

1891

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PliEF ACE.

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Co rYHt GHT , 1891 ,

BY 11. S. TA ltBEl.L.
A LL

'l'\'POGH.AT'HY HY

RIG H T S H. t;8E JH'EB .

.J.

.
s. C usutNG

& Co BOSTON , U.S.A.
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Pnt:ssw~~~G~NN -; Co., BosToN, U .S.A.

"\.; 'f1us book has been prepared for the use of pupils of the
higher grammar grades. '-- "It contains a treatment of two main subj ects: Grammar, or
the science of the sentence; and the elements of Composition,
or the art of writii'1g. V
In the part which treats of _Grmmnar are included analysis
· and punctuation; in that which treats of Composition are
included the conventional forms of epistolary, social, business,
and parliamentary writing; and practice in the art of writing,
for which abundant material is supplied by exercises in the
selection and arrangement of words, in description, narration,
reproduction , paraphrase, and essay-writing.
•· These subjects are arranged, as in the first book, in the
·· order in which the pupil can best stlHly them, ancl 11ot in the
deductive order in which an adu lt miglit find 111ost ple;tsure.
To spend some years upon composition, often called lan_guage study, and then other years upon technical graui.mar,
ignorin g their connection and mutual helpfulness, does not produce the best culture nor prove an economical use of time.
It is only whon week hy wee k or hi s school li l"e the pupil
. is learning an<l applying, havin g constantly in hand something
to study and something to write, that his mental needs are
best met, and his progress best secured.
' That the pupil shoul<l pass from the easy to the difficult has
been considered of greater importance than that cognate sub~pics should be considered in connection.
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PllEFACE.

'l'he pupa has been considered first, what h e needs, what h e
can do, w hn,t he will enjoy; next the teacher, his convenience,
the li ghtening of his work, the furnishing of all that he will
need for the work of his class ; and lastly, the subject, that it
be treated clearly, definitely, and with reasonable fuluess.
The plan of this Look, the continuity and relation of its
several parts may be learned more fully by consulting the
Directions to T eachers.
A book which provides for the synchronous study of several
subj ects must be arranged with lessons in close succession
upon different lines of work, or the lessons must be selected,
now here, now there, throughout the book. This may be done
in reviews, but is perplexing in advance work.
Though prepared to follow Book I., this book is still sufficiently complete in itself to be a one-text-book course, covering
the pupil's entire range of language work below the secondary
school.
A personal word may here be pai·doned. Amid the engrossing duties of my position I could not have found time tq
prepare this series had I not been constantly aided by my
daughter, Martha Tarbell, whose thought and labor appear on
every page.
'l'o Joseph C. Jones, Superintendent of the Schools of
Newton, Mass., I make acknowledgment of many h elpful
suggestions during the preparation of the work.

NOTES TO TEACHERS.

THE lessons of this book sl1ould be studied in the order
in ~hich they ocem:; but re.v iews should be conducted by
subJects, that. the logical relation of the parts of each subject
may be perce1ve~l and compreh e.nded. Some of these subjects
should be kept m constant review, while others need not be
reviewed at all.
The lessons in gram mar are 1, 2, G, 7, 10, 12, 13, 15, 18, 21,
23, 27, 31, 35, 40, 43, 47, 49, 54, 58, G3, 65, 67, 71, 72, 75, 81,
85, 89, 94, 98, 101, 105, 108, 112, 118, 121, 125, 129, 131, 135,
138, 142, 149, 152, 154, lGO, 16G, 172, 176, 179, 181, 184 187
190, 193, 19G, 198, 202, 206, 209, 212, 218, 225, 230, 234: 237:
240, 245, 248, 2r;:~, 2uD, 2G2, 2G7, 27G, 288, 2!)4, 297, 300 304
308, 313, :HS, 021, :J32, :i05, 008, 340.
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For lessons in rhetoric, punctuation, and other subjects, see
Index. Th ese references will be useful in reviews and examinations.
..;ln abundance of work in com position has been provided.
It Is expectccl that t he t cacl1 er will use this mnteri:tl as the
i:eecls of the class rc,1uiru. Some of the topics for compositions ~my be trmtted orally and others in writing; some may
be assigned to one part of the c~ass ·and others to another part;
some may be deferred to a review and others may be omitted
altogether .
. T!ie usual rn:trks .of correction are given on page 2!), and
pupils sho11l!l lie tra111ccl to use tlwm from the first in the corre.ction of P3:pc·rs. ] f i.t be desired merely to indicate errors
~v1t!10ut rnakrn g ?onect1?11s, S ~n ay be used in the margin to
md1ca~e an error 11.1 spellm &, G m grammar, P in punctuation
or capitals, and R 111 rheton c or style .
. A tea.cher ~hould not undert~lrn to correct every paper that
his pupils wnte. If he does, hi s burden of work becomes too
he~v_y to be borne, or the pupils h ave much less practice in
wntmg than they need.

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NOTES TO TEACHERS.

The more common .faults shoulcl be corrected, one at a tim e,
by having two or three papers colltaining the error in question,
and other papers quite free from it, copied upon the Loard and
criticised by the class. l'upils should then correct their own
papers and afterwards exchange them for mnt11:Ll criticism.
Show the bes t work rath er than the poor work. vVhen
work is put upon tl1e hon.rd for corrcctio11, only so 111nclt should
be written as is necessary to exhi bit the enor, and it should bP
speedily erased. When good work is put before the pupils for
commemlation, show as much as is convenient, and let it remain
as a model.
In the beginning of the work criticisms should be limited
mainly to arrangement, misspelled words, and violations of the
fundamental rules of punctuation and capitalization.
Do not discourage by criticism. The pupil's standard of
good work should not be raised so high as to seem unattainable, but should rise as he advances.
Pupils should be trained to write freely and rapidly, with
no undue anxiety about correctness, and then to reYise with
thought and painstaking. After mere correctness has bee11
attained, eucourage pupils to aspire to something better than
freedom from special faults.
The directions in the lessons entitled "Cautions" should be
carefully read and the explanations studied. Merely to recite
these lessons aml th en to pass on to other work will be of little
value. They should be referred to rigain and agrii11 n,s the
errors they warn against appear in the pupil's speech or composition.
'fhe reading books, geogmp11 ies, histories, and physiologies
of the pupils afford many admirable themes for compositions,
and so does the work of the class on "Current Events.''
vVhenever themes from other stndies or sources are found to
be especially adapted to t he i ntcrest or the i11 struction of the
class, they should be taken in preference to those assigned in
this book.
If more work is desired in analysis and parsing than is
given, the exercises for rhetorical practice can be useu for this
purpose.

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.
Lesson 1.
THE SENTENCE.

School begins.
Pupils study.

Industry prospers.
Kindness charms.

Here are four groups or combinations of words each of
which expresses a thought.
'
A combination of words that expresses a thought is called a
sentence.

Some of the combinations of words below express
thoughts, and are sentences; some do not express
thoughts, and, hence, are not sentences. Select the
sentences.
Birds fly.
Water flows.
The rain falls.
The fall rain.

Sugar is sweet.
The spring has come.
All along the highway.
Squirrels eat nuts.

. ~very sentence has two parts : one, the word or words
wh10h tel~ what is spoken of; the other, the word or
words wluch tell something about that which is spoken
of.
The .part of the sentence which tells what is spoken of, is called
the subJect of the sentence.
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MARGINS.-THE PARAGRAPH.

The part of the sentence which tells something about that which
is spoken of, is called the predicate of the sentence.

A sentence that is a statement is called a declarative sentence.
A sentence that is a question is called an interrogative sentence.
A sentence that expresses a command, a wish, or a request, is
called an imperative sentence.
A sentence that strongly expresses surprise, joy, grief, or other
feeling, is called an exclamatory sentence.

Select the subjects and the predicates of the sentences
which you have studied in this lesson, and also of the
following sentences : -

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Leap-year comes every fourth year.
The squirrel has his nest in the hollow of a tree.
Mary is here.
You can do it.
Ile thought so.
Is Mary here?
Can you do it?
Did he think so?
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Lesson 2.

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KINDS OF SENTENCES.

Virtue is its own reward.
The earth is round.
Columbus discovered America in 1492.
The sky is blue.
These sentences are statements.
·w ill you come t o-morrow ?
Does it rain ?
How far does this lesson exte11d '?

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These sentences arc <1ucstions.
Go to the black board.
Keep still.
Study your lessons.
Come to me.
These sentences are commands or r c<1ucsts.
What a bright flash that was!
How it pours!
How dreadful that :tecident was !
These sentences are exclamat ions.
Sentences may be statements, questions, commands or
requests, or exclamations.

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LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

What kind of sentence is each of the following?
Gibraltar commands the entrance to the Mediterranean Sea.
Where is Yokohama?
0, there is sweetness in the morning air!
Interest is an allowance made for the use of money .
We take no thought of time but from its loss.
Think before you speak.
What do you mean ?
How gladly would we buy time!
We lessen our wants by lessening our desires.

Lesson 3 .
MARG INS. -THE P .A.RAG RAPH.

The spaces on a page, above, below, and on each side
of the writing or printing are called margins.
A paragraph consists of· one or more sentences relating
to the same thing, and forming a division of a writing.
The beginning of a paragraph is usually indicated by
commencing the first sentence on a new line and farther
to the tight than the other lines.
Turn to your reading book and find the first paragraph
of your reading lesson, the second paragraph, other paragraphs. Tell what each paragraph is about.
Look at the first lesson in this book. ·what is the first

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paragraph in that lesso n ? What is the paragraph about?
vVhat is the second p:uag rnvh? How many paragraphs
are there in the lesson?

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L esson 4.

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PUNCTUATION.

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[In the directions given in this book , the co rrect use of capitals, as
well as of marks of punctuation, will be included in the terms punctuation and punctuate.]

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1. The first worcl of every sentence shoulcl begin with ci wpital
letter.
2. Every declarative or imperative sentence sh01dtl be fo llowed by
a p eriocl.
3. E ·very interrogative sentence should be foll owed by an interrogation lJOint,
4 . Every exclamatory sentence shoulcl be followecl by an exclamation point.

Every figure, lette r, word, or gro up of worth;, which
stamh; for an enLirc 8CllLCJI CC :-;Jiouhl UC followed uy the
mark of punctuation which would follow the complete
sentence.
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At the head of this lesson yo u see the words "L ~sson
4," "Punctuation." "Lesson 4" stands for t he sentence,
"This is lesson 4," and is therefore followed by a period.
"Punctuation" stands for the se ntence, "Th e subject of
this lesson is punctuat1on," ancl is therefore followed Ly a
period.
The figures, 1, 2, 3, and 4, used to number the rules at
the beginning of this lesson stand for the sentences, "This

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DEFIN 11'ION. -

LESSONS IN LA NG UAGE.

DESCRIP1'10N.

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is rule 1," "This is rule 2," etc., ancl are therefore followed
by periods.
Hence, the fig ures that stand for the number of a line, an
enmple, or exercise should be followed by periods. It is
not the custom, however, to put the period after the
number of a page.
Observe the use of t he dash in the following exercise.
Explain the use of the other marks of punctuation.
Tim Two

FRIENDS.

1. - GEORGE. Will you go?
2. ~ C H ARLES . Yes.
3. - GEOIWE. When ?

4. - CllARLES.

Now.
Good !
6. - CuA1iLEs. Can Thomas go?
7. - GEORGE. No.
8. - CHARLES. Not go? That's too bad.
5. -

G EOIW .E .

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-ANONYMOUS.

L esson 5 .
DEFINITION. -

DESCRIPTION.

A definition is the explanation of the meaning of a word
or term.
Here are examples of definition from Webster's Dictionary.
A biped is an animal having two feet.
A qua.drnped is an animal having four feet.
A ruminant is an animal that chews the cud.
In these definitions it is stated that bipeds, quadrupeds,
and ruminants are all animals; and in each case is given
·· that which distinguishes this kind of animals from other
kinds.

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LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

CLASSES OF NOUNS.

Each definition is in two parts; the first part states the
class of things to which the objec t uclongs, the second part
states the differences between this object and other objects
of the sn,me class.
We may take this to be the general rule for making a
definition: state first the class to which the object belongs,
and tell next what peculiarities distinguish this object from
other objects of the same class. L et us apply this rule.

Fill the blanks in these sentences with names:_
'fhe names of five boys are - -.
The names of five rivers are - The names of five cities are - -..
The names of five things in this room are - -.
- - can be seen in the garden.
- - can be heard on a spring morning.
- - are what we like to see in our friends.
- - make us despise a man.
- - are used. in building a house.
- - are pleasant things to do.
- - are the parts of the head.

What is an iceberg?
An iceberg is an immense mass of ice which has broken from
the polar ice-fielus, and has floated out into the ocean.
It is sometimes laden with rock and stones, taken from
the coast where it was formed.

A word used as a name is called a noun.

The first sentence of the answer above is a definition.
The second sentence adds an interesting fact.
The two sentences form a description of an iceberg.
A description is something more than a definition.
Using the description of the iceberg as a model, answer
these questions: What is a lake ?
What is a bay?
What is a volcano ?

.Some of th.e nouns which you have used are names of
thmgs.
vVluch are they? Some are naine·s of ac t'ions.
Wh'
ich ·are they? Some are names of qualities. Which
Some are names of materials. Which are they?

What is a tree ?
What is iron ?
What is coal ?

Lesson 7.
CLASSES OF NOUNS.

The name rnan can be applied to any man; the name
horse to any horse; the name ocean to any ocean.

Lesson 6.
THE NOUN.

Everything about which we can think has a name.
name is the word which we use when we speak to others
about it.

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A n~e that may be applied to any one of a class of persons or
thin gs is called a common noun.

Thursday is the name of one of the days of the week

.by which we distinguish this day from the other days of

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LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

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LETTERS.

the week. George }Vashington, Arthiir, Mliry, 111rs. Brown,
Peter the Great, are names by which certain persons are
distinguished from other persons. Atlantic is the name of
an ocean. R egulus is the name of a star.
A name by which some particular one of a class is known from
others of the same class is called a proper noun.

A proper noun should always begin with a capital letter.
[Maple is the name of a kind of trees and disting uishes
this kind of trees fr om other kinds, but it does not name
any one tree and distin g uish it from every other tree of
the same kind. It is, therefore, a common arnl not a
proper noun. J
.
vVrite t en common nouns, n,ml after each wnte two
proper nouns belonging to the class which the common
noun denotes; as, Atlantic, Pacific.
Ocean
Atlanta, Cmnden.
City

9

We went through the woods first, and spent a long time in
watching the birds and squirrels in the trees. Then we crossed
·the meadow and passed by that old apple-tree where you found
_ the robin's nest last summer.
When we reached the pond, I threw a stick far out and tried
to teach Dash to swim in and bring it back to me, but it was
hard work to get him to do it. He would swim out to the
stick, smell of it, and then swim back without it. I threw
· stones at the stick, and finally put a stick in his mouth before
throwing it out. At last he seized the stick and swam back
with it. He seemed quite proud of having learned his lesson.
Every time I threw a stick in after that, he would fetch it to
me.
I gave Dash a lon g race over the fields to dry him, and then
we came home by the ri ve r-side.
Now this is a long letter, and I shall look for a long one
from you soon.
Your cousin,
TOM HASKELL.

From this letter you may infer that every letter should
consist of the fo llowing parts : I. The Heading.

Lesson 8 .
LETTERS.

N. Y.,
May 1, 1891.

CANTON,

M Y DEAR OSCAR,

This is May Day, and we have had no school.
As I do not have my lessons to learn this evening, I can write
and t ell you how I have spent part of my holiday.
I wish you had been with me this morning, for I had a jolly
time. I took my dog Dash to Long Pond to give him a swim.

{ 1. Place where written.
2. Date when written.
Salutation, oi· words of greeting.
The Body of the letter.
The Conclusion. { 1. Complimentary close.
2. Signature of writer.

Upon the envelope in which the letter is enclosed should
be written the superscription, containing: 1. The name of the person to whom the letter is sent.
2. The name of the place to which it is sent.
No. 2 includes the place of r esi<lence or place of business,

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LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

PRONOUNS.

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and the town or city, and state. lt may include the post.
Lesson 9.
office box, ~md ::ihould include the county, if the town is
DESCRIPTION.
not well known.
vVhen anything of importance has been omitted from the
Following the model on page 6 answer these ques, tions : body of a letter, it nrny Le written Lclow the signature.
The letters P.S., standing for the word Postscript, should
What is leather ?
vVhat is a mirror ?
'Vhat is hail ?
precede what is thus added. Postscripts should be avoided,
for they indicate that the letter has been hastily or carelessly written.
Lesson 10.
Every line in the heading, salutation, conclusion, and
PRONOUNS.
superscription, and the first line of the body of the letter,
Whe;1 we speak of ourselves we usually say I, my, mine,
should begin with a capital. Every noun in the heading
or
me or one person; and we, om·, ours, or us for more
and in the salutation should begin with a capital.
than one person. Instead of the name of the person to
The date, signature, ancl superscription should each be
• who~ we are speaking we may use the word you or your,
followed by a period.
and mstead o~ th~ names of other persons or things we
The several parts of the heading should be separated by
may use he,, his, him, she, hers, her, it, its, they, tlieir, theirs,
commas; and the salutation and every line, except the last,
or them. 1 hese words are used in the place of the names
in the conclusion a,nd in the superscription of a, letter,
of th~ persons or things which they represent. They are
should be followed by n. comma.
used
m the place of nouns.
Every word in the sa,lutation and the complimentary
. Words used in the place of nouns are called pronouns
close should be spelled in full.
The noun for which the pronoun stands is called the :intecedent
The salutation may be followed by a comma, a comma
of the pronoun.
and a dash, a colon, or a colon and a clash. The comma is
In the sentence "A brave man overcomes his fear" the
used in the most familiar salutations, and the colon and
antecedent of ltis is man.
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dash in the most formal.
Select each pronoun below, and tell its antecedent:_
Many writers prefer to omit all marks of punctuation in ,
· A swallow, observing a farmer sowing his field with flax,
the superscription except the period.
called together all. the birds she could find, and requested them
Observe carefully the position ancl punctuation of each
~assemble earl~ m .the morning and aid her in picking up the
part of the letter given in this lesson. Copy each of the
seed and destroymg it. She informed them that nets are made
1
principal parts by itself, and tell which part of the heading
:om flax, and that if they allowed it to spring up and grow,
is the name of the place and which part is the date ; what
many of them would surely be taken by its means.
is the salutation, etc.
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SUBJECT, PREDICATE, :MODIFIERS.

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

A verb often consists of two, three, or four words, and
may the~1 be calle<l a verb phrase; as, School will have begun.
School has begun.
School will have been begun.

Lesson 11.
DESCRIPTION.

Fincl as many verbs in Lesson 1 as you can.

See model on page 6.
What is a microscope ?
vVhat is silk ?

13

vVhat is paper?
vVhat are Birds of Passage'?

Lesson 1.3.
SUBJECT, PREDICATE, MODIFIERS.

Lesson 12.

A sentence can be made by the union of a noun and
VERBS.
, a verb; thus, Grass grows, Devv sparkles, Ca,rrie stu<lies. · In these sentences the noun is the subject, and the verb
vVhat does a child do ?
vVhat does a bird do?
, is the predicate.
vVhat does the wind do?
What does a fire do ?
'
The subject a,nd the predicate of a sentence may have
. words joined to them to limit, to change, or to make more
Words which tell what anything does are called verbs.
complete their meaning.
'i\That verbs did you use in your answers to the questions
at the head of this lesson?
Words joined to other words to make their meaning or use more
The italicized words in the following sentences are,' definite are called modifiers.
verbs: The sun shines.
The bright sun shines in the sky.
Squirrels live in trees.
\¥asps sting.
In the second sentence bright is a modifier of sun, and in
·waste ma1ces want.
Clouds move.
. the slcy is a modifier of shines.
Diamonds cut <liamonds.
vVaves roll.
·- A subject or a predicate without modifiers is called a simple subThe sailor rows the boat. Laziness hinclers progress.
Verbs may also be used to tell what is done to any per·
son or thing, to ask a question, or to give a command; as,~
~

He was stung by a wasp.

Did he catr.;h it?

Come to me!·

ject or a simple predicate.
·' A simple subject with its modifiers may be called a modified
. subject, and a simple predicate with its modifiers may be called
a modified predicate.

Hereafter, when the words subJect and predicate are used
Words which assert something of a person or thing are cauJi · alone, the simple subject and the simple predicate are
verbs. (The word assert must be taken as includiug in its meanin..
u.nde1-s tood.
tell, ask, and command.)

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1'HE ADJECTIVE.

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

Study these sentences, and tell what is the subject, whaU
is the predicate, and what are the modifiers of each.
Time flies.
-\.Var-ships are built of iron.
So work the honey-bees.
The fields are

The cattle graze upon the hills ..
They go to church on Sunday. ;
The Greeks fled toward the city;
covered with grain.

Lesson 14.
LETTER FORMS.
Box 1007, lIELJrn A, MoNTANA 1

111ay 11, 1895.

Messrs. RAND, DonsoN & Co.,
64 Wilmington Ave.,
Syracuse, N.Y.
GENTLEMEN : - vVill you .. · · · -· · · -· · · · · · · · · .. · · · · · · · · .. · · •

....................................
Very respectfully,
[Mrs.]
In business letters the address is written above the sa ·.
tation, and the two together form the introduction.
social or friendly letters the address may be omitted, as '
page 8, or written at the left below the signature.
·
From the following statements write suitable headin
introductions, and conclusions for letters, arranging the
as in the model a,bove: Be careful in the use of titles. Do not use both
and Esq., nor Dr. and M.D. with the same name.
Arthur Benedict, who resides in Colchester, Connecti
and whose post-office box is No. 35, wrote a letter to J.-

...

r

15

_ _ orris, a doctor living at Los Angeles, California, on
42th day of June, 1865.
. 9, 1~87, Frank "Wilcox of New York City, 18 State St.,
to Porter & Hoyt, whose place of business is on BeekSt. of the same city.
• letter was written on June 7, '84, to ·walter Torr of
'!!ordsville, Indiana, by his uncle, Joseph Powell of Cin- ti, Ohio, who wrote from 100 vVest Fourth St.
~
nor Moore wrote to her friend, Lillian M. Rose, on
·- 4 Qf the year 1886. The letter was sent to Dallas
.
', and was wntten
from Tokio, Japan.
race W. Emery received a letter which was written in
Her address
1 in January, on the fifth day of the month.
B_eattle, Washington. The letter was written at the De
w:· University, Greencastle, Indiana, by E. L. Adams, her
er teacher.
~ R. Krider wrote to the firm of Shepard, Sheridan &
on the twenty-first day of July. The letter was written
Lansing, Michigan, and she wished the reply to be sent
t-office box No. 133. The address of the firm was 115
Salle St., Chicago, Ill.

Lesson 15.
THE ADJECTIVE.

d men, five men, red apples, industrious boys, this lesson.

ith the nouns rnen, apples, boys, and lesson we have

a other words which modify them.
.J

rd which modifies a noun or pronoun is called an adjective.

'e adjectives good, red, and industrious describe the

--16

_t_-:_ - _:'_____ _

-

ill

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

ABBREVIATIONS. -

CONTRACTIONS.

17

objects which the nouns men, apples, and boys represent,
and hence are called descriptive adjectives.
The adjective five limits the application of the noun men
to a certain number; the adjective this limits the noun
lesson to one particular lesson; and hence they are called
liniiting adjectives.

which follows . Use each adjective as an immediate modifier of the noun, and then as a predicate adjective: -

An adjective used to describe an object is called a descriptive
adjective.
An adjective used to limit the use of a noun or pronoun is called
a limiting adjective.

Lesson 16.

In the sentence " This old man is lame," name the adjectives, and t ell whether each is limiting or clescr,iptive.
Select five limiting and five descriptive adjectives from
your reading lesson.
An adjective used in the predicate to modify the subject
is called a predica.te adjective; as, The stars are bright.
The l esson is difficult.

'l'he tide is high.
H e is wrong.

Three adjectives, a, an, and the, arc ca1lccl articles. A
and an are called indefinite articles. Tlie is called the
definite article.
The article an is used before words beginning with a
vowel sonnd; and the article a, before words beginning
with a consonant sound; as, an apple, a man.
Adjectives denoting number are called 1rnmeral adjectives. They are of two classes: cardinal, denoting how
many; as, one, two, three ; and ordina1, denoting order; as,
first, second, third.
vVrite sentences containing the adjectives m the

handsome
three

energetic
famous

bright
high

first
gloomy

ABBREVIATIONS. - CONTRACTIONS.

Sometimes we omit a part of -the letters of a word and
let the rest stand for the word itself; thus, Wed. stands for W ednesday; St. for street or saint; ans.
for answer; protl. for product; A. Lincoln for Abraham Lincoln; Geo. Washington for George vVashington.

The forms vVed., St., ans., prod., A., and Geo., are called
abbreviations.
An abbreviation is one or more letters followed by a period and
used to represent a word or words.

The first letter of a word is the initial letter. When the
first letter of a name is followed by a period and stands for
the name, it is called an initial. An initial is an abbreviation.
Write the initials of your name.
vVrite the abbreviations for the names of the days of the
week, for the names of the months, for the names of the
Write ten abbreviations for words used in arithmetic.
Write the abbreviations of eight titles used before names,
and of five used after names.
Write ten abbreviations used in denominate numbers.

l

18

--

-'4.

19

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

COMP ARIS ON.

I'll come to see you.
This sentence means I will come to see you. I'll is a
shortened, or contracted, form for I will. The omission of
the letters wi is indicated by the apostrophe.

with his brother. Young tells us of Carl's age, and oldest
compares his age with the ages of the other boys.
Boston is a large city.
Philadelphia is a larger city.
New York is the largest city in America.

Shortened forms in which an apostrophe is used are called contractions.

vVhat letters are omitted in acc't? isn't ? haven't? don't? .,
rec'd? what's? tho'? ev'g? e'en? there's?
How is a contraction indicateJ.? vVlmt is the· distinction between a contraction and an abbreviation?

Lesson 17.
BRIEF BIOGRAPHY.

Christopher Columbus was a Genoese navigator who, sailing
westward, discovered the New vVorld in 14£)2. He made four
voyages across the Atlantic, and ·died in Spain in lGOG.
Compare this with the description of nn iceberg given '
on page 6. Do you see any resemblance? What?
'
Write a short paragrnph in nnswcr to these questions:'
Who was Abraham Lincoln?
vVho was Longfellow?
vVho was Cresar ?

Lesson 18.
COMPARISON.

John is short, but he is taller than his brother.
Though Carl is very young, he is the old.est boy in this class. '
In these examples, short tells us about John as he is '
himself, and taller tells us how he compares in stature .

Here the idea expressed by large belongs to each city ;
but it belongs to Philadelphia in a greater degree than to
Boston, and to New York in a greater degree than to
either of them, or to any other city in the United States.
Of these forms, large is used when the object which it
describes is not compared with any other; larger, when
the object is compared with another; and largest, when
the object is compared with all the others of the kind
or group considered.
Large is said to be in the positive degree; larger, in the
comparative degree; and larges_t, in the superlative degree.
Comparison may be made between classes or groups of
·objects as well as between single objects ; as, The

J~atagonians

are the tallest of the Indian races.

The positive degree is used to express a quality which the object
. has in itself.
The comparative degree shows that an object possesses a quality
in a higher or lower degree than some other object with which it is
· compared.
The superlative degree shows that an object possesses a quality
in a high~r or lower degree than any other of the objects with which
it is compared.

Qualities like round and pe?fect, that do not admit of
· varying degrees, are expressed by adjectives in the positive form only.

•
20

A small degree of a, quality is sometimes expressed by
joining to the adjective the letters ish, or by placing befo1'e
it such words as rather, somewhat. 'Vhat examples of this 1
can you give? A high degree of a quality is sometimes
expressed by placing before the aLljecti ve the word very,
exceedingly, etc. Give examples.
The comparative degree is regularly formed from the
positive by placing more or less before it, or by adding the
letters er.
The superlative degree is regularly formed from the
positive by placing most or least before it, or by adding
the letters est.
Adjectives of one syllable are compared by adding er and '
est. Adjectives of three or more syllables are compared
by the use of more and most, les s and least. Adjectives of
two sylbblcs arc compared by the one of these methods
which gives the result most pleasing to the ear.
Some adjectives are compared irregubrly; as, l'O S ITIVE.

Co ~ I l'Ai tA TIVE.

good
bad}

better

best

worse

worst

ill

Su l' E1tLAT1vg.

little

less

fore

former

much }
many

more

most

{farther
further

farthest
furthest
{nearest
next

far
near

nearer

least
{first
foremost

21

ABBREVIATIONS.

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.
POSI'l'IVE.

COJIJPAltATIVE.

late

later

old

{older
elder

SurEnLATI VE.

{ latest
last
oldest
eldest

Find in your dictionary the distinction between bad and
, ill, rnuch and many, farther and further, nearest and next,
latest and last, older and elder, foremost and first.

L e s son 19 .
ABBREVIATIONS.

Titles when joined with proper names may be abbreviated, but not when standing alone.
The names of states should Le abbreviatecl when joined
with the name of the town or county, but not otherwise.
Morning, noon, and afternoon should be expressed by
A.M., M., and l' .l\I. only \vhe11 tl1 e liom is given.
T he names of the mouths may be abbreviatecl only when
followed by the day of the month.
, Use ~ only in names of firms .
Use words, not figures, for small numbers, excepting in
tables, statistics, numbering of lines, pages, examples,
. dates, the time of day, and similar cases. Do not begin
a sentence with a figure .
I shall call this aftemoon (not P.M.).
- I live in Massachusetts (not Mass.).
Wheat is 50 cts. per bushel (not bu.) . (In a bill or similar
paper you might use the abbreviation bu.).
I shall call to see you the first day of December (not Dec.).

I
1_,

/I

I

-

~

-

....

;Mi£!AI

n

··11
: 'I

I

;'I

I

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22

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

PUNCTUATION. -

QUOTATIONS.

'hh

23

'.i
I ~,

t:

I

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!I:!
I··ii
I

Lesson 20.

'

BRIEF BIOGRAPHY.

:'1.:;.
'

~ "',

I ; ,.

See page 18.
Who was Henry Clay?
Who was Daniel Webster?
\Vho was Ca.pt. John Smith?

Lesson 21.

A three-fold cord is not easily broken.
The shortest and surest way to prove a work possible is
earnestly to set about it.
How .strangely easy difficult things are!
Although genius always commands admiration, character
most secures respect.
Never cloes a man portray his own character more vividly
than in his manner of portraying another.
Not only is he idle who does nothing, but he is idle who
might be better employed.
"I find," said Livingston, "that all eminent men work
hard."

ADVERBS.

Boys study.
In this sentence the subject and the predicate are each
unmodified.
Industrious boys study hard.
Here the subject boys is modified by industrious, an ad- ·.
jective, and the predicate study by hard, an a<lverb.
Very inclustrious boys may study too harcl.
Here the adjective and the adverb each has a modifier;
industrious is modified by very, and hard by too.
Words which modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs are called
adverbs.

Adverbs are compared like adjectives.
Select the adverbs in the following sentences, and tell
what each adverb modifies: You can do this readily, if you work skilfully.
It is very difficult to live idly and happily.

Lesson 22.
PUNCTUATION. -QUOTATIONS.

A celebrated modern writer says, "Take care of the minutes,
and the hours will take care of themselves."
"One to-day," says Franklin, "is worth two to-morrows."
When we use the exact words of another, we are said
to quote them; and the quoted words form a quotation.
A quotation should be enclosed in quotation marks.
Words which introduce a short quotation, or which interrupt the quotation, should be follow ed or enclosed by commas.
What q notations are there in the two sentences at the
head of this lesson? vVhy are the commas used in these

When books, magazines, and newspapers are mentioned in
· a sentence, it is customary to enclose the titles of the books
'in quotation marks, and to print the names of the magazines
.and papers in italics.

'l!"'-------....--- -- -.....

-

-

,_

- --

-

CAP ITAL LETTERS.

A quotation within a quotation is enclosed in single quotation marks; as, -

The italicized words in the sentences above are all modifiers. Which are modifiers of a noun, and hence are adjective modifiers? vVhich are modifiers of a verb, and hence
are adverbial modifiers'? vVhich modifiers consist of a
single word only'? \Vhi ch of two words'?

'f he teacher replied, "Franklin's adage, 'An empty bag

cannot stind upright,' suggests a very important truth."
·

•

'

\t; l'

Lesson 23.

r ~ .,u
1·'

'

1

When two or more words, not a subject and predicate, form a group
having the use of a single word, they are called a phrase .

, .. ,1

.

25

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

24

'•

THE CLAUSE. -THE PHRASE.

You may go.

I will remain at home.

These sentences may be combined thus: You may go
and I will remain at home.
You may go.

You will retum early.

These sentences may Le combined thus: You may go
if you will return early.
vV e see that sentences are sometimes formed by the
union of shorter sentences. These shorter sentences are
subdivisions of the longer sentence that they form.
The subdivisions of a sentence which contain a subject and its
predicate are called clauses.

Mention the phrases in the sentences at the head of this
lesson. vVhich is the atljectivc phrase'? Which are the
.adverbial phrases'? vVlrnt is an acljective phrase? What
is an ad verbin,l phrase'?
Find the phrases in· these sentences: The cold of wiuter is severe.
The heat of summer is sometimes intense.
The lesson was prepared with care.
The bush is covered. with roses.
He pays his rent by the month.
He stood on the seashore.
Tears came into his eyes.
Some of these phrases can be expressed by a single
worcl; olhers cannot Le so cxpressecl, but still have the
use of a single word, and a.re, therefore, phrases.

What are the clauses in these sentences: You may go if yon will return early.
A fool speaks all his mind, but a wise man reserves some·
thing for hereafter.
The wise man will act prudently.
The man of wisdom will act with prndence.
Deliberate cautiously, but act decisively.
Deliberate with caution, but act with decision.

Lesson 24.
CAPITAL LETTERS.

Begin with a capital letter the first word of every
1. Sentence.
2. Line of poetry.

·--·

26

-

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

3. Quotation, example, precept, or question which is a
sentence within a sentence.
4. vVord or combination of words separately numbered.
II. Begin with a capital letter
1. Proper nouns.
2. Words derived from proper nouns aud all abbreviations
of proper nouns.
3. Titles of honor or office when used in connection with
proper names or when referring to particular individuals.
4. Names of the Deity and pronouns referring to Him.
5. Common nouns joined to proper nouns to form
corn pound. names.
6. Names representing objects as persons.
7. The first word and all leading words in the titles of
books and headings of compositions, etc.
8. Names of months, days of the week, festivals, political
parties, religious denominations, important historical
even ts, etc.
9. The words north, south, cast, and west when denoting
parts of the country, lmt not when denoting J.irections.
III. The words I and 0, and the letters I, V, X, L, C,
D, and M used as numerals, should be capitals.
Explain the use of the capitals in the lesson above, and
in the following sentences: Have you heard people say, "Procrastination is the thief
of time"? Since last Fourth of July I have lived in the
South. Col. Hunter C. ·w hite has been elected sheriff, and is
now Sheriff vVhite.

CAUTIONS.

27

Lesson 25.
CAUTIONS.

Do not use
most for almost,
very badly for very much,
bad for sick or ill,
bad for severe,
good for well.
every for all, entire,
Most as an adverb means in the highest degree, while
almost means nearly. Very badly means in an evil manner.
Bad is the opposite of good, and should not be used for
severe or siclc. Eve1·y means each one of several. Good
is not an ad verb.
Copy these sentences, selecting the right word or phrase
from those inclosed by brackets : · The engine whistles opposite our house [almost, most] every
time it passes.
She was un able to come, because of a [bad, severe J headache.
I should like to go [very badly, very much].
You look as though you felt [bad, ill].
Are you [most, almost] ready?
I feel very [ill, bad.], for I have a [bad, severe J sore throat
and a [severe, bad J pain in my side.
He was a boy in whom we had [entire, every] confidence.
Did you sleep [ good, well J ?
You have written this exercise very [well, good].
[All, every J hope of retreat was cut off.

Lesson 26.
BRIEF BIOGRAPHY.

Who was Napoleon ?
vVho was Peter the Great?
Who was Alexander ?

-28

..

~

'
\ 11

•, I
,.,
' •1•

.

'

LESSONS IN L ANGUAGE.

The
The
The
The
The
The

-

- .

~MARKS

-

I

OF CORRECTION.

Lesson 27.

Lesson 28.

PREPOSITIONS .

MARKS OF CORRECTION.

book in my hand is a grammar.
book on the desk is a dictionary.
book by my side is an arithmetic.
boy near the stove is cold.
bird at the window is a robin.
words over the clock are the motto of our school.

What phrases are there in the sentences above? What
word does each phrase modify? ·what shows the relation .
of the noun of each phrase to the word which the phrase
modifies?
A word which shows the relation of the noun or pronoun in a
phrase to the word which the phrase modifies is called a preposition.

Name the prepositions in the sentences at the head of
this lesson.
The clock on the wall is too fast.
The close of the <lay will soon come.
You should be polite to every body.
Labor with diligence.
Life's greatest good is wrought on the anvil of industry.
Idlen ess is the key of beggary.
The secret of success is constancy to purpose.
. It gives us less trouble to learn in youth than to be ignorant
m age.
Select the phrases in the preceding sentences, and tell
~hat word each phrase modifies. Name the prepositions ·
i~1 .these sentences. Between what words does each prepo- .·
s1t10n show the relation?

.

>,

~

'

29

The caret [ ;\ J shows where something is to be inserted.
· ·words to be inserted may be written above the caret or in
the margin.
If a period is to be inserted, place it in the nearer
margin and inclose it in a circle [ 0 J; if quotation marks
or apostrophes are to be inserted, place them in the margin
within an angle [ ~ \; J ; if a dash or hyphen is to be
inserted, place it in the margin between two oblique
lines [ / -/, / -/], at the right of a comma, semicolon,
colon, or of one or two letters that are to be inserted,
draw~ single oblique line [,/ ;/ :/ m/J.
When something is to be omitted, it may be cancelled
by an oblique or a horizontal line, and a dele [SJ placed in
' the margin.
When something is to be changed, it may be cancelled
as though it were to be omitted, and what is to be inserted
may be written above it or in the n earer margin.
If a small letter should be a capital, draw three lines
, under it and write cap. in the margin. If a capital letter
· should be a small letter, draw an oblique line through ' it
and write l.c. in the margin.
If a new paragraph is to be made, put ~ at the place
where the new paragraph should begin, and also in the
margin. If two paragraphs are to be united, draw a line
fi~om the last word of the first paragraph to the first
· word of the second, and put "No ~" in the margin.
If words are to be transposed, draw a curved line between

,

-30

- -

-

- 31

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

FOllMAL NOTES.

them under the first and over the second, and write l1'. i11
the margin.
If words are struck out which should remain, place dots
under the words that are to remain and write stet. in the
nrnrgm.
You should employ these marks of correction in your
daily criticism of written work.
Explain the marks of correction in this selection : .,..

Yon wi U I ind that the 8t:itc of K:rnsas occupies very nearly
the middle spot of North America, bein g equa1Jy distant from
the Atlantic Ocen,u on the east, arnl the Pacific Ocean on the
west; from the frozen waters of Hudson's Bay on the north,
and the te1Jid gulf stream on the south.
Michael Angelo used to say, "Trifles make perfection, and
perfection is no trifle."
The Thirteenth Amendment, abolishing slavery, was declared adopted as a part of the Constitution of the United
States on Decern ber 18, 18G5.
The surrender of Lee ended the war between the North and
South, and his soldiers turned hom eward, no longer Confederate soldiers, but Am erican citizens.

~-

~ake yourselves nests of pleasant thoughts!)

~
e.f!,,.

taught in early Xouth, what fairy palaces we )Id

a/

may build of beutifnl thoughts proof arrainst all /

ofo-

CN one of us yet know, for none of us have been

/\

/\

b

s
I

:/ l'L. adversity/\Jancies/bright, satisfied memories, noble

e.~. ;,;}ffstories,

faithful sayings, teasure houses
I\

~'LI
/\

g,,{d. precious and restful thoughts

0'

Lesson 30.
FORMAL NOTES.

/\
-RUSKIN.

Lesson 29.
DICTATION. - CAPITAL LETTERS.

Write these sentences from dictation: White Rose, talk to me.
I don't know what to do.
Why do yon say no word to me,
Who say so much to yon ?
Has your Uncle Isaac recovered from his illness?
For unto you is bom this day, in the city of David, a
8aviour which is Christ the Lord.

In formal notes of invitation, acceptance, regret, congratulation, or condolence, the writer refers to himself by name
instead of using a pronoun.
They should be written
upon small note paper, or upon cards, and equal margins
" should be left at top and bottom. Should the note occupy
more than one page, it may be continued upon the third.
In formal notes the heading, introduction, and conclu, sion are omitted. The place and date are written below
the note, at the left-haml side. The day of the week is
usually written, wliile the year is omitted. The letters
R.S. V.P. are often written upon invitations. They signify that an answer is requested, and are taken from the
French, Bespondez, s'il vous plait. [Reply, if you please.]

,f

~-

. ..
) - - •lill@iilll'llll'•

32

LESSONS I N LAN GUAGE.

Copy the following formal notes: Mr. and Mrs. J o1rn L. Morrison req uest the pleasure of
Mr. and Mrs. Irvi11g H ancock's company at J.inner on the
evening of Thursd ay, May 29, at six o'clock.
'
4()2

A YE.,
Jtfonday, Nay 2G.

LINCOL N

Mr. and Mrs. Irving Hancock accept with pleasure l\fr. and
Mrs. John L. Morrison's kind invitation for Thursuay evening.
14 Emn ST.,
Tu esday, ltfay 27.

. Mr. and Mrs. Irving Hancock regret that, owing to sickness
lll the family, th ey are unable to accept Mr. and l\Irs. John L.
Morrison's kind in vitation for Thursday evening, May 29.
14

EDDY

ST., May 27.

PUNCTUATION. -THE SERIES.

33

Wishes fail, but wills prevail.
Knavery and flattery are blood relations.
He thought as a sage, though he felt as a man.
Energy and persistence conquer all things.
Money is a good servant, but a bad master.
No entertainment is so cheap as reading, nor any pleasure
so lasting.
Washington was a patriot and a statesman.
The sermon was long, though interesting.
Will you come to see me now and then ?
Prepositions and conjunctions are Loth connectives ;
that is, both are use<l to join other words. A conjunction
connects words, phrases, or clauses; while a preposition
always forms part of a phrase, and connects the noun
or pronoun of the phrase to the · word which ·the phrase
modifies.

