TOWER'S ELEMENTS.
FIRST

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE;
OR

ELEMENTS
OF

ENGLISI-I

GRA1\i 1\iAR.

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BY

DAVID

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B~OWER, A. M.
A ND

BENJAMIN F. !-'WEED, A. M.,
AUTHORS

OF GRADUAL LESSONS IN GRAMMAR, AND OP'

A

SEQUEL TO THE LESSONS.
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NEW YORK:
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PUBLISHED BY DANIEL BURGESS & CO.,
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lJl 60 JOHN STREET.

18 5 3.
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CONTENTS.
LANGUAGE.
A sentence,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . • • •••.•••.•• • .•.•••..... 8
Principal parts of a sentence, .............. ,, •••••••• ·• ......... 8
N ot1ns and yerbs, .......•.•••..•••.••••••..•.•••..••...•...•.. 9
Adjectives, ...............•...••••.••••••.. , .•....•••.•••... . 11
Articles, ........•.•...•...•..••••. ,. ••.••••.••..••.•.•.•..... . 12
Ad,·erbs, .... ..••..••.....•....•.•.•••••••••••••••••.••••.... • 14
Prep ositions , ....... .•.....•.•..•..•..•••.••.•..• • •....••••.•. . 16

Table of ?repositions, ............. • ........................... 18
Conjunctions, ................................................ 19
Table of conjunctions, ............................ . ........... 21
Pronouns, ...••.•••..••.•.•..••••••..••...•.••••........•••.. 23
Interj ections, .•..••....•.....•........•••••••••••.•.••••.••.•. 25

Table of interjections, ... , ................... , ................ 2.5

Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1853, by
DAYID B. TOWER,
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Distrirt of Jlfaii5nchusetb.

Parts of speech, •••• .••••••••••.••••...••••••••••..••.••••. • ••. 26 .
Person, .•..•• .•••.•.•••••.•••••.•.•..••.•••.•.•..••.•••••••.. 28
Number, .•.•..••...•..••.•••..•••.••...••.••...•.••.. •.• •.••• .29
Gender, .••...••.•..••••••••••••••••..••.•••..•••. .•.•........ 32
Case, . .......•••••••••••••••.•.•...••.••••.••....•••.•••..••. ~ 34
D eclension of nouns, .•.•..••.•••.•••...•••..••••.....•..•.•••. 38

Declension of personal pronouns, ••••••••••••••••••••••• , •••••• 36
Declension of relative pronouns, ................. . ............. 37
Personal pronouns, ............................. ; ................ 38
Subject and predicate, .. . ................. , ................... 40
Nominative case, ........, ..................................... 42
Possessive, .......... . .•.....•.•••••.•.••..••...•..•.......... 44
Objective, ...•..•... . ••..•••..••.•••..••• . •••..............•. . 4.5

Mode, .......•.........•...•..•.•....••....•••..•........••.•. 47
T ense, ...........•.•.....•.•.. , •..••.•.•.. .•••.•••...•.••.•.. 51
Conjugation of the verb" love," ............................. . . 154
Participles, .................................................. •57
Conjugation of the verb "be," ................................ 59
Active and passive forms, .......................... ... .. , ...... 61
Progressive form, ..................... . ................ , ...... 64
Regular and irregular verbs .................................... 65
Adjective pronouns,. ........................... ; ....... , ••••• 66
Comparison of adjectives, ...................................... 67
Compared irregularly, .............. ... , ........................ 70
Articles, .............••.•.•..•. . ~ •••..••...••..••.•. .. •• •.•••. 71

ANALYSIS, OR PARSING.
Subject, (nominative,) •••• ". ................................... 74
Predicate, (agreement,) ....................................... 75
Adjectives, ..••..••...•.•.•..••• •••..•..•••••••..•.....•••••.• 75
Adverbs, .... . . ................................................. i6

STERE ~ TYPED

nosTOI"

AT THE

.!TERl!OTTPE

FOUNDR Y.

Objective after transitive verbs,. .............. , ................ 77
Objective after · prepositions, ................ , .................. 78
Possessive case, .. .... .. .....• •.••..• • .••••••••.•.•••...•...... 78
Case after intransitive verbs, .•.•.•••..••.•.•••••.•.• . ..... .... 79
Apposition, .• • .........••••..••.••••• ~ •.•••••••..••.•. • .•.•.. 80·

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lnddepen~ent, by address, (nominative, ) ••••••••••• , ••••••• ,, •• 81
n epennent, unconnected with other words
8?
Indep
· h a partw1ple,,
· ·
'· • ,• •••••
' • • • • ,• •••••
• • • '· ', •• ,·'••.
• •8 ~
Infi -:~ d en t , wit
••• ,,.,.,, •••
3
ill. n~ mode, •••••••••••••• ,,,, •• ,.,,, ...................... 84
I n t erJ echons •
Conjunctions', :: : ." :::::::::.' ' ••••••• ' ••••• ' ••• ·' •• • •• '· • · • • · · 8 ·?
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.................................. · '"J
8

~g rc~mcnt o pr onouns, •• •••• . ••••••••••••.••••••••••••••••••• 86
connect , .................................... 86
cl.• e1 ativef pronouns
cl

onnec

IY C

a verbs con n ec t,., •• . •• , •••••• , ••••••••••• , , ••••• , • 87

SE~TENCES, SIMPLE AND COMPOUND.
ind ept_en dcnt clause, ............. ,., ............... , •••••••••• 88
R ea
1 IYe
"
AdY crbial
"
•• • • ., •• • • •• •• • '• • • ·' '·· ... ••• " " •• • • "· .89
SubjunctiYc
"
• • • '· • ·• • • ·' ·" • • • • • • • • • ·' • • • • • • • • • • • • ... · 89
•••• •••••• ••••••
•••••• •••••••••• •••••• •••
S tb1~j cctti ve
............
, .........................
, ••.• 90
80

O

~ ec

IY e

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' O. . \ V
.......................................... 91
. I 1':\D
ORDS, •••••• •• ••
92

Co~r

Table of co mpound p ersonal pr~;;~~~~·:'··'''"··'··'···· • • • '· • 93
· pronouns, •• , . . .............
' · · ·'' ·'' ,• ·'
•• · · · · · '' · '·' 9
ICon
t 1p ountd. re I a t1ve
•••••••••••••••
4
n erroga IYC pronouns,. ••••••••••••• , ••• , ••• , •• , •••• , ........ 94

R ULES.

~~e subject, .•••••.•••••••• , ............... , •••••••••••••••••• 95

rascs, .......... •• • • • • ••• • ...
9~
Ad" f
....................... ·•••·••· 0
A Jee n-cs, ..................... , ••••••••••• , , ••••••••••• , .... 95
greemcnt of verbs •••• , • .• •
96
A d ver bs, .... .... ...' ... .....• •••••••
...• •••••• ••••••••••••· •••••••• 96
ObbJect~rn after prepo~i~ions, ., •••• : :·:: .' .' .' .' .' .' .':: .' .'::: .'::: .' .' .': .' .': 97
p Jech~ c after trans1t1ve verbs and participles,., ••••• , ••••••• , 98
ossess1 vc. cas e, ••••.••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 98
~ase after m transitive and passive verbs and participles, ••••• , ••• 98
I P£os1t~n, ....••.•••• • • • ••• • ••••.•••• • • •• •.' •.•• • ••••• '. • •. • .99
Int ercnrent, .••••• , •••••••• , ••• , • , ••••.•••• , •••••••• , •••••••• go
n fier..J ~C rnn , .d.. ...... , ••••••• , ............................... 99
I n 111 tIYc mo e, ••••••• , • • •
()
Conjun.c~ions, co nnect, ••• : • .'::::::.':::::.'.':.':.'.'.':::.'.'.'.':::: 9
i=/~p 0.s1ti ons,
" ••••••••••••• , •••••••••••••••••• , ••••• l()()
.C c a -.n-e. pronouns, " ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• , •••••••••• 100
onnect1vc adf1·erbs, " •••••••••••••••••..•••• . ••••••••.•••••• 100
A
111g rcemcn
, P t o Jlronouns
·
' • •• • • ................................ . 100
E ?Dl•\ AfRSI'.'\ G,_. ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 101
xamp cs or parsmg, .•••• , ••••• , •••• , , ...... , •• , , •••• , • , •••• 103

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PREFACE.

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APPENDIX.
Di1isions of gramm ar .•••• , • • •
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p rop er an(1 com
' ~non nouns,
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•··•••••••
••••·•••••••••·••••••
••••.•••••
• •.•••
• •••• , •••••••• , ••• 108,.
I rregulnr fo rmation of the plural number
108
Gender,. .....................
,. • '· •• • • • • • • • • • •• '' • •
T bl
f .
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.
• • , ••• , •••••• ' ••••• , ••• , • •• • ••• 110
a e o uregu ar Ycrbs, ...••••••••••••••• •••.•.•.•••••••••• . 112

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB" TEACH."
A ctive f?rm, .. . ............................ , ................ 117

Progressive
p
. f form, •• , •••• , • • • • • • • • ...••••••••••••••••••••••••• 120
ass1ve orm, ..• ....•.. , •......•.• , ..•.•..••.•••...•••.••••• . 122

Oun aim has been, in this littlll treatise, instead of loading the memory with
terms which it 1s impossible for the pupil to understand, to make grammar :m
intellectual exercise; to show, by the construction and analysis of easy sen-

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tences, the power of the several classes .o f words in modifying tho sense; to
show that the sense is not contained in one mass, or lump, but that one word
suggests to the mind the object of which we are speaking, another describes
the object, another asserts something of the object, and another qualifies the
assertion in respect to time, place, and manner.
This exercise in itself is admirably calculated to impart quickness, accuracy,
and intensity, of thought and expression. Professor Giubs says," There can he
no exercise in the whole business of instruction mor~usc ful to the mind, than
the analysis of sentences in the concentrated light of grammar and logic. It
brings one into the sanctuary of human thought. All else is but standing In
the outer court."
The sentences which we have instanced are, it is true, very simple, and the
sense very obvious. It is sufficient to say that they are intended for children,
whose thoughts are simple, and whose minds are untrained to any severe
exercise of the powers of discrimination, classification, or abstraction. They
are intended also for illustratWn, and are therefore better, even for adults, than
sentences, where no new classes or relations arc used, but only where these
relations are less obvious. That, certainly, is the best illustration of a principle, which contains it in its simplest and most transparent form - a fact, it
would seem, not always recognized by teachers.
Children very early recognize the general principles of language, and to an

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PREFACE.

extent sufficient to serve as a basis for a broader and more accurate knowledge
of it. Tims, when they enter our primary schools, they expreso their ideas in

FIRST

sentences; they use the singular and plural numbers appropriately; they recognize the principles of gender, number, person, and even case, in the use of
tho personal pronouns; and a vaTiety of other things which may be taken

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE,

advantage of by the teacher. Even the errors of children, in the use of lru1guage, show how early they acquire a knowledge of its geneTal structure.
The child who says that" William is goodeT than John ," has learned the

OR

regula:r formation of the comparative degree, aud is ignorant only of the exception. When he says, "mans" for" men," and "rurmed" for" ran," he
shows that he recognizes the regular formation of the plural of nouns, as well

ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

as that of the past tense of verbs. He has already begun to m'ake· a grammar
of the language, and merely wants encouragement and guidance to accomplish his task.
Our object has been, in these pages, to furnish such guidance, so far as it can

LANGUAGE.

be done in a text book, trusting to tho judgment of the teacher to carry out
and exemplify more fully, principles which are necessarily but partially developed in a work of this size and character.

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l'ARX STREET, BOSTON,

June,

18.'>3.

Do all nations use the same language? They
do not.
What language do the people of France
use? The French.
What language do the people of England
use? The English.
What language do we use ? The English.
What is the use of language? To express
thought.
How is thought expressed · in words? · By
combining them.
How many words are necessary to express
an idea or thought ? There must be two, at
least.
If I say, "boys John," do I express an idea?

No.

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FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

ELEMENTS ' OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

If I say, "runs walks," do I express an idea?
No.
Do two words combined, then, always express
an idea ? 'rhey do not.
If I say, " boys run," do I express an ide3:?
Yes.

Which word tells what is said or asserted of
the person or thing?

If I say, "Jolin walks," do I express an idea?
Yes.
What do \Vords joined so as to express an _
idea form ? A sentence.
How many words, then, are necessary to
mak e a sentence? Two, at least.
What are the principal parts of a sentence?
Th ere must be one word which is the name of
a person or thing; and another which tells
what is said or asserted of that person or thing.

To the Teacher. -Ask similar questions respecting the following
examples:1. Horses run.
4. Fishes S\\im.

2. Dogs bark.
5. Ships sail.

Require the pupil to say or assert something about each of the
following names, sci as to express an idea or make a sentence.
Charles - - . Rivers--. Nightingales - -•
Boys - . Girls - . Children - . Pupils - .
Require the pupil to supply the name of a person or thing in
ench of the following examples, so as to express an idea or make
a sentence.
- - work. - - wither. - - sew. - - flow. - sting. - - fight. - ---sing. - - play. - _-talk.

NouNs
John walks.

What word is here used as the name of a
perso n or thing? "John."
What word is used to tell what is said or asserted of it ? " Walks."
Is this a sentence? Yes.
Why? ._Because it expresses an idea.
Birds fly.

Do these words form a sentence? Why?
Which word is used as the name of a person
or thing?

3. Trees gr_ow.
6. Georg~ studies.

AND VERBS.

Boys study.

What word is the name of the persons of
whom we are speaking? "Boys."
What word tells what is said or asserted of
the boys? " Study."
What are words used as names called? Nouns.
What word is a noun in this sentence?
" Boys." Why? Because it is used as a name.
What are names of particular persons and
places called? Proper nouns.
What are general names called-? Common
nouns.

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FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

· ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

In what respect would "young" describe men?
In regard to age.
"Tall?" With regard to height.
" Large? " In regard to size.
What are the words called that describe nouns?
Adjectives.

What word describes horses? "Two."
In what respect does it describe them ? As to
number; it tells how many horses ran.
Then what is it called 1 An adjective.
Why ? Because it describes a noun.
In the second sentence, what word describe5l
the noun horses as to size ?
Then what is it called? Why?
In the third sentence, what word is used to
describe the horses as to color ?
What is it called ? Why?

Large streams flow from little fountains.

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What word ·describes "streams" in this sentence ? " Large."
In what respect? In respect to size.
What, then, is "large" called? An adjective.
Why? Because it describes a noun.
What other adjective is there in this example?
" Little."
Why? Because it describes the noun ~' fountains."
STATEMENT.-Adjectives describe nouns.

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Remark. -The three adjectives, a, an, and the, are called Articles.

1. Two horses •
2. Two large horses
• ran.
3. Two large black horses
In the first sentence, what word is used as a
name?
What is it called ?
What word is used to affirm or assert some-.
thing about the horses ?
What is it called?

To tlw 1'ecr,cher. -Ask similar questions respecfuig the following
sentences;, also about sentences in the reading lesson:-

1. Solomon is called a wise man. 2. Industrious men work.
3. George had four sweet apples. 4. He lived twenty years.
5. Evil communications corrupt good manners.
6. Swift instinct leaps; slow reason feebly climbs.
7. The gay summer droops into pallid autumn.
8. Ambition scoffs at useful toil and homely joys.
9. There are ·vacant seats in our earthly homes.
10. Lonely and lovely is the silent glen,
11. His lazy limbs in listless languor lay.
12. Soft winds murmured with low and pensive -s ound.
To tlw Teaclter. - See that the pupil supplies adjectives descrlbingthe following nouns : ·
- - horses. cows. - - dogs.
- - trees. - - birds. houses.
-:--- ideas.

