TOWER'S

COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR;
WITH

MODELS OF CLAUSAL, PHRASAL, AND VERBAL

ANALYSIS AND PARSING;
GRADUALLY DEVELOPING TllE

CONSTRUCTION OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE.

~y

..

DAVID BfrowER, A. M.,
.A.UTIIO B OF "GRADUAL LESSONS TN ORAlll!/I R," AND SEQUE J,; "E LEMENTS
OJI' 0R.AlU1AR;" 11 OltAi\lMAH 01'• COMPOS I TION;" 11 OltAL
ALGBRRA i" ltEADEllS, ETC,

~ h.'F·J OF C·Jtvc

\.~~(-;,

·~-<-., l 8 71 "'.'~*
"''--(f?I:J~;;:2ff;7

BOSTON:
CROSBY, NICHOLS AND COMPANY,
llT WASHJNOTON STREET.

1859.

I ,~

PREFACE.
study of Grammar properly comprises a knowledge of the princi:s of language, and facility in its use. This knowledge is. not attained
committing to memory many words about Grammar, nor by learning
merous technical distinctions, with little perceptible difference.
The facts of Grammar,, so far as settled, are prominent, and should not
be subjected to unnecessary sub di visions.
'When these facts are illustrated, and the principles deduced from them
are mastered by the understanding, the practical application of them in
clausal, phrasal, and verbal A,nalyses and Parsing, will lay the foundation fo r construction. To facilitate this, much u se h as b een made of
models, to stimulate the student, as w ell as guide his efforts.
If it be found that a principle or rule in this Grammar differs verbally
from the same in the "Elements," be satisfied that it is well for intellect- ·
ual growth, that a thought should have several suits of clothing, and be
recognized in each - that it should impress itself, not by its garb, but
independently of w ardrobe.
In this respect, however, there is little to distm:b the most conservative
verbalist.
The wants of the school-room, the wishes of teachers, and the demands
1
of the public, have been considered, and an effort has been made to meet
·them; with what success, it r emains for educators to say, to whose candid judgment this work is most respectfully submitted.
The time has· come when writing one's own language correctly is an essential part of e duc~tion; and eve1·y year, parents, school committees, and
the community will give it more prominence, till it holds a place in school
studi~s commensurate with its importance.
To facilitate the labors of t eachers in this direction, a " Grammar of
Composition" h as b een prepared, and is now extensively u sed.
It is not intended that this Grammar should supersede the u se of the
"Grammar of Composition." .
The means of attaining to excellence in any art is twofold; by a study
of its principles and by judicious exercise. Th~ design of this work is,
THE

Entered according to Act of Congress, in tLe year 1859, by
AN N A E. 'l'OWER,

In the

Clerk'~

Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts.

Bhreotyped by
HOUA llT &. llOBUJNS,
Now Eugland Type nnd ::it.ifcotnio FO"UndCl'J'1
110 S'l'ON.

I'ltl!\"TEU llT

GEOltOE

C. RAr-;D

&

AVERY.

(iii)

-iv

PREF.A.CE.