Lesson 31.
CONJUNCTIONS.

Stephen and E arl will soon be here.
The work was done in good season and to my satisfaction.
You may recite, and then you may be dismissed.

Lesson 32.
PUNCTUATION. -THE SERIES.

Words used to connect words, phrases, or clauses are called
conjunctions.

Mercury, lead, and tin are metals.
From Alaska we obtain furs, fish, and lumber.
The leading statesmen of the revolutionary period were
vVashington, Franklin, Hamilton, and Adams.
Neither envy, jealousy, hatred, nor revenge finds a restingplace in a noble heart.

And, but, if, or, nor, and though are the conjunctions
most frequently used.
In the following sentences select the conjunctions, and
tell what they connect: -

What three words in the first sentence have the same
use? What three words in the second sentence? What
four words in the third sentence? What four words in
the fourth sentence ?

Each of these sentences contains the word and. In the
first sentence and connects two words; in the second, two
phrases; in the third, two clauses.

- 34

-

-------"~-

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

FORMAL NOTES.

Thre~ or ~ore words or phrases which follow one another, and ar
uhsed ahke m a sentence, are called a series of words or series o: .
p rases.

Lesson 34.

1
The words or p hrases oif a series
· srwu
ll l
commas.

z1e separated

If

all tlie terms of a series are connected b!J couJunctions,
the commas s lwuld be omitted.
Complete the punctuation of these sentences: -

FORMAL NOTES.

Write these formal notes from dictation: Mis$ Laura Metcalf r equests the pleasure of Miss Kate
Merritt's company on ·wednesday evening, December 15th, at
eig~t 9'clock, to meet Miss Flora Wayland of Peoria, Ill.
634

. He im agi ne_<l that he saw the high church tow ers risillg up
I~1to th~ mor.nmg s~y the town starting into life once more the .
n~~r gl.1sten111g as it rolled and the coulltry bright with dew . .
Io gild refined gold to pai11t the lily
To throw a perfume on the violet
To smooth the ice or add another hne
Unto the rainbow or with taper-light
To seek the beauteous eye of heaven to garnish
Is wasteful and ridiculous excess. - SnAKESPE,~RE.

f3ouTn

Mr. and Mrs. Allan F. Green
At Home
Wednesdays in October,
]from seven until ten o'clock.

vv AsmNGToN

ST.

INTERJECTIONS. - REVIEW.

SYNONYMS.

Words very nearly alike in meaning are called synonyms.

Find several synonyms for each of these words : _
recreation
heed

ST.

Lesson 35.

Lesson 33.

wrath
sight

DESPLAINES

'r}w honor of your presence is requested at the Graduating
Exercises of Smith St. Grammar School, to be held at the
Opera.. House on Thursday evening, June 19th, 1886, at eight
o'clock.•..

~78

noise
behavior

35

care
fear

Words used to express · feeling merely, and not as parts of
sentences, are called interjections; as, -

Oh I I have lost you all.
Pshaw I What a notion !
Pvh I That is of no account.
· Alas I How short is life !

How short, alas, is life !
Hurrah I the prize is ours.
Hip I If1"p I Hwrah I
Dear me I what shall I <l.o '?

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LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

HYPHENS. -COJ.IPOUND WORDS.

vVords used to imitate sounds, and not used as parts of
sentences, are also interjections; as, -

carried to the beginning of the next line. To show that
, the remainder of the word is to be found on the next line,
a hyphen [-] is placed at the end of the first line.
A syllable or a short word should not be divided at the
end of a line of writing.
Some words are nrntle up of two or more words ; as, -

" Chirr I you can't catch me," says the squirrel.

An inter.f ection should be followed by an e:vclamation point.
. TI~is ~xclanrntion poillt 111ay i1111n edia,tely follow the
mterJect10n, or nmy be placed after th e phrase, clause, or
sentence which completes the exclamation.
0 and olt should be distingui::;l1ed. 0 is use d before a
noun or pron oun denoting the person s poken to, and is not
directly followetl Ly any nrnrk of pun ctuation; oh is an
interjection denoting pleasure, pain, smprise, or fear; as,vVhen, 0 my con11tryrn c11, will you resent this treachery?
Oh, what a fea rful plu11ge !
vVrite five sentences, and use an interjection with each.
The several classes into which words are divided according to
their use are called Parts of Speech.

brother-in-law, sail-boat, saw-mill, ice-house, carving-knife,
four-sided, old-fashioned, time-keeper.
These are called compound words.
The hyphen should be placed between the parts of a
compound word unless the parts have become so united
by custom as to be pronounced as one word; as, workman, upon, withstand, whitewash, bookseller, nobleman.
When several words are used as a single adjective they
·should be united by hyphens; as, a never-to-be-forgotten day, a well-known proverb.

. There are eight parts of speech: 11oun, pronoun, adjec.;t1v~,. verb, adverb, preposition, co11j1mcLio11, a11d i11terjcetiou.
Give several examples of each pmt of speech.

Lesson 36.
HYPHEN.-COMPOUND WORDS.

It will often lmppen tlmt there is room at the end of a
line to write p:tt'L of a wonl, but not the wlwle of it. In
t.Ii~s case ~he word is divided, one or more of its syllables
bemg wntten at the end of the line, and the remainder

h

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"

"The Pro vitlence Jo umal " gives its compositors the
following list of compound won.ls which should be written
with a hyphen: - ·
after-life, anti-slavery, ante-room, above-board, by-and-by,
brownstone-front, co-worker, co-education, coat-of-arms, commander-in-chief [and all words of that class], easy-chair,
east-bound, fac-simile, four-in-hand, golden-rod, half-dozen,
half-century [but half a dozen, half a century], horse-power,
man-of-war, one-half [a,nd all fractions], sergeant-at-arms,
self-control, trans-continental, to-day, to-morrow, to-night,
3-year-old colt, twenty-odu years, ex-President, up-stairs, downstairs, C-sharp, E-flat. [And similar words. J

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LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

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Lesson 37.

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RAMBLING SENTENCES.

39

Do you think you [had ought, ought J to go?
Truth hits the mark [but, and] falsehood rebounds and
strikes him who utters it.

CAUTIONS.

Do not usehow for that,
without for unless,
but what for that,

and for or or but,
had ought fur ouyht,
pre'Vl:ous for previously.

How and without are not conjunctions, aml hence should
not be used instead of the conjunctions that and unless.
But that, not but what, is often used as a compound conj1p1ction. And expresses the relation of addition, whil~
or expresses an alternative, and but an opposition. Never
put had or hadn't before ouyht. The adjective previous
should not be used instead of the adverb previously.
Select the rigl1t words or phrases from those in brackets,
and explain why the other words or phrases in the brackets shoul<l not be u secl in these sentences: There is no doubt [but what, that] you will succeed.
'fhe cana1 cannot Le fi.nishctl [without, unl ess] more funds
are furnished.
You cannot learn your lesson [unless, without] you study.
He told me [how, that] he won1Ll go if h e could.
[Previous, previously J to our coming nothin g had been done.
You said [that, how] the 1\'Iayflowers were in bloom.
vVilliam Paxton said [th at, how J thoughts are mightier
than armies.
I'll not deny [but wl1at, but] you are right.
H e [hadn't ought, ought not] to have failed.
Report is a quick traveller [and, but] an unsafe guide.
'fhey enjoy a study like history [and, or] literature.

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Lesson 38.
RAMBLING SENTENCES.

1n telling a story or in writing about something, do not
join sentence after sentence by using and or some other
connective. See that each sentence is complete in itself,
and not a union of several complete sentences.
Improve the following sentences: -

The tiger is not a bold hunter and he does not chase his
prey, arnl 11 e hides in the grass by the roa<lsiJe and in Jitches
near drinkiug places, and, like the cat, he w:iit::; n11Lil his
victim is near enough and th en pounces suddenly upon it, ::w d
cattle soon 1earn when a tiger is about, and they stay in the
· open meadows for they can scent him a long way off, and they
keep well away from the t:dl rce<ls a.ml thickets.
There is a kind of spider that is called the mason spider,
and it buikls a house and fixes to it a door, and the door opens
and shuts on a hinge like the lid of a box, and this spiJer Jigs
a hole in the gro und about the size of a man's finger, and Jines
it with silk of its own weaving and keeps it warm and dry,
and it makes a trap-door of wet earth mixed with a 1ittle silk,
and the hinges on which this door opens and shuts are made
of fine silk; and then th ere is another kind of spider called the
geometrical spider, and it weaves its web with lines running
out like the spokes of a wheel from a center, aud it crosses
these spokes with regular lines.

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LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

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Lesson 39.

,.i' .

DESCRIPTION.

If you were to describe the horse, what would you tell
first? vVhat n ext? "What then? vVrite your ans,vers
like this: -

fr

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COMP LEMEN TS.

41

For wha,t he is used.
Story, etc.
The partial description below will help you. Read it
over, and use it in your own language in the description
you are to write, adding to it, and filling out the other
points.
PAln'TAL DES CRTl'TJON OF THE HORSE.

OUTLINE FOR DES CIUPTION OF T1lJ£ HORSE.

1. ·w hat the horse is.

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··what he is good for.
How he is trained.
How he is kept; what he eats.
·what the parts of the horse are, and so mething about each '
part.
6. ·where the horse was first fo und.
7. How he looks.
8. A story about a horse, show ing his intelligence.
2.
3.
4.
5.

You can think of many otlt~r thiugs to say aLout the
h~rse . Put them all dow n just as th ey con;e into yo ur
m1;1,d: and then arrange them in the order you think best.
ll~mk what you will say abou t each item. Say it; then
r ewrite the whole in good sentences.
P erhaps as yo u think about it you will llecide to leave
out some points, or add oth ers.
Here is an improvement in the order of your t opics :_
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

What the horse is. [Chss. J
.Description of the parts of a 11orse.
What he eats.
\¥here the horse is now foun d, and where first found.
Comparison of the horse and the ox.

horse belongs to the class of animals having a solid
His head is long, with short ears. Th e neck is
adorned with a mane. The body is oval. The fo re-legs are
nearly straight; the hind-legs have a backward bend. The
horny covering of the foot is called the hoof.
The color of the horse varies, and there are white, brown,
sorrel, black, ancl spotted horses.
The horse is found in almost all parts of the earth, but he
originally came from Asia. He is a spirited and docile animal.
He is used for riding, driving, carrying burdens, and working
machinery. His skin makes a good leather, and his hair is
used for stuffing furnitu re.

Lesson 40.
COMPLEMENTS.

Birds fly.

Fishes swim.

In each of these sentences a full thought is expressed.
We can add to each a modifier, and say, Birds fly swiftly,

Fishes swim in water;

but each of the original sentences expresses a full thought
,without the added words.

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43

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

ANALYSIS.

Does "Mary is" express a complete thought? ls what?
"lVfary is" needs some word or wonls added to it to complete its meaning; as, Mary is tall, :Mary is a girl. Here tall
and girl are joined to the verb is to make the meaning of
the sentence complete. They are called complements of
the verb is because they complete its me~ming.

Be careful to distinguish between a complement and a
·modifier of a verb. A modifier of a verb makes some
change in the thought expressed by the verb, or adds
something to it. A complement of an incomplete verb is
essential to the expression of any thought at all.
He heard a noise there.

A word used to complete the meaning of a verb is called its complement.

The word noise is a complement, and there is a modifier.
Ile heard expres::ws only part of a thought, he heard a
noise expresses a complete thought, he heard a noise there

Is "'The boy took" n, complete statement'? \Vlrnt complement does it require'? "The boy took his slate." vVhat
complement to the verb is used in this sentence?
The complement of a verb may either describe its subject, as tall or girl in the sentences" Mary is tall,"" Mary is
a girl"; or it may naii1e that upon which the subject acts,
as slate in the sentence "The boy took his slate."
A noun or an adjective used as a complement which describes the

subject is called a predicate noun or a predicate adjective.
A noun or pronoun used as a complement which tells upon what
the subject acts is called an objective complement, or simply an
object, of the verb.

A predica,te noun denotes the same person or thing as
the subject. A predicate a<ljective mo<lifies the subject.
The horse eats the grass.
Th e hors e is swift.
The horse is a quadruped.
vVhat is the complement in the first sentence? In the
second? In the third? Which is the objective complement? Which verb has an object? \.Vhich complement
is a predicate noun? vVhich is a predicate adj ective?
An incomplete verb is one which requires a complement.
A complete verb is one which does not require a complement.

expresses the complete thought more definitely.

Lesson 41.
ANALYSIS.

'l'he elements of a sentence are the parts that have a separate
use in the sentence.

An element may be any part of speech, a phrase, or a
clause.
Analysis is the separation of a sentence into its elements, with
a statement of the relation of those elements to each other.
Parsing is naming the parts of speech in a sentence and stating
, their modifications, or grammatical properties, and constructions.

We have already learned what the subject and the
predicate of a sentence are.
The simple subject of a sentence is the subject of the
verb. The sirn ple predicate is the verb, if the verb is a
, complete verb; or the verb an<l ibs complement, if the verb
· is an incomplete verb.
In analyzing a sentence find first the verb, and second
the subject of the verb.

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LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

Geo vVashington was inaugurated first President of the
United States Thursday Apr 30 1789.
This refers to an object near at hand; that to an object
farther away.
Virtue brings its own rewanl; vice its own punishment.

Lesson 56.
CAUTIONS.

Do not use:a good deal for a great deal,
grow srnaller for become srnaller,
not hardly for harclly or scarcely,
directly for as soon as,
quite a for a larye, a considerable,
appreciate for value highly,
real for very.

The thought is that the deal or amount is great in
extent, not good in kind. [Very much or considerable is
sometimes still better than a great deal.] 'Po grow means to
increase: we may say grow la.rger, but not grow smaller. ·
H~ardly means with difficulty, and not hardly would mean
not with difficulty, or easily. Directly is an adverb, not a •
connective. Quite is an adverb, hence cannot modify a '
noun. To appreciate means to have a just estimate of. ,
Real means genuine, true, and is an adjective, not an _·
adverb.
,.
Select the right word or phrase from those in brackets, ,
and explain why the other words or phrases in brackets
should not be used in these sentences: -

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BUSINESS LETTERS.

55

His income [grows, becomes] smaller every year.
Open the door [directly, as soon as J you hear his footsteps.
I saw [a large, quite a] quantity of apples on the ground
· in the orchard.
We [scarcely, don't hardly] expect them before next month.
There is a [good, great] deal of doubt expressed.
It was [very, real] kind in you to come.
I shall start [as soon as, directly] I have finished this piece
of work.
She seemed to [appreciate, value highly] the gift.
I can [not hardly, scarcely] decide the question.
Lucile has grown [real, very J tall.
There is [much, a good deal] to be said on both sides of the
question.
.
[Appreciate, value highly] the friendship of him who
:. stands by you in time of trouble.
·
[Quite a, a large J crowd soon collected.

Lesson 57.
BUSINESS LETTERS.

-

Write a note to a lrnckmrm in your city, and ask him to
.. call at your residence in time to take you to a certain
.train.
As a physician, write a note to a teacher, asking that
' one of your patients be exc used from singing-lessons on
account of a throat difficulty .
..· ' Write to a real estate agent for a list of houses which
he h.as to rent. Limit the location, size, and price.
Write the answer of the real estate agent.

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LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

Lesson 58.
NUMBER.

Number is the form of a word by which is shown whether the
word denotes one object or more than one.

III. The
as,man'
woman
child

plural of these nouns is formed irregularly;
men
women
children

The words man and boolc each denote a single object,
and are in the singular number. The words men a]J(l boolcs
denote more than one object, and are in the plural number.
Nouns that mean one are in the singular number.
Nouns that mean more than one are in the plural number.
GENERAL RULE.

1'he plural of noims is usually for11ied by adding s 01· es
to tlie singular. If the singular ends in a sound with wliicli '
the sound of s will unite, s is added to nialce the plitral;
otherwise, es is added for the pl'itral forrn; as, gate
gates
form
forms
tax
taxes
church
churches

SPECIAL RULES FOR PLURAL FORMS.

I. The plural of most nouns ending inf or fe is formed
by changing f or fe to ves ; as, half
halves
knife
knives
leaf
leaves
self
selves
II. The plural of most nouns ending in y preceded by
a vowel is formed by adding s to the singular; the plural
of nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant is formed
by changing y to ies ; as, chimney
chimneys
study
studies
day
days
sky
skies

57

PUNCTUATION, ETC.

foot
tooth
goose

feet
teeth
geese

mouse
louse
ox

mice
lice
oxen

Lesson 59.
PUNCTUATION.-WORDS IN PAIRS.-YES AND NO.

Words used in pairs talce a comma after each pair; as, -

Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my hand
and my heart to this vote.
The poor and the rich, the weak and the strong, the young
and the old, have one common Father.
Yes and no are equivalent to clauses or sentences, and
are followed by the same mark of punctuation as the
clause or sentence for which they stand would be.
According to their use, they may be followed by a comma,
a semicolon, a colon, a period, an interrogation point, or an
exclamation point. See Lesson 4.

Lesson 60.
SYNONYMS.

Find several synonyms for each of the following
words:ludicrous
wholly
stubborn

famous
merciless
peevish

suitable
strong
obscure

huge
gentle
dreary

58

BUSINESS LETTERS.

vVrite to the president of some college and request a
catalogue.
You are away from home for the summer vacation.
'Vrite to the publishers of your daily paper, aucl direct
that the paper be forwarded to your summer address.

V. Some nouns have but one form for both singular
and plural numbers; as, cod
trout
means

Lesson 62.
DESCRIPTION.

deer
hose
species

sheep
swi.n e
· amends

VI. Some nouns are used in the plural only; as,-·

Describe:'l'he goat.

{ indexes [of books J
indices [algebraic term]
pennies [separately]
penny { pence [collectively J
shot
{ shots [discharges of a gun J
shot [pieces of metal J
staff
{staves [ordinary use J
staffs [military term J
index

Lesson 61.

'l'he sheep.

59

LETTER- WRITING.

LESSONS IN LANGUA.GE.

'l'he cow.

Lesson 63.
SPECIAL RULES FOR PLURAL FORMS (continued).

IV. Some nouns have two plumls; as, brother {brothers [of the same family J
brethren [of the same society J
cloth { clothes [?«1rments J
cloths [luncls of cloth J
die
{dies [for sta.mping]
dice [for gaming]
fish
{ fishes [separatelyJ
fish [collectivelyJ
genius {geniuses [men of talent]
genii [spirits J

aborigines
alms
annals
?-ntipodes
ashes
nuptials

dregs
eaves
en trails
rerna.ms
mumps
shears

· pantaloons
pmcers
riches
scales
scissors
victuals

snuffers
suds
tongs
trousers
tidings
vitals

VII. The following nouns appear to be plural in form,
·, but are used in the singular number only: physics
politics

news
molasses

mathematics
gallows

Lesson 64.
LETTER-WRITING.

Imagine yourself a pupil in some city of South Dakota,
and write to an Eastern friend a letter telling about your

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LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

state, its climate, products, extensive farms and manner of
cultivation, its tree claims and homesteads, etc.
Write a letter addressed to some pupil in the public )
schools of Saginaw, Michigan, asking for infonmition about
the manufacture of salt.
vV rite an answer to the last letter.

compound noun as though it were
horseshoe

SPECIAL RULES FOR PLURAL FORMS (continued).

form their plurals like common
A proper noun and a title may have either the
noun or the title pluralized; as, -

no~ns.

The plural of letters, figures, and signs is formed
by adding to the singular the apostrophe and s ; as, 15's, +'s, w's.

VIII. Many nouns derived from foreign languages retain

...

horseshoes

The Miss Hasgoods.
The Misses Hasgood.

Lesson 65.

.

61

GOOD MANNERS.

their original plurals; as, genus
vertebra

genera
vertebrae

CrISlS

focus

crises
foci

datum
larva

data

Lesson 66.

IX. When a noun is used as an adjective, it takes the
singular form only; as, a foot rule.
a ten-foot pole.
a five-dollar bill.
a ten-pound note.
a six-foot fence.

X. Compound
ways,-

But we should say, -

a
a
a
a
nouns

pole ten feet long.
note for ten dollars.
fence six feet high.
twenty-five-horse-power engine.
form

their plurals in three

[ a] by pluralizing the principal word; as, son-in-law sons-in-law

postal-card postal-cards

[b J by pluralizing both words; as, man-servant

men-servants

GOOD MANNERS.

constitutes true politeness by g1vmg the
thoughts of the following quotations. Arrange the quota·~ms in the order which you think best, and then express
·. eir
,, thoughts in your own words.
Gentleness is the great point to be observed in the study
manners. -N. P. WILLIS.
A small unkindness is a great offence. -HANNAH MORE.
Politeness is as natural to delicate natures as perfume is to.
-1lowers. - DE FrnoD.
' We remain shackled by timidity till we have learned to
·ipeak and act with propriety. -SAMUEL JOHNSON.
)' Avoid all haste; calmness is an essential ingredient of
.politeness. - ALPHONSE KAH.I{..
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63

GENDER.

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

Politeuess is to goodness what words a.re
JOSEPH J ' ouBERT.
.·

Life i::: iwt :3 :::h.:1 rt but there is a_lw3y:::
e0nnes:. - E-..n:r.-.,_ . ~.
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T1h' thin::::- whid1

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se.: m fri, c•k•ns
seri ous consequence t o you after they
ridiculous. - llos co1111l[ON.
1ll'\Y

diatinction of nouns and pronouns with regard to

The person who scre:uns, or uses the superlative de
converses with h ea.t, puts whole drawing-rooms to flig
you wish t o be loved, love measure. Yo u must have
or a prodigious usefulness, if you will hide the want o
1 i
ure. - EMEH,SON.

when they denote

The courtesies of a small ancl trivial character are the
which strike ueepes t to t he grateful a.nd appreciating h .
HENH.Y CLAY .

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Ungraciousness in rendering a benefit, like a, hoarse
ma.rs the music of the song. - FELTILAl\L
Gentleness, cheerfulness, and urbanity are the Three
of manners. - :M:ARGUERITE DE v ALO IS.
Good mann ers are made up of petty sacrifices. -E
Manners are a.n art. Some are perfec t, some comma
some faulty ; but there are none that are of no mo
JOUBERT.

I

It is a rule of manners to avoid exaggeration. - E
Politeness goes far, yet costs nothing. - SMnEs.
The truest politeness comes of sincerity. - SMILES. '

Kind nature is the best; those manners next
Th at fit us like a nature second-hand ·
\ 'Vhich a.re indeed the manners of the 'great. -TEN
Politeness consists in a due regard for the rights ·
ings of others, and for the customs of the people amoq
one is placed.
,

are

U,:~rson

is the architect of his own fortune .
of the neuter gender when they denote things
; as, stone, tree, table.
'of the neuter gender when they denote living
· sex is not considered; as, bird, fish, insect .
~y, "That is a pretty babe. Do you love it?"
· '.of the child is not considered.
without life, and properly of the neuter gender,
es spoken of as though having life and sex ;

t

The ship carries her pennant proudly.
e sul:l sends his rays to the earth.

to living beings only; gender applies only to
There are two sexes, but four

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LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.
DESCRIPTION.

65

Lesson 68.
.Lesson 70.

LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION.

DESCRIPTION.

A letter of introduction is one in which the write
introcluces a friend or an acquaintance to rmother. Such
a letter is intended to be canied Ly the person introducedi
and should uever Le sealed. On the lower left hancl corne
of the envelope should Le written the word "Introducing;,
with the name of the person introduced.
'
Copy the following short letter of introduction:_
Mrs. E. L. MASON,
Omaha, Kansas.
My DEAR li'n.IEND, -

21 EucLrn AvE., Cr.EVELAND, Omo,
S ept. D, l8i8.

It is with much pleasure that I introduce to
you Miss Marion vVestfall, a friend of whom you have often
heard me speak.

Miss v~estfall is intending to spend the winter in your city;
and any kmdness that you can show her during her stay will
be most gratefully appreciated by
'
Your sincere friend,
JosEJ>JlINE n. GouJ,D.
Write a letter introducing a friend of yours to a cousin.
Write a letter introducing a young musician to a music
teacher in Dresden, Germany.

Lesson 69.
GOOD MANNERS.

Write two rules for polite conduct at the table,
lecture, when making a visit, in a sLure.

Lesson· 48 you were directed to write a description
of the bear. Your description was probably very different
from this which follows, and perhaps quite as good.
Compare the two descriptions, aucl see if you cannot now
write a description better than either.
BEAR.
The bear is a large, heavy-looking beast, with a thick coat
of long, soft, shaggy hair. He is very strong, and, although ·
clumsy in form, can climb trees and swim with ease and skill.
Bears are either brown, black, or white.
The white, or polar bear, lives in the cold north. There the
·,ground is ever covered with snow, and the sea is full of ice,
even in J·une an<l July. Bruin's thick fur coat, however,
eeps him warm, and the sharp air, without making him uncomfortable, gives him a good appetite. So he is quite at
ome ·where any other beast would die of hunger and cold.
, He can swim in the water as well as he can walk on the
land. He can float like a duck, or dive like a fish. His feet
never slip on the smooth ice, for they are covered with long
THE

Ir.

·1,Sometimes he finds a seal asleep on the ice, or dashes after
.one into the water. Sometimes he dives after fish and catches
them, swift though they are. The body of a dead whale serves
him as food for a long time. vVhen seal, or fish, or dead
"f!hale are not to be had, the bear dines on berries or even seaweed, if he can get nothing better.
It is said that bears never attack man if they can help it.
·But when angry they are very fierce. Rising on their hind
egs, they hug the victim with their fore-paws.

66

CASE.-NOJlllNATIVE CASE.

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

The bear is in many ways of use to man. Many articles of
dress are made from the skin and fur. '.fhe flesh is good for
food, and the fat is used instead of oil.

67

Lesson 72.
CASE.-NOMINATIVE CASE.

The form or use of a noun or pronoun which shows its relation to
other words is called its case.

Nouns and pronouns have three cases; nominative, possessive, and objective.

Lesson 71.
GENDER.

There are three ways of indicating the gender
nouns:1. By the use of different words.
MASCULINE.

FEllUNINE.

lYlASCULINE.

boy
girl
sn·
king
queen
wizard
nun
horse
monk
2. By changing the termination.
MASCULINE.

FKIILINJNE.

actor
administrator
duke
3. By joining
MASCUUNE.

l\'fAscu r.INE.

actress
hero
administratrix czar
duchess
lion
a distinguishing word.

F1~ ~l1NINI•:.

MASCIJLINJ~.

FEllllNJNE.

madam
witch
mare
:FEMININE,

heroine.
czarina
lionness
F 1·: MINlNI~.

Mr. Brown
Mrs. Brown
he-goat
she-goat
man-servant
maid-servant
buck-rabbit
doe-rabbit
Name the gender of each word in the following list, and
explain in what way the gender is indicated: bachelor
maid
master
mistress
nephew
mece
mesc.lames
messieurs ,
empress
emperor
.Jew
.Jewess
patron
grandson
granddaughter patroness
lass
lad
husband
wife
beau
belle
male-child
female-child
host
hostess
benefactor
benefactress
brother-in-law
bridegroom
bride

A noun or pronoun used as the subject of a verb is in the nominative

caae.

A noun or pronoun used as the complement of an intransitive verb
la ln the nominative case.

Wallace is a good scholar.
Wallace is the subject of the verb is, and sclwla1· is the
complement of the sn.me verb; both are in the nominative

·case.
c When a noun denotes the person or thing addressed it is in the
llODlinative case; as, Harold, what is the number of the page ?

All the nouns and pronouns in the sentences below are
in the nominative cn.se. Tell which of the rules above

.applies to each.
My dear Walter, Jack is doing very well.
Rhetoric is an interesting study.
The sun, moon, planets, and stars are not stationary.
When quiet is restored, I will go on.
Plato, thou rcasoncst well.
This is too severe a storm, vVillmr, to last long .
What is your name, my brave little man ?
' Because a mist arose, the sport was ended.
The wave is mighty, but the spray is weak.
The whole sky was a shadowless blue.
An old maxim says "Honesty is the best policy."

•
j

68

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

Lesson 73.
LETTERS OF RECOMMENDATION.

Copy this letter : PonTLAND, ME., June 14, 1883.

To WHOM IT l\f A Y CONCE liN : The bearer, Kate Stafford, has been in my employ for the.
last five years, and I take pleasure in testifying to her honesty,
faithfulness, and efficiency in general housework. She is a
good washer and ironer, a,nd is neat and careful in all her
work. I willingly recommend her to any one in want of
her services.
Mrs. J. L. BENSON.

~

..

vVrite a letter of recommendation for a girl who has
been in the employment of a certain firm as saleswoman.
Arthur Harrison has been book-keeper for Smith, Pratt
& Co., in Brooklyn, but i::; obliged to leave and go West
on account of his health. vVrite tbe letter of recommendation which he might r eceive from his employers.
[Letters of recommendation should not be sealed. J

Lesson 74.
DESCRIPTION. -THE GRASSHOPPER.

With a grasshopper before you, answer these questions:·what is the shape of a grasshopper's body? vVhat is its
length? What are its divisions ?
What is the shape of the head ? What parts does it have?
vVhat is the shape of the thorax ? What marks are there
upon it? vVhat are attached to the thorax?

APPOSITION.

. ·How does the tail compare in length with the other parts?
size? ·what divisions has the tail?
Where al'e the breathing-holes ?
, Where are the feelers ? vVhat is their size ? Shape ? Use ?
How mai1y jaws has the grasshopper? How <lo they move?
How many legs has it? What is their size? How many
joints have they? What is the shape of the feet?
How many wings has it ? vVhat is their size ? How do
ey differ? ·w hat parts have they ?

Lesson 75.
APPOSITION.

- feter the Hermit preached the first crusade.
· Here hermit tells which P eter preached the first crusade,
dis joined to Pete1· for explanation .
A noun or pronoun joined to another noun or pronoun to explain
la said to be in apposition with the word to which it is joined,
' is in •the same case ; as, Mr. Smith, the tinsmith, is my neighbor.
The River St. Lawrence rises in Lake Ontario.
·A noun in :ipposition is sometimes unitecl to the noun
hich it modifies by or or as; as, Peru, or the land of the Incas, is a. South American State.
industry, as the conqueror of difficulties, has no equa,l.
upply words in apposition with the following nouns: The Hudson
Thomas Shakspeare
Joan of Arc H enry VIII. London Africa
Tell the trades or professions of several persons by means
nouns in apposition.

70

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

ANALYSIS. -

WORDS IN .APPOSITION.

71

Lesson 76.

Lesson 77.

PUNCTUATION.-NOUNS IN APPOSITION.

GOOD MANNERS.

A noun in apposition with another noun should be set off
by commas, unless both nouns are necessary to form the
name.
A noun and a pronoitn in apposition should not be sepa,·
rated by a comma.
This rule includes nouns in apposition which are preceded by or or as.
A title or a degree, following the name of a person, is a
noun in apposition, :md should be separated from the name
by a comma.
Punctuate these sentences: -

-' 'A young friend wishes to know what he should do with

Brussels the capital of Belgium
tures of carpets and laces.
vVe left Pitt in the zenith of prosperity and glory the ide
of England the terror of Frm1ce the admiration of the whole
civilized workl.
Distinguish between it's the contraction of it is and its ~he
personal pronoun.
The Naval Academy an academy similar to the
Academy is located at Annapolis Md.
The selectmen or trustees as they are called in some
have the general charge of the executive business of the to.wD.
What different meanings will different punctuations o
tlie following sentence give'?
The party consisted of Mr. Smith a clergyman his son j&
lawyer Mr. Brown a Londoner his wife and a little child. ' .

·· hat, overcoat, umbrella, and gloves, when making a call;
should precede a lady; and how he should give
iii~roductions. Write a set of directions for him upon
hese questions of polite conduct.

wpen he

Lesson 78.
ANALYSIS. - WORDS IN APPOSITION.

Analyze the following sentences, as <lirected on page

9:the coachman was hurt. 2. Mr. Smith, •the carnter, may be living. 3. Paul the apostle had been imprised. 4. Henry, the schobr, was crowned king. 5. Our
witry's sixteenth president, Abraham Lincoln, is considered
martyr. 6. y OU did it yourself. 7. your brothers, Thomas
d Henry, were seen. 8. JVfy brother Philip's eldest son lived
~ ermit.
9. The reading-room is well furnished with periodi-, -quarterlies, monthlies, weeklies, and dailies. 10. Pride,
t never-failing vice of fools, is not easily defined. ll. The
tter o is a vowel. 12. The wonl athwart is a preposition.

"'A noun in apposition may be nmrked as an adjective
ement with the letters ap above the line ; as, ap

John the coachman -was hurt.

72

POSSESSIVE CASE.

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

Lesson 79.
LETTER-WRITING.

Harlan Endicott is obliged to leave school to engage
business, and desires a testimonial from his teacher as·
to his character and ability. vVritc his req uest for this
favor.
Write a very favorable testimonial from the teacher in,
answer to the foregoing request.
Write the teacher's note to Harlan Endicott, in which
she explains why she must refuse to give a favorable
testimonial.

73

· The s is sometimes omitted in singular nouns when its
pronunciation would occasion an unpleasant succession of
sounds; as, for conscience' sake.
The idea of ownership is often expressed by a phrase
introduced by the preposition of; as, The palace of the queen.
I , Besides the idea of ownership or possession, the possesis used to denote source or origin, kind and
the river's brink,
Solomon's temple,
a week's time,

the sun's rayJ,
children's shoes,
a pound's weight.

When joint ownership is indicated, the sign of possesaion is affixed to the last name only; as, -

Lesson 80.

Mason and Dixon's line.

DESCRIPTION. - BUTTERFLY.
ti

Write a description of the butterfly.

See page 68.

ownership is separate, the sign is affixed to
each name ; as, •
• I

1

·

Look in "Webster's and Worcester's dictionaries.

fl

' J,1:1 the phrase "The Queen of England's domains," Queen

Lesson 81.
POSSESSIVE CASE.

The form of the noun which denotes possession is called
possessive form, or possessive case; as, -

Ruth's book is new.

The possess-foe case is f ormecl from the nominative by tlte
addition of 's. If the noun is plural, and ends in s, tlte
apostrophe only is added.

• !' noun in the possessive case, but the sign of possession
: joined to the word England because Queen of England is
.ed as a compound noun.
If two nouns denoting possession are in apposition, the
lign of possession is affixed to the last one only; as, For David my servant's sake.
_Give the possessive singular of-

.man, child, somebody else, Jam es, Miss Harris, Mrs. Adams.

-- ~ -

74

'!

Lesson 83.

mercy, German, child, deer, buffalo, sheep, mouse, sister-in·
>t ·
law, man-servant.

'"I
j.;,r
;..l

M:tke a list of ten plurals that end in s.
these plurals i11 the possessive form iu <Lil appropriate
sentence.
Make a list of ten plurals not ending in s, and use each
in a similar way.

...
•,

75

TELEGRA~MS.

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

Give the possessive plura,l of -

.

'

TELEGRAMS.

1A telegram should he brief, clear, and definite.
unnecessary words should be used.
Copy the followiHg telegram : . H.

s.

N.J., Dec. 8, 1880.

HACKETTSTOWN,

SINCLAIR,

47 Wayne St.,
New Bedford, Mass.
Missed train. Shall arrive at s:00

'

No

p

.M:
H.

Lesson 82.

s.

SINCLAIR.

following telegrams in the fewest words posAN AL YSIS. - POSSESSIVE CASE.

1 ,,

"

Analyze the following sentences as directed on page 49:
1. '\iVilliam's father will come. 2. His old horse was walk·
ing. 3. The English sailor's hat might have been lost. 4. M•
brother-in-law's residence is pala.tial. !J. Boston is Dr. Frank·
lin's native place. 6. Providence was Roger William's hom
~· Y ~ur opp?rtunities are excellen~.
_s. Mo~ning's golde~
light IS breakmg. 9. Charles's drawmg Is atlmired. 10. The
old man's hearing IS good. 11. The Duke of Wellington's
grave was seen.

''11

The possessive case may be marked as an adjective element. The sign of possession will distinguish it
ciently from the adjective.
-Vlilliam's father will come.
"'•

=~

BALTIMORE,

Mn., Aug. 5, 1882.

H. TuRNER, Camden, Maine.
I will telegraph you Monday when you may expect me.
· unable to travel now. Am suffering from a sprained
If I do not telegraph you on l\fonclay, do not expect
before another week.
J. W. BLAirn.

e.

ALnANY,

N.Y., June 10, 1885.

M..RICH,
Board of Trade Building,
Philadelphia, Pa.
Do as you think best regarding Jones. Shall we accept the
tea ..of Harland, Marsh & Co.? You know their condition.
know at once. Have no advice to offer regarding
To what extent shall we trust Harland, Marsh & Co.?
E. F. Mc'V\THIHTER.

- ----76

-

OBJECTIVE CA.SE.

LE880N8 IN LANGUAGE.

Lesson 84.
MANNERS AT TABLE.

Think what answers you would give to these questions, · ..
and then write an article of advice about Manners at the :·
Table.
vVhat preparations should you make before cornmg
table, as regards your hair, face, hands, nails ?
When should you be seated ?
vVhere should you place your napkin ?
'Vhat advice can you give about leaning over the table, ..
putting elbows upon the table, fingering napkin-ring or other ,
articles while waiting to be served, keeping the mouth shut
while eating, eating hastily or noisily?
:For what should the knife be used? :For what should it
not be used ?
How should the fork be used '?
For what should a spoon be usetl? How should soup be eaten?
·what can you say about leaving the spoon in your cup
when drinking, about drinking from a saucer, about blowing
upon tea or coffee to cool it, about tilting a soup-plate to get ·
the last spoonful ?
How should a slice of bread be eaten ?
What should you say when accepting or refusing anything
that is passed you ?
How should you ask for anything?
How should guests be treated at your table ?
How should a pitcher or an article with a handle be
to others?
Jf you are waiting upon a table, at which side of those ,
seated should dishes be passed ?

77

'· What should be clone in case of an accident, such as spilling
a glass of water?
What topics of conversation should be avoided at table?
Where shoulrl knife and fork be placed after you have
finished eating'?
What can you say about the use of a toothpick at liable ?
·- When should you leave th e table?
If you wish to leave bcforn the others, what should you say,
· and to whom should you say it'?

Lesson 85.
OBJECTIVE CASE.

A noun or pronoun used as the object of a verb is in the objective
case; as, Edison invented the phonograph.
~ Intransitive verbs may take after them an object kindred

in meaning io ilic vcru; as, H e 1lreams a rlrcam.
He sleeps the sleep of <l eath.
T,et us live a life of faith.
They danced a minuet.
They played a losing game.
• A noun or a pronoun used with a preposition to form a phrase is
called the object of the preposition, and is in the objective case; as, -

After the war.

Before the magistrate.

Tell the construction of the nouns and pronouns in the
By the side of a pond a company of idle boys were watching

-... ..

-l

78

SYNONYMS.

LESSONS JN LANGUAGE.

some frogs, and were pclti11g them with stones whenever they
lifted their heads above the water. A frog finally said to
them, "lt may be fine sport for yoll to ca,st stones, but you
forget that it is death to us."

79

Lesson 88.
SYNONYMS.

Look in the dictionary for the exact meaning of these
words, then select the right ones to fill the blanks iu tlic
sentences which follow: -

Lesson 86.
ANALYSIS. -OBJECTIVE ELEMENTS.

Analyze the following sentences: 1. We s;t,w John.

2. He will shut this door. 3. Who
opened it'! 4. They may take a ride. 5. Whom did you see'!
6. Stephen's younger brother has had the old gentleman's
spectacles. 7. Bring that book. 8. \Vho has been using .this?
9. Sec that rocket. 10. 'Ve could hear an unusual noise.
11. Take that. 12. Our little party could hear the singing
birds. 13. He gave up the chase. 14. I like that ring, that
ancient ring. 15. The boy flew his kite. 16. The farmer
grows grain. 17. They ran a race. 18. He trotted l1is horse.
19. The boy walkeLl the horse. 20. They will run the boat.

awkward,
neglect,
universal,
11eglige11ee,
clumsy,
general.
The speaker was very - - in his appearance and - - 111
his manner.
Many girls who arc by no means--, lmve an - - gait.
, I assure yon tktt such - - shall never happen again.
The accident was due to the - - of the switchman, who
"' had hitherto been most careful in his duties.
Do not place too much confidence in him, for he is noted
for his--.
, There is 110 exception to the - - devastation along the
~iver, and poverty is - · - throughout the aftlicted region.

Lesson 89.
CASE AND GENDER.

Lesson 87.
DESCRIPTIONS. -THE MOTH.

vVrite a description of the moth according to the directions given on page 68.
Cornpa,re the moth arnl t110 butterfly.

1

• Tell the case and the gender of each noun in the follow. ~ng sente1iccs: -

The way was long, the wind was cold.
The minstrel was infirm and old .
. •;: The child is father of the man.
:~.. Honesty is the best policy.

...........................__

80

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

Th e breaking waves dashed high
On a stern and rock-uound coast,
And the woOLl::i against a stormy sky
Th eir giant \..Jran ches tossed.
w·e shall t ake a walk in the morning.
No young lady coulll hav e :t better safeguard against adver·
sities of fortune . or a better resource in time of need, than a
good knowledge of business affairs.
Th e fly sat on the axle-tree of the chariot-wheel and said, ·
" What a Llust I do rai se !"

.ANALrSIS. -

Lesson 91.

NATURAL ORDER OF WORDS.

AN AL YSIS. - ADVERBIAL ELEMENTS.

Analyze the following sente nces as directed on page

49:1. The boy gains fri ends.

1. The sun shone brightly. 2. vVill he return immediately?
3. They have gone away. 4. March on. G. He was very ill.
•6. Where has he gone ? 7. 'l'heir trees wer e growing rather
slowly. 8. The old house still remains. 9. The horse stood
2. The polite boy gains many friends.
.
quite still. 10. The young birds were very much frightened.
vVhat is the order of this sentence'? \Vhe re are
11. Flowers were peepin g out everywh ere. 12. 'rhe slothful
a,<lje ctives plac.-d '?
selclom res pee l; themselves. 13. 'J'he Israel ites passed over
3. The polite boy of good character will readily find friends ·
safely. 14. Fran ce was formerly calleu Gaul. rn. He reat all times.
ceived us somewhat formally. 16. I will see him again.
·17. 1.'he various aninrnls of the farmyard, horses, cows, anu
In this sentence where is the adjective phrase placed?
The
adverbial
phrase?
sheep, live peacea.bly t ogeth er. 18. JVfcPherson retnrn cd hom e
Where is the adverb plac ed?
Which is nearer the verb, the adverb or the adverbial=-· = :_:an altered man.
In this sen teuce the order of the words is
object. This is the eornrnon order.

phrase?
Sentences 1, 2, arnl 3 are written in the imLural, or.
usnaJ, order of declaxative sentences.
vVhich com es first in the usual order of d eclarative sen·
tences , subjec t or p redicaLc ? What m1jee Li vc

' An advm·bial e1erne 11L may 1>e ill(li caLcLl l>y <lr:rn-ing a,
UJI

ap

'.l'he various animals of the farmyard, horses, cows, arnl
ap

sheep,

~

peaceaul_y together.