--'--- children.
feelings •.

To t!te Teaclter.-See t_h at the pupil supplies nouns to be described.I
by the following adjectives: -

Great--. Small-. White-. Seven-•.
Young--. New-. Tall--, Sublime--. Ex-·
cellent - - . Black - . Sour - - . Cold - . Good:.
- . Merciful - -

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FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
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ADVERB.

The !torses then ran swiftly away.

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What is the word " swiftly" used for? To
tell how th e horses ran.
What is "away" used for? To tell where
they ran.
What is "then" used for? To tell when they
ran.
What are "swiftly" "then " and "away"
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called ? Adverbs.
What, then, are adverbs u sed for? To de·
scribe verbs.
In \vh at respect do th ey describe verbs? They
tell !tow, when, or where an action is performed.
Very good boys study faithfully.

In thi s sentence, what \Vord describes "boys"?
Good.
.
What, th en, is the word "good"? An adjective.
What is " very" used for? To increase tlie
force of the adjective "good."
What part of speech is "very"? An adverb.
Some boys study less faithfully.

vVhat part of speech is "faithfully" ? .A.n
adverb.

·-

Why? Because it describes or qualifies the
verb "study."
\Vhat is the use of. the word "less"?
To diminish or lessen the force of the adverb
"faithfully."
vVhat is " less" called? An adverb.
What, then, may an adv.erb be used for? It
may be used with a verb to tell how, when, or
where an action is performed ; or with an adjec·
tive or adverb to increase or lessen its force.
Adverbs describe or qualify
verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.
ST A TEMENT. -

They have always labored most successfully.

What is the word "successfully" used for?
To tell how they have labored.
What part of speech is it? An adverb.
What word does it describe or qualify? The
verb " labored."
What is the word " most" used for ? To increase the force of the word " successfully."
What part of speech is used to increase or
lessen the force of an adverb? An adverb.
What part of speech, then, is "most"?
An adverb. vVhy?
What is the word "always" used for? To
tell when they labored.
What part of speech is it? Why?
What then do adverbs qualify_?

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FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

To the 1'eachei:. -Ask si_milat questions r esp.:-cting the following
sentences ; also m the readrng lesson: -

What word must be placed before " wealth "
to connect it with "men" ? " Of."
What is the word "of" called? A preposition.
Why? Because it is placed befure a noun to
connect it with another word.

1. Boys sometimes act rather foolishly.
2. 'Ve never shall submit.
·
~· H e studies so diligently that he will most certainly gain the
pnze.
·
4. I have seen him there lately.
5. When, where, and how he did it, he best can tell.
6. Mountain and valley are equally agreeable.
7. The heavenly bodies are perpetually in motion.

The . t eacher should require the following blanks to be filled with
adverbs:1. Time flies--. 2. Charles studies - - diligently.
3. Charles studies very - - . 4. The horse ran - - fast.
5. George applied himself most - - .
6. George applied himself-- faithfully.
7. Anna came - - than we expected. 8. They say - - .

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PREPOSITION.

Wealthy men should give liberally.
Men of wealth should give liberally.

Is there any difference in the meaning of these
sentences? No.
How are the men described in the first sentence? By the adjective "wealthy."
How are they described in th e second? By
the phrase "of wealth."
What is the word " wealth " ? A noun.
Does it convey an idea to say, "Men-wealth
should give"? No.

Men ofwealth should give liberally.
Men of wealth should give with liberality.

Do these sentences convey the same meaning?
Yes.
What word tells how they should give, in the
first sentence? The adverb "liberally."
What tells lww they should give, in the second
sentence? The phrase "with liberality."
Would it convey an idea to say, " Men of
wealth should give liberality"? No.
"\Vhat word must be placed before "liberality"
to connect it with the verb "give"? · "With."
What, then, is" with" called? A preposition.
Why? Because it is placed before a noun to
connect it with another word.
What, then, is a preposition? A word placed
before a noun to connect it with some other
word.
ST A TE ME NT. -

Prepositjons connect

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words~

He lately came from college.

.

What noun in this sentence?
')
....

"College."

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FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH . GRAMMAR.

19

What word connects it with the verb "came"?
"From.~'

CONJUNCTION.

What part of speech is "from"? Why?
What may prepositions connect?
TABLE OF PREPOSITIONS.
about,
above,
across,
after,
against,
amid,
amidst,
among,
amongst,

around,
at,
athwart,
before,
behind,
below,
beneath,
beside,
besides,

bet1veen,
from,
betwixt,
in,
beyond,
into,
by,
of,
concerning, on,
down,
over,
during,
since,
except,
through,
for,
to,

towards,
under,
underneath,
unto,
up,
upon,
with,
within,
"ithout.

The tca~her should ask questions similar to the above respecting
th e followmg sentences: I.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
ness
7.

John has returned to the city.
You may coast on my new sled.
Take truth for thy creed, and God for thy Guide.
Speak gently to the little child.
There is a pleasure in the pathless woods.
Honor thy father with thy whole heart, and forget not the kindof thy mother.
Can you be misled by such argument.s ?

The teacher should require the following blanks to be filled:_
I. George has gone - - Indiana.
2. Louis Napoleon usurped the throne - - France.
3. Anna rode home - - a carriage.
4. Charles was sitting - - a chair.
5. - - youth we sometimes trifle - - health.
6. The blue waves curl - - the gale.
7. I am monarch - - all I survey.
8. He leadeth me - - the still waters. He maketh me to lie
down - - green pastures.

Joltn runs.

William walks.

How many assertions are here made~ · Two.
Does "John runs" make complete sense? Yes.
Does" William walks" make complete sense?
Yes.
If you wish to make these two assertions in
the same sentence, what word must you supply?
"And."
What is " and" used for? To connect the
sentences.
What are words called which connect sen·
tences? Conjunctions,'
What, then, is "and"? A conjunction.
Why? Because it connects two sentences.

Jolin went to Boston.

James went to Boston.

How many assertions are here made? Two.
What word may be supplied to connect these
sentences ? " And."
What is" and"? A conjunction.
Why? Because it connects sentences.
What parts of each sentence are alike?
" Went to Boston."
How, then, can the same assertions be made
in a shorter way? "John and James went to
Boston."

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FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

What, then, is "and" used for in this sen·
tence? To connect the sentences and shorten
the expression.
How is the expression shortened by using
the conjunction ?

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ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

John will be pleased (if) William returns.

What word is here used to connect the sen·
tences ? " If."
Can the expression be shortened if the sen·
tences are connected? No.
John went to Boston. John returned.
· Why? Because no part of one sentence is
vVhat word must be supplied to put these two like the other.
What part of speech is "if"? A conjunc- '
assertion s in one sentence? '' And."
What part of the sentence may be omitted ti on.
Why? Because it connects sentences.
when "and" is supplied? "John" before "re· ·
turned."
· STATEMENT.-Conjunctions connect sentences,
Why? Because it is the same in both sen.
and save the repetition of what is alike in each.
tences.

John will go.

Jarnes will go.

What word must be supplied to connect these
sentences, and assert that only one of the persons
named will go ? " Or."
Is it now asserted that John will go? No.
Is it asserted that James will go? No.
Is it asse1iccl that one or the other \Yill go?
Yes.
Does it tell which? No.
What words are alike m each sentence?
" vVill go."
How may the sentences be written when con·
nected by ".or"? "John or James will go."
V\rhat part of speech is "or"? A conjunction.

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TABLE OF CONJUNCTIONS.
although,
llld,
as,
because,
both,

but,
either,
for,
if,
lest,

neither,
nor,
notwithstanding,
or,
since,

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unless,
than,
that,
wherefore,
then,
yet.
therefore,
though,

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George will succeed, because he is diligent.
Is it asserted of George that he will succeed?
Yes.
Is it asserted of him that he is diligent? Yes.
What word connects these two assertions?
"Because."
What, then, is "because" ? A conjunction.
Why? Because it connects sentences.
Does it shorten the expression?

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ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

I saw tlte m.an who sold a horse to you.

4. Here is your knife which I borrowed.
5. Before I gave the thongs to you, they were mine; after I handed them to you, they were yours.

What is "I" used for? Instead of the name
of the speaker.
What is " you " used for? Instead of the
name of the person spoken to.
What i;art of speech would these names be?
Nouns.
What part of speech, then, are "I" and" you"?
Pronoun s.
What is the word "who" used for? Instead
of the noun " man."
What, then, is "who" called? A pronoun.
Why ? Because it is used instead of a noun.
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FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

Annci found my pencil, and put it on her des le.
What noun is "my" used to represent? The
name of the speaker.
What n oun is "it" used to represent? "Pen·
cil."
What noun is "her" used to represent ?
"Anna."
What are words used instead of nouns called?
Pronoun s.
What, t hen, are "my," "it," and "her" called?
Pronoun s.
T o tlie Teacher. - Ask similar questions concerning the following
examples : 1. I thank thee for the word; it nc::ves my arm.
2. I will use you for my mirth.
3. Weigh well thy words before thou givest them breatlf.

INTERJECTION.

Alas ! the reniedy came too late.
What is asserted in this sentence? 'That "the
remedy came too late."
Is the vrnrd "alas" necessary to make the
assertion? No.
Do you understand the speaker to regret that
the remedy came too late? Yes.
What word conveys that idea to you? "Alas."
Does it assert that the speaker regrets it? No.
Does it imply it? Yes.
What, then, is "alas" used for? 'I1o imply
the emotion of regret.
What are words u sed to imply emotion or
feeling called? Interjections.
What is "alas"? An interjection.
vVhy? Because it implies emotion, and is not
connected with the sentence.

TABL~
adieu,

nh,
aha,
alack,
alas,

bravo,
fie,
ha,
h a, h a, ha,
hail,

3

OF INTERJECTIO?{S.
halloo,
hark,
h ey,
heyday,
hist,

ho,
hurrah,
hush,
huzza,
lo,

poh,
pshaw,
pugh,
well-a-day,
what.

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FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

To the Teacher. - Ask similar questions about the following examples: -

These classes of words are called parts of speech,
and include all the words in the language.
What are nouns? What are verbs?
What are adjectives? What are adverbs ?
What are prepositions?
What are conjunctions?
What are interjections?
What are pronouns?
What are these classes of words called ?

Alas ! why need you be so rough?
Ah ! it is Pythias himself.
Hush! hush! thou vain dreamer.
Umph ! I guess at it.
Pshaw! there's no distress in that.
Well! what can I do for thee?
7. 0 ! I shall drown, I shall drown!
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

p A.RTS

To the T eacher. -Ask the parts of speech, and why, in each of
If the pupil can write, let him make a list,
classifying all the words in each.
the following examples.

OF SPEECH.

1. The horse ran with the carriage, and broke it.

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We have now seen that words may be reduced
to classes, according to the purpose for which
they are used; that
Words used as names are nouns.
Words used to assert are verbs.
Words used to describe nouns are adjectives.
Words used to tell how, when, or where an
action is performed, are adverbs.
Words used before nouns ' and pronouns to
connect tliem with some other word are prepositions.

2. Charles looked for the book.
3. George recited his lessons well.
4. I was fond of sport when I was young.
5. I informed Charles of the arrival, and he was very glad.
6. John remains in the city, and William returns to the country.
7. The rivers are wide and deep.
8. Father bought this sled, but that knife was a present from my
uncle.
9. Ha! they please me now.
10. William gave me the book, and I now cheerfully give it to you.
REMARK. -The following lines may, perhaps, be of service to tht
young learner in fixing the use and meaning of the parts of speech.
in his memory : -

A NOUN'S the name of any thing;
As, school or garden, hoop or swing.

vVords used to connect sentences, and prevent
the repetition of what is the same in each, are
conjunctions.
Words use d to imply emotion or feeling, without asserting it, are inte17·ections.
Words used instead of nouns are pronouns.

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ADJECTIVES tell the kind of noun ;
As, great, small, pretty, white, or brown.
Three of these words we often see
Called ARTICLES - a, an, and the.

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Instead of nouns the PROXOUNS stand;
John's head, /tis face, my arm, your hand.

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FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

VERBS tell of something being cl-One;
As, read, write, spell, sing,jump, or run.

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I-low things are done the ADVERBS tell;
As, slowly, quickly, ill, or '/,C4/J,.
They also tell us where and when;
As, here, and there, and now, and then.
A PREPOSITION" stands before
A noun; as, in, or thraugh, a door.
Co:N"J UNCTIO~S sentences unite;
As, kittens scratch and puppies bite.

..

The INTERJECTION shows surprise ;
As, O, how pretty! Ah, how wise!

PERSON OF NOUNS.

A noun may be the name of the person speaking, spoken to, or spoken of.
If I say, "William, bring the book to me, your
teacher," what noun is the name of the person
speaking ? " Teacher."
What noun is the name of the person spoken
to ? " vVilliam."
vVhat noun is the name of the thing spoken
of? " Book."
vVhen a noun is the name of the person speaking, of \Vhat person is it? Of the first person.
What noun is of the first person in this ex·
ample ? " '.J'eacher."
Why? Because it is the name of the speaker.

,ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

When a noun is the name of the person spoken

to, of what person is it? Of the

secon~ pe~son.

What noun is of the second person m this example? " William."
Why ? Because it is the name of the person
spoken to.
When a noun is the name of the person or
thing spoken of, of what person is it? Third
person.
.
.
What noun in this example is of the thud person ? " Book."
Why? Because it is the name of the thing
spoken of.
To tlie Teacher. - Ask similar questions respecting the following
examples:1. Sir, I, your brother, should not plead in vain.

2. ,Anna, you may recite your lesson.
3 Virtue is its own reward.
Thou, 'William, still art young, and dost not see the danger.
5. Honesty is the best policy.
.
6. Peace scatters blessings from her dewy wings.

4:

NUMBER.

A noun may be the name of one person or
thing, or more tlian one.
If I say, "tree," do I mean one tree, or more
than one ? One tree.
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What word would express more than one?
" Trees."
Does " child" mean one, or more than one ?
Wh at word mu st be used to express more than
one ? " Children."
When a word mean s only one person or thing,
of what numb er is it? Singular number.
Wh en a word means more than one, of what
number is it ? Plural number.
What is the plural form of the following
nouns : lzouse, horse, ship, boat, river, school?
Wh at is t he singular form of th e following ·
nouns : benches, seats, boxes, windows, doors?
Wh at must be added to th e \Vord " horse" to
make it plural? " s."
What must be added to "box" to make it
plural? " es."
How is th e plural number commonly formed?
By adding "s " or "es " to the singular.
Wh at is the plural of" child"?
H o\v is it formed ? By adding "ren" to the
singular.
How is th e plural of " man " form ed ? By
ch a ngin g "a" to "e."
Spell t he plural of goose, fool, foot, ox, woman,
mouse.
What is the plural of" lady"? " Ladies."
How is the plural formed? By changing" y"
into " ies."

ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

31.