chiefly, to aid th e young, by the definition s an d m odel s of analysis here
given , to a knowledge of grammatical principles: that of the Grnmmar of
Composition is to furnish an intelligent, systematic, and abundant exercise in those principles.
The analytic process, which has b een so l ong r el ied on, in this branch ·
of instruction, has signally failed; pupils have been t aught to analyze
the most difficult senten ces, who yet are u nable "to speak and write cor- ·
r ectly." T he principles of grammar ar e of little practical benefit till, from
frequent and continued u se, they are recognized and observed unconsciously.
•
PAGE
The author avails himself of this opportunity to express his grateful .PRELIM INARY R EMARKS ON LANGUAGE••••••••• • .• . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
acknowledgments to Benjamin F. T weed, Esq., Professor of Rhetori'c JNTRODUCTION TO COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMA.ll..
and B elles-Lettres in Tufts College, for many valuabl e su ggestions in the : C· .• Language -A sentence ..•••.•••.•.•.•.•••.. •••••••••••• ••• ••••••····. 11
Subject. Predicate - Exercises ••••.•••• ••• ••••.•••••• ••• •••• •• ••••••• 12
preparation of this work.
·
..
.
D. B. T. ·£ p ARTS OF SPEECH.
Noun and verb - Exercises . • . • • • • • . • • • . • • • . • • • . .. • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• 13.
Adj ective and adverb - Exercises •• ••••••• •• •• •••••••••••••••••••••••• 15
Preposition - Exercises . - •••••••••• - • .. • • .. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 16
Simple and compound sentences - Clauses ... - ••• •••••••• ; • •............ 17
Conjunction-Exercises.................. . ........................... 17
Phrase. Personal pronoun ................... . ... . . . ................. 18
llel ative pronoun. Article. Adjective pronoun. Participle. I nterjection 19
Exercise on relative pronouns •• ••••••••••••••• •• •••••••••••••••••••••• 20
The "ELEMENTS OF GRA~DIAR, OR FIRST Lm~s oNs IN LANGUAGE," so COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR.
fav orably received, so strongly commended, and so extensively used, at the very · Defin itions... ... • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • •• • • • • • • • • • • 21
start, has steadily increased in circulation and popularity, till, it is said, no ETYll!OLOGY.
text-book on this subj ect is so successful, or gives such universal satisfaction . ·
Noun. Pronoun .................................................... 22
Out of this popular use of the "ELE)IENTS" has grown an urgent dem~d
Common and proper nouns .••••••.•••••.••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 23
for another Grammar, on the same plan, more full in particulars, and more exAbstract. Collective •••••••••• •• • ••••• . •••.••••• • • •• ••••••••• • ••••••• 24
t ended in application, to meet the wants of advanced pupils, and to complete a
Gender ......................................................... ~ ••• 25
preparatory course to COMPOSITION.
Number ••••••.•••.••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• •••·· •·· •• 29
In complying with this request, urged from every quarter, we have thought it
P erson ••••• •• •••••••••••.••• •• • ••• •• - •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 34
best to have such a t ext-book prepared, as would meet the expressed wish of
Case . ... . ................................. . .................. ••••••• 36
t eachers on this point, and at the same time furnish a prelimi nary course,
Model •• ••.• - •••••••••••••••.••• -................................ ; • • 38
The book, th en, is intended as a School Grammar, complete in itself; yet so
Forms for parsing a noun and a pronoun .... .. ............. .... ....... · 39
far a further development and continuance of the plan adopted in the "ELEDeclension of nouns and pronouns • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • .. • .. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 40
MENTS," that it will most advantageously folww that book. The "Gradual LesModel .............................................................. 41
sons in Grammar," which was the FIRST System of ANALYSIS published in this
V ERB.
country, has been highly praised by the most prominent educators; but it is not J. R egular and irregular .•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.••••••••••••••• 43
on the plan of the "ELEMENTS," and therefore does not well follow it. Hence
· Transitive and intransitive ••••.••••.•••••• • ••••••••••••••.••••••••••• 44
the call for a new book.
Model ............................... 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
These Grammars, with t he "GRAMMAR OF COMPOSITION," make a full
Active and passive .••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.•• - •••••• ·47
course in the study of written language, and in the application of the principles
•·· P rogressive form ................ ; ............... . , • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 4~
of grammar to Composition.
·
Mood ••••••••••••.•••••••••••••• •••• •••• ............................ 50
School committees and teachers are invited to examine them.
Tense., ..................................................... ; ••• ·•••" 64
C. N. & CO.
a*
(5)

CONTENTS.

PUBLISHERS' PREF ACE.

vi

QONTENTS. ·

CONTENTS.

Auxiliaries •••••••••••• ,, ••••• • ••••••.•.•..••••. , •••••••••••••••.·••• .. . 65
Exercises in construction .•••.•.••..•••..••...••••••. ••.•..•..••••••.• •''li6
Number and person .... . ..... . ................... . .......... .. ....... "56
For1ns in co1nn1ou :style ......................•... . ..... .. .........•· .. . 57

Forms in ancient or solemn styl e . ............................. . ... . .. 58
F ormation of the tenses in the active . •••••••.• , ••••••••.•••••• , • •• .••.•·•ii9
Principal parts of the verb ........................................... ·. 60.
Forms of the verb "BE" in common style ••••••.••.••...•.. , ... , •••••. 60
Forms of the verb "BE " in ancient style ....... . ...................... .6·1
Passive and progressive formation s ................ , •.............•••.. ··62
Synopsis of the passive form of the verb " HIDE" ••••••••••••••• • •••••• 62
Conj ugat ion ..••••••••.•.• , ..... . ................ , •••.••••••••••••••• • 63
Conjug.ition of the verb "BE" . • • • •
64
Conjugation of the verb " LOVE" ••• : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 66

~ :n~~~~~;;~ 0·; ~~; ·;e·r~· ;;T~~~~·,; :.:_·~~;i~~·;0~:i:. :: :::." :: :::::::: :::::: ;~

1

0

Conj ugation of the verb "TEACH" -passive form ....................... 74
List of irregular verbs .•••••..•••.••••.•••••.•.•...••••••.•••• , •••• , • • 76'
Defective verbs ......... . ........................................... .' ;80
Impersonal verbs . • • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • . . . . • . . . • • • . . • • • • • . • • • • . • • • • • . . . • . . 8]
F orms and properties of verbs . •• .....••.•••.•••••..••••.•••.•.• •• •••. 81
F orms fo r parsing the verb and p articiple. . • . . • . . • • • • • . • • • • • • . • • • . • • • • . 82

A:;~~.;~,:~:

...........................................................