~

81

.AlJ VElWIAL EL11JJ1!ENTS.

come before the 11oun which they modify? \Vhat adjective modifiers come after the noun which th ey modify'?
In what order <tre the modifiers of the verb placed?
. All complements of verbs are usually placed directly
. q.fter them.·
In imperative se nte nces the subject is omitted, or it
follows the verb; as, Come. Staud up. Love ye the Lord.
Be it enacted.

Lesson 90.

-

;_

\-

ANALYSTS.-· I ND IRECT OJJJECTS.

LESSONS I N L ANGUAGE.

82

Lesson 92.
TELEGRAMS.

83

·verb pa·i d, aml is h ence its complement; in the second
sentence wages is the complement of paid; in the third
sentence him and wages are both the complements of paid;
but in the fourth sentence wages is the only complement
of paid. The mea.nin gs of t h e third and of the fourth sen. tcncc arc L11c same, Lut tli c construction of Ll1c "·oril hi111 i11
the two sent.t~ n ccs is difT1 ~rcnL. In the tl1inl sentence and
n.lso in t he 1irst senten ce him is in the ol>jecti ve case
because it is :t cmnplernenL of p<1it1 .

Write a business telegran.1 containing not more than ten
words.
vVrite a telegram ordering a stateroom on a certain .
steamer for a certain date.
Write a t eleg ram to n. firm in New York City in ci niring .
1£~ A complement which shows that upon which an act is performed
why eertai11 gomls lt::w c not hel~ll fonyarclc11.
-;,
is called the direct object ; a complement which shows to or for whom
\Vrite rt telegram in :mswcr Lo Llie 1asL.
. or what an act is done is called an indirect object.

Lesson 93.

·which of the co mplement s in t.h c fom sentences :-tt th~
head of tl1is h~sson :-tn~ dircd objcct.s? \Vhiclt a rc indirect?

DESCRIPTION. - TH E HOUSE- F L Y.

vV riLe a deseription of the h ouse-fly, as directed on page

Lesson 95.

68.
ANALYSIS. -INDIRECT OBJECTS.

Lesson 94.
DIRECT AND INDIRECT OBJECTS.

1. vVe paid him.
2. \Ve pai<l his wages.

Each of these sentences seems complete in itself.
may combine them a.ml say, 3. vVe pai<l him his wages.
4. V/e pa.id his wn.ges to him.
In the first sentence him complet es the meaning

Anal yze Lh c following scnLenccs : 1. H e brought m e a knife. 2. I sol<l h er a. book. 3. She
brought h er broth er an appl e. 4. H e ask ed me a ques Lion.
5. I tol<l him a s tory. G. He as ked m e a favor. 7. \ Ve p:-ty
him his wages. 8. Anthony offered CrEs:-tr the crown. 9. Aristotle t aught Alexander th e G r en.t philosophy.

An indirect oLjcct may be marked as a complement and
· the letters i.o. placed beneath it; as, H e brought m e ii knife.

--

~

~

---i.o.

-- ----

;I;·

84

on.rECTIVE CA SE.

LESSON S IN LANGUA GE.

Lesson 96.
NATURAL ORDER OF WORDS.

In which of the following sentences are the words in 1.
the natural order? vV rite iu the natural order those sen- ~
t en ces uot already so written.
1. The poor bird has broken its wing.

2. The rattlesnake is th e most poisonous suake m
country.
3. In shady nooks you will find the moJest violet.
4. Of cotton, cali co is made ; of flax, line11; of rags, wood, '
or straw, paper is made.
5. A large carriage containi11g four ladies was slowly driveiL,. ·
I "
up the roadway.
,
G. Above, the sun sh one forth brightly, but underneath :,
1
were still to be seen the effects of th e recent storm.
7. One thing I greatly admire in him.
8. Happy is the man that fimleth wisdom.
9. To Robinson Crusoe m:u1y things strange and unusual
happened.

85

;A young man twe11ty years old desires to oLtain a pm;ition as clerk or assistm1t Look-keeper. He lH1s had one
year's experience, and can give very good references. He
~~opes to procure such a position by advertising. Write
his advertisement.
- · A retail merchant desires to secure as cashier in his
store a young man who is a good penman. Ile is very
particular about the character of the one whom he may
employ. \Vrite his advertisement for a cashier.
Mrs. F. W. Smith is a dressmaker who wishes to obtain
·several sewing-girls.
She will teach them the art of
dressmaking in return for their services. vV rite her mlT

~ertisement.

A girl wan ts . a place to llo general housework. She
objects to washing and ironing , but is willing to go into
the country. Write h er advertisement.

Lesson 98.
OBJECTIVE CASE.

~·

'
Lesson 97.
ADVERTISEMENTS.

Copy the following advertisements: -

Vv ANTED -An experienced girl to <lo general housework in
a large family ; must be a good · washer and ironer. Good
wages. Apply at No. 17 Lafayette St.
vVANTED -A young man in a commission house. Address
in own handwriting, giving references, Box 378, City.

following sentences name the nouns and prnnouns which are the direct objects of verbs, and those
· ~hich are the indirect objects: 'l'hey handed the driver a whip.
vVe will send you an invitation.
Are you telling me the truth?
He told me this story.
He offered her his hand.
Are you telling the truth to me?
You may ask him some questions.

86

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

Use each of the following verb::; i11 a scnLence containing'
a direct and an indirect object. State which is the direc~,,
object and which is the indirect: allow, bring, buy, carry, do, get, give, lend, make,
present, promise, provide, refuse, seud, show, tell, write.

Lesson 99.

.ADVERBIAL USE OF NOUNS.

87

This event [happe11cu, transpired] soon after my arrival.
I have corrected [many, lots of] mistakes in this essay.
'rhis is the [party, person] to whom I sold my house.
A man will never be what he ought to be [except, unless]
·v he knows what he is.
' He always [aggravated, provoked] me by his manner.
It was exceedingly [aggravating, provoking] to see the
. train leave the station just as we arrived.
I never was rnore [annoyed, aggravated].
A drenching rain [aggravated, provoked] our discomfort.

CAUTIONS.

Do not

use:~

Lesson 100.

lots of for many,
ctny for al all,
it transpfred for it happened,
party for person,
e;i~cepl for irnless,
clever for good-natured,
aggravate for vex or annoy.

DESCRIPTION.

Describe: The spic1er.

Two (liminutives sl1011 l11 not he nseil togct11cr.
say "little brooklet."
Two negatives should not be used for one. Do not say,
"She didn't say nothing."
Two negatives make an
aflirmative.
Copy these sentences, selecting the right word or phrase
from those in brackets: -

I attended the lecture, but was unaule to hear [any, at all]:
She cannot see [at all, any].
A stra,nge thing [transpireL1, happened].
I agreed to meet a certain [person, party J in town.
I visited the Louvre [lots of, many] times while in Paris. ·
She is not capable, but very [clever, gootl-naturetl].
,
Happiness is not complete [unless, except J it is shared witli
another.

The hee.

Lesson 101.
ADVERBIAL USE OF NOUNS.

A noun has sometimes an adverbial use.
He came here.
' 3. He came early.
·~5. 'l'he river is very wide.

2. He came home.
4. He came this morning.
G. The river is a mile wi<le.

In the first sentence, here is an adverb telling where he
came. In the second sentence, the noun home, standing
;rfor the phrase to his home, likewise tells where he came,
' ' and is used as an adverbial element. In the fourth sen./>.

88

!:

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

tence, morning is an a(.lverbial element, mollifying came.
In the sixth sentence, the noun mile has the same use that
the all verb very lias in Ll1e fifth. It is a modifier of wide, ·
and hence is used as an allverb.
A noun 'Used as an adverb is in the o~jective case.
Find the adverbial elements in the following
tences : This mor11i11g James shovellcu through a s11ow-urift six
feet high.
He skated a rn i le in ten minutes.
They sa,t still an hour.
This roa,tl is· a rnile longer tha,n tlmt.
You must get to school ten rni11utes earlier to-morrow morning, or I shall keep you fiftee n minutes later at night.
I don't ca,re a pem1y for his opinion.
I ktve come a long distance to see you, arnl intend to remain
all th e afternoon.
You will do a great cleal better than most scholars
find all these au verbial objectives.

Lesson 102.
AN AL YSIS. -ADVERBIAL OBJECTIVE.

Analyze the following sentences and parse the nouns:1. vVe wai tea ten clays.

2. The book is worth a dollar.
3. 'Ve rode fifty miles that day. 4. vVe were a little tired.
5. vVhat ! could ye not watch with me one hour? 6. He gave ·
his father a house two stories high, and was not a penny the ·
poorer for it. 7. They walked north twenty miles the first
clay.

INTERIWGATIVE SENTENCES.

89

.' ·...An adverbial objective may be marked as a complement
with the letters a.o. beneath the line.
vVe waited ten clays.
a.o.

---

ii

Lesson 103.

fl

INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.

Sentences are mmlo interrogative by the arrangement of
the words, or by the use of interrogative words.
Interrogative words are adjectives, pronouns, or adverbs.
1 The interrogative adjectives are whieh, whose, a,ncl what;
the interrogative pronouns are who, whose, whom, whieh, and
, what; tho interrogative ad verbs arc when, where, why,
wherefore, how, etc.
In sentences made interrogative by the arra11gement of
the words, or by an interrogative adverb, the subject follows
.. the verb or the first word of the verb-phrase; as, Do not they think too little who talk too mueh?
Have I done aught of value to my fellow-men ?
Where was Washington Irving born?
How old was Longfellow when he died?
:'(r This order is called the interrogative order.
. If the question is asked by means of au interrogative
pronoun or adjective, either the natural or the interrogative
order may be followed; as, What is vanity ? What have you clone?
vVhat planter will yoke a sapliug with a falling oak?

"

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90

LESSO.No JN LANGUAGE.

Copy from your l{eader two 1:;ente11ces made interrogati ve by the arrnngeme11t of Llie words, two scuLcnccs which
begin with an interrog~itive adverb, two which begin with
an interrogative )Jl'OllOUll, <LllLl Lwo 'Yhich ucgiu with an
interrogative acljecti ve.
Study the sentences that you l1ave selected, and tell the
position of the subject in each. \Vhieh se11Lences have the
naturnl order? Which have the iuterrogative order?

.MUJJlJITLNU co~\IJ'LE1ll.L'N1'S.
c _,.

Lesson 104.
MANNERS AT SCHOOL.

Think what answers you would give to these questions, '
and then write an article of advice ;ibo11t Polite .Manners at School.
Should good manners be shown in a parlor more than in a
school-room?
vVhat should you say when you first sec your teacher before
school, and upon leaving if you stop to speak with her after
school is dismissed?
Is it polite to address your teacher as "Teacher"'?
Vhat is your opinion of a scholar who is untidy 111
appearance ?
Is it polite to lounge in your scat? How should you stand?
If asked to distribute materials to a class, how shoukl it be
done?
How should your books be treated ?
How should the school grounds, the building, the furniture
be kept?
vVhen you are obliged to pass in front of your teacher what
should you say ?
'

1

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""- What impolite acts in school do you often notice'?
How shoulLl yoLL treat a new schubr '(
.What should you say for any favor that is shown you'(
{Never say "Tha11ks.') J
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Lesson 105.
MODIFYING COMPLEMENTS.

They made liim c:111tai11.
They made him unhappy .
· Jn ea.ch of these sentences the verb made rc<Juircs two
complements to HHike its use as a predicate complete; one
expressed by the word him, denoting the per::;on actell
upon; the other expressed by the words caz1tain, imlwppy,
denoting the result of the action expressed by made.
These words, captain and unhappy, express some comlition of him.
Captain is a modifying noun ; that is, in
apposition with hirn; unhappy is an adjective modifying
him. These modifiers of him,, which is the direct object
- f the verb made, arc also complcmei1ts of the same verb.
· Observe that there arc two sets of double complements,
<lire.ct and indirect, and direct and modifying.
They made him a boat.
They made him a scholar.
The act of making expressed by rnade in the first sentence was upon the boat: boat is the direct object, and
,.him the indirect object, showing for whom the act was
.done.
The act expressed by made in the second sentence was
.upon li.irn, which is the direct object, while scholar is the
µiodifying object.

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92

CASE OF PRONOUNS.

LESSO.NS I N LANGUAGE.

93

"

Lesson 106.
ADVERTISEMENTS.

.A man wants a position as travelling salesman.
lmd fifteen years' experience in this work, arnl c.:1,n furnish
many r eferences. Ile would prefer to travel for some ·
manufacturing house. vVrite l1is aclvcrtiseme11t.
A child has been lost. vVrite a11 adv ertisement stating
circumstances aml de~ criLiug Llw cl1ihl.
Prepare an advertisement a1mou11ci11g a svceial
goods at greatly reduced rates.
Annie Price has fonnd a valuahle piece of lace.
her notice of this for the p:tper.
1
Look at the advertisements in some newspaper, and COP)'i
two which you think al'C well written.

" ·The order of almost any tleclarative sentence may be
changed by placing tliere at the beginning.
The pronoun it may also be used to introduce a sentence ; as, - _
1
- It is the love of mon ey that is the root of all evil.
The real subject then follows the verL, and is consi<lcrcd
to be in apprn:;ition with it.
--· Change the ord~r of the follo\ving se11tences Ly prefixing
-~ _ the \ronl ilu ·n : <1r lt: No clouds were to ll H see u. A iiash of lightning came. To
· be misjudged is often the fate of genius. No v:w:t n t eltai rn
_,.,~ were in the room.
To h<t\·e goocl laws is useless if we have
·. not good men to execHte them. Evils are of two kinds _those which cannot be cured, and those which cau. No~ to
ato~e the mind ':ith knowledge, bnt to give acti \'ity and vigor
to its _powc_rs, is ~lie great olJj cct of cd uc:1,tio11 . Upon the
other side of the w1ue Atlantic a beautiful isla11 ll lies. That
e are never Loo olLl to learn is a trne sayiug.

Lesson 107.
INTRODUCTORY WORDS.

Almost any change in the natural order of
emphasizes some element of the seJ1tence.
however, two changes in the 1mtuml order so common
that they simply give variety, and not emphasis. These
changes consist in the use of the introductory words there
and it.
vVh en a sentence begins with there used as an introductory word, the verb precedes its subject ; as, 'l'here arose a shrill cry.
'l'here was no report made of the matter.

Lesson 108.
CASE OF PRONOUNS. - A COMMON ERROR.

, ey are coming to see me.
'l'his book is for me.
Let me try to do it.
They came on behind me.
Let me go to speak to him.
I went to town yestenby.
He spoke to me.
Copy each of these sentences, and Lefore the word me or
insert the words lVilliani and.
1'hey :1,re corning to sec "\¥il1iam :1,ml me.
. . you write this sentence, "They are com ing to see
Wilham and I," you make as great a mistake as to say,

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-- --- - 94

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

"They are comi11g to sec I." Observe that
joined to a pronoun by and do not in any wise change the
form or use of the pronoun.
Fill the blanks in these sentences with a noun and a
pronoun connected by and : I wish you would co me with - - .
- - were the ones selecte<l.
It was done by - Did you ever see - - ?
- - live near Lake l\fichigan.
- - have started for Oregon.
She said it was given to--.
H e thought there was some secret between - - .
- - are great fri en<ls.
It made - - quite provoked.

DESCRIPTION.

95

Lesson 110.
DESCRIPTION.

Another form for the d escription of animals is given in
the outline below.
1. vVl1at kiud of animal is it?

2.
3.
4.
5.

With what is it covered?
·what are the parts of its body?
vVhere does it Ii ve ?
What is its nature?
6. vVhat tloes it do?
7. U pou what does it Ii ve?
8. 0£ what use or harm is it'?
Question 2 may include the appearance of the
animal, 6 its lmbits, aml some incident or reflection may be
added at the close.
See how this outline is used in the following descripNOTE. -

Lesson 109.
AN AL YSIS. - ADJECTIVE PHRASES.

Analyze the following sentences as directed

49:1. Tints of beauty paint the sky. 2. The time for studying .
is past. 3. The love of money is the root of all evil. 4. The
inhabitants of Finland are called Finns. 5. The acorn of
small size becomes a giant oak. 6. The brother of Richard
the king usurped the throne. 7. The house under the hill
was burned. 8. Every person but him had deserted the ship.
A phrase may be marked as an adjective element or an
adverbial element, according to its use. That the element
is a phrase is shown sufficiently by the line connecting the
words together as a single element.

'l'uE SQu 11rn,gL.

The squirrel is a rodent. H e is covered with a soft coat of
fur, gray or reddish brown in color.
The long, bushy tail which makes the squirrel look so pretty
is longer than his body, and the squirrel uses it to balance
himself and to guide him in leaping.
Each fore foot has four toes, while each hind foot has five.
The toes are furnish ed ·with sharp, hooked claws. The squirrel
., has strong, sharp teeth, whiskers, pretty, bright eyes, and
long, pointed ears.
The squirrel lives in the woods an<l spends most of his time
in the trees, leaping from limb to limb and from tree to tree

96

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

with great agility. He is very nimble, lively, playful, and
pert, but also very timid, and very skilful in hiding on the
appearance of danger.
In the fork of a tree, high up from the ground, he builds
his nest of moss, twigs, and dry leaves.
His foocl consists of nuts, benies, fruits, and the young
shoots of trees. He al ways lays by, in holes in the ground,
a hoard of nuts for his winter's food.
The squirrel is useful because he destroys the larvffi of
insects, but he sometimes does much harm by devouring corn
and other grains, and by gnawing off the top shoots of trees.

Lesson 111.
NEW SP APER ARTICLES.
Bu1WLARY.

Last night the residence of lVlr. vVilliam Robinson at No.
37 Atwell's Ave., was visited by a burglar, who gained an
entrance through a window in the rear of the house.
Finish this article by describing the circumstances.
State that a suspicious-looking character was seen by a
neighbor, lurking in the alley back of l\fr. Robinson's
house, and describe his appearance so closely that the
police will have no difficulty in identifying him.
Write an account of a runaway accident. State when
it occurred, who were in the carriage, why the horse took fright, through what streets he ran, and how he wa.s finally ~
stopped. Tell what damage was done. Relate ~ome
exciting incident of the adventure, giving clue credit to
any one who showed courage or presence of mind.

PERSON OF NOUNS AND PlW.NOU.NO.

97

Lesson 112.
PERSON OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.

You ma,y recite your lesson.
I shall dismiss you soon.
"\Ve think he should speak more distinctly.
She reads her book. He gave it to her.
· They brought their skates with them.
He says it is his, and I say it is mine.
Which of the pronouns in the illustrative ::;entences
refer to the person speaking? vVhich refer to the person
spoken to? vVhich nouns and which pronouns refer to
the person or thing spoken of?
Pronouns which represent the speaker are of the first person,
those which represent the person or persons spoken to are of the
second person, and those which represent what is spoken of are of
the third person.
Pronouns which show by their form of what person they are, are
called personal pronouns.

Which of the pronouns in the illustrative sentences are
of the first person'? "Which :ire of the second jJCrson?
Which are of the third person?
Every pronoun must be of the same person, number,
and gender as its a,ntecedent.
A noun is of the first person when it is in :ipposition
with a pronou11 of the first person ; as, I, Maurice, am reauy to n~ cite.
We boys are going skating after school.

A noun is of the second person -

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

SY.NONY.J.l!S.

1. When it is in apposition with a pronoun of the second
person ; as, -

Lesson 114.

98

We will bring you girls som ething this afternoon.
Ye crags and peaks, I'm with you once again.

99

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SYNONYMS.

Fill each 1lauk in this lesson with the right word from

2. vVhen it names the person spoken to ; as, Eunice, com e here .

In all other uses, nouns are of the third person.
Tell the person, number, and gender of each pronoun and noun in the following sentences: Vve, the people of the United States, in order to form .a . ,
more perfect union, to establish justice, to insure domestic
tranquillity, to provide for the com1non defen ce, to promote
the general welfare, and to secure the blessings of liberty to ·
ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Con· ·
stitution for the U11ited States of America.
Rouse ye, R omans; rouse ye, slaves!
Vve, the pupils of the first division, have only one
each day.

- crowd
drove
shoal
flock
herd
swarm
gang
crew
uancl
company
A - - of fish had surrounded the ship.
There was too great a - - of people for comfort.
A - - of cattle now grazes where the house once stood.
The - - of bees alighted upon the nearest l>ough.
There was a - - of thieves among the - - of travellers.
The horse was so l>aclly frightened by a - - of swine that
it became unmanageabl e.
He fired into a - - of wilcl pigeons and killed many of

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Lesson 115.
ANALYSIS. -ADVERBIAL PHRASES.

Write descriptions of those birds only of which
can find good specimens or good pictures.

· Analyze the following sentences:1. We will take a walk in the morning.

2. They may
have ridden through the town. 3. A treaty of peace was
ligned at Paris. 4. They have rushed through like a hurricane. 5. The hat may be too large for him. 6. He spoke

I

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There was a - - of robbers awaiting the train.
A - - of wild horses roamed over the prairies.
Beneath, a - - of silver fish es glides.
A mutiny arose among the ship's--.
How many lambs are there in this - - ?

DESCRIPTION.

I

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them.

Lesson 113.

The partridge.
The woodpecker.
The swan.
The ostrich.
The robin.

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Write a description of: -

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100

101

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

with the proper accent. 7. The water will be too cold for
bathing. 8. In ancient tim es li'rance was called Gaul. 9. The
worl<.l is bright before thee. 10. Captains Clark and Hender-.
son were wounded in the late battle.

What can you say a,bout boisterous conduct on the street,
jostling aga,in st others, eating, pointing at objects, turning and
staring at person s whom you have passed, calling across the
street to any onA on thP. othAr i:;iclA?
What are proper forms of greeting when meeting acquaint'ances on the street? vVhat arc improper forms?
If you wi s h to ta,lk with a person whom you m eet, what
should you do '(
Should three or four walk side by side on the street?
In meeting persons, wl1i ch si(1e of the wn,1k should you
tal{e?
·w hen should a gentleman preccJe a, la<.ly companion?
, If while walking with any one, you should wish to leave,
~~oul<.l you step in front or behind your compan ion to do so?
When Rhonld a, gentleman lift his h at?
When should a ge ntleman offer a lady his arm? Should
110 ever take her arm?

Lesson 116.
NEWSPAPER ARTICLES.

vVrite a newspaper article t elling about the improvements tha,t have been made in your city lluring the past
year.
\V rite a n ewspaper article praising some summer resort.
The following venlict was given at an inquest. Write
it correctly.
l\ir. George Binns came to death by getting strucked from
the elevatetl train on \Vest Broadway, on October 10th10.45 a.m .
vVe blame the Elevated R.H. not havin g tlifferent signals to
give their working people sufficient time to retire fur enough
out of danger. Th ere shall Le a loud h earin g signal be given
at least one block from the spot where their employees are
working arnl the people must Le instruetctl especially to new
han<.ls how far they must go n,way out of the way that they
will not be eatched by engine or cars.

Lesson 117.
MANNERS ON THE STREET.

Think what answers you would give to the following
questions, ancl then write an article of advice about1
Manners on the Street.

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Lesson 118.
_;

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

.- By adding self to my, our, thy, your, him, her, and it, and
1elves to our, yoiir, and them, we obtain: myself, thyself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves,
yourselves, themselves.
These are called compound personal pronouns, and are
used in the nominative aml objective cases.
Write seutences containing each of the compound personal pronouns in the nominative case. In the objective

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102

DECLENSION.

L esson 119.

Lesson 121.

D E SCRIPTION.

DECLENSION.

Describe: The hen.

100

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

The turkey.

Lesson 120 .
A BSTRACT. -OUTLINE. - REPRODUCTI O N .

An abstract is a writing containing in brief for'm
essential parts of a longer writing. The important ideas __
are retained, but the details are omitted.
An outline is expressed iu words, phrases, or detached
sentences; an abstract, in smooth and connected sentences.
vVrite an outline, an abstract, and a full reproduction ,
of the following selection from James T. Fields' "If I
Were a Boy Again," found in" Underbrush ."

in number and case is called declension.

:'k i
J!!
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HI
'I; I

Ji iI
~I ;
d?

·....lj!l
l"• JI
:~

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[ NOTE. - Tlic regular variations in form of the parts of speech are
three: decle11si o11, comparison, and conjugation. Declension llelongs to
nouns, pronoun s , aml adjectives; compari so n, to adjectives and adverbs ;
and conjugation, to verbs.]

. _

DEcr.1rns10N OF THE PERSONAT, PRONOUNS.
SECONn PEnsoN .

FIRST PEHSON.

Poetic J!'orm.
SING.

NoM. I
Pos s. m y
OBJ. me

PLU.

SING.

PLU.

we
our
us

thou
thy
thee

ye
your
ye

Common Funn.
S1KG. PLtJ.

you
your
you

T11rnn I'ErrsoN.
PJ.ll.

SING.

NoM. he
Poss. his
OnJ. him

she
her
her

it
its
it

.

.

The declension of nouns has been given sufficiently in
the directions for the forma.tion of plurnls a.ml of the possessive case . The nominative a,nd objective cases of nouns
have. the same form.

KEEPING A DIAnY.

If I were a boy again, I would have a Llank-Look in which I
would record, before going to bed, every day's events just as
they happened to me personally. If I began by writing only
two lines a day in my diary, I would start my little book, and ··
faithfully put down what happened to interest me.
On its pages I would note down the habits of birds and of _
animals as I saw them; and if the horse fell ill, down should
go his malady in my book, and what cured him should go
there too. If the cat or the clog showed a11y peculiar traits,
they should all be chronicled in my diary, and nothing worth
recording should escape me.

'

l.

The variation in form of nouns and pronouns to express change

The duck.

:1.

they
their
them

W ith the exception of his, the possessive forms given in
~ the table have an adjective use only; i.e., they are used
· only as modifiers of nouns. ]{is is used both as an adjective and as a pronoun.
~ Mine, ours, thine, yoilrs, hers, and theirs are additional
forms implying possession, but used as pronouns in the
· nominative and objective cases.

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104

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

DESCRIPTION. -

NARRATION. -

VOICE.

105
1: • •

Lesson 122.

Head each sentence at the heacl
the part set off by commas. Does each sentence seem
complete. without the part omitted? The parts set off by
commas m these sentences may be called parenthetical.
Parenthetical expres:::;io11s are those not essential to the
meaning nor to the structure of the sentence in which they
stand. They are indepe11de11 t expressions or modifying ell'l·
ments loosely connected to the words which they modify;
Parenthetical expressions should br, separated from tlt6 ·
rest of the sentence by a comma or commas.
To which com mas in this l esson will this rule apply?
vVrite from dictation the illustrative sentences, and
apply the rule just given.
.
The following expressions are frequently used paren~
thetically: Accordingly, too, also, consequently, fin :illy, however, indeed, '
moreover, namely, perhaps, undou l>tedly, in fact, in short, in
reality, of course, in a word, with ou t Joubt, to be sure, as it
were, as a matter of course, generally speaking.

""

DESCRIPTION.

PUNCTUATION. - PARENTHETICAL EXPRESSIONS.

This is too hard.
That, too, is very difficult.
l\faclrid, which is the capital, lies in the central part
Spain.
The interior of 1\foxico co nsists of lofty mountain ranges
and high pbins, calle(l table-lauds, lying between them.
The peninsula of Alaska, which is a part of the United,,
States, is inhabiteu by lmlia11s.

1'.

Lesson 123.

The dove.

The caua,ry.

The sparrow.

•

Lesson 124.
NARRATION.

Tm<;

HEED AND THE OAK.

Write an imaginary couvernatiu n LeLweeu a little r eed
~nd a huge oak, in which the oak boasts of its superior
strength.
. A violent wind destroys tlie oak, but leaves the reed
·unharmed. Give the reason for this, and add the words
of the reed after the wind has ceased.

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Lesson 125.
VOICE.

Voice is the form of the verb which shows whether the subject is
the doer or the receiver of the action expressed by the verb.
If the subject of a transitive verb represents the doer of the action,
the verb is said to be in the active voice ; as, -

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l

Maurice throws the ball.
If the subject of a transitive verb represents the receiver of the
the verb is said to be in the passive voice; as, -

~on,

The hall is thrown by Maurice.

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- ....

-.......

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106

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a 111

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

As an iutrausiti vc vcrL cannot represent its subject
as being acted upon, it has the form of the active voice only. ",
The wind carried the ship into the harbor.
The ship was bome by the wind into the ha,rbor.
Silence does not al ways rnark wisdom.
vVisdom is not al ways rn arkeLl Ly silence.
The burden becomes li ght which is cheerfully borne.
vVhoever looks for a fri end without i1t1 perfections will never
find what h e seeks.
Ask, and it shall be given yo u ; seek, and ye shall find;
knock, and it shall be opened unto you.
How the rain falls !
Do at once what yo u have to do.
Have you heard the uews?
Name the verbs in the sentences above. vVhich of them
are transitive verbs in the active voice? vVhich are transitive verbs in the passive voice? [If any verbs are in
the passive voice, you may be sure that they are transitive
verbs.] vVhich are intransitive verbs?

Lesson 126.

- -

[•

NEIVSI'AI'EB AB'L'1CLES.-BEPBODUC1'10N.

- 107

[

Punctuate the foll owing sentences: Elijah kn ew that rain was coming not by the rush of winds
or gathering of clouds but by a little speck in the heavens no
bigger than a man's hand.
Success is usually gained not by sudden bound but by steady
effort.
He was a distinguished statesman but a bad man.
The President should be the head of the nation and not of a
party.
Opportunities to be a blessing and not a cmsc must be
employed.
Be familiar but by no means too intimate.
The one shall be taken ancl the other left.

Lesson 127.
NEWSPAPER ARTICLES.

Write for a newspaper an account of a visit made to
some factory or mill.
Imagine that you have seen a railroad. a ccident, an<l
write an article describing it.

PUNCTUATION.-WORDS IN CONTRAST.

Liberal, not lavish, is kind Nature's hand.
Intrinsic ·w orth, and not riches, ought to produce esteem.
As thy days, so shall thy strength be.
\¥ e ought not to betray, but to defend, our country.
lVords and phrases placed -in contrast to each other should .
be separated by a cornrna .
Explain the use of the comma in the illustrative sen·
tences.

·:')
·,,

Lesson 128.
REPRODUCTION. - See Page 102.
SELF-KNOWLEDGE.

If I were a boy again, oue of the first things I woulU strive

to do would be this: I would, as soon as possible, try hard to

I

108

LESS ONS IN LANGUAGE.

become acquainted with and then deal honestly with myself,
to study up my own tleJiciencics aml capaLilitics, aml I would .
begin early enough, before faults had time to Lccomc habits;
I would seek out eanrnstly all the weak points iu my char·
acter ; and then go to work speedily and mend them with
better material; if I found that I was capable of some one .thing in a special degree, I would ask counsel 011 that point of_
some judicious friend, and if wlviseu to pursue it, I would
devote myself to tlw,t particular matter, to the exclusion of
mnch that is foolishly follow ed in boyhood.
JAMES T. FIELDS.

NARRATION. 1

TENSE.

109

If the verb expresses a command or a request, it is in the impera-

tive inode ; as, Never lose a chance of sayi Hg a kind word.
Write sentences illus trating each of the modes.

Lesson 130.
NARRATION.
HELl'INU EA CH OTHER .

A bee fell into a stream, A Lin1 broke off a leaf from
a tree and threw it to the Lee, which was thus saved.

Lesson 129.
MODE.

The forms of the verb which show the manner in which it asserta
its meaning are called modes. There are four modes : the indicative,
potential, subjunctive, and imperative.
If a verb states a fact or asks a question in regard to a fact, itla'
in the indicative mode; as, -

How?
A short time after, a hunter was taking aim t o shoot
the bird, when tho bee saved tli e bird's life. How?
Write this out and add som e thoughts which the story
uggests.

Lesson 131.

Genius, like humanity, ru sts for w ~mt of use.
vVas Charles Sumner a native of Massachusetts ?
If a verb asserts permission, power, or obligation by the use of
may, can, must, might, could, would, or should, or asks a question using

these words, it is in the potential mode; as, -

'V-e can }earn wisdom from failure better than from success.
If the verb expresses a supposition, or implies that something ii
untrue or is doubtful, it is in the subjunctive mood ; as, -

If it were clone when 'tis done,
Then 'twere well it were done quickly.

TENSE.

Ralph goes to school every morning.
Ralph went to school this morning.
Ralph will go to school this a,fternoon.
Ralph is not at home ; he has gone to school.
Ralph did not see ' the procession, for he lwcl gone to
}lool before it passed.
' 6. Ralph will hctve gone to school Lefore nine o'clock.
~he verbs italicized in these six sentences are all forms

'!'.me verb, go, and show by their form to what time they

fer.

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110

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

The form of the verb which shows to what time it
called tense.

There are three general divisions of time: present, past,
and future.
The form of the verb which refers to present time is ~
called present tense ; to past time, past tense; to future
time, future tense.
Tenses may also show that the act or state which they '
assert is complete.
The form of the verb which shows that an act or state
is complete [perfect J at the present time is called the
present perfect tense; at a past time, the past perfect
tense; at a future time, the future perfect tense.
How many tenses are there'? Name them.
time dues each refer? ·which denote completed acts?

ESSAY. -REPRODUCTION.

,.

11

Lesson 133.
ESSAY. ~

RAILROADS.

' Write a short essay on this suLject from the following
hints:-

---+<>-

subj ect by referring to olcl stagevery slow - George Stephenso11 railroad Let ween J\{anchester and
'rLiverpool in 1830-first roacl in onr country- now in every
ivilized land.
CONSTRUCTION. - Describe the line, taking notice of the
!bridges, viaducts, tunnels, and stations - the ca,re neccssa,ry
in construction - rails - wheels of carriages, etc.
VALU.E AND IMPORTANCE. -Rapidity of travelling-comfort
to dwellers in town ancl country - exchange of productions.

Lesson 132.

---0.---

PUNCTUATION.

Copy the following sentences and insert
needed.
Syracuse noted for its production of salt is in the central
part of the state of New York.
Brooklyn on Long Island opposite New York is famous for
its churches.
New Orleans sometimes called the Crescent City was once
the capital of Louisiana and is the largest city in the South . .
When all the words of a series are connected by and or some
such word the commas should be omitted.
Edelweiss is a li ttlc flower something like our life-ever-l
lasting which grows underneath the snow on the high Alps:
its meaning is noble purity.

•I !

111

Lesson 134.

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REPRODUCTION. - PERSEVERANCE.

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If I were a Loy again, I would practise perseverance oftener,
lnd never give a thing up because it was hard or inconvenient
lo do it. There is no tra.it more valuable than a determination
~persevere when the right thing is to be ;cccomplished. vVe
are all inclined to give up easily in trying or unpleasant situ,tions; and the point I would establish with myself, if the
._ .oice were again within my grasp, would be never to relinquish my hold on a possible success if mortal strength or
. rains in my case were adequate to the occasion.
That was ~t capital lesson which Professor Faraday taught

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113

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

STORY TO BE I.AfITATED.

one of his students in the lecture-room after some chemicd
experiment. The lights had been put out in the hall, and by ·
accident some small article dropped on the floor from the
professor's hand. The professor lingered Leh ind, endeavoring
to pick it up. "Never mi ud," said the student; "it is of no
consequence to-night, sir, whether we find it or not." - "That
is true," replied the professor, "but it is of grave consequence
to me as a principle that I am not foiled in my determination
to find it."
Perseverance can sometimes equ:tl genius in its resul~ .
"There are only two crea,tures," says Lhe J~asL1~n1 :µroverb(
"which can surmount the Pyramids, - the eagle and the snail.' ·
J AMl-:S T . .FIELDS. - .

·, "I£ we couhl make this country sober," saiJ. Lord Coleridge, "we coulJ. shut up nine-tenths of her prisons."
·Base all your actions upon a principle of right; preserve
our integrity of character, and in doiHg this never reckon
e cost.
.,He who fills his heart ·w ith the truths of the poets may
work them out in lrnroic <lee<ls .
. Be not simply good; be good for something.
If to do were as easy as to know what to do, chapels har1
en churches, a,ml poor men's cottages princes' palaces.
_ Were we to t:tlze ~is llll]('lt pai11s to he wl1at w t~ uugltt to lw,
as we do to disguise what wo really are, we might appe~Lr like
ourselves without tl10 trouhln of a,ny disgnise at a,ll.

Lesson 135.

Lesson 136.

PERSON AND NUMBER OF VERBS.

STORY TO BE IMITATED.

l am here.

Thnn art lwre.

Ile is here.

\Ve are here.

Compare tlie two follO\ving stories and nntif'e how t11e
story of "The Two Farm ers ., is writlen iu iu1iL1Liu11 of
- hat of "The Two Goats."

The verbs in the sentences above are ill Lhe presenrr:,~r~"
tense of the indicative mode. The forlll of the ver ·.
Tim T·wo GoATS.
depends upon the person and number of its subject.
goats met npon a. narrow brid ge which led across a
The forms and uses of the verb which show its agre
eep mouutain stream. They were going in op_lJosite cliree·ons, and neither one would retreat for the other. After
ment with the number and person of its subject are call
q~arrelling
for Sollie time they began to fight, and fina.lly, both
the 1rnmLer aml person of the verb.
bing their ba.lance, they fell over into the stream below. They
A verb has the sanie p erson and number as its subJect.
aave.<l themselves only 1Jy great effort.
Tell the voice, mode, tense, person, and number of e~
verL in the following sentences: ·
Tim Two F A.mvnms.
The most precious acquisition is the gaining of a friend ..
Study wisdom, and you will reap pleasure.

· Two farmers quarrelled about a meadow, each claiming it as
his own. As they could not agree, they had a long law-suit

1} .

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.

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114

~ --

115

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

PIHNCJJ'AJ, PA1l1'S OP VERJJS.

over the matter. At bst the folluwi11g vel'L1ict was reuclerecl:··
"Since both have equal right to the meauow, it must be sold,
ancl the money diviued between them." This was done. The
cost of the law-suit, howeve r, was so great that the money
receiveu from the sale of the meadow was not sufficient to .
pay it, and each farm er ha.cl to sell his house to make up the
necessary sum.

There is one general rule for goo<l writing: Put the
· right word in the right place.
The right wonl will not express more than we mean.
Such ·words as awful, tremendous, stupendous, extremely,
pe1fect, magnificent, glorious, shoul<l not be used unless
they fitly express our thoughts. Do not sn.y, "I a,m tired
to death," when you are merely very tired. Do not say,
"It is certainly so," when you merely suppose it is so.
Improve the followj11g seutences Ly making any changes
you think necessary : -

Write a story of your own that shall be m
that of "The Two Goats."

Lesson 137.
STYLE. - E X AGGERATION.

The manner in which one expresses his thoughts by
means of words is called his style. To write in a good
style, one must express 11is thoughts clearly, au<l in such a .
mann er as to impress and please others.
A good style in wriLing musL, Ll1erefure, possess clear
ness, force, aud aLtracLiven css.
Th ese t erms, clearnc:ss, force, and attmctivcness, shoulq
not be considered as entirely dis tinct each from the others·
for whatever adds to the clearness of a sentence or paragraph adds to its for ce, n.nd whatever adcls to its force
adds to its attractiveness. In the practi cal work of com·
position, however, w]rn,tevcr pains the writer takes in th .
selection of his words or in their arrangement is take
mainly to make ]1is writi11g more clear, or more forcible, or
more ttttractivc, and for some Olle of tl1ese purposes morQ
distinctly than for another. Hence, how to make his style .
more clear and forcible and attractive is that upon whicn
the young writer especially needs instruction.

.'

I have been Jeluged with letters upon this subject.
It was a stupendous sight which met our eyes from the top

. of the builJing.
Miss Abbott is the most charming person that ever live<1;
she is simply adorable.
What has happened to make you look so supremely happy?
The crowd was so immense that it was absolutely impossible
to get past the store, but I finally succeeded by superhuman
efforts.
After playing a few moments in the yn.nl the chil<l en.me in,
saying that she was a1 most froz en.
I have thought of yo u continually to-L1ay; Lut I had an
innumerable number of callers, and could not get away to see
·you m1til now.
. '

".1 ''

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Lesson 138.
PARTS OF VERBS.-REGULAR VERBS.

The present indicative, first person, of a verb is called
its first root, as, write; the past indicative, its second root,
as, wrote; and the past parti ciple, it<; third root, as, written.

•

-

• - x-:=g:

=a- 11

116

-

•

- n

----

--

DESCRIPTION.

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

These three roots are called the principal parts of a verb.

- 117

AN Ar1'LE. -OUTLINE.

1. V\Tl1at it is.
2. \V'hcre ancl how it grows.
3. Its form, size, and appeara11ce.
4. Its p~uts - th eir form, size, and qualities.
li. How it Lliffers from other fruit.
6. I ts uses.

The principal parts of a verb are the forms from which the other
parts of the verb are made .
Regular verbs are those whose second and third roots are formed
by adding d or ed to the first root; as, -

Hope, hoped, hoped.

--

~

Climb, climLed, climbed.

Name ten regular verbs.

D1~S C RTl'TION OF AN APPLK

Lesson 139.
SYNONYMS.

Fill each blank in this lesson with the right word from ·
this list, and tell why you use each in preference to
other: model
pattern
specunen
sample
copy
He carried a small - - of the machin e with him, and
very successful in making s:Lles.
Ask for - - of his best coffee.
You may make three - - of this document.
Is this the only - - of your work that yo n can show me? .:.
'l'hc - - of tha t wall-1n1pcr is excellent though the coloring
is faulty.
Here is a large quantity of--, but we do not
articles in stock.
He is a great botanist and has many rare - - .

Lesson 140.
DESCRIPTION.