Is there a vowel immediately before the "y"
in "lady" ? No.
Then, if a noun ends in " y" without a vowel
immediately before it, how is the plural formed?
Spell the plural of the following words : fly,
. body, glory, story, possibility, navy, victory, fairy,
beauty, cherry, duty, lady.
What letter was removed from each ?
What letters were added to each?
Why? Because "y" was not immediately
preceded by a vowel.
What is the plural of" key" ? '' Keys."
How is it formed? By adding" s."
Is the " y " preceded by a vowel ? Yes, by
the vowel " e."
What, then, is added to form the plural when
final "y " is directly preceded by a vowel ? ': s."
Spell the plural of the following words : turkey, day, monkey, toy, my, boy, convoy, way,
valley, delay.
What is the plural of" loaf"? "Loaves."
What is the plural of" knife"? "Knives."
Into what is "f" or "fe" in .these examples
changed? Into "ves."
.
Spell the plural of the following words : life,
wife, sheaf, leaf, wharf.
What is the plural of" muff"? "Muffs."
Staff has staves for its plural. All others in
" ff " add " s."

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FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE •

To the T eacher. -Ask similar questions respecting the following
examples:GENDER.

A noun may be the name of a male, a female,
or an object which is neither male nor female.

The gentleman and lady are in the car.

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Does the noun "gentleman" denote a male,
or female ? A male. '
What is the gender of the name of a male?
, Masculine.
Then of what gender is "gentleman"? Masculine.
Does "lady" denote a male, or female ? A
female.
What is the gender of the name of a female?
Feminine.
Then of what gender is "lady"? Feminine.
Does " car" denote a male, a female, or neither ? Neither.
What is the gender of a noun that is neither
male nor female ? Neuter.
What does "neuter" mean? It means neither
Of what gender is " car"? Neuter.

The boy and his sister were playing at ball.
What words are nouns in this example?
Of what person is each? Why?
Of what number? Why?
Of what gender? Why?

'

!. 'William's cheek was wet with his mother's tears.
2. Man, the hermit, sighed, till woman smiled.
3. Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot, over the grave where
our hero we buried.
4. There is no breeze upon the lake.
5. ·why should gold man's feeble mind decoy ?
6. The fisqerman drags to the shore his laden nets.
7. The schoolboy lags with satchel in his hand.

William walks.
What pronoun may be used for" William" in
this sentence ? " He."
What number, person, and gender is "William"? Why?
The pupils may take the pupils' seats.
What pronoun may be used so as to avoid the
' the repetition of " pupils " in this sentence?
"Their."
vVhat number and person is ''pupils"?
Is it necessary to determine the gender of a
noun when it is of the third person plural? No.
Why? Because we use the same pronoun to
represent a noun of either gender, in the plural
number; as,
The boys may take their seats.
The girls may take their seats.
The trees have dropped their leaves.
Of what number are the three nouns, "boys,"
" girls," and " trees " ?
.
Why?

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FIRST LESSO NS IN LANGUAGE.

Why? Because it has a subject and a predicate.
What is the subject? " Man."
What is t he predicate? " Acts."
What part of speech is "man"? A noun.
Why?
Of what number? Why?
Of what person? Why? '
Of what gender? Why?
vVhat pronoun may be used in its place? "He."
In vvhat case is "he"? Nominative. (See
table of pronouns.)
Th en in what case is "man"? Nominative.
In what case, then, must the subject be? In
the nominative.
STATEl\IENT.-The subject of a sentence must
be in the nominative case.
Horses ran.

.,

What are we speaking of m t his sentence?
Horses.
Then what is the subject?
What is affirmed or predicated of " horses"?
That they ran.
Then what is the predicate?
What part of speech is " horses " ? A noun.
Why?
What number? Why?
What person ? Why ?
•

ELEMENTS OF ENGLlSH GRAMl\IAR.

43

Is it necessary to tell the gender when the noun
is plural ? No.
Why ? Because the same pronoun is used
instead of a masculine, feminine, or neuter noun
in the plural.
In what case is "horses"? Nominative.
Why? Because it is the subject.
R epeat the fifth rule.
What pronoun may be used instead of
" horses" ? " They."
\iVhy may not "them" be used instead of
" horses" in this sentence? Because "them"
is in the objective case, and the subject must be
in the nominative.
To the Teacher, -Ask similar questions respecting the following
C"Xamples : 1. Trees grow. 2. Scholars study. 3. .Charles jumps. 4. Virtue
will be rewarded. 5. Children are taught. 6. Flowers will wither.
7. The men talked. 8. Stephen was stoned. 9. Cicero was admired.
10. Boys will talk.
Let the pupil supply subj ects for the following assertions or pred·
icates, to fill the blanks; viz., subjects for the following verbs:-

1. - - studies. 2. - - will grow. 3. - - has come.
4. - - have arrived. 5. - - will be loved. 6. - - run.
7. - - play. 8. - - fly. 9. - - walks. 10. - - bark.
Let the pupil fill the blanks, predicating or asserting something
about each of the following subjects, viz., supplying a urb for each
suhJect:1. Boys - - .

2. Flowers - -.

3. Birds - - .

4. Men

- - . 5. Scholars - - . 6. Children - - . 7. Anna - - .
8. Gnats - - . 9. Fishes - - . 10. Lions - - .

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The seve nth ? It declares his obligation to go.
In ·wh at mod e are verbs, when they express
possibilit!), liberty, power, will, obligation, or neces·
sity? In t he potential mode.
What is the meaning of "potential"? It
m eans powe1ful.
Does th e potential mode always express power?
No.
What does it express ? It expresses possibil·
ity, liberty, power, will, obligation, or necessity, by
u sing may, can, niust, miglLt, could, would, or
should.
.
If a verb from its s~crnification, without the use
of any of these words, expresses power; obligation, &c., is jt said to be in the potential mode?
No.
If I say, " \Villiam may go if he wishes," how
is th e verb "wishes " used ? To express a condition.
vVhat is the condition under which he is permitted to go ? Th at he wishes or desires it.
In wh at mode is a verb when it expresses a
condition? In the subjunctive mode.
What is t he meaning of "subjunctive"? It
mea ns somethin g joined or added.

Cltildren, obev your p arents.
How is the verb "obey" used in this example 1
It is used to express a command.

In what mode is a verb which is used to express a command? Imperative mode.
What is the meaning of" imperative"? Com.
manding.
Is the imperative mode always used to command? No.
For what other purpose is it used? For praying or entreating; as, "Give us this day our daily
bread." "Do let me have the book."
1. Children obey their parents.
2. Children must obey their parents.
3. Children should obey their parents.
4. Children, obey your parents.
5. Children will be happy if they obey their
parents.
In what mode is "obey" -in the first example?
Indicative.
'
Why? Because it is used for simple declara,.
tion.
In what mode is "must obey" in the second
example ? Potential.
Why ? B ecause it expresses necessity, by the
aid of " must."
In what mode is "should obey" in the third
example ? Potential.
Why? Because the verb expresses obligation
by the aid of "should."
In what mode is "obey" in the fourth example 7 Imperative.

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FIRST J,ESSONS IN L ANGUAGE.

ELEllIENTS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Why? · Because it is used for commanding.
In what mode is "obey" in the fifth example?
Subju.nctive.
vVhy? Because it is used to express the condition under which children may be happy.

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Why ? Because it is used to assert something.
What does the word "must" express? Necessity.
Then in what mode is "must study "? Potential.
Why? Because the potential mode 1s used
to express necessity, by the aid of must.

Children are comnianded to obey their parents.
What is the subject of this sentence? " Chil·
dren."
What is the predicate? "Are commanded."
What part of speech is "are com mantled"?
A verb.
What other verb in this sentence ? " Obey."
Why is it a verb? Because it may be used
as a predicate, to assert or affirm.
Is it u sed as a predicate in this example? It
is not.
In what mode is a verb when it is not used as
a predicate ? Infinitive.
vVhat \Vord generally precedes a verb rn the
infinitive mode? rrhe preposition "to."
How many modes have verbs? Five.
What are they? Indicative, potential, imperative, subjunctive, and infinitive.

51

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To the Teacher. -Ask similar questions respecting the following
examples : 1.
2.
3.
6.

1

William studies his lessons.
'Villiam has learned his lessons.
George returned yesterday. 4. John can buy a book.
John may buy a book. 6. Boys, obey your teachers.
7. Pupils should obey their teachers.
8. The boys ran to see the soldiers.
9. 'William studied well, or he could not have improved so much.
10. Charles, bring your book to me.
11. I love to look on a scene so lovely.
12. The boy had returned when I arrfred.
13. Children should try to behave well.
14. The gentleman should not have purchased the house, if he.disliked it.
15. The boy will attend school if his parents consent.
16. Do give me the knife.

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William mu.st study !tis lesson.

TENSE.

What is asserted of William ? That he must
study.
What part of speech is must study? A verb.

What is the meaning of tense, as applied to
verbs? It means the time when an action is
done.

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What is the most common division of time?
Into present, past, and time to come, or future.
If I say, " H enry walks," when do I represent
the action as taking place? Now.
In what tense, then, is "walks"? Present.
If I say, "Henry walked yesterday," when do
I represent the action to have taken place? In
a space of time wholly past.
In what tense is "walked" ? Imp erfect.
If I say, "Henry has walked to-day," when is
the action represented as being done? In a
space of time which is not wholly past.
In what tense is "has \Valked"? Pe1:fect.
If I say, "Henry had vvalked before you saw
him," when did the action take place? Before a
past time, m.entioned.
In what tense is "had walked"? Pluperfect.
If I say, "Henry will walk," when do I assert
th at the action will take place? In time to come,
or future time.
In what tense is "will come"? Future.
If I say, " Henry will have walked before tomorrow," when is the action represented to take
place? In future time befor e a time mentioned.
In what tense is "will have walked"? Future
pc1:fect.
How many tenses have verbs? Six.
What are they? Present, imperfect, perfect,
pluperfect, future, future perfect.
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ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

53

When does the present tense represent an
action as taking place? Now.
· When does the imperfect tense represent an
action as having · taken place ? In a space of
time wholly past.
When does the perfect tense represent an
action as having taken place? In a space of
time not wholly past.
When does the pluperfect tense represent an
action as having taken place? Before a past
time mentioned.
When does the future tense represent that an
action will take place ? . In time to come, or future
time.
When does the future perfect tense represent
that the action will have taken place? At a
future time, before a time mentioned.
To the Teaclier. - Let the pupil tell the tenses in the following
examples:2. The horses have nm.
The birds flew.
The stage had left when I arri'rnd.
Charles will learn his lesson.
James will have arrived before noon.
George has returned from the country.
George came home last week.
The ship sails well. 10. The girls gathered flowers.
The gentleman will call to-morrow.
William did not work yesterday, but he has worked to-day.
I lay down yesterday after dinner.
Hens lay eggs. 15. The sun sets at night.
William and George sit at the same desk.

1. The horse runs.

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
11.
12.
13.
14.
16.

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54

FIR ST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

MODES AND TENSES OF THE VERB "LOVE."
C 0 ,\l M 0 N S 1' Y LE .

INDI CATIVE l\IODE.
Pr

~ Usual form, ................. Love or do love.
Form used with a subject of 2L
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. the third person singular, .. . 5 oves or oes ove.
Imp13'1fect tense.
L oved or did love.

P mfect tense.

~ Usual for m, ....... . ... ·:..... Ha,·e lo.vecl.
Form used with a subject of 2H l
d

the third
PhqJe1fect tense.
Future tense.
Future peifcct t1mse.

person singu lar,. ... 5 as OYe ·
H ad loved.
Shall love or will love.
Shall h ave loved or will h ave loved

POTENTIAL MODE.
Present.
l mpe1fect.
P eifect.
P luperfect.

May , can, or must loYe.
Might, co uld, would, or should love.
l\Iay, can, or must have loved.
Might, could, would, or should h ave loved.

Sl7BJUNCTI\'E MODE.
Indicative and potential forms preceded by if, &c.
IMPERATIVE J\lODE.
PreslJ'llt.

Love or do love.

IXFINITIYE MODE.
Present.
To love.
P eifect.
To have loved.
FORMAL STY LE.

RE~fARK . - Used only with a subj ect of the second person and
~iugular numb er.
INDICATIVE MODE.
P resent.
Lovest or do st love.
1111pe1fect.
Lovcds t or didst love.
P c1fect.
H ast loved.
P lup erf ect .
Hadst loved.
Future.
Shalt or wilt love.
F ut ure perfect. Shalt or ~ilt have loved.

ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

55

POTENTIAL MODE.
Present.
Mayst or canst love.
Imp1.r1f ect. Mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst love.
Perfect.
Mayst or canst have loved.
Plup13'1f ect. Mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have loved.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
Indicative and potential forms preceded by if, &c.
NOTE. - By r eference to the foregoing table it will be seen that
rerbs are sometimes varied in form on account of the person and
number of tlieir sulJjects.

In what tenses of the indicative mode is the
verb varied on account of the subject? (See
table.)
What form of the verb "love" is u sed in the
indicative mode, present tense, with a subject of
the third person, singular number? " Loves," or
"does love ; " thus, " He loves." " He does love."
What form is used with a subject .of any other
person and number? "Love," or "do love;"
thus, " I love,'' " you love," " they love;" or, " I
do love," "you do love," "they do love."
What is the usual form of the verb "love" in
the indicative mode, perfect tense ? "Have
loved;" thus, " I have loved," "we have loved,"
"they have loved."
What must be used instead of "have" if the
subject is third person, singular number? "Has;"
thus, " he has loved," "she has loved."
Are there variations in the other'rnodes and
tenses on account of the person and numb~;:',or
the subject? No.

56

Are verbs varied on account of the style?
They are.
vVh en? When the subject is of the second
person, singular nurriber, andformal style.
In the indicative mode, present
tense, second person, singular number, common
style, we say," You love," but in the formal style,
" Thou lovest."
EXA MP LE. -

To the Teacher. -As person and number do not properly belong
t o verbs, it is recommended that, for a time at least, the pupils be
r equired , in parsing, to tell wheth er the verb is yaricd on account
of the person an d number of its subj ect. They will then better underst an d what is meant by the rule, that "The verb must agree \\ith
its subj ect in number and person."

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ELE!l!ENTS OF ENGLISH GRA!l!MAR.

FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

vVilliam loves his parents.
vVilliam loved his parents.
vVilliam has loved his parents.
William had loved his parents.
vVilliam will love his parents.
vVilliam will have loved his parents.
vVilliam may love his parents.
vVillia m might love his parents.
vVillia m may have loved his parents.
William might have loved his parents.
If William had loved his parents.
William, love your parents.
\Villiam, do love your parents.
William, try to love your parents.
William ought to have loved his parents.

57

In how many of the above examples is the
verb varied because the subject is third person
singular?
In what mode ?
In which tenses?
Tell the mode and tense of the verb "love" in
each of the above examples.
To the T eacher. - Let the pupil orally, or otherwise, change the
terb in each of the following examples into all the modes and t enses,
as above : 1.
3.
6.
7.
9.
10.

George found a ball. 2. Horses run fast.
Cows give milk. 4. Charles gains a prize.
Good boys study well. 6. Children obey their teachers.
J ohn h as received a letter. 8. Girls try to lear_I)..
H eaven rewards the good.
Father bought the horse. 11. Men worship God.

p ARTICIPLES.
What is the meaning of "participle"? A
participator, or sharer.
What is the meaning of the term "participle"
when applied to words? It means certain forms
of the verb which are used as adjectives, or nouns,
and yet retain something of the nature of the
verb.
How many participles are derived from a verb 1
Three.

ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

What are they called? The imperfect, the
perfect, and com pound perfect. What is the
irnperf ect participle of th e verb "love"? " Loving."
Why is it called imperfect? Because it represents the action as unfinished, or incomplete.
How does the imperfect participle end? In
'' ing."
What is the imperfect participle of the verb
" speak '' ? " Speaking."
. "
Of the verb "hear" ?. " H eanng.
Wh at is t he perfect participle of the verb
"love " ? " Loved."
Wh y is it called perfect ? Because it represents the action as cornplete.
Wh at is t he pe1fect participle of the verb
" speak " ? " Spoken."
Of th e verb " hear" ? " H eard."
Wh at is the cornpound p e1fect participle of the
verb " love " ? " Having loved."
Wh y is it called compound perfect? Because
it is form ed by P.refixing "having" to the perfect
participle.
Wh at is the compound p e1fect participle of the
verb "speak " ? " Having spoken."
Of the verb " hear"? "Having heard."
I mperfect participle.
Loving.
Pe1fect participle.
Loved.
Compound peifect participle. Having loved.

To tlw Teacher. - R equire the pupil to give the imperfect, perfect,
and compound perfect participles of the following verbs :
\Valk, run, strike, 'vrite, go, try, improve, rely, rejoice, read, realize, rep resent, partake, form, prefix, begin, receive, give, &c.

v E RB

BE OR

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AM.

vVh a t is the usual form of this verb, m the
indicative mode, present tense? "Are."
Give examples. " You are," "we are," "they
are."
What is ·t he form when the subject is of the
first person, sin gular number? "Am."
What is the form when the subject is of the
third person singular? "Is."
What is t he usu al form of the imperfect tense
of this Yerb? " W ere."
What is the form when the subject is of the
first or t hird person singular ? " Was ; " as, " I
was," " he was."
Wh at is the usual form of the perfect tense?
"Have been;" as, " I have been," "you have
been," "we have been," "they have been."
What is the form of the perfect ten se when the
subject is of the third person singular? "Has
been ; " as, "he has been."
I s the verb varied in the other three tenses of
the indicative mode? It is not.
Is it varied in the potential mode? No.

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ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

COMMON STYLE.

IMPERATIVE JIIQDE •

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IX DIC.~TIYE

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Present.

This verb, in the common style, is ;aried on account of
the person and number of its subject, in the present, imperfect, and
porfect tenses of the indicatiYe form.
NOTE. -

Prosent.

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Impm-fect.

Pe1fect.

~

2Am.
5
2I s.
5

Whe_n the snbje~t is of the first
or tlJJrd person singular.•••• • •
Usual form..... . • • .. . . • .. • • •

2"\Vas.
5

'When the subject is of the third
person singular...............

2Has been.
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P hqmfect.
F uture.
F uture p1!1fect.

Imperfect.
Being.
Peifect.
Been.
Compound Pm-ft1Ct. Ha;ing been.
FORMAL STYLE.

Used only with a subject of the second person and singular
number.
Presmt.
Imp1!1fect.
Pe'lfect.
Plupe1fect.
Future.
Future perfect.

Have been.

Usual form..................

To be.
To have been.

PARTICIPLES.

Are.

Were.

Be .

INFINITIVE MODE.

Present.
Perfect.

MODE

When the subject is of the first
person singular............. . .
• Wheu the suhject is of the third
per$OO smgular ... . ...........
Usual form. . . . • . • . . . • . . • • • ..

61

H ad been.
Shall or will be.
Shall or will have been.

Art.
"\Vast or wert.
Hast been.
Hadst been.
Shalt or wilt be.
Shalt or wilt have been.

POTEXTL\.L MODE.

Present.
I mpe1.fect.
Perfect.
Pl11pe1fcct.

May, can, or must be.
Might, could, would, or should be.
l\Iay, can, or must have been.
Might, could, would, or should have becu.
SJ;llJU::\CTIYE

~!ODE.

POTENTIAL MODE.

Present,
Impeifect.
Peifect.
Plupeifect.

Mayst or canst be.
Mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst be.
Mayst or canst have been.
Mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have been.
BUBJ'UNC'rIYE MODE.

Indicative and subjunctive forms preceded by

if.

Indicative and potential forms preceded by if.

The followin g forms arc sometimes used in the subjuncfrre mode,
present and imperfect tenses : Present tense.

'.,

If I be,
If we be,

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If you be,
If they be.

Ifhe be;

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE FORMS.

lm1mfect tense.
If I were,
If we were,

If you were,
If they were.

If he \Vere;

A transitive verb may be used in two ways.
In the active form, it represents the subject as the
6

62

FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

actor or doer; in the passive form, the subject i8
represented as the receiver.
.Tolin struck the horse. The horse was struck
by Joltn.

Do these two sentences express the same idea,
or different ones? 'I'he same.
vVhat is the subject of the first sentence?
"John."
Is "John" the doer, or receiver? The doer,
or actor.
\Vhat did he do? He struck.
Is " struck," then, active or passive? Active.
Why? Because the subject is the actor.
vVhat is the subject of the second sentence?
"Horse."
Is " horse" the doer, or receiver? 'l'he 1~eceiver.
What did he receive? He received the blow
which "John struck."
Is "was struck" active, or passive? Passive.
\Vhy? Because the subject is the receiver of
an action.
T o th e Teacher. - R equire the pupil to make the following assertions in the passfre form, and to answer questions similar to those
aboY C.
I haYe read the book.
The partiality of fri ends may hn:•e injured the boy.
The girls gathered flowers.
Charles caught a fish.
.T arn es could not find the book.

,,

ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH GRA!IIMAR.

Janies sees Thomas.

11 '

Thomas is seen by James.

In the fi~st sentence, is the verb 1' sees " i_n the
active or passive form?
Whv?
In "; hich form is the verb "is seen," in the second sentence ?
Why?
How is the passive verb "is seen" formed?
By adding the perfect participle of the verb "see"
to a part of the verb " am," or "be."
What is the perfect participle of the verb
" s·ee " ? " Seen."
What part of the verb "be " is the verb "is"?
The indicative mode, present tense, used with
a subject in the third person, singular number.
Read these sentences with the verb in the imperfect tense. "James saw Thomas." "Thomas
was seen by James."
Put the verbs in the indicative, perfect. "James
has seen Thomas." " Thomas has been seeh by
James."
Pluperfect.
"James had seen Thomas."
"Thomas had been seen by James."
Future. "James will see Thomas." "Thomas
will be seen by Jam es.''
Future pe1fect. "James will have seen Thomas." "Thomas will have been seen by James."
NOTE. -This exercise may be extended through all the modes
and tenses, till the pupil is familiar with the different forms of verbs .

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64

FIRST LESSONS !::'{ LANGUAGE.

E xamples for Practice.
1.
3.
5.
6.

I study the lesson. 2. William learns arithmetic.
Horses eat hay. 4. Boys wear hats.
A garment of brightness illumed its dark path.
The Indian paddles the light canoe.

ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH GRAMIIIAR.

65

Future perfect, Henry will have spoken. Hen-

ry will have been speaking.
NOTE. -The exercises may be extended through the different
modes and tenses.

Examples.
John runs.

PROGRESSIVE

Sarah walks.

Boys study.

Children play.

Fomvr.
REGULAR AND IRREGULAR

Henry speaks.

Henry is speaking.

How does the second sentence differ from the
first? It indicates that the action is progressing,
or going forward.
What is this form of the verb called? The
progressive form.
How is it formed from the sentence " Henry
speaks"? By adding the impe1fect participle to
the verb " be."
Repeat these sentences in each tense of the
indicative mode:Impe1fect. Henry spoke. Henry was speaking.
Pe1fect. Henry has spoken. Henry has been
speaking.
Pluperfect. Henry had spoken. Henry had
been speaking.
Future. Henry will speak. Henry will be
speaking.

v ERBS.

How are verbs divided with regard to their
forms? Into regular and irregular verbs.
What verbs are regular? Those whose imperfect tense and perfect participle are formed by
adding "ed " to the present tense, or " d" only
when the verb ends in "e."
Is "love" regular, or irregular? Regular.
Why? Because its imperfect tense and per- feet participle are formed by adding "d" to the
present tense.
.
What verbs are irregular ? Those whose imperfect tense and imperfect participle are not
formed by adding "ed," or "d" when the present
ends in " e."
What is the imperfect tense of the verb "destroy" ? " Destroyed."
What is the perfect participle of this word?
" Destroyed."

66

67

FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Is " destroy" a regular verb ? Yes.
Why? Because its imperfect tense and perfect participle are formed by adding "ed" to the
present.
What is the imperfect tense and perfect participle of the verb "teach"? " Taught."
Are the imperfect tense and perfect participle
of this verb formed by adding "ed" to the pres·
ent tense ? 'I1hey are not.
Is the verb " teach " regular, or in-egular?
Irregular.

How are foey divided? Into demonstrative,
indefinite, and distributive.
Why are those in the flrst table called demonstrative? Because they show de.finitely what is
meant; as, "this book," "that book."
Why are those in the second table called indefinite ? Because they do not show de.finitely what
is meant; as, "some book," "any book."
Why are those in the third table called distributive? Because thev refer to things separately;
as, "each book," " every book."
Repeat table of demonstrative pronouns.
Repeat table of indefinite pronouns.
Repeat table of distributive pronouns.

Let the pupil give the imperfect tense and perfect participle o(
each of the following verbs, telling which are regular, and which
irregular.
Move, hear, sell, desire, offer, occur, behave, control, delight, cry,
beseech, do, sit, pennit.

Let the pupil tell the demonstrative, indefinite, and distributive
pronouns in these examples, also, whether used as adjectives or pronouns.
This book is mine. Each boy recited.
This is my book. Every girl must be studious.
Some books are good, and others are bad.

ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.
TABLE I.

Demonstrative.
This,
former,
that,
latter.
these,
those,

J

TABLE 2.

TABLE 3.

Indefinite.
Some, all,
both,
other, such, several,
&c.
any,
no,
one,
none,

Distributive.
Each,
every,
either,
neither.

What are adjective pronouns? They are
words which may be used either as adjectives or
pronouns.

Co:MP ARISON

OF ADJECTIVES.

William is wise.
What does the adjective "wise" express in
this sentence? It simply describes or expresses
the quality of William.

68

ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH

FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

is the wisest of the three.

What does the adjective "wisest" express in
this sentence? It expresses the quality of Henry, as compared with both of the others.
Do the adjectives "wise," "wiser," "wisest,"
express the same quality? They do.
Does each express the same degree of the
quality? · It does not.
Which word simply expresses the quality ?
"Wise."
Which e.-rpresscs a higher degree of the same
quality ? " vViser."
Which expresses ·the highest degree of the
quality ? " Wisest."
Ho\V many degrees of wisdom are expressed
by these words? Three.
What are these degrees called in grammar?
The degrees of comparison. What is that form
of an adjective called which simply expresses the
quality? Th e positive.
What is that form called which expresses a
higher degree of the quality? Thr: comparative.
vVhat is that form called which expresses the
liighest degree of the quality? The superlative.

69

What degree of comparison is "wise"? Positive.
Why? Because it simply expresses the quality.
What degree is "wiser"? Comparative.
Why? Because it expresses a higher degree
of the quality than the positive.
What degree is "wisest"? Superlative. ·
Why? Because it expresses the highest degree
of the quality. .

John is wiser than William.
What does the adjective "wiser" express in
this sentence? It expresses the quality of John
as compared with William.
~Henry

GRAl\!MAR.

Positive.
Comparative.
Superlative.

,

Wise.
'Wiser.
Wisest.

How are the comparative and superlative
degrees of the adjective" wise" formed?
Let the pupil coinpare the following adjectives : rich, young, old, poor, great, strong, weak,
pure, firm,, cold, warm,.
'

Industrious men work.
How may the adjective "industrious" be made
to e~press a higher degree of the quality ? By
placrng the adverb "more" before it.
How may it be made to express the highest
degree ? By prefixing " most " to the positive
form.
Positive.
Industrious.
Comparative. More industrious.
Superlaiive.
Most industrious.

How are the comparative and superlative degrees of the adjective "industrious" formed?

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70

FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

Compare the following adjectives in the same
mann er : beautiful, dutiful, anxious, desirous,
eager, consistent, ignurant, impatient.
How are adjectives of one syllable commonly
compared? By adding "r" or "er" in the comparative, and" st" or" est" in the superlative.
How are adjectives of more than one syllable ·
commonly compared? By prefixing "more"
and "most" to the positive form.
How may adjectives be made to express a
lower and the lowest degree of quality? By
prefixin g "less" and " least" to th e positive form.
P ositive.
Industrious.
Comparative. Less industrious.
Superlative.
L east industrious.

Compare the following adjectives in the same
manner : 'intense, happy, strong, general, wise,
comfortable, anxious, dutiful, rich.
Some adjectives are irregularly compared; as,
Positive.
Good,
Bad, ill, or evil,
F!ir,
F ore,
Little,
Late,
Much or many,
N ear,
Old,

Comparative.
better,
worse,
farther,
former,
less,
lat er,
more,
nearer,
elder,

Superlative.
best .
worst.
farthest or furthest.
foremost or first.
least.
la test or last.
most.
nearest or next.
eldest.

E L EMENTS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Comparative.
Hinder,
Inner,
Nether,
Upper,

71

Superlat£i;e.
hindermost or hindmost.
innermost or inmost.
nethermost.
uppermost or upmost.

Adjectives of number, and those whose quality does not admit of
change in degree, cannot be compared ; as, endless, absent, present,
boundless, one, two, almig!ity, annual.

ARTICLES.

If I say, " Give me a book," do I specify definitely what book I want? No.
If I say, "Give me the book," to what do you
understand me to refer ? To some partfrular
book.
What may "a" be called? An indefinite article.
What may "the" be called? A definite article.
Is it proper to say " a boy " ? Yes.
Is it proper to say " a boys " ? No.
Before what nouns may the indefinite article
be placed ? Before nouns in the singular number.
Is it proper to say" the boy," and "the boys"?
Yes.
Before what nouns, then, may the definite
article be placed ? Before nouns of either nu mber.

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ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH GRAl\IMAR,

Is it proper to say "a apple," "a orange,'' "a
hour"?
What must be used in stead of " a " in these
examples? "An."
Why? Because the following word begins
wi th a vowel sound.
Wh en must "an" be used instead of "a"?
vVhen it is placed before a word beginning with
a vowel sound.
L et th e pupil place an indefinite article before each of the following noun s, t elling why "an" is used in some cases and not in others.
- - woman. - - army. - - acorn. - - youth.
- - •vorkman. - - house. - - honest man. - - umpire.
L et the pupil place the indefinite article before those nouns which
will admit of it, and the definite before the others, telling why some
will n ot take the indefinite.
- - horses. - - carriage. - - rivers. - - dictionary.
- - ho.-el. - - hourglass. - - hourglasses. - - ocean.
- - oceans .
To the Teaclz er. - Our object hitherto has been chiefly to render
the pupil familiar with the various classes of words, and the properties of each, - not by definitions iouchcd in t erms which h e cannot u nderstand, but by a natural and easy analysis of simple forms
of expression with which every child is supposed to be familiar.
The r elations of words to each other have been considered only so far
as their classification depends on these relations. Thus the nature
of the adjective and adv erb can be shown only by the r elations which
they sustain to the noun, ' 'erb, &c. 'Ve now propose to illustrate
the various relations in which words may be used, as also the relation of clauses in compound sentences, - deducing therefrom the
most obvious principles of syntax.