C ompariso·1~

Forni for

~!

................................. ' .. • . • • . . . • . • • . • • . • • • • . . 85

pa;s·i ~~-: ."::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::

R

:,,Compound relatives ............... , ............. , ....................
l.•iMo.d el •••.•••.•••••••••••••••••••••• , ••••••••••••••••••••••••.••••••
;:;Interrogative pronouns . ..... • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • . • • • • • • . • • • • •
;:Model .•••••••••• ; ••••••••.•••••••.•••••••••••••••••••••• •••••••••••
':Kinds nnd properties of relative pronouns ••••••.••.•••••••.••• ; ••• • •••
<;, Form for parsing ••••••••.••••• •.• •• •.• ••••••••••••••••••••••• • • • • • •• •

106.
105
106
196
107

' ADVERBS •••••••• • .. • •• •••• .•• •• • • • • • • • •••• • • • • • •••• • •• • • •••••• • • • •., • •

107
1P8
109
109
.110
110

'-' Clauses . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • .. . • • • • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
i· Interrogative ••••••••••••••••••••••••.•••••••••••••••••.•••••• • •••••
~ Comparison .•••••••••••••••••••• , •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• , ......
::· Connective .....................................................·• •••
r.. Kinds and forms ••.• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••_. ••••••••••••••••••• • •
J Form for parsing .•••••••••••••••••••••••• •••••••••••••••••••••••• • •
:- Model •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

107

1l0
110

' PREPOSITIONS ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• •. •.... • • • 112
' ~ List of •••••• • ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• , •••••••••••••• •., •• • • • 113
l Model •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ••••• ••••••••••••••••• • •• ·: 114
CONJUNCTIO NS •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• • 115
, , 1 Model • • • • . • • • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •.• 116
INTERJECTIO NS •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 118
Model ••••••.•••..••.•••••••.•••••••••••••••••••••• ••• ••• •. · • ••.•• · 119
' lNTRODUCTIO'.'f TO SYNTAX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . ..

120

_ Cl ause. Sentence. Phrase., •••• ••••• •••••• ••••••••• •• • .' •.••••••••• 121
· E xamples of analysis ••••••• • •••••••••••• · ••••.• · ••• ·. - ••.•• · •••••• • 122.
SIMPLE RULES OF SYNTAX, WITH MODELS AND EXERCISES VNDER EACH. '

87 1

M odel ......................... ..... ................ . ............... 87
ARTI CLES . . ..... ... ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. 89
Form for parsing . . . ........................... , •• ,, •• , ..•••••••••••• 91
Model .....••....• • •...••.•..• • •••••••.••.•...••••..••.•••.•••.•••.. 91
P RONO GNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .·• 93
Properties .•...••....•••••.•••.........•.••••••••.••.•••••.••.••.••• 04
F orm for parsing ....••.•••••.•••••.•••.•••.••••..•••.•••• • .• • •••.•.. D4
Model ..••.••• . .••.••• • •.•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.•• • •••••••••• 94
COMP OUN D PERSONAL P RONOUNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... .. . . . . . . . . ·97
D eclension . . • • . • . • . • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • . . • • • • • • • • • • • . • • 97
Properti es ............................ . ........... , • • • • • • • . • • • • • • • • • 98
Form for parsing ..•..•••••••...•••.•••..•••• , •••••••.•• •• •••• • •• • .•• ·gs
M odel ...... . ....•••..••...•..• • .•••••••••.••••••• ••••...•• • , ••.•••• D8
Anrn CTTVE PRONOUNS . . . . . . . . .. ..... . ....... , •••••••• • ••••••••••• • , ••

vii

99

Kinds . ..• .. ............•.....•.....•••••••••••.• • •....••••••••••... 100
Form for parsing ............................. . ..................... . 100
Model. ... . ....•...••••••••••..••.••..•...••••••.•••••••••••••••.••. 101
ELATIVE P RONOUNS ••••••••••••••• •• •••• • ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 102
D eclensions .... .. .. . ............. .... ................ . . . ....... , •••• 103
Model .......... . ...... . .............. : ...................... : •••••. 103