Compare this outline with the description whi0h
lows:-

.. An apple is a fruit that grnws 011 trees in temperate climates. It is Hearly roum1, of various sizes, Lut usually from
to four inches iu diameter, and of various hues aud shades
..:. green, yellow, russet, arnl red.
At one end is the stem which fastcus it to the tree on which
it grows; at the other, a little hollow in which are bits of
leaves.
. . Its skin is smooth ancl tough. Its pulp is juicy and pleasant to the taste. In the centre are the seeds in little cases.
When the appl e is ripe, these seeds become <lark-colored.
.The apple and the quince belong to the same family of
its, but the ri11i11 ce has many seeds in each cell, while the
.- ple has onl y two. Tl1 c pulp of tlic <p1i11 c 1 ~ tliffcrs fr om
· .at of the appl e in being always very hard and :will, awl
. ts skin is much tonghcr than that of tho appl e.
Apples are nsed for food. Th ey are eaten both raw and
cooked. From apple juice cider is made. The pi1l p of apples
sometimes dri ed, and then it will keep a lon g time. From
'ed apples sauce and pies are made.

iwo

Name ten things wl1ich you Lhink imty be desc ribed by
e same outline. Describe two of them.
. Name something that co uld not well be described by the
outline in this lesso n. Make a suitable outline for its de-

..
118

LESSONS JN LANGUAGE.

NoTE. - The letter R. n,fter
regular form.

Lesson 141.
A COMP ARI SON OF STYLE.

Compare the two following selections, and
one is better than the other: It was pleasant upon the river. A barge or two went past
laden with hay. H,eeds and willows bordered the stream; and
cattle and gray, venerable horses came and hung their mild
heads over the embankment. Here and there was a pleasan~
village among trees, with a noisy shipping-yard; here and ~
there a villa in a lawn.
It was perfectly delightful upon the river. ·wre
barge after barge passing, heaped up with tons upon tons of
hay. The banks of the stream prese11ted a dense mass of :
reeds overtopped by the long, waving branches of sad willows, ·:
beyond which ancient cattle and still more ancient horses ·
could be seen. There were also lovely little villages, whose ·
calm peace was disturbed only by the tumultuous shipping:
yards, and perfectly el1an11i11g villa:; fHllT0\11Hlcd by the loveliest of lawns.

Lesson 142.
IRREGULAR VERBS.

Irregular verbs are those whose second and
formed by adding d or ed to the first root.

Class I. Verbs whose second and third roots are formed
by adding t to the first root, with or without other change.. ·

119

nrnEGULAR VERBS.
lt

verb signifies tlrnt the verb hn.s also the

bereave bereft R. bereft R.
beseech besought besought
brought brought
~ bring
burnt R. burnt R.
. burn
bought
· buy
bought
caugl1t
caught
1~ catch
crept
crept
dealt R. <lealt IL
dream dreamt R. clreamt R.
felt
felt
' feel
fought
_fight
fought
kept
kept
keep

'1-,,.:.

kneel
lean
leap
learn
leave
lose
pen
rap
sleep
spoil
sweep
weep

knelt R.
leant R
leapt R.
learnt R.
left
lost
pent R.
rapt It.
slept
spoilt R.
swept
wept

knelt R.
leant R.
leapt R
learnt R.
left
lost
pent R.
rapt R.
slept
spoilt R.
swept
wept

Class II. Verbs which change the final consonant of
the first root to t to form the second and third roots.
beut
blent H..
b]est R.
built R.
tlrcst lL
tlwelt; ll.
gilt R.

bent
blent H..
blest R.
built R.
<lrm;t; JL
tlwelt R
gilt R

gird
lend
pass .
rend
fiCllll

spnrnl

girt R.
lent
past R.
rent R.
sent
spent

girt R.
lent
past R.
rent R.
r:;ent
spent

Class III. Verbs whose secoud and third roots are the
same ~Ls the first root.
cut
hit
hurt
knit R.

let
put
quit IL
read

rid
set
shed
shred R.

shut
slit R.
spit
split

spread
sweat R.
wet R.

Class IV. Verbs whose second and third roots are alike
and formed from the first by vowel change.

------ --

fl

120
abide
awake
behold
bind
bleed
breed
cling
dig
feed
find
fling
get
grind
hang
have
hold
lead

abode
awoke Ii.
beheld
bound
bled
bred
clung
<lug
fed
found
flung
got
ground
hung R.
had
held
le<l

abode
awoke R.
beheld
boun<l
bled
bred
clung
dug
fed
foun<l
flung
got
ground
hung R.
ha<l
held
led

meet
shine
shoot
sit
slide
sling
slink
spm
stand
stick
sting
strike
string
swmg
Wlll

wind
wnng

met
shone
shot
sat
slid. ·
slung
slunk
spun
stood
stuck
stung
struck
strung
swung
won
wound
wrung

met
shone
shot
sat
slid
slung
slunk
spun
stood
stuck
stung
struck
strung
swung
won
wound
wrung

CLASS V. Verbs which form their third root from their
first or second by adding n or en.
am, be
anse
beat
blow
break
choose
cleave
<lraw
drive
eat
fall
forsake
freeze

was
arose
beat
blew
broke
chose
clove
<lrew
drove
ate
fell
forsook
froze

been
ansc11
beaten
blown
broken
chosen
cloven
draw11
driven
eaten
fallen
forsaken
frozen

grow
kuuw
lie
ride
nse
see
shake
slay
smite
speak
steal
stride
strive

grew
kuew
lay
rode
rose
saw
shook
slew
smote
spoke
stole
strode
strove

121

PUNCTUATION.

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

grown
lrnown
lain
ridden
nsen
seen
shaken
slain
smitten
spoken
stolen
stridden
striven

swore
took
tore
throve R

sworn
taken
torn
thri ven It.

throw
wear
weave
write

threw
wore
wove
wrote

thrown
worn
woven
written

Class VI. Other irregular verbs.
began
came
did
drank
flew
forbore
went

begun
come
done
drunk
flown
forborne
gone

have
rmg
run
shrink
smg
stave
stink

had
rang
ran
shrank
sang
stove
stank

had
rung
run
shrunk
sung
stoved
stunk

Lesson 143.
PUNCTUATION.- WORDS IN THE SAME
CONSTRUCTION.
Wor~s

repeated for the sake of emphasis should be separated from
the rest of the sentence by commas; as, -

Come, come, be still.
If one of two or more words or phrases which are in the same
construction has a modifier that belongs to itself only, such words
or phrases should be separated from the rest of the sentence by
commas ; as, -

The interest of the state, and the interest of their own
( ·ambition, impelled. them to unite.
Punctuate these sentences: I loYe not the woman that is vain of her boouty or the man
that prides himself on his wisdom.
An absolute mona,rchy is a government in which the sover-

'

r

..
I

126

.r·

'

LESSON o JN LANGUAGE.

bear
bid
bite
chicle
crow
dare
drink
sink

liorc
bade, bitl
bit
ch id
crew, crowed
t1 u rs t, J;ued
Llrauk
sank

burn c, lJOrn
bitlde11, bid
bitten, Lit
chi c1 Lle n, chi cl
crowed
<hretl
tlru11k, drunken
s n 11 k, s u11 keu

spnng

sprang, sprung

s prn 11g

treaJ
wake

troLl
woke, waked

trod, troclden
wakeJ

Defective verbs are those which lack some of the modes . ·
an<l tenses. They are the following: 1'1rns1rnT Ti,;N si,;.

beware
can
rnay
must
ougltt
shall
will
wot

~MODIFIERS.

127

Lesson 151.
STORY TO BE IMITATED.

Tim D1v1s10N

OF A

Nu·.r.

Two boys found a nut and both wanted it. Each grew
quite angry because he could not have it all to himself. When
a man came by, they gave him the nut to divide for them. He
gave each boy half of the shell antl kept the kern el himself.
. Tell a similar story about two chickens, a worm, and an
old hen.
Tell such a story about two cats, a monkey, and a piece
of cheese.

could
Ill igl1t

Lesson 152.

should
would
wist
quoth
Give the principal parts of these verbs: .see, go, run, strike, sleep, say, sell, sit, sin g, send, set,
dnve; stand, find, show, string, sew, hold, Jian g, fly, l1itlc, write,
hurt, think, speak, ritle, leave, bring, eat, rise, lie, lay.

Lesson 150.
DESCRIPTION.

Describe:-

POSITION OF NOUN

-

The strawberry.

The currant.

POSITION pF NOUN MODIFIERS.

1. Moses' writings are revered by the Jews.
2. The writings of Moses are fountl i11 the Old Testament.
3. Moses, the lawgiver, led the Jews from Egypt.
Judging from the sentences above, where is a noun m
the possessive case placed? A phrase modifying a noun?
_ An explanatory noun?
. Which expression is better, a fine gold pen or a gold fine
pen? A marble elegant mantel or an elegant rnarble
mantel? Where should an adjective denoting the mate, rial out of which something is made be placed. when used
with other adjectives to modify a noun ?
Which of the following expressionf3 do you prefer ; -

---

-..,.;

-

- -

.:\l:I

J

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

NUMBER OF VERBS.

An olcl colorc(l 111 rL11 or :L colorecl old llla11 '?
A nice silk new h:Lt, a new silk nice hat, or a nice new silk
hat?

Let me tell you a sacl instance of 1ieglected power of con. centration. A frientl a.sked me once to lend him an interesting book, something that would enchain his attention, for he
said he was losing the power to read. After a few days h e
.:brought back the volume, saying it was no doubt a work of
''great value and bea.uty, but th at the will to eujoy it ha.cl go11e
from him forever, for other matt ers woulJ. intrude themsel ve8
on the page h e was trying to umlerstand and enjoy, and ro ~vs
of figures consta.ntly marsh C1lled themselves on the margm,
n.dding themselves up at the bottom of the l eaf.

128

Adfectives that represent tlie most important qnalities are
placed nearest the noun. lVhen the s?'.!Jnification does not
determine the place of the adJectives, put the shortest first
and tlie longest nearest the noun.
Use five or six adjectives with each of the following
nouns, arrnuging the adjectives in the proper order: man
kite
fountain

horse
pa.in ti ug
example

island
poem
lesson

J Al\1ES T.

house
climate
view

.

129

FIELDS.

.:
·1
·· · ·
,

;

:

~

h

'·
".
"
1

Lesson 154.

.,
i: . '

NUMBER OF VERBS.

Less on 153.
REPRODUCTION. -ATTENTION.

If I were a boy again I would school myself into a habit of .

attention oftener. I would Jet nothing come between me and
the subject in hand. I wonlcl remember that a.n expert on the
ice never tries to skate in two directions at once. One of our
great mistakes, while we a.re young, is that we do not attend
strictly to what we are about just then, at that particular
moment; we do not bend our energies closely enou gh to what
we a re doing or lea rnin g ; we wander into a half interest only,
and so never acquire folly what is needful for us to become
master of. 'l'he practice of being 11abitually attentive is one
easily obtained, if we begin early enough. I often hear
grown-up peopl e sa.y, "l coulcln't fix my a.ttention on 'the
sermon, or book, nJthough I wished to do so," and the reason
is that a habit of attention was never formed in youth.

When the subject of a verb is a n oun or pronoun r eferring to a part, as one half, or wh en it is a collective
noun, it is of ten diffi c ult to tell whether the v erb should
be singular or plural.
If the refer en ce is to the whol e as one body, then the
verb should be in the singubr number; as, The committee has a meeting at eight o'clock.
But if th e reference is to the persons or separate things
represented by the subject, the verb shoul<l. be in the plural
number; as, The committee are men above suspicion.
When the subject consist'3 of two or more nouns or pronouns connected by the conjunction and, the verb should
be in the plural number, unless the several nouns or
pronouns refer to the same person or thing; as, -

~

i

'.i

i '.

.':1

130

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

Politeness and learning make a ge11tlcman.
Our pastor and friend has gone to Europe.
The parts of a compound subject are considered as tak .
.
d
< en
separately when they are connected by 01.
not if not
ll
' nm ' an not, but
',
' as we as; also when each part is 1)receded b .
eacrt, every, or no.
y
If all the pa.rts of a co mpound b.
rately, the verb should a .
.
su Ject_are taken sepa- .
·n:r1
-1
• g1ee with the sul>Ject n earest to i't
of
b vv len
d t leb parts
<
•
a compound subject are connected·
itt not, if not' as well as ' tl1 e ver·b agrees with
..
tly an bnot,
·

o:~e:~ Ject mentioned first and is understood with the

DIHECT AND I N LJIHEC'l' QUOTATION.

131

Mary as well as her Llrothcrs is here.
Are your brother and sister at home '?
ls your brother or your sister at home ?
H e and his brother are here.
Either he or his brother is here.
Ev ery mn.11 :tml every wornn.n is intcrestetl in the tariff.
Either yon or l :un mistaken. [Such a form shouhl l>e
C[tn you improve this sentence?]

Lesson 155.
DIRECT AND INDIRECT QUOTATION .

Give the r ea.son for the numl>er of
these sentences : _
each of the verbs in · ·
~he

fleet were badly shattered .
Ili c fleet was victorious.
~he comm~ttee h as made its report.
Ihe committee were divided in their opinions
Most of the work is done.
·
~ost o~ the examples have been solved.
~wo-thmls of his money is lost.
~;~o-~hirds of the voters were absent froi'n the polls
.
o ~h~m were notified to be present.
All of it is yours.
A port~on of our cavalry were dismounted.
A port10n of the wheat was damaged.
One-half of the company were women.
One-half of the property wa.s wasted.
H e and I are to go.
He, ::rnd not I, is to go.
The
[ one person J
Meresaint,
· Mthe husbnrnl, and the father l.Jravs
'J •
my, ars, and Venus are the nearest planets.
.

Direct quotation reports or quotes the exact form of
words in which anoth er expressed a thought.
Indirect
quotation reports the th oug ht of another, out changes
somewhat the form of words in which he expressed it.
H e said, "I will do it.," is direct. H e said that he
would do it, is indirect.
Change the following sentences, the direct to the imli-

rect form, and the indirect to the direct: "Do you know when quotation marks should be used?"
was the first question asked of Dorothy.
Our teacher told us to put our books away, and she would
read us one of Longfe11ow's poems.
The direction he g[tve us was, " Be sure that your penmanship is neat and rc:uhbl e."
"My style wa.s not formed without great care, and earnest
study of th e best a.u tho rs," said W el>ster.
Mr. Lincoln once wrote to one of his clients that he did not
think there was [tny use in C[trrying on a lawsuit; for he

re . a

132

- - -- .

...__

PUNC TUATION. -

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

thought that his client was not only not sure of gaining it, but
was even quite sure of losing it, and the sooner the suit came
to an end the better.
"You have long been my friend," said she; "henceforth
we are strangers."
"Is the route practicable ?" inquired Bonaparte.
barely possible to pass," replied the first e11gi11eer.
forward, " rejoined the consul.
"I chanced to be at \,Yest Point," sait1 Emerson, "and, after
attending the examination in scientific classes, I went into the
barracks. Everything was in perfect order. I asked the first
cadet, 'vVho makes yo ur bed ?' 'I Llo.' '\,Vho fe tches your
water? ' 'I do.' ' \,Yho blacks yo ur shoes '?' 'I do.' "
vVh en James VI. <1cma1Hl c11 of Thomas Hamilton the secret
whereby he ktd ama,ssecl his enormous wealth, the earl replied,
"I never defer till to-morrow what can be done to-day, and
never trust to another what I can <lo myself."
"Better a small bush," say the Scotch, "than no shelter."

-

·

-

TIIE DASH.

133

A modifier should not be placed between two words,
. phrases, or clauses in such a way as to make it doubtful
which of them it modifies.
)- '

" 'rell him, if he is there, we shall not come.
' • This sentence may mean that if he is there you m~y tell
him we shall not come ; or, that you rna,y tell lum we
.
shall not come in case h e is there.
Combine properly into sentences the followmg: 1. A man was killed. With a long lleard. By a rifle ball.
2. Mary fonnd a dime. Assorting rag ~.
3. I saw a rn,a 11. D io-gin
o
orr <' L ditch. vV1th a Roman nose.
4. A lady called. From Anstralia. To pay her comp 1i-

11

I
1·

'
f

'l

l

!·
i

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"

Lesson 158.

DESCRIPTION.

D escribe: -

PUNCTUATION.-THE DASH.

The pineapple.

I

ments.
. 5. A pearl was found. By a sailor. In a shell.
G. The Moor smothered the unhappy Desdemona. Seizing
a bolster. Upon this. Full of rage and jealousy· , ,
piano. Allout to travel. Ih e prop7• T o be soh1 ' a arand
•
b
cl l
· erty of a lady. In a walnut case. \Vi th carve egs.

Lesson 156.

The orange.

l
.I

The banana.

Lesson 157.
POSITION OF MODIFIERS.

Modifiers should be placed as n ear as possible to the words
which they nwdify.

The dash niay be used to denote an abrupt change of
thought; as, He sometim es counsel takes, - and sometimes snuff.
Th e dash may be used between letters or figures .to denot e
that the intervening letters or fiyures are to be included;

· as,Grant was President 18G9-1876.

134

.

A dash is often put after a comnui or colon at the
a paragraph or in a brolcen line; as, -

A

RECEIPT JN FULL.

/Jwofd1pi 1 u1.

' /!800.

The following is a portion of President Lincoln's
Inaugural Address: Neither party expected for the war the magnitude
duration which it has already attained.

A side head is set o.ff by a period and a

Receivecl of UJ(,Ua;u;L
Dollars

a.

71.,

(JCMftO'L,,

M1.h

tltoUA-CJ./)1,d d(/i,l

vn fult of- ate dVJ#anc& to. dat&.
1J1a;z,l-'l,fAl!h

711a1uii&Ql&'L,.

RECEIPT TO APPLY TO A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.

/lf15!/o

@MU-&90 1

Received of ~lia'L,ClA u1. {()~Ji,

(W-0

Lesson 159

o1-Zf.,

fufAt J, 185/.

f,o;z,f/l, kwnc£u&d (),,f/V-&11,ly-

(uid 1 ~{ Dollars lo afa1wC11 to ju/u/Ldia,(),,& o{- lio'!4& and

!Jdm

RECEIPTS.

A receipt is the written acknowledgment which
. person receiving money or goods gives to the one from .
whom the money or goods are received.
A receipt nrn,y be for full or for part payment of a debt,
or it may be given for valuables intrustctl to another.
The purpose for which the receipt is given shoukl in every
case be stated.
Copy the following receipts: RECEII"r

r!ld. I 6, I 881/.

da.~h; as, -

NoTE.-The <lash is sometimes usell in place of
parenthesis.

A

135

INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES.

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE .

f.

7110/l,&n,.

What is written in the upper right-hand corner of a
receipt? What in the upper left-hand corner? In what
' · way is the amount expressed here? vVhat does the bo~y
of the receipt state? How are the dollars expressed 111
. the body of the receipt? How are the cents exp~·essed
'here? Who signs the receipt? In whose favor is the
receipt made? Who keeps the receipt?

ON AccouNT.

Lesson 160.

/!/15.
Received of

L lM-U-'l,&n (ii,&

3. Ullvdt ,

C,,&V&11'D'f-~.(./lt& Dollars on 0u!A!wu11L

f

INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES.
on'I,

1. The boys chop wood.

2. They like to chop with a sharp axe.
3. Chopping wood is good exercise.

'

.

136

-- - --

LESSONS I N L ANGUAGE.

vVlrnt is tI

L·
ie ver rn the firs t sentence? vVlrnt word .
ie second and third sentences d e note ti
s 10
a f
ti
.
ie same
< c ~on
iat the verL Ill the firs t sentence d enotes ?
y ·wh a t change d oes the wo1·d 7
b
.
B
I
cttop eco me to h 1
y w rnt change does the word ·/, L
. c op
vVJ
·
c wp ecome clwp11zng 'f?
mt is the constru ction of /,
·
r
·
•
1 firs
Of to clw n in th
.1
c top lll tie
t sentence?
.
r
e seconu se ntence? Of ·/,
.
.
tlurd se nten ce?
·
c wppzng rn the
tl

<

In the second se nt
I
verb by
fi .
e nce we mve a phrase d erived from a
pre ix m a to frt ·
·t'll I
the verL from wl1ich' it' i: 1~g.
l Lt ie gen eral meaning of
oim ec.' ut n ot used as a
b
' e call such a phmse an infinitive.
ver .
In the third se nte11
, J
verb bj' tl . 11' _.
ce :' e rnve a wo rd d erived from a '
ie ,tc c. 1t10n of zu J ·
of the verb from whi ch ' t .
i.av11l1g ti1 e gen e ral meaning ,
vVe call
I
l IS 0 1 mec' out not used as a verb
' sue 1 a word a participle.
·

s:

'V

1/f

Infinitives and participles ar f
construction of some othe
t e f orms of verbs which have the .
r
r par 0 speech.

They are d e rived from verL ·· - I
.
way the same id ea as the ve rb sfr~::; w~~~:~es~ 111 a general
they do 11 t cl'. 1 ,
iey come, but
. .
o Hec t y assert tin s idea of auy suLi'ect Th
may Iiave the mod 'fi .
1 1
· ·
ey
verbs from whi c h tl~e~1: .an~~ .~ ie l con~pl em ents which the
same time they perfon:11etl~een~;~ mf1ght have, a nd at the
0
speech.
Jee 0 some other part of

Less on 161.
STORY TO BE IMITATED.

Tim vVoooPECKER ANTD l ' H E J) OVE
A woodpecker and a cl ove li a<l ' ust 1. .
.
a peacock. The wood
J
. eturned from a visit to
,
1
pee rn1 said to lus companion : " I don't
J

.

0

•

AMBIGUOU S USE OF PER S ONAL PRONOUNS.

137

j i!:
I .~ iI

il, 'I'
j)

see why th e peacoc k shou ld ue so proud. H e has neither fin e
feet nor a fine voice." Th e dove answered, "I confess I did
not pay any attention t o them; for l was occupied. in admiring
his handsome head, the beauty of his feathers, and his majestic
tail."

I '~ I
I :

I
!

"

'!

~ I~

:

J

'

,.•I

1:I

I

. · Imitate this s t ory by writing the conversation of two
girls who have returned fro m a visit to a fri end.

I

·,:1

:L ~I
' 1. li
' '

Lesson 162.
AMBIGUOUS USE OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

t

A sentence is ofte n obscured by the wrong use of pronouns. Ev e ry pronoun should readily s uggest its antecedent, a nd the same pronoun s hould not be u sed in t he same
senten ce to re fe r to different objects . It is well for a
young writer to loo k over hi~ pages and be s ure that each
pronoun is ri g htly used.
In the fo l lo win g sentences the personal pronouns a re
· wrongly used . vVrite t he se nte i1ces correctl y .
He told him that he would ne ve r abandon hi s fri ends.
An eagle is so stron g that it can seize a lamb in its claws,
and it cannot get away .
Instead of engin es, horses are used in so me citi es to haul
freight cars through the streets because they make too much
noise.
The furnace is fill ed with iron-ore, a nd it is melted by heating it with coal, and th en the iron can be taken from it.
A pig may have a littl e sense, but wh en it is being driven
into a pen it seems very small.
He told his friend that if he did not feel better in half an
hour, he thought he had better call a cab.

"

.·

•

'

-

i...!
'I
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I

138

.

LESS ONS JN LANGUAGE.

f

-~ '

- ESSAY. -

There are so many advantages rn speaking one's own 1 .
. b .
an •.
d m
guage
we 11, an
· erng a master of it' that , let ca man ' s ca11•
•
•
rng. be . what
it will, it cannot but be worth one's t a k rng
.
.
some.. .
pams m it.

·j

·1

.

He told the coachman that he would be the death of him if
he di.d not take care what he was about antl mind what he said.
I fe~t that I must go, antl I really think t11at it would have
l>ecn n ght.

I

!.

His satl fate is a warning to all agai11st th e folly of taking
t 118 first glass; many young men are in need of it.
A. steam~r is two or three days in go ing from one end of
Lake St~penor to the other, antl when in the center of it, it is . ·
out of sight of land, so large is it.
The yel.low fe~er is a disease that is much dreaded; wealth
s no barn.er to it, and those that have 1t at once leave a city
as soon as it has made its appearance.
i

3.
4.
5.
6.

RIVERS .

139

What pa rts has it?
When docs 1t blosso m a nd when does its fruit ripen?
How is it propagated?
Of what use is it?

THE PEAI~ TREE.
· The pear tree is a fruit tree. It grows in the wjlder portions
. of the t emperate zone. J t has a strong root, a thick .trunk,
many l>ranchcs with notchccl lcavcs, white l>lossoms, and oblong
fruit. It blossoms in spring; the fruit ripens in summer. A
pear tree is propagated by seeds, and by shoots from the roots.
·From it we obtain delicious fruit and good wood for fu el and
,other purposes.
Compare th e outline above with the description which
follows it. Write another outline, making changes in
the one given, and adding anything inte res ting that you
know about th e pea r tree. From the n e w outline write a
fuller d escription of the pear tree.

Lesson 163.
RECEIPTS.

Jane E.
fifty c_e nts
\Vnte a
\V rite a

Hall paid Ida R. Martin twen ty-six dollars and
as p~rt payment of a d ebt. Make the receipt.
receipt for three months' rent.
receipt in ful I.

Lesson 164.
DESCRIPTION.
OUTLINE.

1. To wh at class of plants does it belong?

Z. Where does it grow?

Lesson 165.
ESSAY . - RIVERS .

Write a short essay upon this subject from these hints: SouRcE.-Much of rainfall returns to sea by rivers-source
in spring or g lac ier.
Cou1isE. - At first s ma ll stream--others join- river formed
- often miles broad a t mouth - seldom straight in course ·_ 1£ land level, slow and navigable -if hilly, rapid- river basin.
EFFE CTS. All rivers bring down mud- sometimes choke
· up mouths-delta formed as in Nile, Ganges. Rivers very
useful -drain off water - if navigable, for communication
with interior - render soil fertile - turn mac hinery.

140

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

POSl'l'lON OF ADVERBS.

Lesson 166.

Lesson 167.

CONJUGATION.

POSITION OF ADVERBS.

The regular arrangement of the forms of a verb is called conjuga· .
tion.
·
Verbs used to assist in forming some of the modes and tenses ·,,
of other verbs are called auxiliary verbs. The auxiliary verbs are
do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, must.

Do, be, and have are also nsecl as principal verbs.
CONJUGATION OL? THE AuxrLIAitrns SuALL AND vVILL.

As auxiliaries, shall and will are usually united in the •
same tense, as follows: ·
Present Trmse.
SI.N GULAR.

PLURAL.

1. I shall
2. Thou wilt
3. He will

We shall
Yon will
They will

1. I should
2. Thon wouldst
3. He would

Adverbs and adverbfol phrases should be placed as near
. .
" as possible to the words which they modify.
.!· Adverbs may occupy a greater variety of pos1t10ns m a
~, sentence Llian any other clement. Much of the clearness
.,. ·of sentences depends upon the position of the adverbial
elements.
An adverb should generally be placed before the adjective, adverb, or phrase which it modifies. It may come
. before or after the verb which it modifies, or after the
auxiliary if the verb is compound.
Explain the use of only in each of the following sentences, and tell the exact meaning of each sentence: -

The man
The man
Only the
The man

Past Ten se.
SINGULAR.

141

PLUHAL.

\Ve should
You wouhl
They would
~·

The forms with thou will be given throughout the tables ·
of conjugation as those of the secornl person singular, ;/ ·
though these are poetic forms only. The common form t
of the second versou in the singular is the same as in the
plural.
In the place of he may be inserted any siugular subject :~ ~
of the third person, and in the place of they any plural:
subject of the third person . In the second person plural .
ye may be used instead of yoii.
~·

has lost his only friend.
has only lost his friend.
man has lost his friend.
has lost only his friend.

Place in as many suitable positions as you can the
word which you are directed to insert in each of the fol:. lowing sentences, and tell the differences in the meanings
: of the sentences you have thus formed: 1. One species of bread of coarse quality was allowed to be
baked. Insert only.
2. This blunder is said to have been made. Insert actually.
3. I have done six problems. Insert only.
4. He left the room, repeating his lesson. Insert very slowly
[What difficulty comes from putting very slowly after room ?]

142

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

5. I bought the horse, and not the buggy. Insert only.
6. If you have learned at school to waste time idly, you
may stay at home. Insert only.
7. The farmers sell their produce to the merchants. Insert
generally.
8. The word couple can be properly applied to objects in
connection. Insert only.
9. I was sorry to see so many present, for I knew the
lecturer had disappointed them. Insert only.
10. I am sure you will like this book as well as the last one
that you read. Insert at least.
11. You have learned part of the lesson assigned you.
Insert only.
12. An insect looks as though its body were cut into three
parts. Insert alnwst.
13. The praise was bestowed upon the workmanship, but
upon the material. Insert not.
14. Drunkenness was found to be the cause of the insanity
in fewer than eight out of the eleven cases. Insert not.
15. The rendition of the Creation was most excellent. Insert
by the Philharnwnfc Society.
16. 'l'he grocers and the confectioners conspired together to
adulterate the articles in which they dealt. Insert in a thousand ways.
17. There were many buildings left which he had begu,n,
and which no one expects to see completed. Insert in an
u11ji,nished state.
18. Nothing was ever undertaken by this man. Insert that
was not perfectly honorable.
19. A learned man when he is not on his guard would make
the same mistake. Insert even.
20. I heard that you hacl gone to Europe. Insert two
nionths ago.

143

CHECKS.

Lesson 168.
. I

CHECKS.

A check is an order for money, addressed to a bank by
Th~ amount
of the onler must be written both in figures and m words.

·a perso11 having money therein on deposit.

A check is negotiable when it may be transferred to
::i.nother person. An indorsement of a check. is that which
is written on the back of it to make it negotiable.
A check may be non-negotiable, negotiable without
indorsement, or negotiable by indorsement.
A check made payable to one person only cannot be
· transferred to another, and hence is non-negotiable.
NoN-NEGOTIADLE C1rncic.
Fall River, lna/l.,. 71 I 88J.
No. !8J9.

Second National Barile.
'

Pay to ~ !fMu w1,c{ 6JJ1Jr;i,011/1~ /600°

JUx,

0

/1 001

Dollars.

hwJ1'c{ ,lhC{

df&Uo.n

R.

c&iu;dt.

A check made payable to bearer is negotiable without
indorsemen t.
Fall River, lna/l.,. 71 !88J.
No. I 81/-f!.

Second National Bank.

Pay to ~ flw..11h'u1 ~ .J600°

0

Jf.ov /Vf+ndu,,d

/1 001

Dollars.

~ww-e0-v~

!J,

Ro-~~m!

;

11

·1

~--

144

-

- ~ -- ---

145

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

PARAPHRASE.

. A che.ck made payable to a certain person or his order ·

the thought of the writer, and appreciates the beauties of
his sty le.
To make a paraphrase, the pupil should read the passage
over very carefully, giving attention to the thought rather
than to the language.
In paraphrasing, the pupil may-

·1·

is negotiable by indorsement.
Louisville, Iiy., ))c,rp,, 12, 1881.
Louisville National Bank.

Pay to the order of cftupli&n @lia6J,,&1 ~

:lwo-

lvuncf4ui O
J,{m_c,
'

00/

100

@h,C/.,6),,,

'I' 2/) r.00;

JP

va

'1

i

l,,

l

:l

1001

D ozzars.

of. JJdCo-n.

Copy the checks in this lesson. To whom is each check
payable? How does the wording of each check differ from
that of the others? Of what use is the number at the right?-

Lesson 169.
MANNERS WHEN VISITING.

Write a set of directions as to what one should do and
should not do when a guest at a friend's home.

Lesson 170.
PARAPHRASE.

A paraphrase is a statement in different form of the
thought contained in a given passage.
Paraphrasing gives to the student of English much of •
th: advantage ga_ine~ ~y tl~e student of foreign languages.
~I1s power of d1scrunmat10n is exercised and his taste
improved. He enters as otherwise he hardly would into

1. Hestore the natural order of the words.
2. Select simpler words and more expressive language.
3. Break up long and involved sentences into shorter ones.
4. Combine disconnected sentences by the use of suitable
connectives.
5. Abridge clauses to words and phrases.
6. Expand words and phrases into clauses.
7. Change active verbs to passive, and passive to active.
8. Employ introductory words to give variety to the order
of the sentences.
Compare this stanza of William Cullen Bryant's with
the paraphrase which follows it. In the paraphrase, what
changes have been made from the stanza?
The melancholy days are come, the saddest of the year,
Of wailing winds, and uaked woods, and meadows brown and
sear.
Heaped in the hollows of the grove, the autumn leaves lie dead;
They rustle to the eddying gust, and to the rabbit's tread.
These dn.ys seem to me the saddest of all the year, and they
always bring a feeling of melancholy with them. The winds
hn,ve a rnoumful soun<l, the mea<lows are brown and dreary,
and the woo<ls, how forlorn they look! All the bright autumn
leaves, now brown and dead, lie massed together in the hollows, rustling mournfu1ly as the breeze sweeps over them, or
as the rabbit steps lightly upon them.

.

.

146

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.
JNJJORSKMEN1' Oli' CIIECKS.

Lesson 171.

Lesson 173.

DESCRIPTION.

SYNONYMS.

'l'he maple.

Use each of these words in a sentence in which the other
synonyms coul<l. not so properly be placed: -

Describe:'l'he oak.

147

'l'hc pine.

error
abandon

mistake
forsake

blunder
desert

Lesson 172.
CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIARY MA Y.

Lesson 174.

Present Tense.

INDORSEMENT OF CHECKS.

SINGULAR.

1. I may
2. Thou mayest (mayst)
3. He may

PLURAL,

vVe may
You may
'l'hey may

Past Tense.
SINGULAR.

1. I might
2. Thou mightest (mightst)
3. He might

PLURAL.

vVe might
You might
They might

(Jan [thou canst] has for its past tense could [thou
couldest or couldst ].
Must has the present tense only, and has no variation
for person and number.
Write the present and past tenses of can, and the
present tense of must.

How is the second person singular of may, can, rnigltt
:ould, would, and should formed from the first person? Ho"~
is the second person singular of will and sltall formed?

To indorse a check: first, turn the check so that the
left-hand end becomes the top of the check ; second, turn
the check over sidewise; third, write your name across the
back, near the top.
If you wish to deposit a check or to make it payable to
bearer, indorse it with your name alone. If you wish to
make it payable · to some p~rticular person, write, "Pay
to the order of - - " above your name.
Write your name on the back of the check just as it is
written on the face. If your name is misspelled on the face,
write it in just the same way on the back, and under this
write your name correctly spelled.
A check may be transferred to several persons, but must
be indorsed each time.
Write a check negotiable by indorsernent, and indorse it
properly.
Make the check non-negotiable.
Make it negotiable without indorsernent.

148

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB HAVE.

149

POTENTIAL MODE.

Lesson 175.

Present Tense.
SINGULAR.

1. I may have
We may have
2. Thou mayest have
You may have
3. He may have
They may have
The auxiliaries can and must may be used in place of

DESCRIPTION.

Describe: The danuelio11.

The daisy.

---

The violet.

forming the present potential of this and other
Past Tense.

Lesson 176.

past participle, had.

INDICATIVE MODE.

Prese nt Tense .
SINGULAR.

I'LUUA r,.

1. I lrnve
2. Thou hast
3. He has (hath)
SINUULAR,

vVe have
You have
They have

SINGULAR.

1. I shall have
2. Thou wilt have
3. He will have

The auxiliaries could, woitld, and should may be used
instead of might.
The present perfect tense is formed by adding had to
the forms of the present tense, and the past perfect tense
by adding had to the forms of the past tense. Write out
these forms.
SunJUNCTIVE

MODE.

Present T ense.

Past Tense.

If we have
If you have
If they have

1. If I have
2. If thou have
3. If he have

\.Ve had

You had
They had

Past Tense.

Future Tense.

llltl'EHATJVE MODE.

PLUHA L.

w·e shall

Present Tense.

have
You will have
'l'h ey will have

The present p~dect, past perfect, and future perfect .
t~nses are respectively formed by alluing had to the forms
given above. Write out these forms.

PLURAL.

SINGULAU.

PLUHA L.

1. I had
2. Thou hadst
3. He had

vVe might have
You might have
· They might have

1. I might have
2. Thou mightest have
3. He might have

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

J:Jast ' lial1i

PLURAL.

SINGULAR.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB HAVE.

Present, have ,·

PLURAL.

Have [you]

2. Have [thou]
IN.! o'INJTIVES.

Pe1fect.

Present.

,.

'l'o have ha<.l

'l'o have
PA RTICJPLES.

Present.

Having

Past.

Had

Pe1fect.

Having had ·

t.

150

CONTRASTED DESCRIPTIONS.

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

151

Study this contrasted description of -

Lesson 177.

T1rn

CAUTIONS.

Do not usefirst of all for first
last of all for last
both alike for alike
equally as well for equally
well, or as well
widow woman for widow

clinib up for climb
rise up for rise
cover over for cover
sink down for sink
on to for 'itpon or on
over again for again

The preposition of should not be used unnecessarily after
a verb or an adverb. Do not say "admit of," "allow of," .
"off of."
The expressions which you are directed not to use contain words not necessary to the sense.

Lesson 178.

,

CONTRASTED DESCRIPTIONS.

An object is not sufficiently described if any important
statement is omitted, or if the description given is equally ·
true of some simila,r object.
Accuracy and power in description are best secured by
exercises in contrasted description; and so much of contr:ist as is essential shoul<l Le giv~n in every description.
The outlines already given will be fou11J of service in
writing contrasted descriptions. In connection with each
question ask, How do the objects being described resemble
each other in this particular, and how do they differ?

OwL AND THE EAGLE.

The owl and the eagle are both binls of prey, but the owl
seeks his prey by night, while the eagle seeks his by day.
The owl is distinguished from all other birds by his ex·. . tremely large head and great, staring eyes, which are surrounded by a disk of feathers radiating outwards. 'rhese eyes
can see well in twilight or moonlight, but are unaule to bear
the glare of sunlight. The owl's sense of hearing is very
acute. His plumage is loose and very soft, and his flight is
almost noiseless, thus enabling him to take his prey by sur; prise.
The eagle is . remarkable for his exceedingly keen eyesight
and his great strength. He soars to a vast height in the sky.
The eagle is a finer looking bird than the owl. The plumage
of these birds varies in different species, but the eagle is gen. erally golden-brown, and the owl gray or white. The bill of
the eagle is curved, though not from the very base, like the
· owl's. The wings of the eagle are very broad, and are adapted
for rapiu anu lengthy flights, while the wings of the owl,
though generally long, are not so serviceable. The claws of
.both birus arc curved and sharp, Lut those of the eagle are
much stronger. The tail of the owl, unlike that of the eagle,
is generally rather short and round.
The owl lays five or six eggs, and the eagle two or three.
Both birds feed npon hares, fishes, birds, and game of every
. kind. The eagle of ten carries off and devours larger animals,
.such as little pigs and lambs, while some species of owls live
entirely upon insects.
The owl is often considered a bird of ill-omen, perhaps on
· account of his peculiar, dismal cry. The eagle is called the
King of Birds, and is regarded as an emblem of might and

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;

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'

: - ~i'

.:

I

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i~

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I

11

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152

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

153

ORDER OF El'rlP!IASIS.
SunJUNCTIVE MouE.

Present Tense.

Lesson 179.

The form write is used without variation for person and
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB WRITE.
Past Tense.

P R IN CI P AL PARTS.

Present, write; past, wrote ; past participle, written.

The form wrote is used without variation for person and

INDICATIVE MODE.

Present Tense.

Present T ense.
PLURAL.

SINGULAR.

1. I write

2. Thou writest
3. He writes (writeth)

We write
You write
They write

Past Tense.

INFINITIVES.

}'resent.

Perfect.

To write

To have written.

PLURAL.

SINGULAR.

1. I wrote

2. Thou wrotest

3. He wrote

vVe wrote
You wrote
They wrote

The future tense is form ed by adding write to the forms
of the present tense of the auxiliary shall or will. The .
present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect tenses are · .
formed by adding written to the present, pa.st, and future
tenses respectively of the indicative mode of have. Write "
out these forms.
Pon: NTIA 1, l\1onE .

The present and past tenses potential arc formed by adding write to the present and past tenses of may, can, or , :
must. The present perfect and past perfect tenses are
formed by adding written to the present and the past
tenses potential of have. Write out these forms.

Write [you]

"\V rite [thou J

p ARTICIPLES.

Present.

P ast.

"\V"riting

Written

Perfect.

Having written

Lesson 180.
ORDER OF EMPHASIS.

The usual order of words in a sentence gives the meaning most clearly. Force and elegance are often gained by
an unusrnil order. The first requisite of a good sentence
is clearness. This must not be sacrificed for the sake of
force or elega.nce. Ilut, being sure that your sentences
are clear, make them as forcible and elegant as you can.
Any unusual position makes an element emphatic. The

154

emphatic position for the subject is, therefore, the middle
or the encl of the sentence.
To give emphasis to the subject, the sentence may begin
with a phrase modifying the subject, or with an adverbial
element; as, Close by Harvard College, and opposite the Cambridge
Common, was the birthplace of Oliver vVendell Holmes.
From the summit of Vesuvius, clarkly visible in the distance, there shot a pale, meteoric light.

Lesson 181.
THE VERB DO.

The principal parts of the verb do are: Present, do ;

past, did;

'.
'
~

past participle, done.

Write out the conjugation of this verb through all the
modes, tenses, a,n<l numbers of the active voice.
See the conjugation of the verb write on page 152.

Write the following sentences so as to make the sub- ·
jects more emphatic : 1. The live thunder leaps from peak to peak.
2. The mouth speak eth out of the abundance of the heart.
3. More than 150,000 Indians, whol~y or partly civilized,
live within the limits of the United States.
4. A picturesque old building called the " Old Stone Mill"
is found in the city of Newport, R.I.
5. Carthage, surrounded by regions without a master, could '
not resist the desire of conquest.
6. The sons of New England are founcl in every state of
the broad republic.
7. Our only adequate measures of time are derived from
the observations of the heavenly bodies.
8. A spacious and varied· landscape stretched far beyond
the precincts of the ma.use.
9. The luxuries of Pompeii would have sunk into insignificance, placed in contra.st with the mighty pomp of Rome.
10. The Arab's deadliest foe, having once broken bread
with him, may repose without fear of harm beneath his tent.
11. The trade winds, laden with moisture, sweep across the
Atlantic to Brazil and the vVest Indies,

155

PR01lfISSORY NOTES.

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

I:

Lesson 182.
'.

PROMISSORY NOTES.

I

A promissory note is a formal written promise to pay
a certain amount of money to a certain person at a certain
time, or upon demand. Like a check, it is negotiable or
non-negotiable. Three days, called Days of Grace, are
allowed for the payment of a note after it becomes due.
Copy the following notes. In what way is each different
from the others?