.. 73

,I
ANALYSIS, OR PARSING.

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Boys play.
Is this a sentence ? Yes.
Why? Because the words are combined so
as to convey an idea.
What is the subject? Why?
What is the predicate? Why ?
What part of speech is the subject? Why?
Of what gender? Why?
P erson? Why? Number? Why?
What personal pronoun may be used m its
~ace ?
·
In what case, then, is the subject?
What part of speech is" play"? Why?
What is the imperfect tense of the verb
"play"? " Played."
What is the perfect participle? "Played."
Does this verb form its imperfect tense and
perfect participle by the addition of" ed" to the
present ? It does.
Is it regular, or irregular? Why?
Transitive, or intransitive? Why?
What mode ? Why?
Tense? Why?
Is the form of the verb varied on account of
the person and number of the subject?
When is the form varied in the indicative
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74

FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

mode and present tense ? When the subject is
of the tldrd person, singular nwnber.
How is the fact that " a verb is sometimes
varied on account of the person and number of
its subject" generally expressed ? By saying
that "a verb agrees with its subject in number
and person."
Do verbs really have person and number?
They do not.
If I say, " I study," of what person and num·
b.er is "study" said to be? Of the first person,
srngular.
" vVe study" ? Of the first person, plural.
Why? Because its subject is of the first person, plural.
" Th ey study "? Of the third person, plural.
Why?
" He studies"? Of the third person, singular.
When a noun or pronoun stands in the relation
of a subject to a predicate, in what case must it
be ? Nominative.
Can you state the fact in general terms?
Tlte subject of a verb mu.st be in tlte nominative
case.
When a verb stands in the relation of a predicate to a subject, of what person and number is
it said to be.? Of the same person and number
as the subject.
·
How may this fact be stated in general terms?

A verb agrees with its subject in -number and
person.
To the 1'eacher. - Let similar questions be asked upon each of the
following examples : Birds fly.
They talk.

Men work . . James studies.

Water runs.

"\Ve speak.

Industrious men work.

1

Is this a sentence? Why?
vVhat is the subject? \Vhy?
The predicate? Why?
What word describes the men, or limits them
to a certain class?
\Vhat part of speech is the subject? Why'!
What person ? Why?
Number? Why? Case? Why?
vVhat part of speech is the prediCate?
Why?
Regular, or irregular? Why?
· Transitive, or intransitive? Why?
Mode and tense? Why?
Person and number? \Vhy?
What part of speech is "industrious " ?
Why? Compare it.
Of what degree of comparison is it? Why ?
vVhat does it describe or limit?
What part of speech may adjectives limit?
State the fact in general terms. Adjectives
describe or limit nouns.

FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

ELEMENTS · OF ENGLISH GRAMM.AR.

Ask similar questions upon the following exerci:;::s : Idle boys play. Little children grow. A wise man will reflect.
The good king reigned. Bad men have lived.

Charles picks berries.
What is the subject? The predicate?
\.Vhat part of speech is the subject?
Gender? Person? Number? Case?
Why?
vVhat part of speech is the predicate?
Regular, or irregular ?
Transitive, or intransitive?
Mode ? Tense? Person and number?
Agreement?
What part of speech is " berries" ?
Person ? Number?
What personal pronoun may be used instead
of the noun " berries" ?
In what case is "them"? (See table of personal pronouns.)
In what case, then, is "berries"?
vVhy ? Because it follows a transitive verb.
State this fact in general terms. Transitive
verbs require the objective case after them.

NOTE. -

The man talked foolishly.

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What is the subject of this sentence?
Why?
The predicate? Why?
What part of speech is the subject? Why?
Gender? Person? Number? Case?
Why?
What part of speech is the predicate?
Why?
Is it regular, or irregular?
Tran sitive, or intransitive?
Mode ? 'l'ense ? Person and number?
vVhy?
What part of speech is "the"?
What kind? Why?
What nouns may" the" be placed before, or
prefixed to? To nouns of either number.
What is the word "foolishly" used for?
What part of speech is it?
What does it describe or limit?
vVhat may adverbs limit? Adverbs may limit
or qualify 'Uerbs, adjectives, and adverbs.
NOTE. - In the following exercises let the pupil observe the order
indicated by the questioning above.

J ames has acted very wisely. A prudent man acts cautiously.
Sometimes boys study well. The teacher will be here soon.

Charles picks berries for. Anna.
What part of speech is "for" ? A preposition.
Why?
What does it connect? The verb " picks:"
with " Anna."
What may prepositions connect ? Prepositions connect words.
What part of speech is " Anna" 1
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FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

ELE~IENTS oF ENGLISH GRAl\il\1AR.

What gender? Person ? Number?
What personal pronoun may be used instead
of the noun " Anna"?
In what case is " her" ?
In what case, then, is " Anna " ?
Why? Because it follovvs a preposition.
What is the general statement or rule for this?
Prepositions require the objective case after them.

ca~e ? A noun or pronoun varied to denote tlte
owner, or possessor, is in tlte possessive case.
What part of speech is "away"? Why?
What does it describe or limit? .

NOTE. - Ask similar questions upon the following exercises,
unless the pupil is able to proceed in the order indicated by the
questions above.

Exercises.
The girls gathered flowers in the garden.
William brought th e book from England.
The boy found a knife in the street.
A noise from the street alarmed us.

William's dog has run away.
What is the subject?
What is the predicate ?
Parse the subject. Parse the predicate.
What part of speech is " William's " ?
Gender? Person ? Number?
What is it used for in this sentence? To tell
the owner of the dog.
What personal pronoun may be .used instead
of the noun " William's " ?
In what case is "his"?
Then in what case is "WWiam's"?
What is the rule with regard to the possessive

79

Exercises.
Warren's father will return from California.
James had torn Edward's book.
A friend should bear a friend's infirmities.
The boy's parents loved him. I found a lady's bonnet.
The milliner makes ladies' bonnets.

I am, the rnan.
Parse the subject and predicate.
What part of speech is "man"?
Gender? Person ? Number?
What personal pronoun may be used m its
stead?
What case is "man"? Nominative.
Do the words " I" and " man " refer to the
same person ? They do.
When a noun follows an intransitive verb, and
means the same thing as the noun or pronoun
which precedes it, in what case must it be? In
the same case as the word preceding the verb.
What rule, or general statement, can you make
of this ? Intransitive verbs require the same case
after them as before thern, when both words refer
to the same person or tliing.
Exercises.
Thou art the man. I know him to be an honest man.
The boys are good scholars. The name of my dog is Fido.
Anna has been a good girl. Milton was a !?reat noP.t.

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FIRST LESSONS IN LA NGUAGE.

11!fy cousin "William has come.

What is the subject of this sentence?
The predicate ?
Parse the subject and predicate.
What part of speech is " William ;, ?
Of wh at gender, person, and number?
· What personal pronoun may be used instead
of " William " ?
In what case, then, is "William"?
Does " William" mean th e same person as
" cousin " in this sentence? Yes.
How does the noun " William " affect the
meanin g of ~ he sentence? It is used to explain
wltat cousin is meant.
\Vh at is th e rule with regard to nouns used in
this rela ti on ? A noun used to explain or limit
another noun, is in the sanie case.
P arse " my."
E x ercises.
Paul, the apoo tle, wrote several epistles.
H oward, th e philanthropist, visited the prisoners.
William has sold his dog, Fido.
You may come to me, your t eacher.

James, come to nie.
What is the subject of this sentence? "Thou,"
or "you."
What is the predicate? " Come."
Is "you" expressed? No; it is understood to
belong here.

ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH GRAl\IlYIAR.

Parse the predicate. " Come" is a verb, irregular, intransitive, imperative mode, present tense,
second person, and singular number, to aaree
with its subject, "you," referring to James. b
What pa:rt of speech is "James"?
P erson? Why? Number? Why?
In what case is a noun which is the name of
the person spoken to? · Nominative.
In what case, then, is "James"?
What is the rule applicable to such words?
A noun which is the name of a person spoken to, is
in the nominative case, and is used indep endently.
What do you mean by its being used independently? That it is used without a predicate.

Exercises.
Friends, we have lived too long.
Sir, I must believe you.
Mr. Speaker, I rise to a point of order.

Poor man! I pity him.
Parse the subject and predicate.·
Parse " him."
What part of speech is "man"?
Gender? Person? Number?
Would the sentence be complete without the
use of the noun "man " ? Yes.
Is the noun "man" connected with the other
words in the sentence? 'Tis not.
In what case is a _noun which has no grammat-

FIRST
ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH GRAMl\IAR.

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Nominative.
In what case, then, is "man"? Nominative,
and used independently, or without a subject.
What is the phrase " poor man " used for?
It is used instead of an interjection, to imply the
emotion of pity.
What is the rule in regard to the case of nouns
not connected with other words ? A noun which
has no l!"rammatical relation to other words in
tlie sentence, is used independently in the nomiria- .
tive case.

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In what case is a noun joined with a participle,
and having no grammatical relation to the rest of
the sentence? Nominative, and used independently.
What rule may be made in reference to the
case of such nouns? A noun joined with a participle., and not connected with the rest of the
sentence, is used independently in the nominative
case.

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E x ercises.
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83

H arry, he h ad long suspected this trespass .
P oor Indians ! where are they now ?

The school having closed, the boys went away.

vVhat is the subject? "Boys."
Parse it. Parse the predicate.
What part of speech is "school"?
What person? Number? Gender?
What part of speech is "having closed"? A
compound perfect participle.
How is it used? As an adjective.
What does it limit? " School."
Is it asserted that the school had closed? 'Tis
not.
ls any thing asserted of the noun "school"?
There is not.

Exercises.
The war being ended, the army returned.
The boys h aving recited, the t eacher dismissed them.
Daniel being tired of play, his father sent him to bed.

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Henry has gone to Boston to obtain a situation.

Parse the subject. The predicate.
What phrase shows where "Henry has gone"?
What indicates his purpose in going?
With what word does "to" connect " Boston"?
With what does." to" connect "obtain"? It
connects " obtain" with " has gone."
What part of speech is "obtain n? A verb.
Why? Because it may be used to assert or
affirm.
Is it so used here? It is not.
Is "obtain" regular, or irregular?
Transitive, or intransitive ?
Has it a subject? No.

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What mode is it? Infinitive.
Why? Because it is used without a subject.
What tense?
How do you t ell the person and number of a
verb? By its subj ect.
Can th e in fi nitive mode have any person and
number? No.
Why? Because it has no subject.
What word is commonly placed before a verb
in the infinitive mode? The preposition "to."
What is the rule with regard to the infinitive
mode ? A verb followiiig th e preposition "to,"
and u.sed without a subject, is in the infinitive mode.

E xamples.
Soldiers enlist to figh t . Boys love to !Jlay.
\Ve wish pup ils to learn their lessons.
Anna. wishes t o please her mother.
'Villiam wrote to inform his parents of his health.

Alas ! I f ear for life.

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Parse the subj ect and predicate.
Wh at part of speech is "for"?
Wh at does it connect?
Parse " life."
Wh at part of speech is "alas"? Why?
Would it affect the construction of the sen·
tence to omit " alas " 1 It would not.
What is the meaning of" interjection"? It
means thrown in.

ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH

GRAMMAR.

For what purpose are inte1jections used? To
imply emotion· or feeling.
Are interjections grammatically connected with
the words of a sentence? They are not.
Make this statement or rnle in general terms.
The interjection has no grammatical connection
with other words.

Exercises.
Lo, how impatiently the proud ship tosses!
Alas! the remedy came too late.
Humph! I guess at it.

James can read, and John can write.
How many complete ideas are expressed above?
Two.
How many sentences, then, does' it contain?
Two.
What word connects the two sentences?
What part of speech is "and"? Why?
What may conjunctions connect? Conjunctions connect sentences, and save the repetition of
what is alike in each.
Exercise.,;.
To the Teacher. - Let the pupil correct the following sentences,
omitting what is alike i;i each.
\Vashington was a great man, and ' Vashington was a good man.
Henry has been to England, and William has been to France.
Horace will study if his father desires it.
To the Teacher. - L et the piapil supply what is omitted in the
following sentences.

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ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

They studied steadily and faithfully.
Charles saw Jonas and David.
The gentleman or lady will be there.
Bonaparte was a great man, but not good.

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I ltave seen tlte rnan wlto bought our ltorse.
How many assertions are made in this example? Two.
Ho\v many sentences does it contain ? Two.
What word connects them? " Who."
What part of speech is " \vho " ? A relative
pronoun.
vVhat noun does it represent? The noun
"inan."
Of what person, number, and gender is
" n1an " ?
vVhat, then, is the person, number, and gender of" who"?
Is a pronoun always of the same person, number, and gender as the noun for which it stands?
Yes.
l\1ake a general statement of this fact. Pronouns must be of tlte same person, number, and
gender as the nouns ichiclt they represent.
In what case is "who "? vVhy?
If we use the personal pronoun " he" in place
of "who," what word will be required to connect
the sentences? The conjunction and.
What purpose do relative pronouns serve, then,
besides representing a noun ? Relative pronouns
connect sentences.

87

E-rercises.
t,"'harles has the knife which was found yesterday.
Herc is the man whom I saw the market.
'fhis is the boy whose sled I borrowed.
"Where is the ball that you found ?

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The boys received presents when the term cloud.
How many assertions are here made? Two.
How many sentences does it contain ? Two.
What is the first sentence? " The boys recei v;ed presents."
What is the second sentence? " The term
closed."
What word connects the sentences? "When."
vVhat other purpose is" when" used for? To
show that the two events occurred at the same
time.
What are adverbs called which connect sentences ? Connective adverbs.
How are connective adverbs used ? Connective adverbs connect sentences and limit verbs.

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James walked till he was fatigued.
I left the boy where I found him.
We met the gentleman when he arrived.
After Charles found his book, he soon got his lesson.
\Vhile the boys have their recess, the windows of the school room
should be open.
I know not when he performed his task.
Can you tell me where I must put my coat?
Whenever you have leisure, you may go for the book.
Wherever 'we go, we should behave well.
When George returns from New York, he will probably go to
Portland.
Make hay while the sun shines.

88

THE

FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

RELATION

OF CLAUSES

IN

ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH GRAl\1111AR.

Col\IPOUND

SENTENCES.

Charles went to Boston.

What is th ~ subject in this sentence ?
What is the predicate ?
Is there more than one subject and predicate
in it?
What kind of a sentence is it? A simple sentence.
Why? Because it has only one subject and
predicate.
Charles went to Boston, and George returned
from Salem.

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Is there more than one subject and predicate
in this example ?
What is the sentence called? A compound
sentence.
Why? Because it has nwre than one subject
and predicate.
What are the simple sentences which constitute a compound sentence called? Clauses.
What word connects the two clauses in this
example? .
What is a clause called which may be used
alone as a simple sentence? An independent
clause.

89

I have found the boy who lost his sled.

How many clauses are there in this sentence?
Which is the independent clause?
Why? Because it rnay be used alone, as a
simple sentence.
What connects the clauses ? The relative
pronoun "who."
What is the clause "who lost his sled" called?
A relative clause.
Why? Because it is connected with the other
by a relative pronoun.
I found the book where Charl.es left it.

How many simple sentences or clauses in this
example?
What word connects these clauses ? The
adverb "where."
What is the clause "where Charles left it"
called ? An adverbial clause.
Why? Because it is connected with the other
clause by an adverb.
What is the independent clause in the above
example?
The boys may 1iave the ball if tliey ask for it.