,. Rule I. Subj ect •· •••••••••••••••••••••••• ••• •••••••••••••••••••••• 12.5
General directions .•••••••••••••••••••.••••••••••• • • •••• • • · • • · •• • • • • 126
Rule II. Predicate . ••••••• • ••••••• • ••••••••••••• •.•. • •••••••• ·...... 126
.Rule III. Adjectives ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 12fi'
Rule IV. Articles ••••••••••••••••.•• • •••••••••••• • •.•••.• •••••••• • 129
Rule V. Adverbs •••.••••••••••••••••••••• • •• • ••• • • • •••.• • • • •• • • • • • 130.
: .Rule VI. Obj ective after prepositions ••••••••••••• • • •••••••••••••••• 132
J. Rule VII. Object of a verb ••••••••• ." •••••••••••••• • • ••• · •••• • •••••• 133 .
, . Rule VIII. Possessive case .•••.•••••••••••••••••••••••••••• •. • • • • • 135
; R.ule IX. Nominative in the predicate ••••••••••••••••••• • ••••••••• • 136
·. Rule X. Apposition .•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ······•• •• ••••••. 137
;, Rule XI. Noun independent •••.••••.• .... .•••• .'............ •••. : ••• 138
.. Rule XII. Noun independent with participle ................. . ...... 140
, Rule X III. Interj ections .••••••••••..•••••••••••••••••.••.••••••••• ~41
R ule XIV. Participles .: .•.•• ••• ; •.••••.•• ••• •••••• • ••••••. •••• ,; •• ·142
. Rule XV. I nfinitive ..................... •••••• ••••••.••••••••• : ••• 143
.,, Rule XVI. Conjunctions .••••••••••• •• ••••••• • •. • • ; •••••• : ••••••••• -~45
Rule XVII. Prepositions .••••••••••••••••••••••••••.••••••••••••••• ~46
l. Rule XVIII. Pronouns ••••••••••••••• ."•••••••••• : ••••••••• .,.;••••• 147
Rule XIX. R elative pronouns ...................................... 1'49
.Rule XX. Connective adverbs •••••• ~···················; ••••••••••• · ~50

viii
RULES

CONTENTS.
OF SYNTAX, WITH

ILLUSTRATIONS

AND EXCEPTIONS IN

An.-

ltANGEMENT AND CONSTRUCTION, WITH MODELS, REMARKS AND
E XERCISES UNDER EACH.
'

Rule I. Subjeot-nominative .•••••••••••••
Rule II. Finite verb
• '· • • • • •• • • • • • • '· • • • • • • • • • •
Rule III. Adjectives .••.• •.• •.• ' • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • .. • • • • • • • • .. • • .. · • ·
J-.

Rule IV.

Articles

. •. • ..... · · · • • · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · •· · · · · · ·· ··' · · · · ·

Rule V. Adverbs.::::·.·.···········································
Rule VI. Objective after ~;;~~:it·i~~~ • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • · • • • • • • • • • ~ • • • •
Rule VII. Objective after transitive ve·r·b·s· • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • · • • • •• • •
Rule VIII. Possessive case
• • · • · • • ·' • • • • • • • • • • • •• • .. • •
Ruic IX. Predicate-nominati~~ •.•••• • •• • •. • • ••••• • ••• • • •• • • •• • • • •• •
Rule X. Apposition •• • • .
• • • • • · · · • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • '· • • • • • • • • ·.
Rule XI No · d
d •••••••••• ' •.•••••••••••• • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • ;
·
un m epen ent. ••••••
Rule XII. Noun independent with p~;;i~;;;e· • •• • • ••••••• ·•••• ••• ···;
Rule XIII. Interjections
"· • • • • • • • • · • · • • • • • • • • • • •
RI XIV
........................................... .
ue
. Participles • • • • • . . . • • • • .. • • • • • • • • .. • • . •
Rule XV. Infinitive mood...............
• •• ·· • ... ••••••••
Rule XVI. Conjunctions.
•• • · • • • • .. • .. • • • • • • • • • • •• • •
Rule XVII. Prepositions ~ ;~;,;;;~s· • • • • • • • • • • · · • • • • · • • • • • · • .. • • · • · •
Rule XVIII. Pronouns
· · · · • .. • • • · · · • .. • • • · • · · • • • • .. • • • 202
Rule XIX. R elative pr;~~~~~:·························· .. ·•·····•· 205
Rule XX. Connective adverbs •• • •. •. • ...... • •. • ................... ·20D
CLASSIFICATION OF Wonns
.. · ••• · • • ••• .. • • •• • ... •• • ••• .. • • ·• · • • · 211
Fimarns OF SYNTAX
• '· • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • .. • • • • • • • 214
RHETORICAL Frnu~~~ ••. • • • • • · • • • • • • • • • • • • • '· • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • .. • • 215
. •. ••.• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.............. 216
PUNCT UATIO N ............ ,.,, . . . . . . . . . . . . • .. •.••.•.••• .. ••••