/aoo.
/Jliwy ricVlf~
after date,
to pay to the order of If. Jn. dfvwlon,,
,J'lvux, liuncCu,ct

J

promise
Dollars

at 3-Vui,t dfatwnat Ecvnl, w-itli intMui,t at tk& uvt&
o,Ux, 'fu,M (l!,VJ1't ajtM 1'/w.,twi,{,{,1f·
Value received.
J)ue ~e4'. I 7 / 20, '89.

of

156

CONJUGA'l'ION OF THE VEIW BE.

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

c!Vxly c~oi, afl m d at &, w& fo-VJ1lki/ an,d

157

Lesson 184.

(J,f/ lH/w.lfAt

foW11t,irJ,& t.o 'fu-i11 W11t,. a. WltCl01 o-i- o-1.,dm, 6u/d liun~&d rJ,&V-&?1,ly-f/1)-0 75 / 100 JJo-CCau , v afAt& 'LU?&C·v-u t.

CO N JUGATION OF TH E VERB B E .
PmN Cil'AL l'ARTS.

If-. cl. ([i,a/1,fo&nlm.

Present, am;

UJm... UJ . Wo o-cti11'.

past, was;

past participle, been.

INn1 c ATIV1> 1Vlo1rn.

No. 115.

Present Tense.

0 n clemcrnd,
lf-o-w-ai-d <2. .bu1i01,,1

f'IN G ULAll.

cf

to pay
or ordei·,
3w&nly- ~(/v-& ~~ Dollars,
at

([i,o 1u o-u t

ufalConat

vVe are
You are
They are

')

!JaJu{;.

Past Tense.

Value received.

/26

PLURAL.

1. lam
2. Thou art
'-'· Ile is
S ING U LAR.

PL U BA L.

1. I was
2. Thou wast
J. He was

00/ 100 ·

Lesson 183.
ESSAY.

A F ARJ\f-YARD DURING A STOHM. - Describe what you
would expect to see in a farm-yanl during a storm. How
would the different animals look? Describe the surrounding buildings. [Preserve what you write for future reference.]
MAPS. - Of what use is a map? ·what is the difference
between a map, a picture, and a plan? \Vhat devices are
helpful in drawing a map? What should a map of your
state contain?
THE SUEZ CANAL. - Describe this canal as to location
and construction. Tell its history; state its importance.

We were
You were
They were

'The future tense is formed by adding be to the forms 0£
the prcscn t tense of shall or will.
The present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect
tenses arc formed lJy aduing been to the prescHt tense, past
tense, aud future t ense respectively of have .
Write out these tenses.
roTENTIAL MODE .

The present and past tenses potential are formed by
adding be to the present and past tenses of 1nay, can, etc.
The present perfect and past perfect tenses are formed
by adding been to the present and past tenses potential of
have.

Write out these tenses.

158

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

l'rc:scnt Tense.
SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

1. If I be
2. If thou be
3. If he bo

If we be
If yon be
If they be
I'ast Tense.

SINGULAR.

PLUIU L.

1. If I were
2. If thou wert;
3. If he were

If we were
If yon wt~re
If they were
lMJ'ERAT!VE

l\IooE.

Present 'J'cnse.

2. Be [thou ]

He [ you]
IN .F INITIVES.

Present.

l'e1fect.

To be

To have been
PAnnc1rLES.

Present.

Past.

I'e1fect.

Being

Been

Having been

CONTRASTED DESCRII'TION.

159

2. These colossa1 mountains glow. In warmer light. And
of warmer hue. Or pyramid of Egypt. Than a dome of Con, , stanti nople or Venice ever did.
3. A boy was born. In Italy. Named Cristopher ColumAbout 1435. At Genoa.
An old book stands. In my library. On one of the
shelves. Aml in various languages. On various subjects.
Surrounded by volumes of all kinds.
u. An oltl gent I ernan was ti 1ere. I n a blo u.Se . A Vel·y fine
young 111:1,11. "''1V1'tl1 11 0 Leeth to s1)eak of. ln a black coat.
Three handsome girls were there. Making an interesting
group.
6. Not a sou ucl was audible. In some meadows. That
descends the hill. Except that of the sheep-bells. By the
river. Down the long ro::i,d. Of a cart. And the creaking.
7. There was a small gray cloud. Hesting on the water.
'l'Jrn size of a man's hand. Down in the south.
8. Henry VllL had lived almost without blame. With his
character un formed. L eft at the most trying age. For thirtysix years. With the means at his disposal for gratifying every
inclination.
9. There was a little lowly hermitage. Down in a dale.
Far from the resort of men. Hartl by a forest's side.

..
'

Lesson 185.
EMPHATIC SUBJECT.

Form sentences of these elements and ~trrango them m
such a way as to make each subject emphatic.
1. ·white, black, ancl gray fox-skins. Are the principal
articles of commerce. Gray squirrels and sables. Among the
Laplanders.

Lesson 186.
'f

.,L
CONTRASTED DESCRIPTION.

Write a contrasted description of: A lion and a tiger.

A dog and a cat.

An eagle and a vulture.

'i

.1' ,:·I,
'

160

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

PREDTC'ATE AD.JEC1'IYE EMPHATIC.

161

\:~.:
,J,

~

•II

f'ill

Lesson 187.
TENSES OF THE SEVERAL MODES.

The indjcative is tlto oaly mode that has all the t enses.
The potential mode is used i11 four tenses, -present, past,
present perfect, and past p erfect.
The subjunctive mode is used in two teuses, -present
all(l past.
The imperative mode is used in the present t ense only.
Tell the modes and the tenses of the verbs italicized in
the following story: George III. one tby visited a srnaJl town in England, and ,,
took a solitary walk that h e might see something of the country. ,
H e cmne to a hay-field in which there was only one woman at
work. 'l'he Kin g aslcecl where all the rest were. 'l'he woman
replied that they hacl gone iuto tuw11 to sec tho King. ""Wl1y
dicln't you go too ? " inquired George. "Pooh ! " she answered,
"I wouldn't walk three yards to see him. Besides, they have
lost a day's work by going; a,rnl were I to go my children would
s1~tfer, for I mn too poor to l osf~ a, rb.y's work." G oorge sUpped
:L sovernign illLo li er ]1:1,1111, alld s11i1l, "Whell thn rnst shall come •
back, tell them that while they had gone to see the King, the
Kin g came to see you, and left you his portrait in gold to
remember him by."

Lesson 188.
STORY TO BE IMITATED.
TIIE J\1 ouNTA rN AND THE Squ1mrnL.

The mountain and the squirrel had a quarrel;
And the former called the latter, "Little Prig."

Run repli etl, "Yon are doubtless very big;
Hut all surts of things and weather
Must be taken in together
'l'o make up a year
And. a sphere ;
Aud I think it no disgrace
To occn py my place.
If I'm 11ot so large as you,
Yun am nut so srn<Lll as I,
And uot half so spry.
1'11 uot deny you make
A very pretty squirrel track;
Tal ents differ; all is well and wisely put;
1f I ca11not carry for ests 011 my back,
It. \V.
N eith er can you crack a nut.

'i ·:1
1
! 1

.,

,'

EMERSON.

vVrite in your own words a somewhat similar speech
which a Linl might make to <L t ree with which li e had
quarrelled.

:,·

Lesson 189.
PREDICATE ADJECTIVE EMPHATIC.

What is the natural position of the predicate adjective ?
How can it Le made emphatic?
vVrite the following sentences so as to emphasize the
predicate adjective: 1. All the fine offers of hosp itality are vain and forgotten,
if the eye speaks otherwise.
2. l{.unning water is clear, s weet, anu fresh; but staguaut
water is impure and harmful.
3. Castles in the air are al ways more magnificent than the
homes in which we dwell.

,,..
·i

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,,"

162

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.
NOTES ON THE 1l-fODES.

4. '~he merci~tll ~re bl essetl, for tltey shall obtain mercy.
IS ll<Ll'l'OW 110\V- t!ie place of thine aboue

U. lhy uwellwg
llal'lc

G. He was strong arnl brave anu violent.
. 7. 1'he houses were so near to the water that from

distance th ey seemed a black frincre to the lantl
8 Tl
·
""
c
•
. .
ie air of mountains is too rarelied, and that of <lee
nunes .t?o dense, for the free developm ent of animal or veg?.
table h1e.
9. Is it not strange that there should Le such a likeness ?

Lesson 190.
NOTES ON THE MODES.

The indicative ii:; the d1ie£ rnocle, aud rnay be used in th~
place of each of the other mod es.
Like the potential mocle, it may assert obEgation;
H e ought to do it.
Like the suLJ.nnctive mode, it· may assert Collllition;
as,..
If it rains, we shall

110

t go.

Like the imperative motle, it rnrty a.sse1·t a command;
as,'l'l1ou sl1:tlt 11ot steal.

1~he potential i~1~cl~ is distinguished from the indicative '

n~oie by th~ aux1lrnnes it employs tlrnu by aH absolute
difference of use.
Y

163

The suhjuncLi ve mode has tvvo tenses,-the present and
the past, and has no variation for person and numuer.
The verb to be is an exception to this statement. For its
.;subjunctive forms see page 158.
When the action or the being expressed by the verb is
stated as a fact or is refened to as merely unknown, the
verb should Le in the indicative mode. If the statement
refers to a future event whose existence is doubtful, the
present subjunctive is usually employed. The past subjunctive is used to express a wish or a supposition contrary
to fact.
Which of the verbs in the following sentences are m
the subjunctive mode'? Explain the application of the
preceding remarks to each.

It is ti111e that he were here.
Would he do it if he wern in lier place'?
I wish I were there.
Were I so disposed, I could not grant this.
The bird skims, as it were, over the plains.
If there Le a will, wisdom will find a way.
lfad th ere Leen less s11fferi11g in the world, there woulU
have been less kindness.
Goethe said there would be little left of him if he were to
discanl what he owed to others.
Happy were it for us, cliJ we constantly view our Creator
in His works !
Though he were as rich as Croosus, still would man be dis. satisfied with his conditiou.
If I lose mine honor, I lose myself.
If every Jay were a sunny day, who would not wish for rain?
If the brain sows not corn, it plants thistles.
Though He slay me, yet will I trust in Him.

164

LES SONS I.N LANGUAGH.

ENP11AT1C' AND INT1J;'RROGAT IVE FORMS.

Lesson 191.
ORDERS.

An order is a request malle to rm individual or a firm
for the delivery of mo11oy or morcliandiNe which is to
charged to the account of tlie writer.
\.Vrite the following order from dictation: !
BosroN, MAss., JJfay 9, 1889.

MESSRS. BnowN

&

CnAPl\IAN.

Please pay to David Smith, or bearer, seventeen and

_fLO_

i oo
.
I
.
l ars m
mere iamhse, and charge the same to my account.

DENNIS

dol: · ·

165

lightning con(lnetors, llll(krground telegraph wires - coinage
-found in Great J\rita.iii, Au::;tralia, Culia, Chili, and 11ear
-°Lake Superior.
Trn.-Silvery white-soft metal-tellacity 011ly moderate
-easily fusetl- brilliant a11cl reflective-very malleable.. does not rust - useu to protect surfaces of copper and iron
· -manufactun• uf luoking-glasses -dislies-tin-foil used in.· stead of paper for preserving articles - employed for coating
pins and culinary 11te11sils -fouml chiefly in Engla1Hl, also in
Bohemia, Saxony, Portugal, Australia, and in Black Hills uf
'Dakota-found in veills running through rocks, and also by
washing alluvial deposits.

U'ltmu•:v.

How does an order differ from a check?
vVrite two orders similar to the one given a1ove.
\ ·V rite . an order 011 Marcus Sheridan for eiahty-seven
b
dollars, m favor of Edward Snow.

Lesson 192.
CONTRASTED DESCRIPTION.

\Vrite a contrasteLl description of copper and tin.
hints will help you in your description.
CoPPEJt. - Obtained from fissnres or veins in rocks - pecu- _-_
liar reddish color - nauseous taste - acte<l upon by acids~· ··
should not be employed in cookillg- very mall eable - easily
corroded - second only to iron in t enacity - fusible -ductile
- copper bottoms for ships, poisouous rust prevents marine ' .
plants and animals from adhering to it- used for bell metal-

Lesson 193.
EMPHATIC AND INTERROGATIVE FORMS.

Most ver1s have in the present and past tenses indicative and in the imperntive mode an emphatic form made
by joining their first root to tlie present and the past imlicative and the imperative of the ver1 do; as, I do study.
i
Give the common and the emphatic forms of the verLs
study, teach, learn, come .
Verbs a.re conj11gate<l interrogatively 1y placing the
subject after the verb in tl1e Rimple f ormN, and itfter tl1e
first auxiliary i11 Ll1e colllpouml forms of the i11dicati ve
and potential modes .
Give tlie common and the interrogative forms of the
a11d potential modes of the verbs slcate, try,

166

LESSON S IN LANGUAGE.

Lesson 194.
ADJECTIVE EMPHATIC .

Unite these elements in such a way as to make
adjectives emphatic: -

1. The native Laplander defies the severity.
Of his climate. In his deerskins.
2. The general g:we the order. Overwhelmed with <loubt.. t··
'l'o retreat. In vast numbers. Of the e11erny. An<l fearing.
the approach. Every moment. To their ships.
3. Thou hast been to me. Very pleasant. vVon<lerful. 'fo
me. Thy love was.
4. vVhether king or peasant. In his homo.
vVho fi11ds peace. He is.
5. Napoleon 11ever sceme1l to be aware. To tho captivating '
idol of fame. That truth is esse11 tial. As lie was devoted. .,
To the purest and most lasting celebrity.
6. The noble Custer fell. -\i\Taving aloft the sabre. Abandoned in the midst of iucrediu]e odds. 'Vhich had won him
victory so often. Cut off from aid.
7. Garfield was great. ln lleath. Surpassingly.
Great.
8. The steps of freeLlorn are slow. But her feet turn backward never.

Lesson 195.
DIALOGUE.
'.l'm~ HA"" rns'I' SJ'Ol'.

But where to find that happiest spot below,
Who can direct when all preteu<l to know?

NEGATIVE FORMS.

167

The slrn<lderino· tenant of the frigid zone
"
Boldly proclaims that lrnppiest spot his own,
Extols the treas ures of his stormy seas,
And his long nights of revelry and ease;
The naked negro, ·panting at the line,
Boasts of his goltlcn sands ancl palmy wine,
Basks in the glare, or stems the tepid wave,
Aud thanks his gods for all the good they gave.
Such is the patriot's Loast where'er we roam,
His first, best country ever is at home.
OLIVER GOLDSMITH.

Lesson 196.
NEGATIVE FORMS.

Verbs may be conjugated negatively by placing the
adverb not after the verb in the simple form and after the
first auxiliary in the compound forms. Not may be placed
either Lefore or after the infinitives and participles.
Give the negative forms of the verbs liide, loolc, and
whisper in the indicative mode.
Give the negative forms of tlie verbs send, find, and
ltasten in the potential and imperative modes.
Give the empluitic negative interrogative forms of the
· verbs lcnow, sin,q, and see in th e imlicative moue. [Present
and past tenses.]

168

PROGRESSIVE AND PASSIVE FORJ.lIS.

LEoSONS JN LANGUAGE.

169
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Lesson 197.

Lesson 198.

DRAFTS.

FROG RESSIVE AND PASSIVE FORMS.

A draft is an order nmde in one place and
payment of money in another.
Drafts may be sight drafts or time drafts.
A sight dmft iH pn.yable when presented.
A time dmft is payable :it a stated time after
tion, or at a certain number of drtys after <late.
Drafts, like checks, are negotiahle or non-negotiable.
The person npon whom a dmft is drawn may accept it, ·
and so become liaLle for its payment, by writing the word 1 '
"Accepted " wi Lh Llie <.fate, and signing his name beneath ..
it across the face of the draft, near the left hand end.
This is usually Jone in rc<.l ink.
Copy the following draft: -

at Q,(_,9/Lt,
the orcler of

llf.11u,i, rJ!,. d {o n t, Jnan,

<!Jn,c, luzincl'L.ul Q ,{x,ly - ~Cv-& ~~

Dollar.9.

1'he progressive form of a verb is made by Joining the
present participle of the verb to the forrns of the verb be.
The passive [form J voice of a verb is m ade by Joining its
past plirticiple [third rout] tu the forms of the verb Le.

The progressive form has no past participle. The passive voice has the same past participle as the active voice.
Give t11e progressive and the passive forms of the verb
choose in the present indicative; of the verb catch in the
· past indicative; of the verb miss in the future indicative;
of the verb !rive in the present perfect in di ca ti ve ; of the
verb talce in the past perfect indicative; of the verb tell in
the future perfect indicative.
Give the passive forms of tlie verb forget in the potential, subjunctive, and imperative modes.
Give the passive iufiniti ves and participles of the verbs
drive arnl steal.
Give the intcrrogaii vc passive form of ihe prm;ent perfect tense, potential mode, of the verbs teacli and forsake.

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Valu e received, cind charge lo account of

To obav-Ccl 771a.dun 31'" ({!,o-.,

No. I 69.

,h,,i,nCd E°11' UVJ'l-.

Lesson 199.

9unlCu .,,, J71W,/i,.
CONTRASTED DESCRIPTION.

In w]iat respects does a Jra(t resernLle a letter?
respects does it differ from a letter?
vVrite a draft to the order of your teacher, directing it ,
to the Home Savings Bank of Jonesville, Nebraska.

Write a contrasted description of: Gold and iron.

Brass and bronze.
Marble and granite.

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170

LESSON8 IN LANGUAGE.

I

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Lesson 200.

j,:

OBJECT EMPHATIC.

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I, ,

The object, like other elernent5, may be made
by change of position; as, Our blessings let us never forget, how ever small
may bo.
As the subject is a more important ele ment than the
object, emphasis ma,y be given to the object by making it
the subject and changing the verb to the passive voice.
1. Jam es struck John.

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2. John wa.s struck by James.

In the first of these sentences attention is called to
James, and in the second to John.
vV rite the followi11g sentences so as to make the objec~
emphatic: 1. Great undert::Lkiugs demand mature
perseverance, and frequent revision.
2. The army di(l not possess a braver sohlicr than Captain
Nolan.
3. \\Therever we turn our eyes, we find something to reviv~
our curiosity and engage our attention.
4. As far as I have heard, they never say a word about you.
5. The study of mathematics trains the mind to industry
and perseverance.
6. He restored me to my office and hanged him.

Unite these elements in such a way as to emphasize the
object of each sentence: -

/.
i'

1. I have none.
as I have.

Silver and gold.

But I give thee.

REPRODUCTION.

171

2. No man hath greater love. That a ·man lay down his
Than this. lt'or his friends.
Yonder slip of a boy feels to be true. Of the king. Of
- :Jiimself. All that Slrnkespeare says. In the corner.
·: 1, 4. You might say.
Of singing. And whistling. That the
red squirrel successfully accomplishes. The difficult feat. At
' the same time.
5. One cannot express. In these l~ocky Mountai\1 solitudes.
' -The sile11ce. The sense of space. 1'he peculiar atmospheric
· beauty. Nor ca,11 one <l.escribe.
6. An idle boy invented the safety-valve. To let off the
" superabundant steam. To save himself the trouble. In a
·steam-engine. Of opening a small door.

Lesson 201.
REPRODUCTION.
LEARNING TO

u SE

TOOLS.

A boy ought to be at home in a barn, and learn to harness a hon;c, tinker up a wagon, feed the animals, and do
a hunclre<l. useful things, the experience of which may be of
·,~pecial service to him in after-life when unlooked-for emergencies befall him. I have seen an ex-President of the United
t States, when an old man, descend from his carriage, and rearrange buckles and straps about his horses when an accident
occurred, while the clumsy coachman stood by in a kind of
.helpless inactivity, not knowing the best thing to be done.
The ex-President told me he had learned about such matters
on a farm in his boyhoocl, and he was never at a loss for remedies on the road when his carriage broke down.
It is a pleasi'\.nt rnlaxation from books and study to work

172

LESSONS I N LANGUAGE.

173

SHALL AND WILL.

an h our every dn.y in a tool-shop. The learned and
l'rof. Oli vcr W crnlell Hulme::; 1irnl8 such eu mfort in "mend·
ing things" when his active brain needs repose, th at he sometimes breaks a piece of furniture on purpose that he
have the relief of putting it t ogether again much better than ~
it was Lefore. He is as good :t mechanic as h e is a poet; bu~
there is nothing mec hanical aLout his poetry, as you all know
who read his delightful pieces. An I!:nglish author of great
repute said tu m e, not lo11 g agn, " l'rof'esso r 1 IolJtws is writin
the best E11glish of our times:" And l could not help addin
"Yes, and in venting the best stereoscopes, too ! "
J .Al\iES 'l'.

may

lntcrro[/ative .
PLURAL.

RIN<;llLAH.

Shall we?

1. Shall I?
2. Shalt tlion?
3. Vill he?

Shall you?
vVill they?

1

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EMJ'HATIC ]i'onM.

A Oinnativc.
l'LITHAL .

RINl:l l l.A IL

We will
You shall
They shall

l. I will
2. Thou shalt
3. He shall
Int errogative.
S INGU LAR.

Lesson 202.
SHALL AND WILL.

Shall and will arc both use<l as auxiliaries
futur e tense of other verbs; but they are by no means '
interchangeable. vVhen the future is to be merely for~ ·
told and without the expression of the will of any person,
shall should be used in the first person and will in tho
second and third. But wh en the speaker wishes to show
!tis purpose in respec t to a fnture act m c vc11t, he uses w'U
in the first person and shall in the second i111<l third. ..
This distinction gives rise to a common and an emphatio
form for the future t ense.
I

Co~ rnO N :Fon~r.

A.(Ji.rmative .
SINGULAIL

1. I shall
2. 'l'hou wilt
3. He will

I'LURA J, .

We shall
You will
They will

.

1. Shall I?
2. vVil t thou ?
3. Shall he?

l'LUHAL.

Shall we ?
Will you?
Shall they?

Shall is used to denote obligation or necessity; will
to denote choice or purpose.
I shall go means that in the course of events my going
will occur. I will go means that I am resolved to go.
,' You will go means that of your own accor<l you will go.
.You shall go means that I will compel you to go.
He will /JO implies that he does it rerulily, or of his own
accord. He shall go implies th<1t I will require him to go.
In the interrogative form the choice of the person

spoken to is sought.
.
.
.
Shall I go? means, is it your wish or mtent10n that I
should go? Shall you go? means, will circumstances permit you to go? Will you go? means, do you intend ~o go?
Will he go? inquires whether of his own accord he will go.
· 'Shall he go ? asks whether you wilr require him to go.

174

LESSONS JN L .1tNUUAGE.

BUSI.NESS FOR.MS. -ESSAYS.

Insert either shall or w'ill in these blanks, and explain
why you use the auxiliary that you do in each case: -

Lesson 203.

I fear that I - - clie of this disease.
If I go out in the rain, I - - catch cold, for my feet_
get wet, as my shoes are thin.
If you - - not assist me, I - - not be able to finish it in
time.
I -- · be sixtce11 years ohl uext May.
l hope I - -· soon Le better.
I - - not be there so early.
- - I go with the letter to the office?
- - you 1vait till I return?
I - - have some fri ends to dine with me to-day; - - you
join us?
Lincoln once wrote, in regard to the Indians, "I - - not ·
rest until they - - have justice."
Come, uow, state positively whetl1cr you - - or not.
vVe - - not look upon his like again.
\Ve - - not permit you to do this.
!

BUSINESS FORMS.

1. Write an order for goods.
2. Make out the bill for the goods ordered ..
3. Write three different kinds of checks in payment of
the bill. Indorse one of them.
4. Write a receipt acknowledging the payment of the
Write an order for the amount of the bill to be paid
in merchandise by some business firm.
6. Make a sight draft to pay the bill.
7. Make a time draft to pay the bill.
8. Write an interest-bearing promissory note m payment of the bill.

The distinction between the use of should and would is ·
the s:ime :is th:it between shall :incl will, should being the '
p:ist tense of shall, and would tlie past tern;e of w'ill. Should
likewise expresses wish or purpose; as, You should do it.
State the difference between Will you leave me? tind Shall you leave me?
You will leave me and You shall leave me.
He will go and He sliall go.
·will he go ? and Shall he go ?
You will not shoot rtnythiug this afternoon and You shall
not shoot anything this afternoon.

175

Lesson 204.
ESSAYS.

Tell what you can of the history, habits, and
· ·means of living of the gipsies.
OLD AND MODEB.N Fun.NITURE. - Contrast the furni.· ture and decoration of a dwelling-room of olden time with
that of a modern one.
PARKS. - For what are parks intended? Describe a
park in your city.
. HISTOB.Y. -Write a description of a beautiful landscape
that you have seen.
GIPSIES. -

176

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

REVIEW OF CONJUGATION.

Lesson 206.

Lesson 205.

REVIEW OF CONJUGATION.

ADVERBIAL ELEMENTS EMPHATIC.

An adverbial element is rendered proniinent
placed at the beginning of the sentence; as, -

Scarcely for a righteous man will one die, yet
for a good man some would even dare to die.
vVrite the following sentences so as to make
or a.dverbial phrase emphatic: 1. The animals excel us in some respects.
2. E\'Cry ·word is ncccssa.ry in po etry, \\·here

free.
3. All the organs arc sheathed in a Sll<Lke; it lrns no han
no feet, no fins, no wings. The organs are released in b'
and beast and begin to play. They arc all unbound in m
and full of joyful action.
4. David encountered Goliath with a simple sling a
stone, and slew him.
5. As iron is corrupted by rust, so the mind is corrup~
by idleness.
6. A skilful eye can discriminate different kinds of wo6cJ:.
by observing the grain.
7. ~he Pilgrims set sail without aid from the governm~~t,
1 11 "
and without any royal charter, for the New V\Torld.
8. The bee collects but very little honey from a singlw
&w~

177

t

9. The sparrow lives in affluence during three-quarters ·ot: .
the year. He makes his raid on gardens, fields, and meadows. '
10. He earns his bread by the work of his own hands.

Give the present tense of shall; of will. In what mode
'and tense of principal verbs <lo you fin<l the present tense
, of shall or will used as an auxiliary? Give the past tense
, of shall; of will. In what tense of principal verbs do you
find the past tense of shall or will used as an auxiliary?
Give the present tense of rnay; of can; of rnust. In
.what tense of principal verbs are these forms used as
auxiliaries? Give the pa.st tense of may; of can. In wlmt
. tense of principal verbs are these forms used as auxilia.ries?
Give the present awl past tc11scs, indicative, of do. In
what tenses are these fonns use<l as auxiliaries? ·w hich
auxiliary verbs are used a.s principal verbs also? vVhil'l1
· auxiliary verb has but one tense'? \Vl1id1 :wxilia.ry verLs
have two tenses? \.Yhich auxiliary verbs ha.ve more tlmn
- two tenses? vVhich auxilia,ry verbs have compound tenses?
: Which a,nxiliaries a,re used only in the indicative mode?
Which arc used only in the potential mo<lc? What auxiliary is sometimes used in the irnpcrati vc mo<lc? [Ans.
Do.] What auxiliary is use<l m the emphatic form of
verbs?

Lesson 207.
CONTRASTED DESCRIPTION.

Write a contrasted description of: Day and night.
Sun and moon.
Daisy and buttercup.

if1 '

178

REVIEW OF CONJUGATION.

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

Lesson 208.
PARAPHRASE.

Write a paraphrase of the following poem:_
JTLow1ms.
Spake full well, in language quaint and olden,
One who dwelleth by the castled Rhine
·when he called the flowers, so blue and ~olden,
Stars, that in earth's firmament do shine.
-Y'V on<lrous truths, - and manifold as wondrous
'
God has written in those stars above;
But not l ess iu the bri ght flowerets under us
Stands the revelation of His love.

Everywhere about ns are they glowingSorne, like stars, to t ell us spring is born·
Others, th~ir blue eyes with tears o'erfiowin~,
Stand, like Ruth, amid the glowing corn.
And the poet, faithful and farseeing,
Sees, alike in stars and flowers, a part
Of the self-same, universal being
Which is throbbing in his brain and h eart.
LONGFELLOW.

.After changin?' this poetry into prose, compare the resuit .
with the followrng paraphrase, and see which is better.
Observe how much more beautiful the poetry is than the
prose paraphrase which contains the same thoughts.
li'LOWERS.

A poet who dwells beside the Rhine spoke well when he.
called the flowers the "stars of earth;s firmament."

179

God has written many and wonderful truths in the stars
_, that shine above us, but not less in the flowers beneath our
. feet is there a revelation of His love.
Flowers grow about us everywhere: some to t ell us spring
is here ; others, their petals fillell with dew, stand, like Ruth,
amid the com.
The poet-who is faithful and who sees farther than other
men do - sees that the being animating stars and flowers
is a part of that being that fills his own mind and his own
soul.

·~l

Lesson 209.
REVIEW OF CONJUGATION.

In what tenses of · the active voice, common form, is the
first root of the verb used? In what tense only is the
second root used? [l{emember that the second root of a
verb is used only in the past tense, indicative and subjunctive modes, active voice.] In what tenses is the third
root used? Is the third root used in the past indicative
active? \Vlutt form of the vcrL requires the use of the
present active participle? The past participle?
How is the imperative mode formed? The present
infinitive? The perfect infinitive? The present participle?
The past participle? The perfect participle? The present
indicative? The past in<licative? The future indicative?
The present perfect indicative? The past perfect indicative? The future perfect indicative? The present potential? The past potential'? The present perfect potential?
The past perfect potential? The present subjunctive?
The past subjunctive?

.,'
"

180

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

Give the first person singular in each tense
dicative, active, common form, of the verbs write,
have, be, see, love, hate. Give the emphatic forms of
verbs. Give the second person singular, common
indicative mode, active voice, of each of these verbs.
the third person. The first person plural.

BUSINESS

FOR~llfS.

181

For the first time he gazed upon the limitless expanse of
the boundless prairie.
.\ ,.Is
it the universal desire of all in the class to have a half1
.
-. Jwliday?
' She has a very winsome and charming manner, although
· her face is plain and not handsome.
11'
By the Portuguese law every person is legally obliged to
join the army.
·i
I like the old original tongue best.
,, 1

come,
these
form,
Give

Lesson 210.
BREVITY . .

Lesson 211.

Brevity in writing is a main element of force.
Be careful not to repeat the same word needlessly, nor, ·,
the same meauiug in different words.
.:
The tinie for learning is in the time of youth.
The tinie for leamiug is in the period of yon th.

': I - ·

In these two sentences the italicized words are the same,
or have the same meaning. Omitting the superfluot!8
wor<ls, the sentences become: "Youth is the time 'fd
learn ing."
Omit all superfluous words in these sentences: A second round was again fired.
An idle man is generaJly looked upon with eyes of distrust
and aversion.
' 11 11{
I .
Every man on the face of the earth has duties to perform. •
Defore you write you must iirst thi11k what to say:
'irw
I looked for mistakes throughout the whole essay, but could
find none.
1I ·'
He seldom ever has his lesson.
·1;il
The past two months have brought us an abundant plenty'. ·
of rain.

BUSINESS FORMS.
111

Providence, R.I., March 15, 1890, James M. Smith buys
of Levi W. Robinson one bay mare for $300, a covered car- ·
riage for $225, harness for $25, sleigh for $40, lap robe for
$5, whip for $1.25. He gives in payment a note of Geo.
E. Brown for $500; balance on account. Make out James
M. Smith's bill and Geo. E. Brown's note.
After twenty days Levi W. Robinson draws on James M.
Smith at thirty days' sight, for the amount due. He makes
Write the draft.
the
.,,, draft in favor of Albert J. Mason.
,,ccept it. Albert J. Mason turns the draft over to J.
N;¥ton Jones. Make the indorsement.

Lesson 212.
REVIEW OF CONJUGATION.
!

1. Give

the third person singular of the tenses of the
potential mode, active voice, of the verbs lay, set, raise, do.

t
182

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

Change to the p:issi vc form, to the progressive,
interrogative, to the negative.
Give the a,ctive infinitives of the verbs r;et,jreeze , dri~,
d'(g, hold. Give the passive infinitives of these verbs,'. ~~e
active participles, the passive participles.
,
Give the negative, interrogative, active form of 1 ~he
present imlicati ve of the verbs love, fear , trust, te,ach.
Change to tlie nega,tive, intenogati ve, passive. Chapgo
to emphatic, intcrrogati vc. Change to negative, emphatic,'
in terro ga ti ve.
Write a sentence containing the verb bring active, ~­
dicative, past, third person, plural. Change the verb to
the correspondin g passive form.
Write the verb find in the various forms, common, em,.
pha tic, passive, and progressive, using in each form the
third person singubr of the past tense.

Lesson 213.
E SSAYS.

THE SENSES. -How many senses are there? Wh'a
is the organ of each? vVhat <lo we lea.rn or what do,'Ye
enjoy by mea.ns of each? vVhich do you think is the
most precious?
.
'rHE SEASONS. - \Vhat are the causes of the seasons~
How do the seasons of our country differ from those in
tropical countries? From those of tlie frigid zones?
Describe the appearance of our country in each season.
What employments and games a.re suitable for each sea., ·
son? vVhich season do you like the best? Why?
;

DUTIES OF A SECRET.ARY.

183

Lesson 214.
,.

DUTIES OF A SECRETARY.

At the opening of each session of the body of whi ch he
is an officer, the secretary should lrnnd to the president an
order of business for the session and a statement of what
matters of business are to be considered.
At the meetings the secretary is to read all that he may
be called upon to read by the president, and when necessary he is to call the roll of members. It is his duty to
give all parties concerned due notice of the action of the
body.
The chief duty of a secretary or cl erk is to make true
records of what is doue in the meetings of his society or
organization. He is not a reporter, and it is not his business to report speeches or opinions, but only the action of
' the meeting. This record will include negative as "".'ell as
affirmative votes, but will not in clude what is proposed
and not voted upon.
It is usual to have the records of each meeting made
· up by the secretary, and approved by the president soon
after the close of each session. At the opening of the next
session these records are read by the secretary for approval
by the meeting. At this reading any member may call
attention to errors and omissions; and the president [chair: man] then directs what changes are to be made, if he can
do this by general consent. If objections are made to the
corrections that are proposed, the corrections must be made
:by motion as amendments.

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186

PARSING VERBS.

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

187

Lesson 218.

Lesson 217.

PARSING VERBS.
EXTENDED PARAPHRASE.

In the exercise which follows something more
paraphrase should be attempted. 'The paraphrase should ..
be but the wa,rp to which is added a woof of further par.
ticulars in harmony with the original statements;·
Endeavor to produce in your mind a clear and definite .
picture of the scene described in the poem. Fill this ' ·
mental picture with further items, perhaps expand it to a
wider scene, then, using the language of the poem or not, .•
as seems best, write freely a full description of the scene
as it is now pictured to your mind.
'l'Im 'l'A VEI'tN.

I

I could paint the ·white-Hawk tavern flanked

vVith broken and wind-warped sheds,
. And the rock where the black clouds used to sit
And trim their watery heads
vVith little sparkles of shining light,
Night and moming, morning and night .
. The road, where slow and wearily,
The dusty teamster came, The sign on its post, and the round-faced host,
And the high-arched door, aflame
\V"ith trumpet-flowers, - the well-sweep, high,
And the flowing water-trough, close by.
ALICE CARY.

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. In parsing verbs tell whether each is regular or irregular, transitive or i11transitive; giv~ the voice, mode, tense,
number, and person; and name the subject with which it
. agrees.
I live here.
·.. In this sentence, live is a regular verb. It is intransitive,
and hence has no voice. It is i11 the indicative mode,
present tense; and is in the first person, singular number,
t_? agree with its subject L
· ' Parse the verbs in the following sentences: I am not what I was. Strike the iron while it is hot. 'l'he
l/ird flew away. It froze last night. If I were he I would
flOt go. vVe have been sent to you.
.. The rain descended, the floods caine, the winds blew and
:. beat upon that house, and it fell.
Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow ; they toil
not, neither do they spi 11: a11u yet I say unto yon, that Solo" n:ton in all his glory was uot arrayed like one of these.

Lesson 219.
SECRETARY'S RECORDS.

.You are the secretary of a school club called "The Daily
Doings Club."
as follows : -

Your record of the first meeting may be

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188

LES80NS IN LANGUAGE.

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BREVITY.

189

'

lloun 11ToN Sc11001.,

EAST SAGINAW,

MICILf

Sept. 10, 1884.

At the call of their teacher, the pupils of Room 1, Houghton
School, assembled in their school-room at 4 P.M. this day,' to ·;
organize a club for the purpose of keeping themselves informed respecting current events. The meeting was organized by electing Mr. Alfred Smith president and Miss Rosa Brown
11 1{
secretary.
After the purpose and methods of such an organization had
bee n explained by tltc teacher, Miss Frank, several pupils
spoke in favor of the pln.n; and it was at last unanimously ·
voted to organize such a club.
1 1 ,.
A committee, consisting of Miss Mary Steinart, Miss Belle .
Stevens, and Mr. Joseph Moore, was appointed to prepare ~
constitution and by-laws to be reported to the club at its .next
I
meeting.
On motion of Miss Sarah J?eters, it was voted that all pupil'
of Room 1, Houghton School, should be members of this club.
It was voted upon motion of Mr. Samuel Latham that the.- .
present president a.nd secretary should serve until the perma- · nent organization of the club. The meetina0 then adJ'ourned ,
1
to meet at 4 P.M. on Tuesday next, Sept. 26, 1884.
Hu::;A

A true record of proceedings.
Attest:

vV rite

ALF1mn Sl\UTH,
President.

in form somewhat similar to the foregoing the,
records of the first meeting of a school debating society. ·
The boys of the class may write the record of a meetin
for the purpose of organizing a base-ball club; the girls,
society for the prevention of cruelty to animals.

Lesson 220.
BREVITY.

Brevit;i;, and hence force, are secured by using a word
instead of a phrase, a word or phrase instead of a clause.
Make the following sentences more brief and forcible:'l'he soil in this region is of such a nature that little can be
. raised. [A more forcible sentence would be, The soil in this
region is barren. J
-,'. A spoon which was made of wood and a plate which was
made of pewter were his only utensils. [A wooden spoon and
. a pewter plate were his only utensils.]
The event was one that brought surprise to all.
When he heard of the dangerous p~ition in which we were
placed, he hastened at once to our relief.
" ... The noise of feet that seemed in a great hurry was heard.
The rains which we have had of late, and which have been
so heavy, have caused the waters of the rivers to overflow their
· banks.
The seasons, as they cltn.nge, bring us a vn.riety of fruit.
Have you ever read "Little Men" ? It was written by
Louisa Alcott.
.When we were at Boston, we went one day to Cambridge.
It is in Cambridge that Ha.rvard University is situated. In
tp~t city also is to be seen Longfellow's house.
·: As he walked toward the bridge, he met his old friend the
· Captain.
· ·• The ostrich is unable to fly, because it has not wings in pro·p0rtion to its body.
.:. When darkness broke away, and morning began to dawn,
the town wore a strange n.spect indeed.

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LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

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191

SECRETARY'S RECORDS.

Persons that are i11cli11ed to be quarrelsome are despised.
lf he had possessed a sufficient amount of patience, he might

have succeeded.
Egypt is a fertile country, and is watered by the river Nile, c
arnl is annua.lly inundated by it.
As I did not know that you had returned from your vaca-·
tion, I did not call.

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SYNONYMS.

Use ea,ch of these words in n, sentence: delightful
elegn,nt
beautiful
majestic

pretty
excellent
handsome lovely
agreeable uice
pleasing pleasant
splendid magnificent grand
superb
palatial charming
exquisite fine

Find . as many words as you can that may be
instead of horrid.

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SECRETARY'S RECORDS.

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The record of the seeon<l meeting of The Daily Doings
-· Club (see pn,ge 187) would begin as follows: IIouGHT ON Sc1100L, °EA ST SA GINAW,

Lesson 221.

I

Lesson 223.

Mien.,

S ept. 26, 1884.

The Daily Doings Club met in Hoom 1, Houghton School,
at 4 P.1'L, Sept. 2G, 1884, the president in the chair.
The minutes of the previous meeting were read by the secretary, and approved.
Write out the renminder of the proceedings, sign, and
attest m; Lefore.

Lesson 224.
CONTRASTED DESCRIPTION.

~

Lesson 222.
ESSAYS.

-From what is leather made?
is it ta,nned? What are its properties? What are its
uses?
THE EYE. -What is the shape, and what are the parts
of the eye? What peculiarity is there about the size of
the pupil? vVhat motions has the eye? How is it protected? Of what use are eyelashes and eyebrows? Of
what use are tears? What are some of the things which
should not be done to the eyes?

Write a contrasted description of: Jacob and Esau.
Moses an<l Elijah.
Alfred the Great and Peter the Great.

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LI<;ATHER.

.
Lesson 225.
DISTINCTION BETWEEN ADJECTIVES AND
ADVERBS.

It is sometimes difficult to tell whether an adjective or
an adverb should follow a verb.
If the word following the verb denotes some quality or

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LESSONS 1N LANGUAGE.

condition of the subject, either in itself or as affected by
the action indicated in the verb, it should be an adjective;
as,'l'he boy is ill. He hopes to become well again.
The weather is cold. The sky looks cold, and
ground feels cold to the ba.refoot boy.
The door is green. The gra,ss grows green. 'l'he door is
painted green.

If the word following the verb deuotes manner, time, ·
place, or degree, and modifies the verb rather than the
subject, it is an adverb.
Allan looks steadily [ad verb J on his book.
He looked tired [tuljective].
He felt carefully [ adverL J a.nd found that
sharp [adjective].
She looks coldly at him [ an verb].
He arrived safe [adj ective].
He arrived early [ad verb].
He arrived at the grou ncls [adverbial phrase].
He sat silent [ adj ective].
He sat quietly [ad verb].
He sat quiet and silent.
Use each of these verbs in a sentence with one
adjectives or one of the adverbs from the accompanying
lists: tastes
sings
works
was
am
will be

acts
saw
talks
moves
sounds
came

seems
feels
looks
felt
shines
appeared

193

COlrfP AB1SON OF STYLE.

should be
writes
speaks
smell
arrived
looks

ADJECTIVES.

sweet
rough
smooth
true

faithful
harsh
tired
satl

uen,t
unkind
even
charming

kind
pretty
correct
angry

AJJVEltllS.

sweetly
harshly
prettily

smoothly
kindly
quickly

roughly
elegantly
charmingly

truly
peacefully
thankfully

Lesson 226.
COMPARISO N OF STYLE.