How many clauses in this example?
What are they?
What is the first clause called? An independent clause.

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FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Why ? Because it 1nay be used alone, as a
f:: imple sentence.
What word connects the two clauses? The
conjunction "if."
What is the clause "if they ask
it" called?
A subjunctive clause.

Is it asserted that "I know" any thing? Yes.
vVhat ? " That the boy told the truth."
What word in. the second sentence is used
instead of the clause, " that the boy told the
truth ? " The pronoun "it."
Is the verb "know" transitive, or intransitive?
Transitive.
What is the object of" know" in the second
clause? The pronoun "it."
What; then, is the object of "know" in the
first sentence? The clause, "that the boy told
the truth."
What is a clause called when it may be represented by the pronoun "it," and is the object of
a transitive verb? An objective clause.

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That the boy told the truth is evident.
It is evident that the boy told the truth.
Do th ese two sentences express the same idea?
Th ey do.
What is the subject of the verb "is" in the
second sentence ? It.
What is th e pronoun "it" used instead of?
It is u sed instead of the clause "the boy told the
truth."
What is asserted in the first sentence to be
evident? " That the boy told the truth."
What, th en, is the subject of" is " in that sentence ? The clause "that the boy told the
truth."
\\Th en a clause may be represented by the pronoun "it," and is used as the subj ect of a verb,
what is it called? A subjective clause.
I know that the boy told ·the truth.
You know it.
What is th e subject of "know" in the first
sentence?
What part of speech is "know" ?

91

I shall go when father com~s.
I shall go where father lives.
I know lww father speaks.

What connects the two clauses in the first
sentence ? The connective adverb " when."
What purpose does it serve besides connecting
the clauses? ·It marks identity of time in relation
to the two events; thus, I shall go at the time
when father comes.
What is the use of "where" in the second
sentence ? It marks identity of place; thus, I
shall go to , the place where father lives.
What is the .use of "how" in the third sen-

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tence ? It marks identity of manner; thus, I
know t!t e manner in which father speaks.
To the 1'eacher. - Let the pupil separate th e following compound
sentences into clauses, tell the connective words, and the kind or
clause, in e:i.ch example.

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93

ELEi\1ENTS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

I saw the man "·ho lost his horse.
'Vherewr Hope goes, he diffuses joy.
Parents will be pleased if th eir children study.
Tha t you have wronged me, doth appear in this.
All m en know that honesty is the best policy.
"When George came, he brought the sled.
Charles found the ball which George lost.
How he might reach th e grapes was now the question.
The pupil says he h as got th e lesson.
I can n ever forget how kindly I was treated.
It is tru e that life is short.
If the boys come, I will ask them to remain.
Many arc the uses to which knowledge may be applied.

What is it called? A compound personal
pronoun.
The boy injured himself.
Parse ~he subject and predicate.
What part of speech is "himself" ? A compound personal pronoun.
Of what gender, person, and number is it?
In what case ? Objective.
Why? Because it follows the transitive verb
"injured."
Would this sentence be complete without
"himself" ? It would not.
Singular.
First pe1'son.
&cond p erson.
Third person,

COMPOUND

w ORDS.

I did it.
I myself did it.
I did it myself.
Do these three sentences express the same idea?
What, then, is the use of the word "myself"
in the second sentence ? It merely strengthens
the assertion.
How is the word" myself" formed? By add·
ing "self" to the personal pronoun " my."

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TABLE OF COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

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Myself,
Thyself or yourself,
masculine. Himself,~
Herself,
feminine.
neut,;r.
Itself,

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Plural.

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themselves.

Tlie man spent that wltich he earned.
What word may be used in this sentence to
supply the place of the two words "that which"?
The word "what;" thus, " The man spent what
he earned."
What are such words called which supply the
place of two words? Compound relative pronouns.
Why? Because they are used in place of a
relative pronoun and the word it represents.

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FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

vVhat word does "that" represent in the above
example? It re presents "amount" or" money."
In how many ways may this sentence be
".vritten so as to convey the same idea?
The man spent the amount which he earned.
'J'he man spent the money which he earneq .
The man spent that which he earned .
The man spent what he earned.
vVhat are the compound relative pronouns?
Whoever, whosoever, whomsoever, what, whatever, whatsoever, whichever, whichsoever.

Who spoke to you ? William.
What is the subject of this sentence? "Who."
For \Vhat purpose is it here used? To ask a
question.
Wh at does it represent? The name of the
person concerning whom the question is asked.
What other words may be used in this manner? TV!iich and what.
What are these pronouns called when they are
used to ask questions? Interrogative pronouns.
What, then, is an interrogative pronoun?
An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun which is
used to ask a question.
What are the interrogative pronouns? Who,
whose, whom, which, what.
lYominative. "\Vho.
Possessive.
Whose.
Objective.
Whom.

ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH GRAl\'Il\'IAR.

95

RULES.

The statements of facts, and inferences previously illustrated and deduced, are here collected
as RuLES for reference.
RuLE I. -

The subject of a verb must be in
the nominative case; as, the boy learns.

To see the sun is pleasant.
It is pleasant to see the sun.
Do these two sentences express the same idea?
What is the subject of the second sentence?
vVhat is said to be pleasant in the first sentence ? " To see the sun."
By what is the phrase "to see the sun" represented in the second sentence ? By the pronoun "it."
What, then, is the subject in the first sentence?
The phrase "to see the sun."
To what does the adjective "pleasant," in the
second sentence, refer? To the pronoun "it."
Then to what does the same adjective in the
first sentence refer? To the phrase " to see the
sun," which "it" represents.
RuLE II. -

Adjective13 describe or limit nouns·
as~ a good man, good men, one cow, three cows,'
tliis boy, these boys.

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96

ELEl\IENTS OF ENGLISH

FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

III. - A verb must agree with its subject in number and person; as, the boy runs, the
boys run.
RuLE

Thomas ancl William (they) run.
Is it a ssertecl in this sentence that one runs,
or more than on e ?
Of what number, then, is the verb? Plural.
Th e fath er of his country, and the first president
of th e United States, was greatly belovecl.
Is this a ssertion made of one, or more than
one?
Of what number, then, is the verb? Singular.
John or Henry speaks.
fa it a sserted in this example that one speaks,

or more than one?
Of what number, then, is the verb " speaks"?
Singular.
IV. - Adverbs describe or limit verbs,
adjectives, and adverbs; as, John reads correctly.
RULE

Th e boy behaves v ery w ell, !n general.
Th e boy behaves very well, generally.

Do these two sentences mean the same thing?
How is the phrase "in general" changed in

GRAMMAR.

the second sentence? Into the adverb "generally."
What, then, may the phrase "in general" be
called? An adverbial phrase.
What other phrases are used in the same way?
" In fine," "by and by," "in vain," &c:

Will you go to the city ?
Will you return ? No.

Yes.

What does the adverb "yes" mean in the
first sentence ? It means, "I will go to the
city."
What does the adverb "no " men.n in the second ? It means, " I will not return."
Do these words describe or limit a particular
word ? They do not.
What is the adverb " yes" called? An adverb of affirmation.
What is the· adverb "no" called? An adverb
of negation.

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V. - Prepositions · require the objective
case after them; as, John gave the book to nie.
RuLE

NOTE. -The preposition is sometimes omitted, but must be supplied in parsing; as, "Give me the book; " parsed thus, " Give the
book to me."

In what case is the personal · pronoun "me" ?
Objective.
Why ? Because it follows the preposition
"to."

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FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

R uLE VI. - Transitive verbs require the objective case after them; as, Charles saw the rnan,
and heard hi11i.

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The boyfal'.led in reciting his lesson.
Whair part of speech is " reciting" ? An imperfect participle, used as a noun; in the objective case, after the preposition " of."
What verb is "reciting" derived from? "Recite."
Is "recite" transitive, or intransitive? Transitive.
What is he said to be "reciting," in the above
example ? " His lesso n."
In what case, then, is "lesson"? Objective.
What, then, may be said of participles? Participles derived from tran'>itive verbs, require the
objective case after them.
R uLE VII. - A noun varied to denote the
O\~vner, or possessor, is in the possessive case, and
limits the word denoting the thing possessed; as,
John's hat; TYilliarn and llfary's reign; the house
is mine; the land is his.

,

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R uLE VIII. - Intransitive and passive verbs
require the same case after as before them, when
both words refer to the same thing ; as, I am he;
thou art the man; I know him to be an honest
man.

ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

99

NoTE. - Participles derived from intransitive verbs follow the
same rule; as, "James, being a good sclwlar, received the approbation of his teacher."

RuLE IX. - A noun used to explain or limit
another noun, and having the same meaning, is
in the same case ; as, Webster, the statesman, is
dead; James, come to me, your teacher.
RuLE X. - A noun which is the name of a
person spoken to, is used independently, in the
nominative case ; as, Friends, I come not here to
talk.
RuLE XI. - A noun which has no grammati.cal relation to other words in the sentence, is
used independently in the nominative case; as,
Poor Indians ! where are they now?
-The pronoun " me" is sometimes used independently ;
as, Ah me!
NOTE.

RuLE XII. - A noun joined with a participle,
and not connected wit~ the rest of the sentence,
is used independently in the nominative case ;
as, Henry .being injured, a surgeon was called.
RuLE XIII. - The interjection has no grammatical relation to other words; as, Alas! I fear
he is ruined.
RuLE XIV. - A verb used without a subject, .
and following the preposition "to," is in the . ~
infinitive mode ; as, the boy likes to read; he

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100

FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.
ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

bid me do it, i. e., he told me to do it; you dare
not do it, i.e., you fear to do it; let me do it, i.e.,
permit me to do it.
'Vhcn a verb in the infinitive mode follows bid, dare, let,
hear , f eel, make, see, need, and a few other verbs, the preposition
" to " is omitted.
NOTE . -

XV. - Conjunctions connect sentences,
and save the repetition of what is alike in each;
as, William and James went to Boston; or,
"\Villiam went to Boston, James went to Boston.
RuLE

XV 1. - Prepositions connect words;
as, George went to London.
Ru LE

XVII. - Pronouns must be of the same
person, number, and gender as the nouns which
th ey represent ; as, Henry recited to his teacher ;
Anna recited to her teacher; Henry and Anna
recited to their teacher.
RuLE

XVIII. - Relative pronouns connect
clauses; as, I have seen the man who bought
our horse.
RuLE

XIX. - Connective adverbs connect
clauses, and mark identity of time, place, or
manner; as, James will go wh en William comes.
RuLE

.

~

Pronouns, and participles used as nouns; are subject to
same rules as nouns.
Adj ective pronouns, and participles used as adjectives, follo'v the
same rules as adjecti'ves.
NOTE. -

~he

101
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EXAMPLES OF SENTENCES

,· . ,
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Analyzed, or parsed, according to the preceding
rules.
. : :i

Many persons mistake the true object of life in
running their career.

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This is a simple sentence, because it has but one subject and predicate. "Persons" is the subject, and" mistake" is the predicate.
"Persons" is a noun, of the third person, plural number, and
nominative case, by Rule I.
"Mistake" is a verb, irregular, transitive, indicative mode, present tense, third person, and plural number, by Rule III.
"Many" is an adjective, of the positive degree, and describes or
limits the noun "persons," by Rule II.
"Object" is a noun, of the neuter gender, third person, singular number, and objective case after the transitive verb "mistake,"
by Rule VI.
"True" is an adjective, of the positive degree, and limits the
noun "object," by Rule II.
" The" is a definite article, and limits the noun " object.·"
" Of" is a preposition, and connects "life" with "object,'' by
Rule XVI.
"Life" is a noun, of the neuter gender, third person, singular
number, and objective. case, by Rule V. ·
"In" is a preposition, and c"o nnects "running" with" mistake,"
by Rule XVI.
" Running " is an imperfect participle, used as a noun, of the third
person, singular number, and objective case, by Rule V.
· "Their" is a personal pronoun, of the third person and plural
number, to agree with the noun "persons,'' which it represents, by
Rule XVII., and possessive case, by Rule VII.
"Career " is a noun, of the neuter gender, third person, singular
number, and objective case. (See illustration under Rule VI.)

John and James are very good boys.

'

This sentence has a compound subj ect, "John" and " James,"
and one predicate, "are."

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102

ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE.

103

I

:'

"John" is a noun, of the masculine gender, third person, singu·
lar number, and nominative case, by Rule I.
"James" is parsed in the same manner as" John."
" And " is a conjunction, and connects the two clauses of which
the above example is a contraction, by Rule XV.
'
"Are" is a verb, irregular, intransitive, indicative mode, present
tense, third person, and plural number. (See illustration under
Rule III.)
"Boys" is a noun, of the third person, plural number, and nominative case, by Rule VIII.
"Good" is an adj ective, of the positi>e degree, and limits the
noun "boys," by Rule II.
"Very" is an adYerb, and qualifies or limits the adjective" good,"
by Rule IV.

Charles, you may begin to read. ·
This is a simple sentence. "You" is the subject, and "may
begin" is the predicate ..
"You " is a personal pronoun, of the second person, singular
number, and nominative case, by Rule I.
"May begin" is a verb, irregular, intransitive, potential mode,
present tense, second person, singular number, and agrees with
"you," by Rule III.
"To" is a preposition, and connects "read" with "may begin,"
by Rule XVI.
"Read" is a verb, irregular, intransitive, infinitive mode, and
present tense, by Rule XIV.
"Charles" is a noun, of the second person, ·singular number, and
used independently in the nominative case, by Rule X.

John being sick, a physician was called.
" Physician " is the subject, and " was called " is the predicate.
" John " is a noun, of the third person, singular number, and used
independently in the nominative case, by Rule XII.

Ah, it is Pythias.
" It" is the subject of this sentence, and "is" is the predicate.
"Ah" is an interjection. Rule XIII.

Poor man!

I pity him.

"I" is the subject of this sentence, and "pity" is the predicate.
"Man" is a noun, of the third person, singular number, and used
independently in the nominative case, by Rule XI.

J

This is a compound sentence, consisting of an independent and
a relative clause.
" \Vho " is a relative pronoun, and connects the relative clause
with the independent clause by Rule XVIII; it is of the third person and singular number, because the noun "man" is, which it
represents, and in the nominative ease, by Rule I.

I saw him when he came.
This is a compound sentence, consisting of the independent clause,
"I saw him," and the adverbial clause, "when he came."
" When" is a connecfrrn adverb, connecting the adverbial clause
with the independent clause, and marks identity of time in relation
to the two events, by Rule XIX.

EXAMPLES FOR

"Jameson" is the subject, and "has

failed " is the predicate.
"Hatter" is a noun, of the third person, singular number, and
nominative case, by Rule IX.

\

' I·

I have seen the man who called for me.

Jameson, the hatter, has failed.
This is a simple senten ce.

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1.
3.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
11.

p ARSING.

A white horse. 2. The horse is white.
The apples are ripe. 4. Charles talks too much.
Diligence should be rewarded.
The air is very damp.
There is a medium in all things.
James asked me to go with him.
You wronged y.ourself. 10. Anna has gone to Hartford.
Charles, bring your book to me.

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ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH

104

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GRAMMAR.

105

FIRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE .

12. Let me see the picture.
13. Still waters are often deep .
14. Two men lived in one house.
15. Mary has brought a new slate.
16. Charles will go to London.
17. We studied that book long ago.
18. Knowledge is power.
19. George, will you lend me your sled?
20. Frank gave me an account of his voyage.
21. The tutor heard William say his lesson.
22. 0 Virtue, how amiable thou art !
23. The boy was named Peter. 24. George is eager to return.
25. Homer is styled the prince of epic poetry.
26. Charles heard it rain.
27. Edward the Fifth reigned only a few months.
28. The scholars speak and write correctly.
29. The name of an object is called a noun.
30. Names of particular persons and places should begin with a
capital letter.
31. Industry is a demand of nature.
32. Exercise and temperance strengthen the constitution.
33. The boy lrns a desire to learn.
34. Our tutor has been appointed professor in the university.
35. The Roman emperors were called Cresars.
36. There is no man who speaks better.
37. A variety of blessings has been conferred on man.
38. Business sweetens pleasure, as labor sweetens .rest.
39. A taste of a. thing implies actual enjoyment of it.
40. A t aste for a thing implies only a capacity for enjoyment.
41. In piety and virtue consists the happiness of man.
42. Bare assertion is nothing; proof is every thing.
43. The man to whom I gave the letter, is now here.
44. The first word of CYery paragraph and the first word after
every period, should begin mth a capital letter.
4.5. When people arc determined to quarrel, a straw will furnish
the occasion.
46. We should do nothing that will give others pain.
47. The lesson being recited, George may go home.
48. Charles saw me catch the ball.
49. William is more industrious than Henry.
50. It is easy to resolve.

51. It is difficult to keep our resolutions.
52. God, who made the world, governs it.
53. H ere is the book that Charles wanted.
54. "'Whenever George wishes, he can return.
55. The boys may recite now, if they have learned the lesson.
56. The rain descending in torrents, we hastened to seek shelter.
57. Let Thomas study, and then he may expect to imprqve.
58. I have found what you lost.
59. John went away yesterday, but he will return to-morrow.
60. He is a man whom all would respect.
61. Prosody must not be confounded with orthol!py.
62. In a living language, prosody is versification ; orthoepy is
pronunciation.
63. Orthoepy may be learned from reading-books, and works on
elocution.
64. Orthography is taught in primers and spelling-books.
65. Washington was a man of singular prudence and moderation.
66. I have just seen my friend, the artist.
67. Whoever is idle lacks wisdom.
68. John or James will accompany me.
69. I have purchased what was necessary.
70. Contentment is the key to happiness.
71. A true and sincere friend is invaluable.
72. The talkative will often be in trouble.
73. The king being dead, his eldest son was crowned.
74. \Vhatever you do, do well.
75. Who gave John that new sled?
76. Whose book was Charles reading ?
77. To be uniformly kind is true beneficence.
78. Love thy neighbor as thyself.
79. We must content ourselves with what we have.
80. He that ruleth his own spirit, is better than he that taketh
a city.
81. Milton, the poet, became blind.
82. Josephine had a sweet and cheerful smile for all.
83. The good and faithful servant was rewarded.
84. It is the duty of children to obey their parents.
85. To love God is the privilege of humanity.
86. To relieve the needy is a source of joy.
87. John's books 'vere preserved with care.
88. I shall rejoice at my friend's success.

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106

FlRST LESSONS IN LANGUAGE

89.
90.
91.
92.
03.
94.

The desire of gaining knowledge makes the boy study.
A soft answer turneth away "Tath.
Charles, will you lend me your knife ?
Henry 's efforts were very successful.
Charles has been to the city and returned.
The boy does not write well, but he reads well.
95. LoYe the Lord thy God with all thy heart.
96. The Christian submits cheerfully to the will of God.
97. By their fruits yo shall know them.
98. Do good to all, even to your enemies.
99. Peter went out and wept bitterly.
100. George speaks more correctly than his brother.
101. Bonaparte, the dethroned emperor, died in exile.
102. The storm was very destrucfr;e to ships.
103. Charles asked the boys to come and play with him.
104. William ought to stay after school till he gets his lesson.
105. William should stay after school to get his lesson.
106. Language is only the medium of thought.
107. Boys arc prone to anticipate pleasure.
108. J ohu, Charles, and James went to the same school.
l09. When George comes, he will find the book.
110. Believe not that clouds will always lower.
111. Consider the ways of the ant, 0 sluggard, and be wise.
112. Lose no moment but in purchase of its worth.
113. Henry came to the city to engage in some business:
114. The boy was injured by the indulgence of his parents.
115. His mind was a thanksgiving to the Power that made him.
116. That you have wronged me doth appear in this.
117. You haYc condemned and noted Lucius Pella for taking
bribes of the Sardians.
118. Speak gently to the little child.
119. The boy will attend school if his parents consent.
120. All is well that ends well.
·

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APPENDIX
TO

ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

To the Teacher. - Our object has been, in this little treatise, to
render the pupil familiar with some of the most obvious facts and
principles of language, while we have purposely avoided any reference to distinctions of etymology, syntax, &c. So much of the
Appendix may be explained and made familiar to the pupil as each
individual teacher may think proper.

,_,:

is usually considered under four general divisions.
Orthography treats of the powers of letters, singly and combined
in syllables and words.
Etymology treats of words divided into classes, and of the changes
made in their forms.
Syntax treats of words in ~entences, and of their connection.
Prosody treats of utterance, and of the arrangement of syllables
in verse.
The powers of letters, ~ingly and combined, are taught in spelling
books, &c.
The utterance of words is practically considered in elementary and
scientific works on elocution.
Neither orthography nor prosody is considered in this small treatise, which aims solely to make the pupil comprehend the construction of la11guage, that he may read and write understandingly.
GRAMMAR

(107)

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APPENDIX TO ELEMENTS

OF ENGL ISH GRAl\111'.lAR;

For reference, a few additional forms of nouns and verbs, as they
aze changed fo r nrious purposes, are here appended.

Words composed of two nouns have the r egular plural; as,
Night-steed,
night-steeds.
Tide-waiter,
tide-waiters.
Words composed of two nouns, with a preposition between them,
have the plural termination added to the first word; as,
Father-in-law,
fathers-in-law.
Son-in-law,
sons-in-law.
Ship-of-war,
ships-of-war.
A letter or figure is rendered plural by adding "s" and an apostrophe; as,
7 a's, 3 e's, four.9's, seven 3's.

I'

NouN.
Names used to represent particular persons and places, are called
p roper nouns.
N ames used to represent one or all of a class, are called commo11
nouns .
The name of any- thing composed of several individuals is a coilective noun, and may be of either number.
NUMBER.
IRRE GULAR

Singular.
Man,
Footman,
Iloatman ,
Kinsman,
Woman,
Child,
P enny.
Brother,
Die,
Genius,

FOR~IA'.TION.

P lural.
Singular.
Plural.
men.
Ox,
oxen
footmen.
Foot,
feet.
boatmen.
Tooth,
teeth.
kinsmen.
Goose,
geese.
women.
Mouse,
mice.
children.
S pence,
( pennies, (.Pieces of coin valued at a penny each.)
S broth ers, (of the same f amily.)
(brethren, (of the same association.)
S dies, (u,sed to stamp coin.)
( dice, (used in games.)
S geniuses, (applied to human beings.)
( genii, (applied to spiritual beings.)

vVords composed of a noun and the adj ective "full " have the
regular plural; as,
Handful,
Mouthful,

handfuls,
mouthfuls,

Spoonful,
P ailful,

spoonfuls.
pailfuls.

W ords composed of a noun and an adjec tiYe, have the plural termi·
nation added to the noun; as,

Singular.
Court-martial,
Knight-errant,

P lural.
courts-martial.
knights-errant.

109

Some nouns do not nry their form, but remain the same in both
numbers ; as,
Deer,
Sheep,
Swine,
Salmon,
Trout,
Series,
Species,
Means,
News,
Amends,
Apparatus,
Hiatus,
Bellows,
Odds,
Ethics,
Politics,
Mathematics,
Optics,
Metap·h ysics, . Pneumatics.
Some nouns are seldom used except in t he singular ; as,
Gold,
Pride,
Bread,
Silver,
Temperance,
Wisdom, &c.
Some nouns are seldom used except in the plural; as,
Dregs,
Lees,
Pincers,
Annals.,
Aspes,
Embers,
Literati,
Scissors,
Assets,
Entrails,
Lungs,
Shears,
Billiards,
Goods,
Minutire,
Snuffe!s,
Bitters,
Hysterics,
Orgies,
Tongs;
Clothes,
and the following articles of dress: Hose,
Drawers,
Pantaloons,
Trousers.
The following nouns, from for eign languages, generally retain
their original plural : Singular.
P lural.
Singular.
Plural.
Alumnus,
alumni.
{
formulre,
Formula,
formulas .
{fungi,
Fungus,
Nebula,
nebulre.
fungus es.
Stimulus,
{
dogmata,
stimuli.
Dogma,
dogmas.
Lamina,
laminre.

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APPENDIX

Plural.
larne.
miasma ta.
fo ci.
radii.
ignes fatui.
genii.
arcana.
data.
desiderata.
errata.
{
gymnasia.
Gymnasium,
gymnasiums.
Memorandum, { memoranda,
memorandums.
{ scholia,
Scholium,
scholiums.
Stratum,
strata,
automata,
Automaton,
automatons.
phenomena.
Phenomenon,
genera.
Genus,
Amanuensis,
amanuenses.
Antithesis,
antitheses.
Basis,
bases.
Di::crcsis,
di::creses.
Emphasis ,
emphases.
Oasis,
oases.
Phasis,
phases.
Chrysalis,
chrysalides.
{
apices,
Apex,
apexes.

Singu/,ar.
Lana,
Miasma,
Focus,
Radius,
I gnis Fatuus,
Genius,
Arcanum,
Datum,
Desideratum,
Erratum,

l

111

OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Singular.
Calx,
Index,
Cherub,
Beau,
Monsieur,
or Mr.,
Effluvium,
Encomium,
Medium,
Momentum,
Speculum,
Criterion,
Stamen,
Analysis,
Axis,
Crisis,
Ellipsis,
Parenthesis,
Thesis,
Appendix.
Vortex,
Seraph,
Bandit,
Virtuoso,

GENDER.
The distinctions of sex are expressed, 1st. By different words; as,
111ascu linc.
Feminine.
1"lfasc1tline.
Bachelor,
maid.
Boy
belle.
Beau,
Bro~her,

I

Plural.
{ calces,
calxcs.
indices,
indexes.
cherubim.
beaux.
Messieurs,
Messrs.
effiuvia.
encomia,
encomiums.
{media,
mediums.
momenta,
momentums.
specula.
{ criteria,
cnterions.
{ stamina,
stamens
analyses.
a.."\'.eS.
crises.
ellipses.
parentheses..
theses.
appendices,
appendixes.
vortices.
seraphim.
banditti.
'1-irtuosi.

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Feminine.
girl.
sister.

Masculine.
Buck,
Bull,
Drake,
Earl,
Father,
Friar,
Gander,
Gentleman,
Hart,
Horse,
Husband,
King,

Feminine.
doe.
cow.
duck.
countess.
mother.
nun.
goose.
lady.
roe.
mare.
wife.
queen.

Masculine.
Lad,
Lord,
Landlord,
Man,
Master,
Nephew,
Papa,
Ram,
Son,
Stag,
Uncle,
Wizard,

Feminine.
lass.
lady.
landlady.
woman.
mistress.
niece.
mamma.
ewe.
daughter.
hind.
aunt.
witch.

2d. By difference of termination; as,
dauphiness.
Dauphin,
abbess.
Abbot,
deaconess.
Deacon,
actress.
Actor,
donna.
administratrix. Don,
Administrator,
duchess.
ambassadress. Duke,
Ambassador,
electress.
Elector,
arbitress.
Arbiter,
empress.
Emperor,
authoress.
Author,
enchantress.
Enchanter,
baroness.
Baron,
executrix.
Executor,
benefactress.
Benefactor,
giantess.
Giant,
bride.
Bridegroom,
governess.
Governor,
conductress.
Conductor,
heiress.
Heir,
countess.
Count,
heroine.
Hero,
czarina.
Czar,
prophetess.
Prophet,
huntress.
Hunter,
protectress.
Protector,
hostess.
Host,
shepherdess.
Shepherd,
instructress.
Instructor,
songstress.
Songster,
Jewess.
Jew,
sorceress.
Sorcerer,
landgrayine.
Landgrave,
{sultana,
lioness.
Lion,
Sultan,
sultaness.
marchioness.
Marquis,
tailoress.
Tailor,
margravine.
Margrave,
testatrix.
Testator,
negress.
Negro,
tigress.
Tiger,
patroness.
Patron,
traitress.
Traitor,
peeress.
Peer,
tutoress.
Tutor,
poetess.
Poet,
viscountess.
V1scount,
priestess .
Priest,
votaress.
Votary,
prioress.
Prior,
widow.
Widower,
princess.
Prince,

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APPENDIX TO ELEMENTS

3d. By different words prefixed ; as,
J.lfasculine.
Feminine.
Man-servant,
maid-servant.
Male-child,
female-child.
He-goat,
she-goat.

Parent, f riend, neighbor, child, infant, &c., are used to denote
either a male or a female.
A young child·, or any animal whose sex is not known to us, may
be represented by the pronoun it.
Sometimes , when the sex is not known, if the animal be characterized by superiority, it is represented by a pronoun of the
masculine gender; if by inferiority, by a pronoun of the feminine
gender.
Pronouns of the masculine or feminine gender are used to repte.
sent inanimate objects when-they arc personified.

VERB.
The following verbs are irregular in the formation of one or more
of their principal parts: -

Present.
Abide,
Am, or Be,
Arise,
Bear, to bring fortli,
B ear, to 1tplwld,
Beat,
B egin,
Bend,
Beseech,
Bid,
Bind,
Bite,
Bleed,
Blow,

Imperfect.
abode,
was,
arose,
bare or bore,
bore, bare,
beat,
began,
bent, bended,
besought,
bid, bade,
bound,
bit,
bled,
ble,v,

Perfect participle.
abode.
been.
arisen.
.born.
borne.
beaten, beat.
begun.
bent.
besought.
bidden, bid.
bound.
bitten, bit.
bled.
blown.

OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Present.
Break,
Breed,
Bring,
, Burst,
Buy,
Cast,
Chide,
Choose,
Cleave, to split,
Cling,
Come,
Cost,
Creep,
Cut,
Do,
Draw,
Drink,
Drive,
Eat,
Fall,
Feed,
Feel,
Fight,
Find,
Flee,
Fling,
Fly,
Forget,
Forsake,
Freeze,
Get,
Give,
Go,
Grind,
Hear,
Hide,
Hit,
Hold,
Hurt,

Imperfect.
broke, brake,
bred,
brought,
burst,
bougb.t,
cast,
chid,
chose,
clove, cleft,
clung,
came,
cost,
crept,
cut,
did,
drew,
drank,
drove,
ate, eat,
fell,
fed,
felt,
fought,
found,
fled,
flung,
flew,
forgot,
forsook,
froze,
got,
gave,
went,
ground,
heard,
hid,
hit,
held,
hurt,

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113

Pe1fect participle.
broken.
bred.
brougb.t.
burst.
bougb.t.
cast.
chidden, chid.
chosen.
cloven, cleft.
clung.
come.
cost.
crept.
cut.
done.
drawn.
drank, drunk.
driven.
eaten.
fallen.
fed.
felt.
· fought.
found.
fled.
flung,
flown.
forgotten, forgot.
forsaken.
frozen.
gotten or got.
given.
gone.
ground.
heard.
hidden, hid.
hit.
held, holden.
hurt.