Separation of
"
"
"
"
Other marks

2W
217
217
218
. • ......... ' '· • • • • • • .. • • • • • • • • .. • • • • • • • • • • • • '• • • 219

sen tences
· ••• •• •••
clauses .. ....... • ...... • • • • .. • • • • • • .. • • .. • ...... • • :.
phrases .•• • ........... • • • • • '· • • .. • • • • .. • .. · • • • ' .. • • • • •
words ..............................................

...... .............. ·•••••·••••• ....................... 219

~;~S~l;~~Al'ITAI.S ... , ... •••• •• . •••, • •• •• • ••• ••• ••• ••. ••, .. •. •• .. •, .. • •

220
............................................................ 221

~~~!.i~{~£~C/!C/F!i".!!"!FFh!!!E!! m

Mixed heroic verse.................................................. 227
Mixed Al exandrine verse ............................................ 229
1t1.ixed nlinor verse ..••••••••.••••.••• , ••.•••• , ••••.•..•••• ........... 2~0

Poetical pauses ..................................................... 2:jl
Cresural pauses ................................................. . , • • 232

'

:PRELIMINARY REMARKS ON -LANGUAGE.
871
lt !
k 1 MAN. is so constituted that it is nQt good for him to be alone.

\o: The -wants of his physical, intellectual, and moral nature, show that

~~~was intended for society. Some . meth.od of communiCating though ta,
tf~eli~gs, desires , purposes, &c., would, consequently, be necessary; otheri wise, though surrounded by those of ·his own kind, he would lose much

~of the benefit to be derived from social intercourse.
The first efforts to communicate we may suppose to have been by nat' ural signs, consisting chiefly of gestures and changes in the expressio?; or the countenance.

This means of communication would, howe.ve.r, be

;yery limi~ed, and often cumbersome.
i' In order, then, to extend the power of communicating, as well as to

_render it easier, the sound of the human· voice, with its wonderful powers
iof modulation, would afford a convenient .and flexible instr~mcnt.

It

:·was, probably, in some such way as this tliat artificial · language' was
' formed ; affording, at the same time, the means and the sign of intcl:.·i.ectual and moral development in the race.
'. ' Among the first efforts to communicate by the voice, simple sounds,
1

a;id corubinn.tions of sounds, would naturally be used us names of sensi-

) iie objects ; so that the utterance of these sounds would recall the image
.or conception of an object when it was no longer present to the sense.
Hence the noun, one of the most important parts of speech:'
At a very early stage in the development of language itwould bec.ome
,necessary to communicate the actions or .doings of mftn, animals, &c.,
· and to make some assertion· r especting the objects which had been named.
)'Iris would

giv~- rise' to a~~t,her ,in;por~nt ~1-~ss~ c_al~ed _verbs: . With these

--PRELIMINARY REMARKS ON LANGUAGE.

I ,

.

i

two classes, coherent speech would be possible ; und the other classes
,' l

might be developed as circumst!l.nces shou ld r ender them :r:iecessury to
give precision, accuracy, and facility to expression.
So far the object of language, in giving the means of converse with
p ersons present, would be accomplished.

The want, however, of the

powel' tu communicate with those not present, without making a third

INTRODUCTION
TO

pernon the confid::mt of the speaker, must eventun.lly suggest the idea of
\)

representing these sounds by signs v.ddressed to

th~

eye.

Hence written

lv.nguage, which, though primv.rily intended merely for this purpose, is

COMMON -SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

now,. by the imperfection of alphabets, and the attempt to preserve the
etymology in words derived from other languages, so complicated as partially to obscure the original design .
It is, however, of the English language only tlmt we propose to treat;

but, since all langu:ige marks the development of the humim mind, and
as the human mind is essentially the same in all nations and ages, the
general principles of all lang uages v.re alike.

For instance, though we

have grc:Ltly enriched the English l::mguage by borrowini"from the Latin
and others, it is s:1icl that in no instance have we adopted a grammatical
power, lJ ut on ly words -which either have been, or are now in process
of lJecoming, Anglicized.