Compare the two following selections. Observe that
the shorter one contains all the ideas of the longer, and is
·. the more ple<tsing because of its brevity.
In a long ramble of the kind, on a fine autumnal day, Rip
· had unconsciously scrambled to one of the highest parts of
the Kaatskill Mountains. He was after his favorite sport of
squirrel shooting, and the still solitudes had echoed and
re~echoed with the reports of his gun. Panting and fatigued,
he threw himself, late in the afternoon, on a green knoll
covered with mountain herLage, that crowned the brow of a
wASIIJNGTON lIWING.
.precipice.
Rip suddenly found himself upon one of the highest parts
- .~ of the Kaatskill Mountains. It was a beautiful day in autumn
when the sun was shining brightly, not a cloud was to be seen,
and Nature had on h er most brilliant robe. Rip had been

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194

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wandering about for a long time, hither and thither, and he
had come upon this pbce almost without knowing it. He had
roamed about in this way, without heeding which way he was
going, because he was out hunting sqnirrels, which was his
favorite out-of-doors sport, and long had been, and the shots
from his gun had awakened echo a.fter echo and thus disturbed
the calm stillness of the place. The afternoon was waning
fast, and he was tire<l and exhausted, so he decided to rest,
and threw himself down upon a little knoll that was so
covered with verdure as to offer a comfortable seat, although
it overlooked an imm ense yawning precipice.
vVrite the second selection in your own language and.
then compare what you have written with the first selection.

Lesson 227.
CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAW.

The constitution and the by-laws of lL society are usually
reported by a committee appointed for the purpose.
Write the report of the committee appointed to frame
the constitution a.11d by-laws of The Da.ily Doings Club. ·
See p~tg e 188. The following form will be of service:-.
'ro THE Mmvumn.s oir 'l'1rn DAILY DOINGS C1,un: Your committee, appointed at a meeting for the preliminary
organization of The Daily Doings Club, would respectfully .··
submit the following articles :mu by-laws, with the recommendation that they be ad.opte<l as the constitution and bylaws of this society.
A1iTICLE I.
SECTION I. 'rhe name of this society shall Le - - .
SECTION II. Its pmpose slw.11 be - - .

195

EXTENDED PARAPHRASE.

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

AgTJCI,E

II.

I. Any pupil - - may become a member of this
society--.
SECTION II. - - .
SECTION

AR'rJ CJ,E
SEC'l'ION
SECTION

III.

I. The officers of this society shall be - - .
II. The president shall be - - .
ARTICLE

., ,

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IV.

Regular meetings of this society shall be held - - .
AwncLE V.
This constitution may j;)e altered or amended - - .
BY-LAWS.

1. li'1ms. [Here may be ins erted some rnle in reference to
fees of members. J
2. INVITATIONS. [Here may be inserted the conditions on
which persons not members may be invited to attend the
meetings.]
3. [Here may be inserted any rule t,hat the writer deems
necessary.]
All of which is respectfully submitted.
.. .. .. .. .......... ... .. .........

: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :: : : : : : : : : : : : : : :

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~- Comnnttee.
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Lesson 228.

l

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EXTENDED PARAPHRASE.

See directions on page 144.
Tim

MILL.

The miller's face, half smile, half frown,
\;Vere a picture I could paint;

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RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

And the mill, with gable steep and brown,
Antl dripping wheel asbnt,
The weather-beaten door, set wicle,
Ancl the heaps of meal-bags either side.
The tirn bers cracketl to gaping seams,
The swallows' clay-built nests,
And the rows of doves that sit on the beams
With plump and glossy breasts,
The bear by his post sitting upright to eat,
·with half of his clumsy legs in his feet.
ALICE CARY.

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197

In the fourth sentence the word who takes the place of
the words and he in the third sentence. vVhat use has the
word and in the third sentence? What use has the word
he? What uses, then, has the word who? [Ans. It is
the subject of the clause "who was the first president of
the United States," and connects this clause to the noun
"Washington," for which it stands.]
The picture has been very much admired.
It was painted by Mr. Brown.
These sentences may be combined thus: The picture has been very much admired, and it was painted
by Mr. Brown.

Lesson 229.
CONTRASTED DESCRIPTION.

Write a contrasted description of: J_,ondon and Paris.
New York and Chicago.
St. Petersburg and Berlin.

Lesson 230.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

1. Washington was a native of Virginia.
2. Washington wa:s the first president of the United States.
These sentences nrny be comLined thus: 3. Washington was a native of Virginia, and he was the
first president of the U nitetl States.
4. Washington, who was the first president of the United
States, was a native of Virginia.

This is not a pleasing sentence, and we would prefer to
say:'l'he picture which was painted by Mr. Brown has been very
much admired.
What pronoun is there in the last sentence? What is
its antecedent'? How many clauses are there in the senWhat are they? In which clause does which
To what does it connect this clause'?
A pronoun which connects the clause in which it stands to its
antecedent is a relative pronoun.

The words most frequently used as relative pronouns
are who, which, that, and what. Who is used to represent
~ persons; which, to represent animals or things; and that
is used in the place of who or which.
· Who, which, and that connect clauses by showing the
. relation of the clauses in which they stand to their ante-

...
198

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

CT,EA1UVE88.

199

lVhat connects cln.uses by belonging to both of them· as,
I will give you what you ueeu.

Lesson 231.
CLEARNESS.

Here what is the object of W'i ll give and also the object
of need. Its use is mm:;t re<tdily understood by substituting
for it its equivalent, the thing which or that which; as, I will give you the thing which you need.
That should be used instead of who or which: First, when it follows who; as, -

Who that hears can fail to un<lerstaud this ?
Second, when the antecedent represellts both persons and
things ; as, 'I'he musician and his dancing bear that you saw have just
come to town.
Third, when the clause which it
defines its antecedent; as,They that persevere will win.
Fourth, when its antecedent is modified Ly no, all, any,
each, every, sanie, very, or an adjective in the superlative
degree; n,s, It is the very reason that I mentioned.
It is the bravest men that are the most gentle.

The fourth statement is really included in the third.
[As following such, and but in such constructions
"There was no one but did his best," are by some con•
sidered relative pronouns.]

Clearness is an element of style more important than
brevity. If you cannot be both brief and clen,r, by all
mea,11s be clear even though not brief.
Whenever it is necessary for the sake of clearness, repeat
an antecedent, a subJect, a verb or an auxiliary, or a preposition.
Explain why each o:E the following sentences would not
be clear if the words in parenthesis were omitted: 'l'he firemen carried out the piano, (a precaution) which was
unnecessary. [Here the antcce<lcnt of which, "a precaution,"
must be retained, or the sentence would be ambiguous, for it
might be understood that the pinno was unnecessary.]
'l'he pilot of our boat saw the light sooner than the other
pilot (saw it).
Ignorance is the mother of fear as well as (of) admiration.
He declarecl he would not come, (a refusal) which I quite
expected.
'.l'he vall ey of the Amazon is perhaps as large as (that of)
the Mississippi.
A squirrel cnn climb a tree quicker than a boy (can).
Supply the omitted wor<ls and make corrections in the
following sentences: There's an omnibus goes to every train.
There's a man below clesires to spenJc to you.
Here's the buttons you sent.
There's a lawn and orchard near the house.
The family is as poor, or poorer, than the one you have
already ai<lecl.

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200

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

COMP OUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

201

Give tl1e events which led to some famous
battle. T ell wl1at you can about the battle. Mention the
results which followed from it.
EA1nHQUAKES. - Where are earthquakes of frequent
occurrence ? How are they caused? Mention some famous
earthquakes, a,nd tell about one of them.
B.ATTLK -

Lesson 232.
AMENDMENTS.

An amendment to any motion, resolution, by-law, or
constitution may propose to add certain words, to strike out
words, or to strike out certain words and insert others. It
is usually provided that amendments to the constitution
or by-laws of a society must be presente<1 in writing at a
meeting previous to the one on which action upon the proposed amendment is sought.
Give n otice of an amendment proposed to the constitution of The D aily Doings Club, by filling out the following
form:I hereby give notice that at the next [regular, annual] meeting of this society I shall propose the fo llow ing amendment

to the constitution: From Article ...... , Section .. .... , to strike out the words ........
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. and insert ...................... .. .... , so that the section
shall read ........................ .. .................. ... ... .. .. ..
Or,rvE THO RNTON .

If two or more persons join in such a notice, the word I
in the form above would become 1Ve, and each name would
be signed at the close of the notice.

Lesson 233.
ESSAYS.

FAIRY TALES. -Name some of the fairy tales which
you have enjoyed. Relate one of them.

Lesson 234.
COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

Whoso, what, and its compounds with ever and soever,
and the co mpounds of who and which with the same words,
are used to introduce clauses referring to an indefinite
person or thing.
They are called compound relative
pronouns.
Make a list of the compound relative pronouns .
Select the compound relative pronouns in the following
sentences. Tell to what each is equivalent, and state the
construction of the antecedent part and the r elative part.

·whoever is idle will fail.
·whatever is evil should be avoided.
What I want is not what I shall get.
Sell it for what you can get.
Whosoever will may come.
This is what you want.
Give it to whoever applies for it.
Give me whichever you please.
Whatsoever God doeth shall be forever.
Whoso findeth wisdom, fincleth life.

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202

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LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

PARTICULAR 'l'EKMS.

Lesson 235.

Lesson 236.

SECRETARY'S NOTICES.

PARTICULAR TERMS.

The secretary should notify the chairman of every com- .
rnittce of his appointment, aud should furnish to him a list
of the other members, with a statement of the matters
referred to this committee. He should also notify each
member of the committee of his appointment thereon, and
give the name of the chairman.
During a meeting of which you were secretary, it was
voted to have a public debate on the last Friday of the
month, and James Tirrel, chainnan, vVilliam Halcross, and
Robert Ames were appointed a committee to make the
necessary arrangements. Notify each of these persons of
this action.
The following form will be of service. Make the needed
changes.
THE Don,E

A YE.

GRAMMAR ScH001, DEBATING

PRovrnENCB,

M1~.

w ILLIAl\1

203

CLuB,

Learn to use specific, or particular, au<l not general terms,
to give names and dates, arnl all details needful to the
' exact realization of the scene or the thought.
Do not say go, but travel or ride. Do not say "In a
certain city," but "In the lower part of New York." Do
not say "Once upon a time," but "In the summer of 1776."
St. Paul says: "I luwe coveted no man's silver or gold
or apparel; nay, ye yourselves know that these hands have
ministered to my necessities and to them that were with
. me." This is more forcible than, "I have coveted no
one's possessions, but have by my own efforts obtained a
livelihood for myself and my companions."
Macaulay is a master of the art of using details. Notice
,. this description of Benares. Such a style is delightful to
' a reader who has time and imagination.

R.I., Dec. 19, 1889.

HALCIWSS :

At the meeting of the Doyle Ave. Grammar School
Debating Club, held Dec. 18, 1889, you were elected a member
of the committee on public debates, of which committee James
Tirrel is chairman.
Yours respectfully,
H. S. TURNER, Secretary.
The Daily Doings Club }rn,s had its annual election of
officers. As secretary, notify the several officers of their ·
election.

~·

His first design was upon Bcnares, a city, which, in wealth,
population, dignity, and sanctity, was among the foremost of
Asia. It was commonly believed that half a million of human
beings was crowded into that labyrinth of lofty alleys, rich
with shrines, and minarets, and balconies, and carved oriels,
to which the sacred apes clung by hundreds. The traveller
could scarcely make his way through the press of holy mendicants and not less holy bulls. The broad and stately flights
of steps which descended from these swarming haunts to the
bathing places along the Ganges, were worn every day by the
footsteps of an innumerable multitude of worshippers. The
schools and temples drew crowds of pious Hindoos from every

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204

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

205

lJ l!J S C'lUI' 1'10 N.

province where the BraJ11ni.11ical faith was known. Commerce
had as many pilgrims as religion. All along the shores of the
venerable stream lay great fleets of vessels laden with rich
merchandise. JTrom the looms of Benares went forth the most
delicate silks that adorned the halls of St. J ames's and of the
Petit Trianon; and in the bazaars the muslins of Bengal and
the sabres of Oude were mingled with the jewels of Golconda
and the shawls of Cashmere.
MA CAULAY.

Lesson 237.

SING. AND I'Lun.

SING. AND PLun.

Noni. who
Poss. whose
Obj.
whom

which
whose
which

Who se is used both as an adjective and as a prnnoun.
1'/iat · is indeclinable. Of the compouml relatives, what
and its compounds are indeclinable. The compound forms
of who and which are declined like the sirnple forms.
·
Decline the compounds of who and whicli.

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and what; as, -

Lesson 238.

\:Vho comes there ?
Which do you prefer?
vVhat is the matter?
The antecedent of an interrogative pronoun is sought
by the question in which the pronoun is used, and should
be given in the answer. The antecedent of the interroga- .
tive should be given in the answer in the same case that
the pronoun had in the question.
Who comes there ?
·whose is th is ?
To whom, will you give it?
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[Not me.]
It is 1nine.
I will give it to her.

Who, which, and what are interrogative or relative pronouns according to their use.
JVhich, with its possessive whose, and what, are often used '
as interrogative adjectives also; as, -

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\Vhose hat is that?
\:Vhich book will you take?
·what kind of a man is he ?

DESCRIPTION.

A

DESCI~II''.l'ION OF SOME ONE YOU KNOW.

Describe some one whom you know, by answerin(T
the
0
following questious aLout him or her: 1. What is his age ?
2. What is his size ?

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8..
9.
10.
11.

What are his features ?
·w hat is his complexion ?
How does he appear ?
vVhat is his disposition?
How does he spend his time?
What are his talents ?
What are his virtues ?
\:Vhat are his failings ?
What other characteristics has he ?

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ANALYSIS.-POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.

206

207

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

Name the limiting adjectives in the sentences below.
What noun does each modify? Name the adjective pronouns in these sentences. \i\That noun does each represent?
Of what case and construction is each?

Lesson 239.
EXTENDED PARAPHRASE.

One person was taken, and another person left.
One was taken, aml another left.
Each pupil will be called upon to recite.
Each will be called upon to recite.
Many are called, but few are chosen.
All may do what man has done.
Those who try to do something and fail are infinitely better
than those who try to do nothing and succeed.

'l' HE Larn-B u1tNEits.
I could paint the lonesome lime-kilns,
Allll the lime-burners, wild and proud,

Their red sleeves gleaming in the smoke
Like a rainbow in a cloud, Their huts by the brook, and their mimicking crewMaking believe to be lime-burners, too !
ALICE CARY.

Of what is a lime-kiln made? How does it look? Why
a,re the lime-kilns called "lonesome "? Why are the lime- .
burners called "wild and proud"? lfow can their sleeves
in the midst of the smoke be compared to a rainbow in a
cloud? vVho are meant by the "mimicking crew"?
..
Describe the picture you would make if you should
"p~tint the lonesome lime-kilns and the lime-burners."
7

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Lesson 240.

The words mine, thine, hers, ours, yoiirs, and theirs are
equivalent to rny, thy, her, onr, your, and their, respectively,
together with a noun, and are used as pronouns in the
nominative and objective cases.
They are sometimes
called possessive adjective pronouns.
Other adjectives sometimes represent both themselves
and the nouns they modify. In this use their character
as nouns is indicated by puttii1g the before them; as, The good are happy.
The first are the best.
None but the brave deserve the fair.

ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.

1. This day is a fine day.
2. 'l'his is a fine day.

In the first sentence this is an adjective modifying day. ,
In the second, it represents both words, this and day, and.
is an adJective pronoun, subject of the verb is.
A word used both as an adjective and as a noun is called an adjec- ..
tive pronoun.

Lesson 241.
AN AL YSIS. -POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.

Analyze the following sentences: 1. You have your plan, and I have mine. 2. I will take my
method, and you may use yours. 3. Thine is the kingdom.

208

LESSONS JN LANGUAGE.

NOTICE OF REFERENCE.

4. Mary has brought her work, but Lucy has left hers. 5. I
will sell my laud, but I will not buy theirs. 6. This house is
ours. 7. I would not cha11ge my place for theirs. 8. His
house was not ours, nor was ours his. D. All mine is thine.

In a simile the comparison iii ] i mi ted to one point, aud
is generally expressed with the words like or as.
Study the sentences which follow. Tell what things
are compared. Find all the similes.

Parse the possessive pronouns iu the foregoing sentences.
You have your pbn, and I have !~~1~~·
=

co=

- - 0- -

==

0

Lesson 242.
THE SIMILE.

That sentence or paragntph is cle:tr from which the
reader can easily and fully obtaiii. the thought presented.
He will be helped in this by showing hitn in what respects.
that about which we write is like or unlike other things
well known. The s uitable use of comparison adds clearness. force. :rntl beaut_,- to composit.ion .
1

2:

S ht' h:1.:: ,-t' n- ";\-hire t t'e t!i.

H er teeth

~~·e like pearl.

His eyes were as a fl:u;ie of fire, and his voice as the sound
of many waters.
The righteous shaH flourish like the palm tree; he shall
grow like a cedar in J_,ebauon .
. The man that wa,lketh not in the counsel of the unaodly
0
'
shall Le like a tree planted Ly the rivers of water.
Ho1wsty without principle is like a mirage in the desert, a
lake without water.
He that wavereth is like a wave of the sea, driv en with the
wind and tossed.
Mercy is like the sunshine; it cheers where it shines.
. A man in ~nger is like a chariot without a driver, or a ship
m a storm without a pilot.
As the morning sun dispels mist and darkness, so a cheerful
countenance dispel s the troubles of a Y t'Xl~d mind.
H .: :·fr·•• .: ch-c r-::::;~. in ~ bap<? an· l gestu re pro mJJy eminent,
stood like a tower.

In one of these sentences a comparison is used to express
the thouaht
which in the other is expressed directly.
b

Lesson 243.

A direct comparison between objects of different kinds is called a
simile.

NOTICE OF REFERENCE.
Tim HJG11 S c 11001,

"Her teeth are like pearl " is a simile.
"He is as brave as a lion" is a simile, while "He is as
patient as Job" is not a simile, but simply a comparison,
because the comparison is made between two persons and
not between a person and a thing or between things of
different kinds.

209

OuTING

CLun,

OJ' l ' I C E OF SECRETARY, BANGOR, ME.,

June 5, 1891.

F. Ji'1rnr.rnnnuYsEN,
Chafr11uin of the C01nmittee on Finance,
Hi gh School Outing Club.

HAROJ,u

DEAH, Sm:
At a meetiug of the Bangor High School
Outing Clnh the question of an excursion to Moosehead Lake

------·
LESSONS I N LANGUAGE.

REPORTS OF COMl1f11'1'EES .

was referred to the finance committee, to report what the
probable cost of such an excursion would be, and whether
the condition of the financ es of th e club will warrant the
necessary expen<liture.
You are req nested to report at the next regular meeting.
Yours truly,

Cedents follows the rules given for tho agreement in
number of verbs with their subjects. See page 129.
If a pronoun has two or more antecedents of different
persons, it should be of the first person rather than the second or third, and of the second rather than the third; as, -

210

GEO IWl1

\V.

GERALD,

Secretary.

\-Vrite a noti ce of a reference to a eo mrniLtee of The
Daily Doings Club, of Ho me matte r to be reported upon by
the committee.

Lesson 244.
ESSAYS.

ANALYSIS. - \i\T rite full and d efinite instructions as to
the way in which a sen te nce sh ould be analyzed. Analyze
the first sentence of yo ur composition as an example.
S1~ELLING. -\i\Thy is good spelling important? Descrioo
a spelling-match.
CrHNEFm. - Give as foll a dc8c; ripti on ag you
appearance, habits, aml food o( the Chinese.

211

r·

Ellen and I have our books.
You and Harold may fold your hands.

f:

Tell the antecedent of each pronoun in the followin g
sentences, and stiite why t11c pro11oun has the number,
person, and gender that it has: -

i

?!

:·I
r:
I

•.I:

He was fond of nothing more than of wit and raillery, but
he was far from success ful in them.
Every one should forgive his enemy.
You and I must correct our exercises, or we s ha 11 lose our
credit.
One or the. other of these boys mnst give up his claim.
Every pupil may learn his lesson.
The multitude, with all their means of instruction, are
ignorant.
The public are invited, and we promise them much pleasure.
You and J~aura must give up your plan .
:E:thcl au<l 1 have ma<le"up OllL" min<ls.
Neither of them has any ku owlocl ge of this study.
Each of the concerts occurs on Monday.

i,:
'I

~
I

Lesson 245.
AGREEMENT OF PRONOUNS WITH THEIR
ANTECEDENTS.

In what r e8pects do pronouns agree with
dents?
The agreement in number of pronouns with their

Lesson 246.
REPORTS OF COMMITTEES.

At a meeting of the Bangor High School Outing Club
the advisability of an excursion, etc., was referred to the
finance committee.

.i

.

r

212

LESSONS I N LA NGUAGE.

·-\ -

"

~·:

1'1
I

AGREEMENT. -

SYNON YMS.

213

I
i

·:

The report of the committee might Le as follows: TIANGOn,· ME., June 12, 1891.

To THE OuTING CLun OF Tlrn BA NGOit Hmn SCHOOL:
The committee on fitrnnce, to whom pn the 5th day of .the
present month was referred the <]_uestion of a proposed excursion to Moosehead Lake, with instructions to ascertain the
probable cost of such an excursion, and to report whether the
condition of the finan ces of the club is such as to w::urnnt this
expenditure, respectfully report,
That they have given due attention to the matter referred
to them, and find that a special car seating sixty persons,
etc., etc.
Ues pectfnlly R11bmittecl,
]To r the Committee,
HAROLD F. FRELINGHUYSEN,
Chairman.
Copy and complete the report above.
-+<>+--

Lesson 247.
SIMILES.

Here are some similes: As hard as a rock.
As sly as a fox.
vVrite ten similes containing as.
Here are more similes : It stirs the heart like the sound of a trumpet.

His words fell soft like snow upon the grournl.
H e came in smiling like a summer morning.
vV rite ten similes containing like.

Lesson 248.
AGREEMENT.

In each of the following se11tences which form of the
verb aml of the prnnoun is correct? vVrite the sentences
·,. as they should be written.
The assemuly [was, were J divided in [its, their] opinions.
A circle, a sq narc, or a triangle [pleases, please J the eye
by [its, their] regularity.
·
Neither Albert nor Wn,llace [has, have J finished [his, their]
task.
The British l'arliament [is, are] composed of Queen, Lords,
· and Commons.
'l'he Congress of the United States [consists, consist] of a
Senate and a House of Representatives.
·what case [has, have] each of the nouns?
~

Lesson 249.

I

I

SYNONYMS.

.j

Farther is used with reference to distance; ftlrther is
used with reference to quantity or <legree.
Contemptuous means expressing contempt; conteniptible
means deserving contempt.

·j
j

Explain the difference in meaning between "a contemptuous remark " and "a contemptible remark."
Copy these sentences, selecting the right word from
those in brackets : I shall say nothing [farther, further].

';

214

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

vVhat [farther, further] proof do you need?
How much [farther, further] must we go?
·which is [further, farther] from here, New York or
Boston'?
Do you wish to hear anything [farther, further] on this
subject?
Her face wore a [contemptuous, contemptible] expression
as she turned away from those [contemptuous, contemptible J
people.
His first remark was a [contemptible, contemptuous] one!
showing that he-considered the matter of little consequence; ·
the second was truly [contemptuous, contemptible], and deserved the scorn with which it was treated.
He gave a [contemptuous, contemptible] look at the [contemptuous, con tern ptible J sum offered for his bravery.
They expressed a very [contemptuous, contemptible J opinion of such baseness.

Lesson 250.
ESSAYS

THE SENATE AND THE HOUSE OF RI~PRESENTATIVES.
- Of how many men does the Senate consist? The •
House of Representatives? How many senators are there.
from each State? How many representatives from each
State? How is a senator chosen? A representative? ·-:_
How long does each hold office? vVhere do these legislators meet? \Vhat is the difference between the duties
of a senator and those of a representative?
_
A FOREIGN STn.EET. -Describe a street in Japan or in ,:
India, giving the appearance of the houses, the shops, and -' the people.

FIGURES OF SPEECH.

215

A RlVER. -Describe any river you choose, tracing it
from its source to its mouth, and naming the important
places along its banks.

Lesson 251.
DIALOGUE.

vVrite a conversation between two boys of different
schools about a foot-ball game in which the schools participated.

Lesson 252.
FIGURES OF SPEECH.

The term fi.qure signifies the form or shape of an object.
The square, the triangle, the circle, etc., are plane figures.
One whose actions are so great or so remarkable that they
stand out before the mind in a distinct form of their own
is said to make a figure in the world. In a similar way
an expression which departs from ordinary forms of speech
is called a figure of speech, or a rhetorical figure. The
language in figures may be said to have a figurative use.
The simile is a rhetorical figure which we have already
studied.
1. She is very pleasant.
2. Her manners are like sunshine.
3. 'fhe sunshine of her manners pleases all.
These sentences have much the same meaning.
of them contains a simile?

Which

216

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

CLAU8ES AND CONNECTIVES.

In the third sentence we do not say directly that her
manners are like sunshine, but we lead onr readers to
think so ; in other words, we imply it. 'The simshine of
her manners is an implied comparison.

Here the clause When numbers are expressed in words
is connected to the word unpainted. It is therefore a subordiuate clause, and the clause they are left unpainted is
the principal clause .
.A subordinate clause is al ways used as though it were
a noun, au adjective, or an adverb; and hence is called a
noun clause, an alljective clause, or an adverbial clause,
acconliug to its use.
The words most frequently used as co-onlinate conjunctions are and, but, for, or, nor, there.fore.
The words most frequently used as subordinate conjunctions are as, because, before, for, since, so, tltouglt, that, l'ill,
until, unless, if, after, although, except.
In the following sentences what clauses are co-ordinate?
By what kind of conjunctions are they connected? Which
are the subordinate clauses? Which are the subordinate
conjunctions 't ',Yhich are the principal clauses?

An implied comparison is called a metaphor.

.A metaphor is a rhetoricitl figure, and its language is
figurative language.

Lesson 253.
CLAUSES AND CONNECTIVES.

The term element in grammar means a word, a phrase, or
a clause that has a distinct use of its own. [See page 43.]
Elements are co-ordinate when they are of the same
rank, or are used in the same way. vVheu one element
is used to modify another, the element which is modified .
is called the principal element, and the modifier is called
the subordinate element.
Clauses nrny be connccte<l with others of equal rank, or
they may be connected to a word in another clause.
vVhen a clause is connected to a word, it is subordinate
to that word, and the clause in which the modified word
stands is called a principal clause.
vVe nrny give advice, but we cannot give conduct.
Here the two clauses are of equal rank, neither modifying the other. They are called co-ordinate clauses.
vVhen numbers are expressed in words, they are usually left
unpointed.

217

Hurry is the mark of a weak mind, but despatch is the
mark of a strong one.
The good which men do is not lost, though it is often disrcganlc(l.
Our blessings are the least heetlcd, because they are the
most common events of life.
A clownish air is only a small defect ; yet it is enough to
make a man disagreeable.
It is true that we are never too old to be taught.
Make a proper use of your time; for the loss of it can
never be repaired.
·war is the law of violence, while peace is the law of love.
That which cannot be cured must be endured.
Remember Davy Crocket's advice, Look before you leap.

218

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

DESCRIPTION.

Lesson 254.
ANALYSIS. - CO-ORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS.

Analyze the following sentences: 1. I saw James and J olm. 2. I saw James or J·ohn. 3. I
did not see James, but J·ohn. 4. My days and nights were
filled with joy and peace. v. The fox ran across the meadow
and up the hill. G. I and My Father are one. 7. Neither the
boy nor his father was present. 8. I will either go immediately or send some one. 9. Both the girl and her mother
denied all knowledge of the affair. 10. Napoleon commenced
his career a stranger by birth and a scholar by charity.
Co-ordinate connectives may be indicated by the sign +
above them; as, -

219

Copy and complete the form above.
Write a report of a special committee.
In case the several members of the committee are to
sign the report, the form of closing would become: Respectfully submitted,
HORACE ANDERSON,

DA YID

l

Chainnan,
STOWELL
'
\ n
't
S ecret ary (. vommit ee.

ANDREW NICHOLSON,'

j

.

MARTIN VAN BUREN,

+

Lesson 256.

I saw Jam es and Jolin.
---- -0

DESCRIPTION.

Lesson 255.
REPORT OF COMMITTEES.

To

THE HoNORAULE THE C1TY CouNcn, OF TUE
CITY OF ATJ,ANTA:

The Joint Committee to which on the 4th day of April,
1889, was referred a resolution ............ ... ........................... ..
. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .. . . . . . .. .. respectfully report,
That
Respectfully submitted,
For the Committee,

Chairrnan.

Probably you can now write more extended and complete descriptions than you have yet done. Study the
outline and the notes, and from them write a second description of the apple.
Tim

Oun..JNE

APPLE•.

[N o.2. J

1. Kind, or species.
2. Distribution .
Growth.
4. Description of parts.
5. Uses.

r
13.

NOTES. - Fruit long cultivated - introduced by Romans
into England - wild crab-apple tree, small and stunted, the
parent of all varieties - varieties numerous - grows best in

220

PREAMBLE AND RESOLUTIONS.

LESSONo IN LANGUAGE.

eolder parts of temperate zone - found also on coasts of
l\iediterrane::\,ll Sea, iu Arabia, .Persia, West Indies - propagated by grafting, sometimes by layers and cuttings - requires
fertile soil and sheltered place - early and late apples greatest height of tree thirty or forty feet - wood of tree
hard and close-grained - leaves broadly ovate, woolly beneath,
acutely notched - flowers in cluster, large, white, rose-colored
externally, fragrant - fruit roundish, narrowest towards apex,
depression at each end, hard aml firm - color various, green, ·
yellow, light or dark red, streaked, brown, and almost black
~rind downy, smooth, thick or thin, and almost transparent
- average size, three inches in diameter - most valuable of
all fruits - wood useful - bark contains yellow dye - fruit
used for dessert, baking, preserving, drying, making jelly,
cider, vinegar, malic acid for mediciual purposes.

Lesson 257.

221

when it is used to earry its idea to au object to which it
does not naturnlly belong.
vVe use metaphors in every-day speech. If a teacher
says, "John, you may go to the head of the class," he uses
:t metaphor. He ineans that ,John may go to that place
in the class which is the same to the rest of the class as
the head is to the rest of the body.
A metaphor is said to be explained when its meaning is
made clear, and the way is pointed out in which its figumti ve sense is deri vecl from its literal sense. The metaphor
in the sentenc~, "John, you may go to the head of the
class," has just been explained.
Explain the following metaphors: John is at the foot of the class. I have found the root of
the trouble. This is the ground of my complaint. Laura,
you are a jewel. The metaphor is the gem of figures. You
see the fruit of your patient efforts. There is no cloak for
your sins. He is the spring of all our joys.

THE METAPHOR.

The metaphor, or implied comparison, while the most
striking and most JJle:isiug of rhetorical figures, is at the
same time the most common.
A clay when the sun shines may be called a sunny day, ,.
but we may also say a sunny face.
The word sweet describes sugar and honey, but we all
know what is meant by a sweet child.
The words sunny and sweet, as they are first used in the
sentences above, h~we their literal sense; in the second
use, they have their figurative sense.
A word is used in a literal sense when it has its simplest
and most natural meaning. A word has a figurative sens~ .

Lesson 258.
PREAMBLE AND RESOLUTIONS.
~ ou

are. a member of a club whose treasurer has just
resigned lus office on account of his removal to another
city. You desire to show him that you recognize the
value of his services to the club and regret his departure.
At a meeting of the club, it will be proper for you to
introduce the following preamble and resolutions: Whereas, Our worthy and respected Treasurer, William F.
Carrigan, has resigned his office in this club antl is about to

CORRELATIVE C'ONJU.NC'1'10NS.

LEScONS JN LANGUAGE.

222

. 1' ·t 011 to enter the service of tl1c 01<1 Colony Tta.il-.
. . , ... ,, to this clu\J hav e been of
remov e to •0 ::>
roa.d a.nd wh erea.s, 1u s ser vices
.
.
.'.
, 1 , to its interests; thcrefow, Le it
.
.
spencml lv ,~ tlw Tha.t we }>lace ou record our appreciatwu of tl.ie
\,eso vel,
'
.
1 · •l h e has chsLT t
1 courtesy wit 1i w tie i
'
faithfuln ess, a ui 1 y, am
' f ti · clttb and of that
· · t"
· tre··i surer o
us
'
chargeLl 111s llu ies as . '
.. ~ 1 him to his fcllow1
pleasant intercourse w lud1 has c m c,ueL

members.
t l\i . Carrigan our best wishes
Resolved, That we tem1er 0
1.
.
h
. tl i·m1)o rt<.wt iiosition to wlnch e
for his future success m ie
has been called.
·
b
rossed co11y of these resulut10ns e
el\g
l'{.esol ved, That an
presented to Mr. Carrigan.
. the following form n.s they

Copy these resolutiorn; m
.
i
1
to
Mr
Carnaa.n:
will ai)pea.r w 1ien presen"el
· ' b

.

[lleaurng.]

!\lit.

'\VM. ]1'. CA1rn1<;AN.
DEAlt F1uEN D :

At a meeting of ..... ........ . ···· ······ ·· ···· ···· ..... ... .. ..,
held .. ...... ........ ... .. ······ ·· .. , th e following r esolutions were
unanimously adopted:
vVhereas, Our · · ·· ·· ·· ···· · ··· · ··· · ·· · ··· ··· · ··· · ··· .. .. ···· ·· ·
·· ········ ........ ·· · ···· ··· ······ ··· ·· ·· ·
········ ··· ·· ·· · ........ ,

President.

······· ··· ······ .. . . .. . .,
Secretary.

Lesson 259.
CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS.

Words used in pairs as connectives are called correlatives.

The following are the principal correlatives; -

As-as :
· 80-as:
Huth - :Llld:
Eith e r-or:
I f - the11:
Neither - 11or:
So - that:
t-luch - a,s:
Thou gh - y et:
·w heth er - or:
Better - than :

223

He is a::; tall as you arc.
He is 11ot so tall as you are.
H e is both talented aml arn uitions.
Either speak more tlistiuctly or keep ::;till.
If you wish it, then I will go.
N either protestations nor entreaties availed.
It is so lhrk that I uau scaruely sec.
I have scleeted s uch tliings as I think l 11eed.
Though the \Joy is poor, yet h e is ambitiou::;.
I know not whether to praise or to \Jlame you.
He is better than you suppose.

Auy aLlje ctive in the com1x1ra.tive <legree may be used as
a correlative of than.
The first correlative m each set or pair is either a conjunction, an adjective, or au a<lverb. 1£ it is a conjunction, it joins witl1 the second correlative in ma.king tlie
couu edio11.
If the first conehtive is an adjective or an adverb, it
performs its own office as au a<ljective or an adverb, and
by anticipa.tion a<l<ls emphasis to the conelati ve which
follows.
For cx:wiple, in the sentence," He i8 a8 tall as you are,"
the firnt as is an a<lverb modifying tall; the second as connects the clause y oit are to as, which it mo<lifies.
The secon<l correlative in each pa.ir is a conjunction.
[Except as after such or same. See page 198.J
Co-or<linate and conelati ve conjuuctious join the same
cases of nouns and prnnouns, the same modes and tenses
of verbs, and the same forms of elements; i.e. words to
wor<ls, pl1mses to pl1mses, aml clauses to clauses.
Use each of the given pa.irs of correlatives in an original
sentence, and tell the construction of each correlative.

224

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

CORREL.ATZVE CONJUNCTIONS.

Less on 260.

Lesson 261.

CAUTIONS.

FIGURATIVE USE OF ADJECTIVES. -FADED
METAPHORS.

The correhttive of either should be or.
The correbti ve of n either should be nor.
Insert or or 1w1· in these bbnks: Neither lVfary - - tT ulia has answered correctly.
I shall either stay here - - go to the cou ntry.
The poor boy lrnd neither shoes - - stockings.
.
H e kn ew neith er me - - my father.
The sky looks as though it would either snow - - ram.
Do not use such for so .
Such is an at1jecLive, meaning of that kind; while so is
1n the se ntcu cc, "l 11cvcr ::;aw such
•
an rtll ve1.Lu of llcoTec
0
a flower before," the meaning is, "I never before saw a
flow er of that kind." In the sentence, "I never kn ew so
eloquent a man," the adverb so is used to express the
d eo-ree of eloquence.
Ile careful in the use of lilce and as .
If the second part of a comparison is expresse~ ~y _a
uoun or a pronoun, it may have lilce before it; .lmt if it is
expressed by a clause, it shoulu have as before it; thus, Act like a gentleman.

Act as a gentleman should act.

Be careful in the use of the correlatives so - as and
as_ as. vVhen a negative is expresse d or implied, use
as; thus, If l'm not so large as you, you are not so small as I, and
not half so spry.
Write five sentences containing like, five containing as,
five containi11g as - as, and five coutaining so - as.
so -

225

T ell in which of the following expressions the adjective
has a literal a.nu in which a figurative use: -

'

l

A hanl rock. A haru lesson. A hard winter.
A bitter pill. A bitter <lisappointment. A bitter experience.
A tender pbnt. A ten<ler heart. A tender expression.
A heavy responsibility. A heavy weight. A heavy style.
A dull boy. A dull knife. A dull day.
A smooth story. A smooth rogue. A smooth piece of ice.
A burning shame. A burning coal. A burning blush.
l\fotaphors so common that we do not regard them as
unusual expressions are sometimes called "faded metaphors." Some of the examples below are of faded metaphors.
'Ve talk of right conduct, of fair dealing, of a town's
being storm ed, of a flow of words, of the liglit of nature,
of plucking from the memory a rooted sorrow, of a torrent
of passion, of speaking eyes, of the standing of a pupil in
his class, and all these are metaphors. Explain them.
Finu ten metaphors in your reading lesson.

Lesson 262.
CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS.

Correlative conjunctions should Le placed before the
same parts of speech.
It is a co mmon error to place 0ue conjun ction before a

226

l>ESCE t P1'10N.

LESSONS I N LANGlJA C:E.

verb aml the oLhcr before an0Ll 1cr part o[ speech. Do not
say," This exercise noL only must be written correctly, but
also n ea tly." The sentence shoulcl Le," This exercise must
be written not only correctly, but a,lso n ca,tly."
Expbin the enor in each of these sentences. vV rite
the senten ces corrccLly.
The prisoner will receive either t en lhys' imprisonment or
be fine<l several dollars.
L et us not only consider the lesson, but also the application.
'l'h e street neither is p:wcd nor lighte<l.
Not only Rhoul<l you hav e given advice, hut nJso assistance.
Some men are not only dee med grertt liecanse of th eir own
ability, but also Lecause of the circumstances in which they
are placed.
God never designed that any cornlition in life shonkl either
be altogether fortunate, or c0111plctcly wrct che1l.
The poor chikl neither ha<l a home of her own nor friencls
to whom she could go.
The man is not only skilful himself in the use of n11 sorts
of tools, but he al so itml erstands how to oversee other workmen.
He is both di stinguished a,s a. teach er and n, scholar.
Our pleasures mt.her seem to spring from things too low
than t oo high.
vVe shonld both consider the :ulv:wtages and the disadvantages of this plan.
Al though much is Llone for the poor o[ New York, the
suffering among th em is yet great .
Th e house is both well lucatecl an<l has also all the rnoclern
improvements.
Although there has been little cola weather this winter, a
large amount of ice has still been gathered.

227

Lesson 263.
DESCRIPTION.

Study carefully the fine description in this lesson of a
farm-yard dming a storm, written by Washington Irving.
After you have done thit:l, compare it with the description
which you wrote on the same subject, as directed on page

156.
vVrite a letter to your teacher in which you explain the
difference Letween the two descriptions.
A

l1'AHM-YAI1.D DUIUNG A STORM.

'l'he place was littered with wet straw that had been kicked
about by travellers a,ml stable-boys. In one corner was a
stag11an t pool of wa,ter. There were several half-llrowned
fowls crowded together unde r a cart, among which was a
miserable, crest-fallen rooster, drenched out of all life ancl
spirit, his drooping feathers matted, as it were, into a single
plume, aloug which the water trickled from his back.
N ear the cart was a half-dozing cow, chewing the cud, and
standing patiently to he rained on, with wreaths of vapor
rising from h er reckin g hi<le. A wall-eyetl horse, tired of the
loneliness of his stable, was poking his spectral head out of a
window, with the rain dripping on it from the eaves. An
unhappy cnr, chained to a dog-house hard by, uttered something every now anc1 then, between a bark and a yelp.
An u tH:umc ly se rva11 t-girl tram peel backward a,nd forward
through the yard on pattens, looking as sulky as the weather
itself. Everythiug, in short, was comfortless and forlorn,
excepting a, crew o[ ha.nlonod ducks, asse mbl ed, like boon corn- ·
panions, round a pu<ldle, an<l making a ri otous noise over their
1if1U01'.

228

SIMILES AND METAPHORS.

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

229

two resolutions in reference to the management of the
dub and the use of the periodicals for the coming year.
As secretary send these resolutions to the chairman of
the library committee, stating by whom they were introduced, that they have been referred, etc.

Lesson 264.
EXTENDED PARAPHRASE.
THE BLACJ\Sl\IITH's SHOP.

I could pa.int the blacksmith's dingy shop,
Its sign, a pillar of smoke;
The farm-horse halt, the rough-haire<l colt,
And the jade with her neck in a, yoke ;
The pony that made to himself a, law,
And wouldn't go und er the saddle, nor draw!
The poor old mare at the door-post,
vVith joints a,s stiff as its pegs: Her one white eye, and her neck awry, And the thriftless farmer that usecl to stau<l
And curry her ribs with a, kindly hand.
ALlCE CAIW.

Describe a blacksmith's dingy shop and the blacksmith
at work. Some of the h orses that are brought him to
be shod are partially described in the stanzas 9£ this
lesson. Describe them more fully.

Lesson 266.
SIMILES AND METAPHORS.

Explain the similes and the metaphors in the followmg: Ill habits gather by unseen degrees,
As brooks make rivers, rivers run to seas.
Habit is a cable; we weave a thread of it each day, and at
last we cannot break it.
The twilight hours, like birds, flew by
As lightly and as free ;
Ten thousand stars were in the sky,
Ten thousand in the sea.
Electricity is the soul of the earth.
But yonder comes the powerful king of day
Rejoicing in the east.

Lesson 265.
RESOLUTIONS.

The use of a pream1le to state the occasion for the resolutions that follow, or the reason for them, makes the
resolutions more formal, but is not always essential.
You are a rnem1er of The Daily Doings Club. Write

Make golden stairways of your weaknesses.
Kinclnes5 is th e music of good-will to men.
On the motionless bnmches of some trees, autumn berries
hang, like clusters of cora.l beads.
Hope is like the sun, which, as we journey towards it, casts
the shaaow of onr burden behind us.
Human experience, like the stern lights of a ship at sea,
illumine only the paths whieh we have passed over.
·

230

L ESS ONS JN LANGUAGE.