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Present.
Keep,
Know,
Lade,
Lay,
Lead,
Leave,
L end,
Let,
Lie, to lie down,
Lose,
Make,
Mean,
Meet,
Pay,
Put,
R ead,
Rend,
Rid,
Ride,
Ring,
Ris e,
Rive,
Run,
Say,
See,
Seek,
Sell,
Send,
Set,
Sit,
Shake,
Shed,
Show,
Shoe,
Shoot,
Shred,
Shrink,
Shut,
Sing,
Sink,

APPENDIX:

OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

TO ELEMENTS

Impeifect
kept,
knew,
laded,
laid,
led,
left,
lent,
l et,
lay,
lost,
made,
meant,
met,
paid,
put,
read,
rent,
rid,
rode,
rang, rung,
rose,
rived,
ran,
said,
saw,
sought,
sold,
sent,
set,
sat,
shook,
shed,
showed, shew,
shod,
shot,
shred,
shrunk, shrank,
shut,
sang, sung,
sank, sunk,

Peifect participl,8.
kept.
known.
laden.
laid.
led.
left.
lent.
let.
lain.
lost.
made.
meant.
met.
paid.
put.
read.
rent.
rid.
rode, ridden.
rung.
risen.
riven.
run.
said.
seen.
sought.
sold.
sent.
set.
sat.
shaken.
shed.
shown, shewn.
shod.
shot.
shred.
shrunk.
shut.
sung.
sunk.

p,.eserlt.
Slay,
Sleep,
Slide,
Sling,
Slink,
Smite,
Speak,
Speed,
Spend,
Spin,
Spit,
Split,
Spread,
Spring,
Stand,
Steal,
Stick,
Sting,
Stride,
Strike,
String,
StriYe,
Swear,
Sweep,
Swim,
Swing,
Take,
Teach,
Tear,
T ell,
Think,
Throw,
Thrust,
Tread,
Wear,
Weave,
"Veep,
\ Vin,
Wind,
Write,

Imperfect.
sl~w,
s lept,
slid,
slung, sl.ang,
slunk,
smote,
spoke, spake,
sped,
spent,
spun,
spit, spat,
split,
spread,
sprang, sprung,
stood,
stole,
stuck,
stung,
strode, strid,
struck,
strung,
strove,
swore, sware,
swept,
swam, swum,
swung,
. took,
taught,
tore, tare,
told,
thought,
threw,
thrust,
trod,
wore,
wove,
wept,
won,
wound,
wrote,

t

Perfect participl.e.
slain.
slept.
slidden. slid.
slung.
slunk.
smitten.
spoken.
sped.
spent.
spun.
spit, spitten.
split.
spread.
sprung.
stood.
stolen.
stuck.
stung.
stridden, strid.
struck, strieken..
strung.
striven.
sworn.
swept.
swum.
swung.
taken .
taught.
torn.
told.
thought.
thrown.
thrust.
trodden, trod..
worn.
woven, w.ove.
wept.
won.
wound.
written.

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The following verbs are sometimes regular, and sometimes irreg·
ular, in the formation of their principal parts: Present.
Awake,
Bereave,
Blend,
Build,
Burn,
Catch,
Cleave, to adhere,
Clothe,
Crow,
Dare, to venture,
Deal,
Dig,
Dream,
Dwell,
Gild,
Gird,
Grave,
Hang,
Heave,
Hew,
Kneel,
Knit,
Light,
Load ,
Mow,
P en,
Quit,
Saw,
Seethe,
Shape,
Shave,
Shear,
Shine,
Slit,
Sow,
Spell,
Spill,

117

APPENDIX TO ELEl\IENTS

Iinpe1fect.
awoke, awaked,
bereft, bereaved,
blended,
built, builded,
burned, burnt,
caught, catched,
cleaved, clave,
clothed, clucl,
crowed, crew,
dared, durst,
dealt, dealed,
dug, digged,
dreamed, dreamt,
dwelt, dwelled,
gilded, gilt,
girded, girt,
graved,
hung, hanged,
heaved, hove,
hewed,
kneeled, knelt,
knit, knitted,
lighted, lit,
loaded,
mowed,
penned,
quitted, quit,
sawed,
seethed,
shaped,
shaved,
sheared,
shone, shined,
slit, slitted,
s1wcd,
spelt, spelled,
spilt, spilled,

P&rject participle.

awaked.
bereft, bereaved.
blended, blcnt.
built, builded.
burned, burnt.
caught, catched.
cleaved.
clothed, clad.
crowed.
dared.
dealt, dealed.
dug, digged.
dreamed, dreamt.
dwelt, dwelled.
gilded, gilt.
girded, girt.
graven, graved.
hung, hanged.
h eaved.
hewn, hewed.
knceled, knelt.
knit, knitted.
lighted, lit.
loaded, laden.
mowed, mown.
penned, pent.
quit, quitted.
sawed, sawn.
seethed, sodden.
shaped, shapen.
shaved, shaven.
shorn, sheared.
shone, shined.
slit, slitted.
sown, sowed.
spelt, spelled.
spilt, spilled.

Present.
Strew,
Strow,
Sweat,
Swell,
'Vet,
'Vhet,
Work,
Wring,

Perject participle.
strewn, strewed.
strown, strowed.
sweat, sweated.
swollen , swelled.
wet, wetted.
whetted, whet.
worked, m·ought.
wrung, wringed.

Iinp&rject.
strewed,
strowed,
sweat, sweated,
swelled,
wet, wetted,
whetted,
worked, wrought,
wrung, wringed,

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CONJ UGATION OF THE IRREGUL AR VERB "TEACH.' '
PRINCIPAL PARTS .

P resent. Teach.
Imperfect. Taught.
P&rject participle.. Taught.
INDICATIVE MODE.
PRESENT TENSE.

Singul,ar.
I teach,
You teach,
He teaches.
Formal style. Thou

P lttral.
We teach,
You. or ye teach,
They teach.
teachest.

IMPERFECT.

I taught,
You taught,
He taught.
Formal sty/,e. Thou

We taught,
You or ye taught ,
They taught.
taughtest.
I

PERFECT.

We have taught,
I have taught,
You or ye have taught,
You have taught,
They h ave taught.
He has taught.
Formal style. Thou hast taught.

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APPENDIX TO ELE'i\IENTS

I.

PERFE CT.
PLUPERFECT.

I had taught,
You had taught,
He had taught.
Formal style. Thou

We had t aught,
You or ye had taught.
They had taught.
hadst taught.

FGTURE.

I .shall or will teach,
"Y ou shall or " i ll teach,
He shall or "ill te~h.
Formal style. Thou

\ Ve shall or will teach.
You or ye shall or will teach
They shall or will teach.
.
shalt or wilt t each.

F UTURE PERFECT.

I shall have taught,
vVe shall have tauo-ht
0
You will have tauo-ht
y ou or ye '\ill have tauo-ht
'
o
'
They will have taught. o '
H e "ill have taught.
Fonnal style. Thou "ilt have taught.

may, ccm, or must have
taught,
Y ou may, can, or must have
taught,
H e may, can, or roust have
taught.
rorrnal styl,e. Thou mayst,

I

l;Ve may, can, or must have
taught,
Y ou or ye may, can, or must
h ave taught,
They may, can, or must have
taught.
canst, or must have taught.

We might, could, would, or
I might, could, would, or should
should have taught,
have taught,
You or ye might, could, would,
You might, could, would, or
or should have taught, ·
should have taught,
They
might, could, would, or
H e might, could, would, or
should have taught.
should have taught.
Formal style. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or
shouldst have taught.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

PRESENT.

I may, can, or must teach,
Y ou may, can, or must teach '

\ Ve may, can, or must t each,
You or ye may, can, or must
II
t each,
e may,
Th ey may, can, or must teach.
Fi can, or must teach. ·
ormal Style. Thou mayst, canst, or must t each.

PRESENT.

If we teach,
If I teach,
If you or ye teach,
If you teach,
If they teach.
If he t eaches.
Forinal stgle. If thou tea.chest.

Same forms as the indicative and potential, preceded by

if,

&ll.

IMPERATIVE MODE.
IMPERFECT.

I might, could, would, or should
vVe might, could, would, or
teach,
should t each,
You might, could, would, or
You or ye might, could, would,
should teach,
or should teach
H e might, could, would, or
They might, couid, would, or
should teach.
should teach.
Formal style. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst or
shouldst teach.

Teach you or thou, or do you or thou teach,
Teach you or ye, or do you or ye teach.
INFINITIVE MODE.
PRESENT.

To teach.

PERFECT.

To h ave taught.

PARTICIPLES.
l:MPERFECT.

Teaching.

COMPOUND PERFECT.

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PLUPERFECT.

POTENTIAL llIODE.

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PERFECT. Taught.
Ha.Ying taught.

..A.PPENDIX TO ELEMENTS

OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR •

121

POTENTIAL MODE.

PROGRESSIVE FORM.
PRESENT.

INDICATIVE MODE.
PRESENT.

I am t ouching,
\Ve are teaching,
You are teaching,
You or ye are teaching,
He is teaching.
They are teaching.
Formal style. Thou art teaching.

I may, can, or must be teach- We may, can, or must be teaching,
ing,
You may, can, or must be You or ye may, can, or must be
teaching,
teaching,
He may, can, or must be teach- They m11y, can, or must be teaching.
ing.
Formal style. Thou mayst, canst, or must be teaching.

IMPERFECT.

I was teaching,
You "Were t eaching,
He was t eaching.
Formal style.

We were teaching,
You or ye were teaching,
They were teaching.
Thou wast teaching.
rERFEOT.

I have been t eaching,
\Ve have been teaching,
You have been teaching,
You or ye have been teaching,
He has been teaching.
They have been teaching.
Formal style. Thou hast been teaching.
PLUPERFECT.

I had been teaching,
vVe had been teaching,
You had been t eaching,
You or ye had been teaching,
He had been teaching.
They had been teaching.
Formal style. Thou hadst been teaching.
F UTURE.

I shall or ml! be t eaching,
W e shall or will be teaching,
You shall or ~'ill be t eaching,
You or ye shall or will be teaching,
H e shall or will be t eaching.
They shall or will be teaching.
Formal style. Thou shalt or wilt be t eachin()'
o•
FUTURE PERFECT.

I shall have been teaching,
We shall have been teachin()'
You mll have been teaching,
You or ye will have been tea;hlng
He will have been t eaching.
They will have been teaching. '
Form al style. Thou wilt have been teaehing.

IMPERFECT.

I might, could, would, or should We might, could, would, or should
be teaching,
be teaching,
You might, could, would, or You or ye might, could, would, or
should be teaching,
·should be teaching,
He might, could, would, or They might, could, would, or
should be teaching.
should be teaching.
Formal style. Thou mightst, could.st, wouldst, or
shouldst be teaching.
PERFECT.

I may, can, or must have been We may, can, or must have been
teaching,
teaching,
You may, can, or must ha>e You or ye may, can, or must have
been t eaching,
been teaching,
He may, can, or must have been They may, can, or. must have
teaching.
been teaching.
Formal style. Thou mayst, canst, or must have been
teaching.
PLUPERFECT.

I might, could, would, or should We might, could, would, or
have been teaching,
should have been teaching,
You might, could, would, or Youoryemight, could,would,or
should have been teaching,
should have been teaching,
He might, could, would, or They might, could, would, or
should have been teaching.
should have been teaching.
Formal style. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or
shouldst have been teaching. ·

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APPENDIX TO ELEl\IENTS

IMFERFECT.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

We were taught,
I was taught,
You or ye were taught,
You were taught,
They ·were taught.
He was taught.
Formal style. Thou wast taught.

Indicatfre and potential forms preceded by if, &c.; also the two
following peculiar forms: '
PRESENT.

If I be teaching,
,.
If you or thou be teaching,
If he be teaching.

If we be teaching,
If you or ye be teaching,
If they be teaching.

PERFECT.

We have been taaght,
I have been taught,
You or ye have been taught,
You have been taught.
They have been taught.
He has been taught.
·
Formal style. Thou hast been taught.

IMPERFECT.

If I were teaching,
If you were teaching,

If we were teaching,
If you or ye were teaching,
If they were teaching.

If he were teaching.
Formal style. If thou wert teaching.

Be you or ye teaching.

FUTURE.

r1
PRESENT.
PERFECT.

To be teaching.
To have been teaching.

PARTICIPLE;
COMPOUND PERFECT.

Having .been teaching.

PASSIVE · FORM.
INDICATIVE MODE.
PRESENT.

I am taught,
We are taught,
You are taught,
You or ye are taught,
He is taught.
They are taught.
Formal style. Thou art taught.

i1·

PLUPERFECT.

PRESENT.

INFINITIVE MODE.

'-

'

We had been taught,
I had been taught,
You or ye had been taught,
You had been taught,
They had been taught.
He had been taught.
Formal style. Thou hadst been taught.

IMPERATIVE MODE.

Be you or thou teaching.

I

I shall or will be taught,
We shall or will be taught,
You shall or will be taught,
You or ye shall or will be taught,
He shall or will be taught.
They shall or will be taught.
Formal sty/,e. Thou wilt be taught.
FUTURE PERFECT.

I shall have been taught,
We shall have been taught,
You will have been taught,
You or ye will have been taught,
He will have been taught.
They will have been taught.
Formal style. Thou wilt have been taught.

POTENTIAL MODE.
PRESENT.

I may, can, or must be taught, We may, can, or must be taught,
You may, can, or must be You or ye may, can, or must be
taught,
taught,
He may, can, or must be taught. They may, can, or must be taught.
Formal style. Thou mayst, canst, or must be taught.

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GRAMMAR,

IMPERFECT.
IMPERFJWT.

I might, could, would, or should \Ve might, could, would, en- shocld
be taught,
be taught,
You might, could, would, or You or ye might, could, would, or
should be taught,
should be taught,
He might, could, would, or They might, could, would, or
should be taught.
should be taught.
Formal style. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or ·
shouldst be taught.

If we were taught,
If I were taught,
If you or ye were taught,
If you were taught,
If they were taught.
If he were taught.
If
thou
wert taught.
Formal style.
'IMPERATIVE MODE.
!'RESENT.

Be you or thou taught.

PERFECT.

I may, can, or must have been vVe may, can, or must have been
t aught,
taught,
You may, can, or must have You or ye may, can, or must have
been taught,
been taught.
He may, can, Cfr must haYe They may, can, or must have
been taught.
been taught.
Formal style. Thou mayst, canst, or must have been
taught.

INFL"UTIVE MODE.
PRESENT.
PERFECT.

To be taught.
To have been taught.

PARTICIPLES.
IMPERFECT.

PLUPERFECT.

PERFECT.

I might, could, would, or should We might, could, would, or should
have been taught,
have been taught,
You might, could, would, or You or ye might, could, 'l"l'ould, or
should have been taught,
should have.been taught,
He might, could, would, or They might, could, would, or
should have been taught.
should have been taught.
Formal style. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or
shouldst have been t aught.
SUBJUNCTIVE .MODE.

Indicative and potential forms preceded by
following peculiar forms : -

if,

&c.; also the two

PRESEXT.

If I be taught,
If you or thou be taught,
If he be taught.

If we be taught,
If you or ye be taught,
If they be taught. ·

De you or ye taught.

COMPOUND PERFECT.

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Deing taught.
Taught.
Having been taught.

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