It is to the Anglo Saxon that we are indebted

for the grammatical p rinciples of the present English ; the only influence
of other languages in that department being this -that certain gramrnaticv.l forms which existed in the parent tongue were dropped, becv.use
these new co ntributions from other languages would not readily and
gracefully submit to them. Thus, instead of six declensions of noun s, as
in the Anglo Sn,xon , and several regular modes of forming the plurn.l, our
present English has retained but one declension, only one inflection for
case, and but one reg ular mode of forming the plural.

It should be

observed, however, that these are retained from the Anglo Saxon,-the
original basis of the bnguage, - and not adopted from those languages
which hv.Ye supplied us with-so rn:1ny new words.
i•

1. LANGUAGE affords a convenient method of communicating our thoughts and feelings.
2. It is of two kinds ; spoken and written.
3. Spoken language is addressed to the ear; written
language, to the eye.
4. Language is composed of words combined in such
a mann er that they express thought.
5. A word in spoken language is a simple sou,n d , or
a c·ombination of sounds, used as the sign of an idea.
6. A word in written language consists of a letter,
or a combination of letters, used as the sign of an
idea.
7. OriTHOEPY treats of the e) ementary sounds, and
their combination in spoken words.
8. 0R'rHOGRAPHY treats of letters and their combinatior: in written words.
9. A SENTENCE is a numb er of words containing
complete sense, or a sentiment, and followed by a full
pause.
For what purpose is language used 1 ' Vhn.t are the t\VO kinds? What is the difference
between the t\VO? or what is language composed? 'Vhat is a spoken word ? A written
word? What is Orthocpy 1 Orthography 1 A sentence 1

(11)

..
12

10. A sentence may be either spoken or written.
11. The word, or cornhination of words, which suggests the person or thing spoken of, is called the SUBJECT of the sentence; as, Birds fly.
12. The word, or combination of words, which asserts
something of the subject, is called the PREDICATE of the
sentence ; as, Birds fly.
EXERCISES.

Birds fly. John runs. Man works. Trees grow. Snow
melts. Girls learn.
George has recited. Vice degrades.
Charles has written. Virtue ennobles.

13.

INTRODUCTION . TO COMMON0SCHOQ!+ , GRA:M:M:.1Ht.

INTRODUCTION TO COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

PARTS

OF . SPEECH.'

Although there are many thousand words in the English language, they are usua.Jly distributed into a. few classes, called parts of
speech.

14. The subject of a. sentence is the
thing is said or asserted.

NAME

of tha.t of which some-

15. The narne of a person or thing is called a
as, Boys play.

NOUN;

REMARK.
The word "thing" is here used to include not only any object
that can be perceived by the senses, but whatever may be made an object of
thought.

EXERCISES.
What is the subject of the first sentence? Why? What word is used to
assert something of "birds"? What is it called? Why?
DmE CTIO~.

Ask similar questfons on eacl~ of the above examples.

13. Every sentence must contain a subject and a
predicate.
Drnr.:CTION. Jlfakc s ent ences by supplying predicates asserting something of th e
following words, to be used as subj ec ts of sentences .
•

Boys - - . Dogs - - . H ens - - . Men--. Ice--.
Water - - . The horse - - . Children - - . Plants--.
Fishes--.
DrnF. CTrON.
I.Wake se11 tence.s by supplying subjects about which the following
words, to be used as predicates, may assert something .

- - skate. - - swim . - - will be rewarded.
sings. - - play. - - will be promoted. - - will shine.
- - was praised. - - talk. - - studies. - - sleeps.
. !low may a sentence be expressed? What is called the subject of a sentence 7 The
predicate 1 tVhat must every sentence contain 1

Girls study. Ice melts. Water freezes. William reads.
Hope cheers. Virtue will be rewarded. Soldiers march. Dog;;
bark. Grass grows. Ships sail.
What is the subject of the first sentence?
part of speech is it? Why?

Of what is it the name?

What

DIRECTION. Ask similar questions· on each of the above exercises. The teacher
can extend this exercise, and all that follow, indefinitely, by aid of the blackboard,
slate, or reading-book, till pupils can readily recognize the noun.

Supply a nounfor each of the following predicates.

--fly. - - drink. --run. - - studies. - - live.
- - walk. - - grow. - - eat. - - swim. - - ride.
16. 'l'he predicate of a sentence is the word which is used to say
or assert something of the subject.

17. A word ·which can be used to assert is called a
VERB; as, Boys play .
What is the subject of a sentence 1 What is a noun 1 What is the predicate of a seir

tence 1 What is a word that can be used to assert called 1

2

14

15.

INTRODUCTION TO COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

INTROD.UCTION TO . CD!i{MO~r,SCHQOJ;. : 9R4MM.;\.~. ;

EXERCISES.