ESSAYS.

231

Lesson 268.

Lesson 267.

ESSAYS.
SIMPLE, COMPLEX, AND COMPOUND SENTENCES.

Co AL.
OuTLTNE: -

Every sentence has a snLject and a predicate, or is ma<le
up of clauses which lmve subjects an<l prellica,tcs.

l. \,Y hcre found.

~. Composition .. ~ How proved,
( H ow tra.nsformetl.
Black,
3. Properti es ·
· Hard,
Heat-giving.
. S Anthracite, for heating,
4. Kiuds · · ..
l Bitn1nin ous, for gas.
For warming,
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i or l'ig l itmg,
5. Uses . . . .
For cooking,
F or manufacturin g.

A simple sentence is one containing no c11mses.
A compound sentence is one composed of two or more clauses of

!

equal importance, no one of which is subordinate to another; as, -

How few are our real wants, and how vast our im agina.ry
ones!

..r
1

A complex sentence is one containing a principal clause with ,me

or more subordinate clauses; as, -

Nobody talks much that tloesn't say unwise things.

The clauses of a compound sentence may Le simple or
complex.
vVhat kind of sentence is each of these sentences?
Each day is th e scholar of yesterday.
Praise, like goltl. a.nu dia.montl.s, owes its vahrn only to its
scarcity.
Our sweetest s011gs are those that tell of sa.tl.des t thoughts.
Sow an act, and yon reap a habit; sow a. ha.bit, and you
reap a characte r; sow a. character, Uilll yo u reap a tl.estiny.
·what good ca.me of it a.11 at last?
Gooclness is the only in vestment that never fail s.
Every fact that is lea.m c(l \Jccomcs ~~key to other facts.
Some faces a.re, in tl1 cir bri ghtn ess, a proph ecy; a.ml some,
in their sadness, a history.
Genius begins great works, but labor alone fini shes them.

..

EssAY.
Coal is found in great abundance in the United States and
in most of the countries of Europe, especially in England,
13e1gium, a nd France . .
It is a mineral that has been formetl. from the vecretation
w.hich grew upon the earth thousancls of years ago; i71 many
kmds of coal the leaves of ferns ancl other plants are frequ ently found, and sometimes, t oo, th e trunks of large trees.
As the plants and trees fe ll and deca.yec.1, th ey became imbe<l<lcd in the soil , and were covered with earth which
hanl c nc(l to stone. Th ere th ey lay for ages after ages, until,
by heat a1ul pressure, they hecame tra11sfonnecl into coal.
Coal is n black all(l ha. nl miu ernl. Its most important
quality is the readiness with which it burns, and its power
of givin g ont h eat while burnin g.

232

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233

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

CONTRAST.

The chief kinds of coal are the hard anthracite and the soft
bituminous; the former is used for ordinary heating purposes;
the latter for the gas which it gives off when heated, which is
conveyed to our houses to give us light.
The benefits which we obtain from coal can scarcely be told .
It warms and lights our dwellings, and cooks our food. By
its help we obtain steam, which works all our machinery, and
drives our locomotives.
There are many mannfacturing towns in our country which
owe their importance, and in many cases their existence, to
this mineral.

As secretttry write to one of the persons to whom a
resolution of thanks has been voted and send him a copy
of the resolution.
The Natural History Society of your school has voted
to ask the principal and the assistants in the first room to
accompany the Society as its guests upon its next excur·
s10n. Inform them of the action of the Society.

Lesson 271.

Show how the essay corresponds with its outline.

CONTRAST.

Lesson 269.
SYNONYMS.

State the distinction in meaning between: -

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idle and indolent
character and reputation
pride and vanity
haste and hurry
vcn;e and stanza

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wealth
mirth
acute

poverty
s:ulness
dull

labor
barren
polite

rest
fertile
rucle

work
hot
cautious

play
cold
rash

vVrite ten pairs of contrasted words.
Point out the contrasts in the following sentences: -

~j

:, ..

By contrast we perceive things more clearly, as when a
white surface is put beside a black, a red beside a blue.
It is, therefore, a most useful aid to composition.
Here are some examples of words showing contrast in
meamng: -

Lesson 270.
RESOLUTIONS.

The Natural History Society of your school has had an
excursion, and has received favors and courtesies from several persons, and also from a society whose hospitality it
enjoyed. vVrite a seri es of resolutions in acknowledgment.

Sink or swim, live or die, I give my hand and my heart to
this vote.
He hath cooled my friends and heated mine enemies.
We see more of the world by travel, more of human nature
by remaining at home.
If his jests are coarse, his arguments are strong.
Goldsmith has the a,rt of being minute without tediousness,

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234

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

and general without confusion; his language is copious without exuberance, exact without restraint, aml easy without
weakness.
He was too judicious to commit faults, but not :mfficie11tly ·
vigorous to attain excellence.
This land considered as a pasture, from an ani1ncLl's poi11 t
of view, imrnt he disappointing, but to a tra.iued eye, when
considered as a lamlscape~ it has a charm and fascination.
Wide is the gate, atHl broad is tlte way, that leadeth to
destrnction, aml many there be which go in thereat, because
strait is the gate, and narrow is the way, which lcadeth uuto
life, and few there Le that fiml it.

T'UNC1'UA1'10N. -

TIIE SEMICOLON.

235

In written analysis of compound sentences the separate
clauses, if desired, may be enclosed in oblique brackets; ·
thus,+

(~ ~' anu (he~)
The marking of each clause is all that really is required,
however; as the eye readily perceives the subjects and
predicates which indicate the clauses; thm;, +

He must walk, but we shall ride.
=== ~

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111 others we admire self respect, Lut despise self esteem.
Find in your ReaJer five good examples of contrast;

Lesson 273.
PUNCTUATION. -THE SEMICOLON .

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Lesson 272.

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ANALYSIS. -COMPOUND SENTENCES.

AuaJyze
the followiw•·
sentences: .
b
1. I will go, arnl he may remain. 2. He must walk, but we
shall ride. 3. I sl1oulcl have called John, Lut he came of his
own accord. 4. I will see his parents, or you may spea,k to
them about their son's advancement. 5. He will not go, nor
will he send his brother. G. All dread tleath, yet few prepare
for it. 7. Reason frequently errs, wherea,s instinct seldom
makes a mistake. 8. He has failed, yet he strives ma,nfully
on against all obstacles. ~). He would not explai11, nor would
he make a,ny restitution. 10. He 1vent a, private ~11<-l retqrned
a, capt:iiu.

rVhen as, viz., e.g., i.e., to wit, thus, namely, or that is,
introduces an example, a semicolon should be placed before
and a comma after it.
lVhen the clauses of a compou,nd sentence contain commas,
they should be separated by the semicolon; as, New York was the seat of the government; and as 'Va,shingto11 travelled thither from his home in Virginia, he had
enthusiastic greetings everywhere.
NOTE. - If the clauses of a compound sentence are
short and closely connected, they may be separated by a
comma even though they contain commas.
Complete the punctuation of the following sentences: -

'l'oward the source or beginning of a river is up stream and
toward th~ opposite eud or mouth is down stream.

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236

LESSONS JN

LANGU~1GE.

The t emperate countries of the world form two temperate
zones the northern extends from the Tropic of Cancer to the
Arctic Circle the southern from the Tropic of Capricom to the
Antarctic Circle.
The town pump once made a speech and this is what it
said: Cold water boys is the best drink it purifies everything
preserves everything and refreshes everything drink it and
you will be healthier and happier than if you drank any other
drink.
vVhen a writer reasons we look only for d earness when he
describes we expect embellishment wh en he decides or relates
we desire plainness and simplicity.
The point on th e horizon at which the sun nses is called
the East, at which it sets the ·west.
Eunice has five cents Cora has seven cents which has the
more money Eunice or Cora'?

Lesson 274.
ESSAY. - ICE.

vVrite an essay about ice, Ly answering the following
questions : -

I.

1. \iVhat is ice?
2. vVhat different forms does it take?
3 . . What is an icicle ? 4. ·what is hail ? 5. ·what is sleet ?
6. ·what is a glacier?
7. What is an iceberg ? 8. Of what
use is ice ? 9. ·where do we get it? 10. How is it gathered?
11. Is there any country where there is no ice? 12. \iVhen
water freezes, does it expand or contract ? 13. ·w hat causes
water-pipes to burst in very cold weather? 14. Describe a
winter scene where boys and girls are having great sport upon
the ice.

A CONPAUJSON OF STYLE.

237

Lesson 275.
A COMP ARI SON OF STYLE.

Compare the Lwo following passages. Observe that the
use of contrast has made the second clearer and more
forcible than the first. Point out the contrasts in tho
second.
Lineoln and Garll.eld snffcrctl the same fate, though Lincoln
died at the close of a heavy war, while the nation was at
peace at the time of Garfiekl's death.
Garfi el!l's tenible fate eitme upon him instantly, striking
him <lown iu the prime of life. Helpless, bleeding, and
wou1Hlc<l, he awaitcll many long weeks of torture, and, at last,
the silence of the grave.
Lincoln fell at the close of a mighty struggle, in which the
passions of men had been deeply stirred. Garfield was slain
in a clay of peace, when brother had been reconciled to brother,
and wh en anger and hate had been banished from the land.
His terrible fat e was upon him in an instant. One moment
he sto0<l erect, strong, confident in the years stretching out
peace fully before him. Th e next he lay wounded, lileeding,
helpless, doom ed to weary weeks of torture, to silence, and the
grave.
JAMES G. BLAINE.

Lesson 276.
THE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE.

1. A rich man is envied.
2. A man who is rich is envied.
Is the first sentence simple, complex, or compound?

238

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

What is the second? \\That adjective element is there in
the first sentence'? \\That does it modify? vVhat adjective element is there in the secoml sentence? What does
it modify? vVhat kind of clause is who is rich?
A clause used as an adjective is called an adjective clause.

Point out the adjective clauses in these sentences, and
tell what noun each clause modifies : Those berries that you ha,ve gathered are poisonous. [ '1.'hose
berries are poisonous is the princi pa,l clause, tlwt yon have gathered is the subordinate clanse. That ymi have gathered is an
adjective clause, and mollifies berries. J
A man that gives to the poor is called charitable.
The lesson that I have given you will require study.
He that has much spirit makes most of his life.
'fhey are not the best students that are most dependent on
books.
The happiest man is he that has no thought for himself.
The man that has only himself to please finds himself a
hard master.
The connectives in the sentences are all relative pro~
11ou11:;;. Poiut them out. Wltat do they co1111cd? Wliat
are their antecedents? Of what gemler, pen;on, and number is each relative'? [Look at the antecedent to determine this.] Of what case is each relative? [Look at the
subordinate clause to leam this.]
An adjective clause may be connected to the noun which
it modifies by a conjunctive adverb.
Name the adjective clause, the conjunctive adverb, and
the modified noun in t11e sentences below: The reason why I came is understood.
The time when we are to start has not been fixed.

PUNCTUA 1'10.N.

239

The laud wherein they <lwell is fruitful.
He knows the subject whereof he speaks.
The place whereon thou standest is holy ground.
He found the place where it was written.
Sometimes the connective is omitted. Supply the connectives in the sentences which follow. Tell the adjective
clause and the noun modified.
'Tis education forms the common mind. [which J
J 'm 111011arch of all I survey.
The book you mention must be interesting.
vVe must make the best bargain we can.
The friends he loved have departed.
The first thing a man has to do in this world is to turn his
possibilities into powers.
The maps you have drawn are very well done.

Lesson 277.
PUNCTUATION . -THE ADJECTIVE PHRASE
AND CLAUSE.

A phrase or clause is restrictive when it limits the use
of the noun or pronoun with which it is connected, and
cannot be omitted without destroying the sense; as,_
No Vice-President who had become President has died
during his t erm of office.
The tomb of \iVashington is at Mt. Vernon.
A phrase or clause is explanatory when it gives some
additional thought or adds a description; as, The Governor, who is the chief executive officer of a state,
has the title of "His Excellency."

240

LESSONS IN J,A NC:UAUE.

ANALYSIS.-· ADJECTIVE CLAUSES.

241

H:wing approved the plan the king put it into execution.

An adjective phrase beginnillg wiLh a preposition is
restridive. Au explauatury tLlljecLive phrnsc is really
parenthetical.
An adJective phrase or clause, unless restrictive, should be
separated from the rest of the sentence by cmnrnas.
Complete the punctua,Liun uI the Iollowi11g sentence:::;: -

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Awkw:ucl i_n his person James was ill-cakulatecl to command
r espect.
Ed ward apprehensive of clanger to the province put it in a
position of defence.
From the summit of Vesuvius darkly visible in the clist<mce
shot a, pale meteoric livid light.
Our \Nes t ern prairies stretchiug as far a,s the eye can reach
a,ll(l covered with tall grass moving with a wav e-like motion
in the wiml l1avc often lmcll cornparc1l tu seas.
The U uitell States of America is the largest arnl most successful republic in the world educating its citizeus so tkLt they
may be able to make good bws and choose goocl rulers.
Slrnk espeare who lived in the reign of Queen Elizabeth was
the greatest of all the English poets.
'l'he messengers who hrought the news of our army's defeat
were immediately seized and imprisoned.
Happy is the man that findeth wisdom and the man that
w~tteth uuclerstaucling length of days is in her right hand and
in her left hand riches and honor her ways are ways of pleasantness and all her paths are peace.
The stars which twinkle are all distant suns shining like
our sun with their own light those which do not twinkle are
worlds like our earth and are rolling with it about our sun at
various distances they are called planets the sun with its
planets including the earth is called the solar system.

Lesson 278.
ANALYSIS-ADJECTIVE CLAUSES.

· Analyze the following sentences : 1. The man who was sick has returned. 2. The soldier,
whose arm was amputated, has not r eturned to the army.
3. The lady w110111 we just met is my cousin's wife. 4. Those
four books which were lying in the desk were dictionaries.
5. The birds which we now hear are called gold-finches.
G. Did you see the carriage arnl harness that were exhibited
at the fair? 7. ·who that respects liimself would do such
things? 8. I will take such things as are brought. 9. I will
take such things as you bri11g. lO. The grave where he is
burieLl is in yonder churchyard. 11. vVe knew the very
minute wheH ho left the <~ity. 12. "\Ve were presellt on the
day when the assemLly met. 13. I will see whoever comes.
14. I will do whatever he oruers.

A suLonlinate connective is indicated by the sign of
ine(pmlity, > or < , placed aLove it, with t]1e opemng
turned toward the pri1wi1ml element; thus, ->
The man who was sick has returned.
===== ======
- --~

~

Lesson 279.
FIGURATIVE AND COMMONPLACE STATEMENTS.

The beauty of figurative language must not be spoiled by
the addition of a commonplace statement.

243

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

PUNCTUATION.

The thirsty em-th absorbed the gentle shower, the tto:v~rs
raised their drooping h eads, aml all nature seemed to reJoice
iu this timely Lounty of h ea,ven, but the streets were muddy.

Study the punctun.tion of these three sentences. Exn.mple 1 is not i11 the form of an enumeration of particulars,
and the punctuation is that of the series.

The commonpln.ce cln.use at tlie eml of this sentence. is
in strange and rn1pleas:wt contrast with the figurative

1. The New E11glaud States are Maine, New Hampshire,
Ve rm on t, Massachusetts, Hl10de Islan<l, and Connecticut.
2. There are six New England states; Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Hhocle Island, n.nd Connecticut.
3. New England has six states : Maine, which is noted for
its shi.P-buildi11g, its trade in lumLer and ice, and its fine harbors; New Hampshire, remarkable for its fine sceriery; Vermont, chiefly :L grazing country, but noted also for its quarries
of marbles, son.pstone, and slate; Massachusetts, the third
state in the Union in the value of its manufactures ; Rhode
Island, the smallest state in the Union, but noted for its manufactures of cotton, wool, iron, and j ewelry; · and Connecticut,
which is note<l for a greater variety of manufactures than any
other state.

242

language tlmt precedes.
.
.
Show that the sentences b elow ai:e faulty m the same
r~spect.

The stained-glass 1vi11dow admits a light upon the pulpit as
soft and m ellow as moonlight, and it cost $800.
How sweetly the 1110011liglit sleevs upon this La11k, a11tl how
dry the grass looks.
.
He was a Napoleon in ba,ttle, and he was thirty years old.
Concerts and lectures, like poetry and periodi cals, tend to
relieve the mind and instrnct it, and J\fr. Shaw will tleliver his
illustrated lecture 11ext \Vednesday eve11iug.
Uabmities ca.me upou hin1 lik e the i11umlatio11s of the Nile;
Lut they only strengthened his fi xed determinati on to do right
whatever might happen, and h e uow began to learn stenography .

Lesson 280.
PUNCTUATION.-ENUMERATION OF PARTICULARS.

vVhen pn.rts are named ~rnJ placed in n.ppo::;ition with a
worJ denoting the whole, we ]rn,ve an enumeration of
particulars.

In an enumeration of pa1'l'ieulars, if tlw parts are separated from each other by commas, they should be separated
from the general term by a seniicolon; biit if the parts are
separated by a semicolon, they should be separated from
the general term by a colon.

Punctuate these sentences: North America has three principal mountain ranges the
Rocky l\fountains the California Mountains and the Appalachin.n Mountains.
The earth has two motions n, tlaily rotation upon its axis
and a yearly revolution around the sun.
'rhere are four seasons iu temperate climates spring summer
autumn n.ncl winter.
Mankind has been divided into five different races the vVliite
or Caucasian Ihce named from the C:iucasns Mountains the Yellow or Mongolian lt:we wh ich includes the Chinese and Japanese the Red or American Race which includes the American
Indians the Black or Ethiopian Race which inhabits the interior of Africa and the Brown or Malayan Race which includes
all the barbarous inhabitants of the world besides.

244

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LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

245

NO'l'JCE8.

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Lesson 281.

Lesson 283.

MIXED METAPHORS.
NOTICES.

She came steaming into the room, full sail, like a whirlwinJ.

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To take arms against a sea of troubles.
Her cheerful disposition, the jewel of her character, was the
chain which bouud the family togetlier.
These are the first fruits of my loug study, at last unearthed
and brought to light.
vVild fancies gamuolleJ unuridled through his urain, and
swept away all his firm resolves.
Idleness is the rnst of tl1e soul and t11e moth of destrnctio11.
The love of 111011ey, the rnot uf all evil, lays a snare for tl1e
feet of man.

It is the duty of the secreta.ry of a society or of a committee to issue, or post, or serve the notices of its meetings.
As secretary, write a notice of a special meeting of The
Daily Doings Club.
By the direction of the clu~irman of the committee on
fines and assessments write a notice to the members of the
committee to atte11d a meeting. Imitate the following
form: UEJ'AltTMENT OF runLJC ScilOOLS.
OJ·'FICE 01' 8ECllETARY.

Ihs Mo1 N Es, Iow A, Oct. 28, 1891.

Sn{:
Yon are respectfully requesteu to attend a meeting of the
Finance Ccnnm1ttee at the office of the Superintendent, on
Fl'iday, Oct. 30, 1891, at 12 o'clock M.
By ordel' of the Chairman,
EuGENE H. FrnLu,
Sccrelnry uf f:Jclwul Commillee.
W~L H. JuNES.
DEAl{

Lesson 282.

1.
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Here the movement is compared to a ste~tmboat, a sailing-vessel, aml a whirl wind, all in the same se11tence.
Metaphors are said to Le mixed when differing metaphors
are combined in the same sen te11ce . A sentence wl1 ich
contains mixed metavl10rs is neither clear nor forcible, and
should Le carefully avoided.
\Vherein are the following figmes faulty'? Improve
them.

'

Lesson 284.

BOOK REVIEW.

1. Tell who wrote the hook. \Vhen. vVhere. vVhy.
2. Give an outline of its plan.
3. What are some of its finest passages?
4. \Vhat irnpressio11 do you retain from its reading?
5. What advice do you give others as to reading it?

STORY TO BE IMITATED.
1

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\VAsP AND 'J'llE

B1m.

A wasp met a bee that was just buzzing Ly,
And he said, "Little cousin, can you tell me why
Yon are loved so much better by people than I ?

'246

LESSONS JN LANGUAGE.

"My back ·shines as liright and as yellow as gold,
And my slmpe is most elega11t, too, to beholll !
And yet, for all tlmt, no one likes me, I'm told."
"Ah, cousin," the bee saicl, "'tis all very true ;
But were I even half as nrnch mischief to do,
Then, I'm sure, they would love me no better than you.
"You have a fine shape and a delicate wing,
A11cl they say you are handsome, but then there's one thing
They can never put up with, and that is your sting.
"My coat is quite homely aml plain, as yon see,
Yet nobody ever is angry with me,
Because I'm a harmless and diligent bee."

What is tlte lesson to be drnwn from this story? vVhat
proverb could you use as its title?
vV rite a somewhat similar conversation between a hawk
and a lien.

Lesson 285.
PERIODIC, LOOSE, AND BALANCED SENTENCES.

Sentences having one or more places at which a period could be
placed and the remainder of the sentence omitted are called loose
sentences.
Sentences in which the sense could not be taken as complete until
the end of the sentence is reached are called periodic sentences.

PUNCTUATJON. -

ADVERBIAL ELE.MENTS.

247

Below are six sentences, three of which are loose, three
periollic. vVhich are periodic and which loose? Change
the periodic sentences into loose sentences, and the loose
sentences into periodic.
1. 'l'he Sphinx is a figure of a monster having the head of
a woman a,ml the body of a winged lion.
2. Hans A11derse11, a Danish author of this century, has
written some very fine stories for children.
3. N a,poleon was born in 1769 on the isla,nd of Corsica, and
he died in 1821, a prisoner on the isla,ncl of St. Helena.
4. The goverui11g of the 111dia11s, the ta,king of .the census,
the selling of lands to inunigrnnts, and the giving of patents
for inve11tions, are duties of the officers of the Interior Departme11 t.
5. The Thiergarten is a, large park of Berlin, situated along
the bauks of the Spree, two miles long by a mile in width,
with m:u1y fine trees, well-kept drives, and beautiful lakes.
6. No picture is better known than Leonardo da Vinci's
"Last Supper," millions of copies of which have been cnculated iu engravings, oil paintings, and photographs.
Find in your Reallcr five periodic sentences, five loose
sentences, and five lmlanced sentences.

Lesson 286.

All sentences n,re either periodic or loose. The language
of conversation is largely composed of loose sentences.

PUNCTUATION.-ADVERBIAL ELEMENTS.

Sentences whose clauses are constructed on the same plan are
called balanced sentences; as, -

Adverbial phrases or clauses, unless short and closely
connected to the word which they nwdify, should be set off
from the rest of the sentence by the comma ; as, -

The periodic sentence is the more forcible and formal; the
loose, the more clear and natural.

In old times, kings claimed to rule by Di vine right.

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LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

USE OF 1'1IE PRESENT TEN SE.

At Sheffielll, kniv es, forks, scissors, and cutlery of all kincls
are made.

Lesson 288.

248

249

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Complete the punctuation of the following 8cntences: In countries on the seacoast m en engage in fi shing where
there are fine for ests in lumbering and where th ere arc beds of
stone or ores in qu a rrying allll mi11in g.
On a frosty mornin g y ou may see the pa11es of glass cover eu
with la!lllscapes mountains lakes aml trees Llernled in a beautiful fairy picture.
By th e climate of a country we mean its degree of heat or
cold mois ture or dryn ess he:-i.lthfuln ess or u11h ealthful11 ess.
On l eaving th e torrid zon e tropical plants gratlually disappea,r in stead of the p alm and banaua tr ees we fiml th e beech
oak maple and pine.

,,..
Lesson 287.
ANALYSIS.-ADVERBIAL CLAUSES.

Analyze the following sentences: l. I will go wh e n y ou r eturn. 2. H e J1;u; just gon e wh ere
th e climate is more agreeable to him. 3. I heard g roans as I
approach ed the house. 4. vVh en you J1 e:-i.r his foot.ste ps, open
the door. 5. ·will he com e if th e rain ceases '? G. H e will
come unl ess the train is d elayed. 7. Th e tired soldi ers stopped
where ver ni ght ov ertook them. 8. vVe must hast en, as the
darkness is iucreasi11 g very rnpidly. ~). The birds tl e w off as
soon as we came in sight;. 10. [will go, provi11ed you r<>main.
11. He hurri ed becau se th e storm i11 creas etl. 1~. \Ve gave
up th e chase, for th e sun wn,s fast sinking LehiIHl th e western
hills.

USE OF THE PRESENT TENSE.

Jn making a statement of a present fact, or of :rnything
that is true at all times, the present tense should be used.
For example, in the sentence: "vV e were told to learn
what was the capital of each state in the U1:1ion," we refer
to the presei1t capitals of the states, and the sentence
should Le: "We were told to learn what is the capital
of each sta,te in the Union."
Explain why each of the following sentences is incorrect.
Write it conectly.
vVe l eametl in our l esson y esterday that water was com posed
of hyllrogc11 aml oxygen.
I did not und e rst and what your name was.
No one in the class could t ell how Popocatapetl was spelled .
The lrnil(ling we have just passeu was the High School.
The l ecturer began with the axiom that a straight line was
the shortest line betwee n two points.
Did you discover in your work that practice made perfect?
Eve ry child has been dis:tppointed when informed that
"Uobinso11 Crnsoc " was 11ot a trne story.
\iVer e you ne ver told that the sun and the moon could uot
both shine at tltc sam e time '?

Lesson 289.
SYNONYMS.

State tlie di8tinction in meaning between: delightful and delicious
common and mutual

hope and expect
qualified and competent

Use each of th e foregoing words in a sentence.

250

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

PUNCTUATION.

Lesson 290.

Lesson 291.
DESCRIPTION.

COPY OF RECORD.

A portion of the minutes of a secretary will often be
desired for a particular use, and he will be called upon for
the part of his records conceming some special action.
This item from the minutes may he given in the following form: PROVIDENCE,

R.J.,

IN Scuoor. Co11rn1TTEE,
Nov. 28, 1800.

Voted, That "The Leading Facts of American History," by
D. H. Montgomery, be nsed in the successive classes beginning
the study of United States history from this date.
Attest :
HENIW B. ltosE, Secretary.
Another form might be: At a Regular 1 J\Ieeting of the Literary and Social Club, held
Jan. 8, 1889, on motion of 'William Hendry, 2 it was
Resolved,3 That - Attest:
REGINALD A VERY, Sec'y.
1

251

If you should make a journey to Africa, what would
you expect to see there? Describe some of the scenes.
Describe some picture which you have seen.

Lesson 292.
PUNCTUATION.

Observe the use of the colon and semicolon in this exercise. Write the exercise from dictation.
vVe have two sets of teeth: 1. Temporary.
2. Permanent.
Many grammarians divide grammar into four parts: 2. Etymology.
1. Orthography.
3. Syntax.
4. Prosody.
We ought to study diligently for the following reasons:
1. By doing so we strengthen our powers; 2. We gain knowledge that will be of great service ; 3. vV e please our friends ;
4. We gain the approval of our own conscience.

2 Seconded by Owen Merideth.
Regular, special.
a Resolved, ordered, voted.

Give a copy of minutes certifying that a contract for
building a school-house has been awarded to - - .
Give a copy of minutes showing that a prize for excellence in reading \Vas awarded to --by the judges selected
to make the award.

Lesson 293.
CLIMAX.

In loose sentences the several items of tlie general thought
rnay be so arranged as to increase in importance to the end.

252

LEfiSONS IN LANGUAGE.

Su ch an arrangement of a sentenee or plim[Jraph is ca lled a
climax.
Rearrange the followiug loose sc nteJJces so that the
several parts s]rn,ll stan d in order of irnporta1t ce. Needful
changes in phraseology nrny be made.

...

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For want of a horse the rider was lost, for want of a shoe
the horse was lost, for want of a nail the shoe was lost.
Drops make the clorn1s, the min s uppli es the riv ers, the
cloucls send forth the rain, aml the rivers 111akc the great
ocean.
A Scotch mist Lccorncs a shower, and :L shower, :L flood;
and a storm, a telllpest; all(1 thurnler a)l(l lightnin g, heavenquake and earthquake; and a tempest, thunder arnl li ghtning.
Crimes lead to the gallows, uut vices lead to crimes, and
indolence leads to vices.
Angels 'voulcl be gods, and men would Le angels.
She is soft, fl ex iLLe, pitiful, 111il(l; tliou, rnrnurselcss, rough,
stern, olxluratc, Hiuty.
But when sha.11 we be stronger? ·will it be when we are
totally disarmed? ·will it be the next year, or the next
week? 'Vill it be when a British guard is stationed in every
house ?
Tl1 e greatness o[ :L peo ple is constituted Ly the love of la,w,
the love of knowledge, the regard for onr neighbor's rights
and feelings, the desire to do justice, the respect for man as
man.
The great globe itself, yea, all which it inh erit, the cloudcapped towers, the solemn temples, the gorgeous palaces, shall
disso1 ve.
Ambition creates seditious, wars, discords, hatred, and
shyness.
A virtuous an<l pious life will prove the best preparation for
immortality and death.

NOUN CLAUSES.

253

Lesson 294.
NOUN CLAUSES.

A clause, like a noun, may be the subject or the complement of a verb, the object of a preposition, or in apposition with a noun or pronoun.
"I will try" has wrought wonders. [Noun clause used as
subject.]
Shakespeare says, "All the world's a stage." [Noun clause
used as object.]
The fear was that the bridge would give way. [Noun clause
used as predicate nominative. J
The fact that the earth is round is well known. [Noun
clause used in apposition with a noun.]
It is strange that you are so often late. [Noun clause used
in apposition with a pronoun. J
Much depends upon how he makes his criticisms. [Noun
clause used as the object of a preposition.]
A noun clause used as subject is usually introduced by
tliat or wliether, which in such use may be called introductory conjunctions. A verb having a clause as subject
· is in the third person, singular number.
Which clauses in the following sentences are noun
clauses? Give the relation of each noun clause to the
r~st of the sentence.
Parse the connective or the
introductory word : That you ilo not understand this is surprising.
It is known that the planets are wandering stars, and that
they receive their light from the sun.
You forget that she is our cousin.

254

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LESSONS JN LANGUAGE.

"Hones ty is the best policy" is a common maxim.
That a clause may be used as a subject sometimes puzzles
pupils.
It is doubtful if he will return.
This is my commaudment, that ye love one another.
No one c~n tell how the prisoner made his escape.
w·hoev er did that is a rascal.
The certainty that war must come is growing more manifest.
Her fav orite maxim was," vVilfnl waste makes woful want."
Change " vVhere there's a will there's a way" to "Where
there is a will you can find a way."
My opinion is that poor memory is caused by poor attention.
The belief that electricity is the coming motor is now almost
universal.

Lesson 295.
PUNCTUATION. - NOUN CLAUSES . .

If a noun clause used as the subJect of a sentence is quite
long, contains commas, or ends with a verb, it should be
followed by a comma; as, Those Presbyterian members of the House of Commons who
had many years before been expelled by the army, r eturned to
their seats.
A new feeling of what is due to the ignorant, the poor, and
the depraved, has sprung up in society.
·w-irntever is, is right.

.A n oun claiisc used in apposition should be set off by
commas; as, The provision of the Constitution, that new states may
be admitted into the Union, has resulted in the addition of
thirty-one states to the original thirteen.

1.'ENSES OF THE I.NFINI1.'IVE.

255

Lesson 296.
ANALYSIS.- NOMINATIVE CLAUSES.

Analyze the following sentences: 1. That he was suffering from hunger was well known.
2. How a seed. becomes a plant is a great i-,;1ystery. 3. Where
the pirates have concealed. their ill-gotten booty will soon be
discovered. 4. vVhen the trial will occur is very uncertain, on
account of the jutlge's illness. 5. That we must tlo it is certain. G. That it was his ·w ork is easily seen. 7. "Can he
succeed?" is the question. 8. The rumor is that he · is
wouutled. 9. The report is that the fire is now raging fearfully. 10. The question is, "Can he succeed?" 11. The
reason may be, he does not try. 12. The query is, ""\Vhere
can we find it?"
<

That he was suffering from hunger was well ~-~~~v_r:·
==~

---

Lesson 297.
TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE.

When an infinitive is joined to a verb which it modifies,
the tense of the infinitive does not denote time actually
present, past, or future, but tho present infinitive denotes
time present or future, and the perfect infinitive denotes
time past, relative to the time of the verb with which
each is used. The same rule applies to the participle.
These sentences are correct: -

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256

LESSONS IN LANGUA GE.

TREASURER'S REPORT.

He was s:iiu to Le very old.
He was said to have been born in 1815.

TREASUH.ER'S REPORT •

Correct the following sentences: It was part of my duty to have dusted the room.
The general expected to have reached the river before night
overtook him.
The fireman was thought to be dead from suffocation before
the fire reached him.
He intemletl to have sta.rte<l on his journey to-morrow.
vVe happened to meet him once before this.
Did you not expect to have spent Christmas Day at home? ·
This meeting ought to have taken place to-morrow instead
of to-day.
It would lrnve given me still greater pleasure to receive his
approbation at an earlier period; but to have received it at all
is a gratification to me.
The car has gone, though she thought it woukr hn,ve waited.
I thought yon could have done it.
I intended to have gone yesterday, but the rain prevented .

,,

Lesson 298.
TREASURER'S REPORT.
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A treasurer, for his own safety an<l that of the society
for which he acts, should make frequ ent and detailed
reports. This report should be examined and approved
by an auditor or an auditing committee appointed for this
purpose, before it is presented to the society.
Using the following form as a guide, make out a treasurer's report for some society or club. Notice the certificate of the auditing committee.

267

The undersigned, Treasurer of The Daily Doings Club, begs
leave to submit the following report for the quarter ending
Nov. 1, 1891: The balance on hand at the commencement of the quarter
was seven dollars and fifty cents. There have been received
from all sources during the quarter fifte en dollars and thirty
cents: during the same time the expenses amountetl to twelve
dollars and seventy cents, leaving a balance on hand of ten
dollars and ten cents.
'fhe annexed statement will show in detail the receipts and
expenditures.
All of which is respectfully submitted.
JEROME ALLEN,

Treasurer Daily Doings Club.
JEitOME ALLEN,

Treasurer, iu acc't with Daily Doings Club.

Cr.
1891.
Dr.
1891.
Oct. 20. By snbscription for
Sept. 1. To cash on hand at end
l'ublic Opinion . . . $2.oO
of previous quarter . $7.!iO
The Week's Current . l./JO
Oct. l. Tomembcrship[LU)Iccs, 3.75
Detroit Free Press .
4.35
Oct. 15. To sale of papers . . . 4.85
4.35
Detroit Tribune .
" " To proceeds of enter10.10
G.70 By balance . . • . . . .
taiumen t . . . .
$22.80

$22.80
EAST SAGINAW, MICH.,

Nov. 1, 1891.

·we hereby certify that we have examined the accounts and vouchers of
the Treasurer and find them correct; and that the balance in his hands is ten
dollars and ten ceuts [$10.10].
PHEBE RANDALL, Auditing

l

ROGER STAPLES,

Com.

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258

ATTRACTIVENESS.

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

Lesson 299.
EXTENDED PARAPHRASE.
EVENING SCENE.

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We sat within the farm-house old,
·whose windows, looking o'er the bay,
G:tvc to the sea-breeze, <hmp n.ml eoltl,
An easy entrance, night and day.
Not far away we saw the port,
The strange, old-fashioned, silent town,
The light-house, the dismantled fort,
The wooden houses, quaint and brown .
vVe sat and talked until the night,
Descending, filled the room;
Our faces faded from the sight Our voices only broke the gloom.
LONGFELLOW.

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Picture to yourself the group that is sitting "within the
farm-house old," and describe it as best you can. Tell
what is to Le seen in the old-fashioned room where they
are sitting. DescriLe the view from the windows. Tell
what the inmates are talking about.

·i.

Lesson 300.

,

AN AL YSIS. - OBJECTIVE CLAUSES.

I;

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1

Analyze the following sentences: -

·I

1' -

1 ~· •

'

1. yry e hope thn.t you will r eturn soon. 2. I heard that the
vessel was lost at sea. 3. I know that my Redeemer liveth.

259

4. He said, "I care not for glor,y ." 5. "I do not desire renown," he said. 6. I cannot imagine why he is absent. 7. My
cousin's cousin knows where the berries are thickest. 8. Do
you know when the train will be due in Boston? 9. "You
now see," he remarked, "how this may be done."
>

We hope that you will return soon.
=== ~
=== ~ --------------------------0

Lesson 301.
ATTRACTIVENESS.

That style in writing is most attractive in which the
language best fits the thought, and most clearly and readily
conveys that thought to the reader. All needless effort to
understand is a loss .
The most important rule for the young writer who
would add attractiveness to his style after it has clearness
and force is, Sirnilar parts of a sentence should be similar in forrn .
The words, phrases, or clauses which are united by a
co-ordinate conjunction should be similar in form.
"The room is large and cheerful" is a much better sentence than "The room is of good size and cheerful." The
expression, "The day preceding and the day following,"
or "The day before and the day after," is better than
"The clay before and the day following," or "The day
preceding and the day after."
Improve these sentences: Did he come to you angry or in sorrow?

260

LESSONS I N LANGUAGE.

H eat expands metals, but they are contracted by cold.
Did they go off in a sail-boat or rowing ?
H e was a man well adapted naturally an,d by cultivation to
.
occupy the highest position in life.
The happy family lived together in peace and harmoniously.
It is not when fortune smiles that the h eart is tried, but at
the time she frowns.
Th e book is well printed, with gilt edges, of clear type, and
nicely bound.
Kiudness and being forbearing are the men.us of ma.king a,nd
keepi ng friends.
When the wind fell, how quiet and without rippl es the sea,
became.
H e did not seem t o be aware how sick he wn,s, or of the
dangerousness of such a disea,se.
Please write me at your early convenience, a,nd hoping to
receive a favora,ble r eply, I am yours sincerely.
The h en,vens <lccbre tlil! glory of Goll, aud we may see his
handiwork in the firmam ent.

Lesson 302.
\.

CREDENTIALS.

ANALYSIS. -APPOS ITIVE CLAUSES.

261

NEWPORT, VT.,

To

Nov. 17, 1890.
THE TENTH ANNUAL CONVENTION OF THE
SUNDAY SCI-IOOLS OF VEliMONT:

This certifies tha.t Benjamin Rose has been duly elected a
delegat e from the Sunday School of the 'l'homas Street Church
of this city to the 1'ent:i Annual Convention of the Sunday
Schools of Vermont.
'l'HEODOim YouNa, Secretary.
You are secretary of the Y. M. C. A. Prepare the credentials of the delegates to the state convention.

Lesson 303.
DESCRIPTION.

Select any high mountain about which you have read,
and write of a journey from its base to its summit. Describe the changes in climate, vegetation, and animal life
which you find as you ascend.
Give the route which you would tak~ in going around
the world. Mention the principal places at which you
would stop, and tell what you would find of special
interest in each.

If the members of an a.ssembly or convention have been
elected or appointed to their positions, it is n ecessary that
each should hold some certificate, showing that h e is entitled to serve as a member. This certificate is usually
called the credentials of the member, and should be prepared by the secretary of the body sending these delegates.
A form for creclen tials is here given : -

Lesson 304.
AN AL YSIS. -APPOSITIVE CLAUSES.

Analyze the following sentences: 1. The fact that he was sick prevented his return.

2. The

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262

SYNONYMS.

rumor that the vessel had been lost was very extensively circulated. 3. I had a,n impression that it could not be done.
4. That old hymn, "I would not live alway," was written by
l\iuhlenlmrg. 5. The questio11, "Can he succeecl?" is now
discussed in the papers. G. You know the proverb, "Time
and tide wait for no man."

As a drop falls into a river, so a human life falls into
eternity.
Where life is, there is hope.
Where there is life there is hope.

a.p

Lesson 305.
ATTRACTIVENESS.

,,

The rule, Similar parts of a sentence should be similar in
form, will Le more rea.clily understood from the following
illustrntions: "If you are out of debt, you are out of dan ger," is better
tha.n, "If you are out of LleLt, you are in no danger."
"The deeper the well, the cooler the water," is better than,
"The greater the depth of the well, the more cool the wa.ter."

Select the forms of expression whieh you prefer: I·
!

.,

·l

263

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

Such studies are imposed as a labor, and not cultivated as
a delight.
Such studies are frequently assigned by teachers to their
pupils, but not cultivated by them with delight.
Their grandeur could lend so bright an inspiration to fancy,
so solemn a dignity to research.
Their grandeur affords an inspiration to fancy, and gives to
research a dignity .
As a drop falls into a river, so a human life soon disappears.

Improve in style the following sentences : They could hear the roar of the waves as they clashed
against the rocks or creeping slowly up the beach.
The judge was without partiality, who was logical in
thought, of a clear head, and quick in his perceptions.
He decided on renting the farm and, as soon as a good
tenant was secured, to go to the city to live.
A wise forethought hn,s led to preliminary steps to secure
the selling of the present property and securing a lot in a
more desirable location.
He that ruleth his spirit is better than he that succeeds in
taking a city.
Reputation is gained by many acts, but one act alone will
destroy it.
Men's thoughts are according to their inclinations, their
discourse depends upon their opinions, but their actions are
modified by their habits.
Pride goeth before destruction, and a fall is preceded by a
haughty spirit.

Lesson 306.
SYNONYMS.

State the distinction in the meaning between: misfortune and calamity
modesty and humility

envy and jealousy
diligence and industry

Use each of the foregoing words in a sentence.

264

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LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

OMISSION OF .A PART OF A VERB.

Lesson 307.

Lesson 308.

CREDENTIALS.

Copy this form for <lelegates' credentials: Dm,JWAT.Es' CREDENTIALS:

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- -- - - Oct. G, 1888.
Voting Vistrict No. One.

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'!'his is to Certify, That at a meeting of the-~* Electors of
this Voting District, held at the Tow11 House in said District
ou Saturday, Oct. G, 1888, pursuant to a regular call of the
- - * Town Committee, issued under the directions and in
conformity with the call of the - - *State Central Committee,
the following Delegates were chosen to attend the State Convention, to be held at
, on Thurs<lay, Oct. 15, 1888,
at 11 o'clock A.l\r. 1 for the purpose of nominating Candidates
for General Officers of the State for the year ensuing :

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Delegates' Names. l ANDREW F. HAmns,
NATHAN D. SHAltP,

R 0. H.ournsoN.

The said delegates were given power to fill all vacancies in
their delegation.
Attest:
GEO. B. BENNETT,
HENRY F. GATES,
Chairman.
Secretary.
You are clerk of the - - caucus ; prepare the cre<len~
tials of the delegates to the city convention of the - party to nominate candidates for mayor and other officers.

* Democratic,

Republican, Prohibition.

265

OMISSION OF A PART OF A VERB.

When two or more forms of the same verb are connected
by a conjunction, no part of the full tense forms not
belonging to each should Le omitted.
If a part of a,ny veru is omitteu, we infer that the full
form of this verb is the same as th~tt of the other verL or
verbs. For example, in the sentence, "vVhat you have
done once you can again," the second verb is incomplete,
and we naturally supply the past participle of the first verb,
making the sentence read, "vVhat you have done once
you can <lone again." The sentence should have been
written, "'Vhat you have clone once you can do again."
T ell what part of the verb has been omitted in each of
the following sentences. Write the sentences correctly.
No store either has or can sell this coat at so low a figure.
They have not and do not tell all the facts of the case.
He was brought to the school by some gentleman who had
helped his father and now would him .
I always have respected and do now his conscientiousness
and liberality, but I never have and never can admire him as
a man.
I have and will maintain that he was right.
If you had written when you said you would, we should not
have missetl seeing each other.
You will break that vase, if you have not already, by your
carelessness.
The long walk has made us so hungry that we shall eat as
we never have before.

266

267

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

PUNCTUATION.

Industry has always been the way to success, and it will, so
long as men are what they are.
I am confident that I can do as well as he has.
If you had <lone as well as you could, I should not find
fault.

I will stay here until you have finished the work which you
have undertaken.
I have an uncle who ·will be seventy years of age when
Christmas comes around.
I will remain until the carrier brings me the letter which I
expect.
A certain man was setting out on a journey when a friend
said to him, "H,emernber that time and tide wait for no man."
A milkmaiu, who was coming from the dairy, was walking
along with a can of milk upon her head just as it was growing
dark.
An old man who had been listening got up and said, "Such
nonsense will defeat its own purpose."

Lesson 309.
RELATION OF CLAUSES.

Tell me not in mournful numl>ers
Life is but an empty dream;
For the soul is dead that slumbers,
And things are not what they seem.

This sentence may be arranged by clauses, and the office
of each clause shown thus: Tell me not in mournful numbers - Principal clause.
Life is but an empty dream - Noun chuse, object of tell.
For the soul is dead - Adverbial clause, modifying tell.
~rhat slumbers -Adjective clause, modifying soul.
Ancl thillgs :ire not -Ad vcrbial clause, modifying tell.
vVhat they seem - Noun clause, attributive complement.

Arrange the following complex sentences so as to show
the clauses, and tell what kind of clause each is and
its relation to some other word in the sentence: Ask yourself what is the leading motive that actuates you
while you are at work.
'l'he wise man is happy when he gains the respect of those
whom he esteems.
Thou shalt honor thy fatlier and thy mother when thou
comest to the land which I will give thee.

Lesson 310.
PUNCTUATION. - PARENTHESES AND BRACKETS.

The parenthesis may be used to inclose words which break
the connection between closely related parts of the sentence,
and which are not necessary to the sense.

The difference between the use of parentheses aml of
commas to inclose parenthetical expressions is simply
one of degree. The parentheses separate the inclosed
words more completely from the remainder of the sentence
than the commas do.
Braclcets are used to inclose some exp lanation, addition,
or correction.

Do not interrupt the thought of a sentence by the needless use of parenthetical remarks.
Compare the two following letters, and explain why one
is more pleasing than the other : -

ll, l

I

fi.

' t.

268

269

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

EX1'EN DED P AB.AP HBASE.

I received yours of the 25th ult. (although it did not come
to hand until the Gth inst., owing to the recent blockade), and
I now take the first opportunity business affonls (which is
very good of late) of answering it, and which I shall do with
as much attention to all your requests as my spare time (which,
as I said before, is now very agreeably contracted by the increased business) will permit me, and I think you will find
them all fulfilled in about three weeks (or a little later).

It wa,s thought best to anchor, but in letting down the
anchor it caught in some drift-wood.
Han<lle that basket carefully, for it is filled with eggs and
has no hanclle.
In this case the noun is in the nominative case.
She leaves the leaves of her book dirty.
The present yon made her will satisfy her for the present.
I do not like to hear a boy talk like that.
A man of his sense should have a higher sense of duty.

Yours of the 25th ult. did not come to hand till the 6th inst.,
owing to the r ecent Llocka<le, arnl this is my first opportunity
for answering it. I fear that my time is too limited, Lecause
of an increased amount of business, to permit my paying as
much attention to your requests as I would like to do; but you
may depend upon my attending to all of them within the next
three weeks.

Lesson 311.
ATTRACTIVENESS.

IJo not use a word in more than one sense in the same
sentence.
Do not say, "He left the mam road by a path leading
to the left across the field."
Improve these sentences: The supply of coffee was not sufficient to supply the army
for more than t en days.
"Well," said I, "you have stoned up that well very well."
With a very good will will I be your companion.
It is now your turn to turn the grindstone.
They saw that it had sharp-edged teeth like a saw.

Lesson 312.
EXTENDED PARAPHRASE.

TuE OLD HoME.

Between broad fields of wheat and corn
Is the lowly home where I was born;
The peach tree leans against the wall,
And the woodbine wanders over all.
There is the barn, and, as of yore,
I can smell the hay from the open door,
And see the busy swallows throng,
And hear the peewee's mournful song.
Oh, ye who daily cross the sill,
Step lightly, for I love it still!
And when you crowd the old barn eaves,
Then think what countless harvest sheaves
Have passed within that scented door,
To gladden eyes that are no more.
11

TnoMAS BucHAN AN READ.

. Describe the Qld home and its surroundings, and add
something about its former inmates.

270

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

Lesson 313.
INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES.

Infinitives arc used chiefly as nouus. Participles are
used chiefly as adjectives.
An infi nitiv e may Le used as a noun, au adjective, or an
adverb; as, To ride [noun] is more pleasant than to walk [noun].
Time to come [adjective J is called future time.
He came to see [au verb J me.
A participle may be used as a noun, an adjective, or an
adverL ; as, -

8YNONYJlfS. -

What docs it modify? vVlmt is it" complement?
is it;:; modifier'?
They intend to see Palestine.

They intend going to Palestine.
vVliich is the participle in this sentence? As a noun
wha.t is its construction ? As a verb how is it modified?
After the verbs bid, dare, feel, hear, let, malce, and see, to,
the sign of the infinitive, is usually omitted, and the infinitive is used as an adjective modifier of the object of these
verbs.

Lesson 314. ·
SYNONYMS.

fault.

An infinitive with its modifiers a11d complements is
called an infinitive phrase. A participle with its modifiers and complements is called a participial phrase. An
infinitive phrase or a participial phrase used as a noun is
called a noun phrase.

In what respects do these words agree in meaning?
what respects do they differ?
custom and habit
couple and two

I saw him cutting the tree with his hatchet.
"Tha,t is the participial phrase? Which is the participle?

should and ought to
equivocal and ambiguous

Use each of these words in a sentence.

I left the road to help the poor fellow.

In this sentence what is the infinitive phrase? Wha~
does to help modify? What is the complement of to help?

vVhat

Which is the infinitive in this sentence? As a noun
what is its construction? As a verb how is it modified?

Riding [noun] horseback is pleasant exercise.
'rhe boy, broken [adj cc ti ve J down with grief, confessed his
Here it comes sparkling [adverb J and there it lies darkling
[adverb].

271

CAUTIONS.

Lesson 315.
CAUTIONS.

Do not say:a quarter of nine 'for a quarter to nine
come a,nd see m.e f or come to see me
try antl <lo it for try to do it

In

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272

ATTRACTIVENESS.

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

I n,m n,fraid it will rain for I fear it will rain
not as l know of for not that I know
right here for just here
gents for gentlemen
right there for just there
somewheres for somewhere
concern for thing
long ways off for long way off
had have for had
mad for angry

Lesson 316.
EXTENDED PARAPHRASE.

Hol\rns OF ENGLAND.
The stately homes of England,
How ben,utiful they stand!
Amidst their tall ancestral trees,
O'er all the pleasant land;
The deer across their greensward bound
Through skttlc and surn1y gleam,
And the swan glides past them with the sound
Of some rejoicing stream.
'l'1rn

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The cottage homes of England !
By thousands on her plains,
They are smiling o'er the silvery brooks,
Auel round the hamlet-fanes.
Through glowing orchards forth they peep,
Each from its nook of leaves;
And fearless there the lowly sleep,
As the bird beneath their eaves.
Fm,rc1A

D.

describe "the stately homes of England," adding other
details to make the description complete. Contrast with
them "the cottage homes of England."
I

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~

273

Lesson 317.
ATTRACTIVENESS.

Do not repeat the sanie word 01· words of similar sound in
too close connection.
Do not say, " They took the liberty to shout for liberty
on one occasion, and this was the occasion of a disturbance." Do not say, "The large assembly consisted largely
of ladies."
vVrite in better form the following sentences: The master found fault with the faults in the exercise.
In a calm moonlight night the sea is a beautiful object to
8ee.
I was unable to distinguish who was the distinguished guest.
I intend to explain to you the plan intended to be carried out.
The cornlitious which you name as the condition of your
accepting the proposal are too severe.
We shall remain at home during the remainder of the day.
The same character has characterized their descendants in
modern times.
He was anxiow; to have me relieved from all anxiety in the
matter.
He favored the undertaking as a favor to his friend.

Lesson 318.

HEMANS.

From the hints contained in the first stanza of the poem,

l

-

CONSTRUCTION OF THE INFINITIVE AND
PARTICIPLE.

Infinitives and participles may be used as the subject of
a verb; as,-

274

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

PUNCTUA1'10N.- THE SEMICOLON.

'ro see the sun is pleasant.
Catching trout is fine sport.

Lesson 319.

As predicate nominative; as, To see is to believe.
Seeing is believing.

As the object of a transitive verb; as, -

."f'

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l

.[i

I like to stucly.
vVe enjoy skating.

As the object of a preposition; as, vVe are about t o recite .
You are detainecl for whispering.

.'I

I

In apposition with a noun or pronoun; as, It is wrong to steal
This act, quarrellin g with your playmates, will cost you
their frienllshi p.

As an adjective; as, He showed a praiseworthy ambition to excel.
I-faving lost his h ealth, he failed in his purpose to succeed.

As an adverb; its, I am r eaLly to go.
I read to leam.
He came bounding into the room.

Independently; as, '"

'l'o tell the truth, I have not stud ied as I ought.
Generally speaking, pupils dislike grammar and like composition.

Give the construction of each infinitive and participle in
this lesson.

275

PUNCTUATION.-THE SEMICOLON.

The semicolon, instead of the period, may be 'Us ed between
coniplete sentences, if short and closely connected in thought;
as,For, lo, the winter is past, the rain is over and gone ; the
flowers appear on the earth; the time of the singing of birds
is come, and the voice of the turtle is h eard in the land .
Grief counts the seconds; happiness forgets the hours.

Complete the punctuation of the following sentences: Greek's a harp we love to hear
Latin is a trumpet clear
Spanish like an organ swells
Italian rings its silver bells
:France with many a frolic mien
Tunes her sprightly violin
Loud the German rolls his drum
When Iiussia's clashing cymbals come
But Britain's sons may well rejoice
li'or English is the human voice.

Lesson 320.
ATTRACTIVENESS.

Successive sentences should not all begin in the same
way. Vary the sentences by placing the most import~nt
word or phrase at the beginning or the encl, by usmg
sometimes the active and sometimes the passive form, or
by
otherwise cha1wing
the construction.
•
b

.t

276

I call that good.
The people elected Davis governor.
We chose him chairman.
Let us call her Mary.
vVe will cause him to repent.
This wind makes me chilly.
God paints the lily white, the violet blue.
He knocked the ball higher than a kite.
She marked her class very high.
The rocking of the boat made him seasick.
vVe thought him a noble youth.

Study the two following paragraphs and show how the
first has been changed into the second: He had a memory that amazed all about him; He was an
accurate observer of men and things. His strength lay rather
in a discerning and sound judgment, than in imagiuation or
invention.
His memory, which never failed him, astonished all who
knew him. He ·was an accurate observer of men and things.
Discernment and sound judgment were his strong points; his
weakness lay in imagination and invention.
Improve the following paragraphs: -

"1'·
·i~l

t·

Many men at one time thought it right to live quite alone.
They shut themselves out from the pleasures and luxuries of
the world. They thought that a very self-denying life.
He was excelled in frankness by none. His benevolence
was equally remarkable. He had no affectation whatever.
He was Jistinguished in all his actions by a uo)Jle carelessness
of public opinion. He was a rare example of humility.

277

ANALl'SIS.- INFINITIVES.

L .l!.:SSONS IN LANGUAGE.

Use each of the following verbs in a sentence containing a double complement, one direct and one modifying: make, elect, name, sty le, appoint, choose, render.

Lesson 322.
AN ALYSIS. - INFINITIVES.

.

·.J.

Lesson 321.
MODIFYING COMPLEMENT.

An infinitive or a participle may be the modifying complement of a verb [see page 91] ; as, They made him run [caused him to run].
They kept him waiting.
Select the direct objects and the modifying complements,
and give the construction of each rn the following sentences:This maue him angry.
She baked her bread brown.

Analyze these sentences, and parse the infinitives: 1. He attends school to learn. 2. He tried to speak . . 3. I
told them to go. 4. We saw them fall. 5. I am ready to
hear. 6. I felt it tremble. 7. They were about to move away.
8. He tried to retreat, but to retreat was impossible. 9. He is
supposed to have gone. 10. To study faithfully is to be wise.
11. For one to steal is base. 12. He ordered the horse to be
saddled. 13. Let him sit alone. 14. He was anxious to learn
to sing. 15. He did not know which way to turn. 16. He
knew when he ought to go. 17. He has enough to eat.
18. I knew him to be a brave man.
He listened to hear what was sai<l.
I heard him speak.
:::::
--o-- ___o___
===
-->
~

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that which

278

AN AL YSIS. -

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

to hear and to listen
to avenge and to revenge

Lesson 323.

A petition is not <lated. It should begin with the name
of the body to which it is addressed, and should next state
by whom - what class of persons - it is signed.
The
customary formula of conclusion is seen in the petition .
which follows: To THE HONORABLE THE CITY CouNCIL 01•' THE CITY oF

r"
i·

..
'

.

KALAMAZOO, -

The undersigned, property-owners and residents of the city
of Kalamazoo, respectfully represent to your honorable body
that Elm Street is in a poor con<litiou, inadequate to the
present traffic and dangerous to public travel.
It is the desire of your petitioners that the said street may
be made wider than at present, straightened at several points,
and established as an avenue of not less than eighty (80) feet.
It is an improvement believed to be of great benefit to the
public weal, and of vital interest to a large constituency of
taxpayers.
Your petitioners, therefore, most respectfully rcfp1est that
a committee be appointed to make iuquiry, to ascertain and
determine the expediency of the aforesaid improvements.
In accordance with which your petitioners will ever pray.

to quit and to leave
to murder and to assassinate

-Lesson 325.
AN ALYSIS. - PARTICIPLES.

Analyze the following sentences, and parse the participles:1. I heard some one stepping slowly along the walk. 2. We
saw the celebrated trotting-horse walking over the ground.
3. vVe saw a tireu soluier sitting by the wayside eating his
dinner. 4. 'l'he farmer had three sheep killed by the dogs.
5. He still lives, loved and respected by all. 6. Having finished his business, he departed forthwith. 7. They attempted
one foolish thing, walking backward with their eyes closed.
8. He was known without being seen. 9. He cannot walk far
without fatiguing himself. 10. She cannot work long without
becoming tired. 11. Whistling a lively tune, he left us. 12. I
did not know of his being sick. 13. I did not hear of his ever
having been a soltlier. 14. lfaving been disappointed in regard
to his plans, he became melancholy.
.!_heard
some one
stepping slowly
the
walk.
- '<XXXXX
- 0- along
_ __:::::.__.
__
_

--

Lesson 324.

Lesson 326.

SYNONYMS.

PUNCTUATION.

In what respeets do these words agree m meaning?
what respects do they differ?

279

Illustrate by appropriate use in sentences.

PETITIONS.

.,,.
:'

PARTIC IP LES.

In

Copy the following, arranging it in its proper form as
poetry, and punctuating it correctly : -

280

LESSONS I N LANGUAGE.

Anou

BEN

PUNCTUATION.

281

AvHKl\'f.

Lesson 328.

Abou Ben Adhem 1nay his tribe increase awoke one night
from a deep dream of peace antl saw within the moonlight of
his room making it rich and like a lily in bloom an angel writing in a book of gold exceeding pea,cc had made B en AU.hem
bold and to the presence in the room h e said what writest
thou the vision raised its heatl arnl with a look 111:-ule of all
sweet accord answered the names of those who love the Lord
and is min e on e asked Abou nay not so replied the angel Abou
spake more low but cheerly still an~ said I pray thee then
write me as one that loves his fellow men the angel wrote and
vanished the next night it came again with a great wakening
light and showed the names whom love of God had blest and
lo Ben Adh ems name led all the res t.
L1rn.rn lluNT .

As secretary of a Tailors' Early Closing Association,
prepare a. resolution relating to the time of closing the
tailor shops of the city, and a notice of this action for the
city papers .
Draw up, ren,dy for signature, a petition to the City
Council for an improvement in the manner of lighting the
city.
Prepare a petition to be sent to the legislature, asking
that a more stringent truant law be passed. ·

.' '.·t'

Lesson 327.

Lesson · 329.

I
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SIMPLICITY.

PUNCTUATION.-COLON AND DASH.

:....,~. .
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Copy this selection, ancl substitute short and simple
worcls for those in italics: Assuredly, there is much felicity in satiating one's 1:ncUnation
for a beverage in the unsullied water of a rivitlet. Magnificent
water! oscatciting in th e hail-storm, capering, e.fj'ervescing,jlaunting in the cataract. Contemplate it as it p ercohttes down the
mountain-side! R egard it in the hoar-frost, so lucent, as it is
irrciclia.ted by the sun ! Resplendent water ! imclulating up the
valley, in the cloud-mist, or fabricating the rainbow.

'Vhy is the paragraph which you have written much
more pleasing than this one ?
I.

RESOLUTIONS. - PETITIONS.

The colon indicates that, though the sentence may be ·
grammatically complete, there is something following
which must be joined in thought with vvhat precedes.
The dash denotes that what follows is in contrast with
what precedes; the colon, that what follows is in harmony
with what precedes.
A colon shoidd be placed before a · long quotation, a lette1·,
a speech, an arg'llment, or a list .of particulars ,whenformally
introduced. If the colon comes at the end of a.par-agraph,
it may be followed by a dash.
Select from this book, or elsewhere, .several illustrations
of each portion of the preceding rule.

282

LESSONS LN LANGUA(:JC.

ABBIDG1'IEN1'.

Lesson 330.

Lesson 332.

STORY TO BE IMITATED.

ABRIDGMENT.

TnE BRAVE HuNTEit.

A hunter once who courage lacked,
In the hill forests dense his game hacl tracked;
A woodman near a tall fir met his view
' he knew
Whom by the nymphs he prayed; if aught
To point the wild beast's steps that harbored near: '
1'he other said, "Good luck has brought you here !
The lion's self to you I'll quickly show."
Pale and with chattering cheek, he cried, "No, no!
Pray don't oblige me, friend, beyond your task !
·To see the lion's track, not him, I ask."
Write a story or a fable which shall illustrate the
thought of this stanza.

Lesson 331.
REMONSTRANCE. -ANNOUNCEMENT.
l. .

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I...

I

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1·

'

Prepare a remonstrance against, or a petition in favor
of, a bill before the legislature requiring cities and towns
to furnish text-books free to pupils.
As secretary of a lecture association, write an announcement of a lecture.
Prepare a short report of the lecture for the morning
papers.

283

A complex sentence is said to be abridged when it is
reduced to a simple sentence. This may be done by
omitting the connective and changing the verb of the
subordinate clause into an infinitive or a participle, or
by substituting for the subordinate clause a prepositional
phrase or some word equivalent.
If the subject of the subordinate clause is the same as
the subject of the principal clause, it is omitted when the
clause is abridged; otherwise, it is retained~
Tell what changes are made in each abridgment which
follows:1. When one's courage is gone, his efforts amount to little.
2. One's courage being gone, his efforts amount to little.
In the abridged sentence, when, the connective of the
first sentence, a conjunctive adverb, is omitted, and is gone,
the verb in the subordinate clause, is changed into the
participle being gone.
1. When spring returns, the farmer goes forth to the field.
2. Spring returning, the farmer goes forth to the field'.
1. He departed when I arrived.
2. He departed on my arrival.

.

1. While we were standing on the platform we needed no
te.stimony, as to the velocity of the cars.
.
2. Standing on the platform, we needed no testimony as to
~J;ie velocity of the cars.

284

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

SYNONYMS.

1. He desired that I should accompany him.
2. He desired me to accompany him.
1. I was not s,i.ue that it was he.
2. I was not sure of its being he.
.. ,
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Lesson 333.
. . ..

'

AMBIGUOUS USE OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

There should be no doubt as to the antecedent of a
relative pronoun.

(·

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!.·

The prope1· position of a relative clause is next to the
noun:which it modifies.

..

In the following sentences the relative pronouns are
used amLiguon::;ly. Write the seuteuces correctly .

r

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,·)

'!
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They came across a fertile spot in the Desert of Sahara
which is called an oasis.
The United States bought Alaska of Russia which is situated
in-the north-west corner of North America.
Hawthorne was a classmate of Longfellow at Bowdoin College who was three years his senior.
Vesuvius is not far from Naples from which black clouds
of vapor are always rising.
There was once a little girl named Amy who with her pets
lived in Scotland, which consisted of two rabbits, a l~mb, ·and
II
some goldfish.
'· ·
He brought a friend into disgrace that had long; np~en his
comparuon.
'l a, : .: ' '
. The river Nile flows through Egypt which is one of the
longest in the world.
t

~ .

1·

l

285

Great Britain is only a little larger than the state of Minnesota in which more than half as many people live as there are
in all the United States.
Mineral oil is pumped from wells in the country north of
PittsLurg which is in :Pennsylvania from which kerosene is
made.
'l'he poor man had a devoted sister who had no brother upon
whom to call for assistance who gave him all her earnings.
The proprietor at once dismissed his clerk who was not m
the hauit of Leiug so hasty without making definite inquiries
into the matter.
Fin e hairs often cover the bodies of insects which are very
thick in proportion to the size of the creature.
He needs a teacher who cannot reacl.
He went around by the Larn instead of going by the house
which would have been much shorter.

Lesson 334.
SYNONYMS.

The words bdieve, calc'ltlate, expect, guess, imagine, judge,
consider, and suppose all imply that action of the mind
which is called thought. Each means to thinlc, and has,
besides, some additional meaning.

To believe means to regard or accept as true.
To calculate means to reckon in order to obtain a result or
conclusion, and should not be used instead of to intend or to
purpose.
To expect means to look forward to in thought, and has
always reference to some corning event. It should never be
used in reference to a present or past event.

286

LESSON S IN LANGUAGE.

To guess means to attempt to hit upon at random.
To iniagine means to form in the mind an iuea of.
To jitdge means to form an opinion about.
To consider means to think carefully and deliberately.
To suppose is to assume to be true.
Find the exact meaning of these words in the dictionary,
and use each in two sentences. vVhenever using one of
'these words, be careful to consider whether it is exactly
the right word to express your thought.

,,.

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Lesson 335.

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CONSTRUCTION IN ABRIDGED PHRASES.

When an adverbial clause is abridged to a phrase containing a noun or pronoun with a participle, the noun
or pronoun is said to be in the nominative case absolute,
and is modified by the participle used as an adjective.
As the disease was spreading, great alarm was felt.
The dependent clause of this sentence may be shortened
to a phrase containing a noun and a participle; thus, The disease spreading, great alarm was felt.
The noun disease in the phrase is said to be in the nominative case absolute, and is modified by the participle
spreading, used as an adjective.
Abridge the following sentences. State the changes
that take place in the abridgment, and give the construction of the noun and the participle in the abridged
phrase:As the teacher was ill, there was no session of school.
Siilce this lesson is poorly learned, you must study it again .

ORDER OF PHRASES AND CLAUSES.

287

Lesson 336.
ANALYSIS. - NOMINATIVE AB SOL UTE.

Analyze the following sentences. Parse the participles
and the nouns: 1. The sun having set, we returned. 2. The chair _being
broken, we removed it. 3. The storm ceasing, we again
started. 4. Tb.e anchor having been lost, our vessel drifted
upon the rocks. 5. The man having become an invalid, they
carried him to the hospital.
The sun having set, we returned.
x

==~

Lesson 337.
ORDER OF PHRASES AND CLAUSES.

The order of clauses should show their grammatical
connection.
You may go now if it has stopped raining, and you will
enjoy the walk.
This sentence may mean, "If it has stopped raining you
may go and you will enjoy the walk," or "If it has
stopped raining and if you will enjoy the walk, you
may go. "
Improve the following sentences : The time spent in reading that book is wasted, if you do
not comprehend the lesson that should be drawn, and you are
no better for having read it.

288

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

The sun shone forth brightly, as if it had never hidden
behind a cloud, and changed entirely the appearance of the
scene.
Your friend told me that he had not heard the rumor and
spoke the truth.
The jury decided that the man was guilty and was then
dismissed.

Lesson 338.
CONSTRUCTION IN ABRIDGED PHRASES.

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•

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.;

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.,.

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vVhen a dependent clause is abridged to a phrase, the
participle is sometimes the principal element of the phrase.
The participle has then the construction of a noun, and
the word which was the subject in the dependent clause is
put in the possessive case limiting it.
l was not aware that he was in the room.

The dependent clause of this sentence may be shortened;
thus,I was not aware of his being in the room.

In this phrase the parLiciple be·ing has the coustruction
of a noun, object of the preposition of. The subject of
the dependent clause lte becomes a possessive pronoun,
depending upon being.
Give the construction of the pronouns and participles
in these sentences: His being defeated caused great surprise .
Its being true m:i,de the accusation more painful.

A de pendent clause is sometimes abridged by changing
,,.., ·

its verb to an infinitive.

The subject of the clause then

AMBIGUITY Wl1'11 PARTICIPLES.

289

- becomes the subject of the infinitive and is in the objective
case.
In all cases of abridgment the complement retains with
the pa.rticiple or infinitive the same case that it had with
the verb of the dependent clause, except that when an
infinitive is used in the abridgment the predicate noun is
in the objective case to agree with the subject. This is in
accordance with the principle that "an intransitive or
passive verb requires the same case after it as before it
when both words refer to the same person or thing."

Lesson 339.
AMBIGUITY WITH PARTICIPLES.

While the use of the participle secures brevity, it often
leads to ambiguity; for it is sometimes difficult to determine what noun or pronoun the participle modifies. To
avoid such ambiguity, cliange the participle to a finite verb
and supply a, subject, or change the position of the participle.
Improve the following sentences: John at once answered the note received from his friend,
urging him to come to see him. [Who was urging? Write
in two ways.]
As I came up in the street-car, I saw a dead horse passmg
Ninth Street.
I did not see you enter studying so diligently.
'l'his I could not tell you, making so short a call. [Write in
two ways.]

290

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LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

The crowd contained the usual number of babies and babycarriages, crying or sleeping.
The wheels said to the horse, "It is we that ought to complain rather than you, having all the weight of the wagon to
support."
Being badly injured, I took him up tenderly and sent for a
carriage.
Struck with terror, the boat was launched at once.
Ala.rmed at the news, a messenger was despatched to the
queen.
Hoping all things, believing all things, and fearing nothing,
the ship left the harbor with the noble emigrants on board.
After partaking of a hearty breakfast, the balloon was
brought into town amid the cheers and congratulations of the
inhabitants.
Being comfortably seated in the cars, our journey was very
pleasant.

Lesson 340.
INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS.

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.

The elements which have a place within the sentence,
but yet are not a part of it because they are neither principal elements, modifying elements, nor connectives, are
called independent elements.
The independent elements are: 1. The interjection.
2. Words used in exclamations like interjections; as,
Oh, my eyes!
3. Nouns used to name the subject of a sentence an<l
followecl by a pronoun which is the real subject; as, The
Pilgrim Fathers, where are they?

A COMPARISON OF STYLE. -

291

UNITY.

4. The noun or pronoun denoting the person addressed ;
as, Harold, come here.
5. The noun or pronoun used absolutely with a participle; as, The weather being stormy, there was no session of
school.
6. Responsives, i.e. words used like yes and no in answer
to questions.
7. Ad verbs used as introductory words ; as, There came
a voice to him.
8. Ad verbs and adverbial phrases modifying the sentence rather than any particular word of the sentence;
as, To speak candidly, I was in fault.
Analyze the following sentences: 1. Oh, I am so glad of it! 2. Alas, they are
3. Halloo ! where are you going now ? 4. Jam es,
the hammer. 5. William, where have you been?
I care not for fame. 7. There is not a star to be seen.
city of the waters, thou art doomed.

all gone!
bring me
6. Fame I
8. Proud

Independent elements may be marked by placing an X
beneath them; thus, 0, I am so gla<l of it!
x

= ~ -

-1:i-- -

-

Lesson 341.
A COMPARISON OF STYLE. - UNITY.

Compare the two following notes, and explain why one
is better than the other : I intend to go to the country next week, but I shall <lo the
errands for you before I go, though some of them may be

292

PUNCTUATION. -

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

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I intend to go to the country next week, but I shall do those
errands for you before I go. Some of them may be troublesome, as you say, but with J:me's help I am sure I can accomplish them all. The most difficult of all will be to match that
silk, which is of a very peculiar shade. I will seJHl the packages to you by express as soon as possible.

A sentence should present to the mind but one thought
and those modifications of that thought which unite to
make it complete. Thoughts hitvi11g little connection,
thoughts that do not unite to cre:'tte 011e mcutal picture,
should not Le presented in the same sentence.
Improve the sentences below. This· cau Le clone Ly
making as many sentences as there are complete thoughts.
After we reach ed the station the conductor assisted me to
the platform wh ere I found my friends who had come to see .
me as the news of my coming l1ad preceded me. [After we
reached the station the conductor assisted me to the platform.
'1.'here I found my friends vrho had come to see me, as the
news of my coming had preceded me.]
Their march was through an uncultivated country, whose
savage inhabitants fared b:ully, having 110 other ri ches than a
breed of lean sheep, whose tlesh was rank all(l unsavory by
reason of their continual feeding upon sea-fisl1.
Neither is any condition of life more honorable in the sight
of God than another, otherwise He would Le a respecter of
persons, which He assures us He is not.
For, i10twithsta11ding his havi11g gone in >vinter to Moscow,

293

where he found the cold excessive, which confined him
without intermission six weeks to his room, we could not
induce him to return home.
Men who have looked at the different kinds of rocks and
have studied the work of the sea, the tides, and the waves,
have tried to make a science of it all, and this science they
call Geology, which is a delightful and most instructive study.
Christopher Columbus, olcl. and very poor, died at Valladolid
in 150G, which was thirteen years after the discovery of San
Salvador, where thousands of the Indians had been killed by
the crnel Spaniards, who desired to satisfy their selfish greed
for gold.

troublesome, as you say, but with Jane's h elp I am sure I can
accomplish them all, although the most difficult of all will be
to match that silk which is of a very peculiar shade, and I
will send the packages to you by express as soon as possible.

1··:.

INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS.

Lesson 342.
PUNCTUATION. -INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS.

Set off by commas independent elements, unless the exclarnation point is required instead.
Complete the punctuation of the following sentences: Ii

His father being dead the prince succeeded to the throne.
Peace of mind being secured we may smile at misfortune.
To speak candidly I clo not understand the subject.
The fault dear Brutus is not in our stars.
Thy rod and thy staff they comfort me.
The prophets do they live forever?
Generally speaking the education of the common people is
advancing rapidly in the United States .
Beautiful yes but it will not last long.
How lucky you are to be sure !
Well I will try to help you.
vVhat then is the happiest time of life?

294

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

Plato thou reasonest well.
We being exceedingly tossed. they lightened. the ship.
This is to say nothing worse reprehensible.
Then came Jesus the door being shut and stood in the midst.
Speaking in round numbers he made fifty thousand dollars.
'I'here are to confess the truth few who are fully qualified
to govern their fellows.

An exclamation point must be used after independent elements which express strong enwtion, afte1· all inter,jections
except 0, and after all exclamatory phrases.
When an i11 terjection is closely connected with
the words which follow, the exclamation point is usually
placed at the end of the sentence.
NOTE. -

Lesson 343.
ESSAY.-THE UNITED STATES.

1. ·what is its position ?
2. ·what is its extent?
3. ·what is its population?
4. ·what classes and nationalities are included 111 its population?
5. Describe some of its natural features.
6. ·what are its chief productions?
7. What are its chief towns?
8. \¥hat is its government?
9. In what way is it superior to other countries ?

INDEX.
Abbreviations, 17, 21.
Abridgment, 283; construction in abridged phrases, 28G, 288.
Adjective, 15; descriptive and limiting, 16; predicate, 16, 42, 50;
numeral, cardinal, and ordinal, 16; comparison of, 18; interrogative, 89; emphatic predicate, Hil; emphatic, 166; distinction between adverbs and, 191; figurative use of, 225.
Adverbs: definition, 22; comparison of, 22; interrogative, 89; position
of, 141; distinction between adjectives and, 191.
Advertisements, 84, 92.
Analysis, 43, 46, 49, 71, 74, 78, 81, 83, 88, 94, 99, 207,' 218, 234, 241, 248,
255, 258, 261, 277, 279, 287.
Article, definite and indefinite, 16.
Auxiliary verbs, 140.
Book r ev iew, 244.
Brief biography, 18, 22, 27.
Business forms: bills, 122; receipts, 134, 138; checks, 143; indorsement of checks, 147; promissory notes, 155; orders, 164; drafts,
168; various forms, 175, 181.
Case: definition, 67; nominative , 67; exercise, 79; appositive, 69;
analysis of appositiv e, 71; possessive, 72; analysis of possessive,
74; objective, 77, 85; analysis of objective, 78; analysis of adverbial objective, 88; nominative absolute, 28G; analysis of nominative absolute, 287.
Cautions, 27, 38, 54, 8G, 150, 224, 271.
Clauses, 24, 28, 216; principal and subordinate, 21G; adjective, 237;
restrictive or explanatory, 239; analysis of adjective, 241; analysis of adverbial, 248; noun, 253; analysis of nominative, 255; analysis of objective, 258; analysis of appositive, 261; relation of, 266;
onler of, 287.
295

296

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INDEX.

Comparison, 18; irregular, 20; of :HJ verbs, 22.
Complements, 41, 45; objective, 42; analysis of, 50; modifying, 91,
270.
Compound words, 37.
Conjugation, 140; shall and will, 140; may, 14G; have, 148; write,
1G2; do, 155; be, 157; review of, 177, 17!l, 181.
Conjunctions, 32; co-ordinate and subordinate, 217; analysis of coordinate, 218; correlative, 222, 224; placed before the same part
of speech, 225.
Connectives, 33, 21G.
Contractions, 18.

Marks of punctuation: capital letters, 4, 10, 25, 30; interrogation
point, 4; exclamation point, 4, 3G; period, 4, 5, 10; dash, 5, 281;
comma, 10, 23, 33, 45, 53, 57, 104, 110, 121, 235, 239, 242, 247, 254,
293; quotation marks, 23, 24; colon, 23, 281; hyphen, 3G; semicolon, 235, 242, 251, 275; parenthesis, 267.
Mode, 108 ; tenses of, IGO; notes on, Hi2.
Modifiers, 13, 25; position of, 127, 132, 141.

Description, G, 11, 12, 40, 47, 51, 58, G5, GS, 72, 78, 82, 87, 95, 98, 102,
105, llG, 122, 120, 132, 138, 14G, 148, 205, 2Hl, 227, 251, 2Gl; contrasted, 150, 159, 1G4, lG!J, 177, 185, l!H, l!lG.
Declension, 103; of personal pronouns, 103; of relative aucl interrogative, 205.
Dialogue, lGG, 215.
Diminutives, two, 8G.
Direct and indirect objects, 82; analysis of, 83.
Elements of a sentence, 43; analy s is of ad,·erbial, 81; independent,
290; punctuation of incl epenclent, 293 .
Etiquette: good manners, Gl, G5; m:muers at table, 7G; at school, 90;
on the str eet, 100; at a party, 123; wh en visiting, 144.
Essays, 111, 139, l5G, 175, 182 , l!lO, 200, 210, 214, 231, 23G, 294.
Gender: definition, G3; ways of indicating, GG; exercise, 7!l.
Hyphen, 3G.

d
I

,,
"

Infinitives: definition, 135; tenses of, 255; general use, 270; phrase,
270; sign omitted, 271; construction of, 273, 27G; analysis of, 277.
Initial letters, 17.
Interjections, 35.
Letters: forms of, 8, 14; formal notes, 3J,:1r;,4.4., Hi; business, 50, 55,
58; miscellaneous, 5!l, 72; of introduction, G4; of recommendation,
G7.

I.

:.u.
I'

:.•

297

INDEX.

Margins, 3.
Marks of correction, 29.

-r

Narration, 105, IOU.
Negatives, two, 8 li.
Newspaper articles, 96, 100, 104.
Nouns: dcllnition, 7; classes of, 7, 52; common, 7; proper, 8; predicate, 42, 50; used as qbject, 42; abstract, 52; verbal, 52; collective,
52; number of, 56; rules for plural of, 56, 58, 60; gender of, 63;
ways of indicating gender of, 6G; case of, G7, G9, 72, 77, 79, 82;
adverbial use of, 87; used as modifying complements , 91, 27G;
person of, U7; clcclc11sio11 of, 103.
Number, 5li; rules for formation of plural, 5G, 58, GO .
O and oh, 3G.

Paragraph, 3.
Paraphrase, 144, 178; extendecl, 186, 195, 206, 228, 258, 269, 272.
Parsing: deflnition, 43; of verbs, 187 .
Participle: definition, 135; general use, 270; phrase , 270; com;truction , 273-27G; analysis, 279.
Parts of speech, 3G.
Person, 97.
Phrase: verb, 13; definition, 25; analysis of adjective, 94; analysis
of adverbial, 99; ex planatory or restrictive, 239; infinitive ancl
parti cipial, 270; construction in abridged, 286, 288; order of, 287.
Predicate, simple, 13, 43; modified, 13.
Prepositions, 28, 33; supcrflnons, 150.
Pronouns: definition, 11 ; antecedents of, 11; interrogative, 89, 204;
common error in case of, 93; personal, 97; person, number, and
gender of, 97; compound personal, 101; declension of personal,
103; amhignous use of personal, 137; relative, 19G; who, which,
and what, 198; compound relative, 201; declension of relative, 205;
declension of interrogative, 205; adjective, 20G; possessive adjective, 207; possess ive, 207; a.gr eement with antecedent, 210, 213;
ambiguous use of relative, 284.

11 •• 1

298

INDEX.

Punctuation: important rules, 4; dash, 5, 133, 281; quotations, 23;
series, 33; address, 45; exercise, 48; words omitted, 53; words in
pairs, 57; nonns in apposition, 70; parenthetical expressions, 104,
110, 267; words in contrast, 106; words in same construction, 121;
as, etc., in examples, 235; adjective phrase and clause, 239; enumeration of particulars, 242, 251; adverbial elements, 247; noun
clauses, 254; parentheses and brackets, 267; the semicolon in place
of period, 275; review, 279; colon and dash, 281; independent
elements, 293.

Subject, simple, 13, 43; modified, 13.
Story to be imitated, 113, 127, 136, 160, 245, 282.
Synonyms, 34, 46, 57, 79, 99, 116, 125, 147, 190, 213, 232, 249, 263, 271,

Quotation, direct and indirect, 131.

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299

INDEX.

Reproductions, 102, 107, 111, 128, 171.
Rhetoric: rambling sentences, 39; natural order of words, 80, 84;
introductory words, 92; style, 114; exaggeration, 114; comparison
of style, 118, 193, 237, 291; ambiguity, 124; position of noun
modifiers, 127, 132; direct and indirect quotation, 131; ambiguous
use of personal pronouns, 137; position of adverbs, 141; order of
emphasis, 153; subject emphatic, 158; predicate adjective emphatic,
161; adjective emphatic, 165; adverbial elements emphatic, 176;
brevity, 180, 184, 189; clearness, 199; particular terms, 203; the
simile, 208, 212, 229; figures of speech, 215; the metaphor, 220,
225, 229, 244; figurative use of adjectives, 225; faded metaphors,
225; contrast, 233; use of figurative language, 241; mixed metaphors, 244; the present tense, 249; climax, 251; attractiveness,
259, 262, 268, 272, 275; simplicity, 280; ambiguous use of relative
pronouns, 284; ambiguity with participles, 28!); unity , 291.
Secretarial writings, etc. : duties of secretary, 183 ; records of secretary,
187, 191; constitution and by-laws, 1!)4; amendments, 200; notices,
appointments, and reference, 202; notice of reference, 209; reports
of committees, 211, 218; preamble, 221, 228; resolutions, 221, 228,
232, 281; copy of record, 250; treasurer's report, 256; credentials,
260, 264; petitions, 278, 281; remonstrance and announcement, 282;
notices of meeting, 245.
Sentence: definition, 1; snhject of, I, 13, 44; kinds, 2; predicate of, 2,
13; declarative, 3; interrogative, 3; imperative, 3; exclamatory, 3;
order of, 89; simple, complex, and compound, 230; periodic, loose,
and balanced, 246.
Shall and will 1 distinction of, 172.

278, 285.

Telegrams, 75, 82.
Tense, 109.
That, use of, 1!)8.

.,

Verbs: definition, 12; phrase, 13; complements of, 41, 45; complete
and incomplete, 42, 45; transitive and intransitive, 47; voice of,
105, 109; mod e of, 108, 162; tense of, 10!); person of, 112; number
of, 112, 129, 213; principal parts of, 115; regular, 115; irregular,
118; redundant and defective, 125; infinitives and participles of,
135 ; conjugation of, 140, 14G, 148, 152, 155, 157; auxiliary, 140;
emphatic and interrogative forms of, 165; negative forms of, 167;
progressive and passiv e forms of, 169; revi ew of conjugation of,
177, 179, 181; parsing of, 187; agreement with subject, 253; omission of part of, 265.
Voice, 105.
Who, which, and that, distinction of, 198.
Yes and no, 57.