20. Words which directly modify, describe, or limit
nouns, n.re called ADJECTIVES; as; Studious boys learn. ·

Horses run. Tops spin. Ice melts. Grass grows.
sail. Anna skates. Water freezes. .M:en talk.
What is the predicato in the fiI·•t sentence ? For what is it used?
part of speech is it? Why?

Ships
Whi;t

A_sk similar ques tions on each of the above sentences. This exercise
can be continued on tlte slate, ~C -i at the discretion of the te acher .
DrnECTroN.

Nom. A modifici;tion or limitation is called direct, when it is effected without the use of a preposition; as, Wealthy men; - indirect, when the modifior
is connected with the word modified, by a preposition ; as, Men of wealth.
What, word describes "boys" in the first of the exercises under article 19,
on the preceding page? What part of speech is it'! Why?
DIRECTION.

Supply verbs asserting something of each of thefollowiny nouns.

.Ask similar questions respecting each of those exercises . Make the

adjective familiar l•y the slate,

--.

Officers - - . Soldiers - - . Pupils
John
Streams - - . Cats - - . .M:ary - - . Dogs--. Kites
Snow - - . Birds - - .
Let it be observed that verbs may be used to assert, but that
they arc also used fu r several other purposes .
. Thus the word g ive is a verb because it ma.y be used to assert ; as, "Wo
!Jive bread to the hungry. "
R1mARK S.

The same ' ro rd may also be used for several other purposes, and still be a
verb ; as, "Give me my due j " - a. command. "Give us this day our da.iJy
bread ; " - a p etition. " '\Vho will give us a.U we wish ?" _ a question.

~c .

Supply adjectives modifying, describing, or limiting, the nouns, in the following
ea:crcises. Continue such exercises on the slate., ~c., till the pupil is familiar with
this part of speecf.~ , and its use in language.

- - apples fall. - - men work. - - weather chills.
- - knives cut. - - boys learn. - - horses ran.

21. Words which directly modify verbs are called
as, John studies diligently.

ADVERBS;

N O'rE. In this class are embraced those words which directly modify adjec.tives and adverbs.

18 .. In the p'.·eceding exercises, the noun and verb only- the
essential parts of a sentence -have been used.
19. '!'he subordinate parts of a sentence explain or modify the
stn,tement made by the essential parts; that is, by the subject and
predicate.
EXERCISES.

Studious boys learn. Three men came. Good boys obey.
Four white horses ran. Liberal men give. Constant effort
succeeds. Honest labor exalts.
What are the essential pa.rts of the first sentence?
part? l' or wha t is it used?
DIHECTIO.:-.'.

What is the subordi•wte

As k s imi la r questions respecting each of the above exercises.

'Yliat arc tlw essential parts of a sentence?

What the subordinate?

EXERCISES.

Anna studies diligently. Charles will soon be here. Very
studious boys recite well. .M:en should give more liberally.
John watched less faithfully. Henry worked most industriously.
Less diligen~ pupils learn less rapidly.,
J. In. the first exercise, what word tells how "Anna studies"?
of speech is it? Why? What part of speech docs it modify?

What part

2. In the second example, what word tells when "Charles will be here"?
Wbat part of speech is it? Why? What word tells where "Charles will
soon be" ? What part of speech? Why? What part of speech do they both.
modify?

What arc words which directly modify nouns called?
modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs, called l

What are words that directly

16

INTRODUCTION TO COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

3. In tho third ex:tmple, wh:tt word tells how "boys r ecite"'! What part of
speech is it? Why? What part of speech does it modify? What part of
speech is studious"? 'Vhat noun does it describe? 'Yha.t word increases
the for ce of " studious"? What is it called? Why ? What po.rt of opeech
docs it m odify '!
1

INTRODUC'l'ION TO · COMMON-SCH OOL . GRAMMAR.
· DIRECTION . .Ask similar ques tion s, <\"c . Extend' the exercise,
blackboard, slate, and reading-books.

17

if necessary, by tho
1
•

'

4. In th e fourth example, what word tells how "men should give"? ·what
part of speech is it? Why? What part of •peooh does it modify? What
word is used to increase the force of the word "liberally"? What part of
speech is it'? W'hy? Wh11t p:trt of speech does it modify?
D11rn cTio~ . .A .~k similar questions respecting the rest of the above exercises, and
jilt the following blanks with adverbs, modifying the verbs in respect to time, place,
maune r, or ci rcumstance ; and the adjectives and ad. verbs in <legree .

John came - - this morning. The horses ran - -. The
men - - act--. Charles studied - - faithfully. Father
will - - return. The boy was - - eager to learn. The - industrious pupils progress - - rapidly. - - studious boys
learn--.

. 24 . .A.. simple sentence has one subject and one predicate ; as, Charles studies. Henry plays.
25. Two or more simple sentences united, form a·
compound sentence ; as, Charles studies, and Henry
plays.
26. Simple sentences, when united to form a compound sentence, are called clauses ; as, Charles studies,
ar '1 Henry plays.
27 . .A.. word used to connect simple sentences is
called a CONJUNC'rION ; as, Charles studies, and Henry
plays.

Continue similar exercises on the slate and otherwise, till th e use
of the adverb is familiar.

REMARK .
In uniting simple sentences, many words that are alike in each
need not be repeated ; as, John will go to New York. James will go to New
York. Uniting the two sentences, J ohn :tnd James will go to New York. ·

22. A noun m[Ly be used as a modifier by prefixing a connecting
word ; [LS, Men of weaith.

EXERCISES.

DIRECTION.

23. The word connecting a modifying noun with
the word modified is called a PREPOSITION ; as, Men of
wealth.
EXERCISES.

Men of wisdom are respected. The lecture on music will bo
repeated. A man of wealth should be liberal. John went to
Boston. The boy was eager for praise. James lives in Cincinnati. William has returned from Philadelphia.
In the first exercise, is it asserted that "men aro respected," without refer..1
cncc to the kind of men? What word is used to modify or limit men? What
p<ert of speech is it? ·what word connects the limiting no un with tho word
limited? What part of speech is it? Why?

'Wha.t is the word called that connects a modifying noun with a modified word?

William lost a book, and John found a knife. Peter and
J ohn went up into the temple. James studied and recited his
lesson. The boy is pl ayful and happy. The man worked diligently and faithfully. Samuel works, but Charles plays. William will go to New York or Philadelphia.
1. Into how many simple sentences may the first compound sentence be r esolved ? What are they? What word connects them? What part of speech
is it? Why?

2. Of what two sim!'l 3 sentences is the second exercise composed? What
words are :t!ikc in the two? Are these words r epeated in tho compound sentence? Wh:tt conjunction is used in the sentence?
DIRECTION.

.J.sk similar questions, 4-c.

Extend the exercise in the Readers,

if

necessary.

What is a simple sentence? What is a compound sentence? What are the parts of a
cow1JOund se ntence en. lied ? 1Vhat is u. word used to connect simple sen tences called ?

2*

18

1~

INTRODUCTION TO COMMON-SCHOO L GR.A.MM.A.R.

INTRODUCTION T<;> . QO:ijMON-SC!JOQL G~.1\14MA;R.

EXERCISES.

30. The RELATlVE PRONOUN is the gmmmat.ical equivalent of a
noun and conjunction; us, HerA is the horse which father ha~
rought; tlmt is, which is equivalent to "and him" ; us, Here is the
horse, 11ud him father h11s bought.
·

In each of the following exercis es connect the simple s t-m t enc f.~ lr]J
conjunr tions, without unneces8arlly repeating the words common to both, and e.xlcnd
the exerciu. on lit e blackboard or slate, an d in reading-books.
1
D mECTIOX.

It rained yesterdtty. It snows to-day.-The man was learn ed.
· '.I.'he man was not contented. -The horse went to drink. The cow
went to drink.- The father sat on th e doorstep. The son sat on
the ground. - James came home late. John came home late.
D11tECT1ox.

T ell the conjunction, and what it co nnects, in each of the following

e:rercises.

J ohn and James went to Boston. John or J am es went to
Boston. Not John, but J am es, we nt to Boston. J am es, and
not John, went to Boston. The man was good and great. The
man was good or great. The man was good, but not great.
John studied well and faithfully. I saw John and James.' I
saw not J ohn nor James. I saw John or J ames. I saw not
John, but James. John reads and writes. John reads or writes.

A PHRASE consists of t'l1"o or more words modifying some part
of a sentence, assuming rather than asserting, and consequ ently
not havin g a subject and predicate, which 11re the essential p11rts
of 11 clause ; us, Men of wealth should give with great liberality =
·wealthy men should give very liberally. Here the first phrase is
equivalent to an ad)ective; the second, to an adverb. The mun was
rcmarlrn.blefor strict integrity andfor great industry . Here the two
phr11ses are connected by the conjunction " and."
28. REirArtKS. The parts of speech already enumerated comprise all tho
gra.mmn.tical functions of words, as used in forming sentences. Besides these,
however, there arc certain classes which, while they possess no new gra.tnma.tical power, do not answer completely tho definitions of those we h:we namcu. '

29. The PER SONAL PRONOUN, for example, is merely 11 substitute
for 11 noun, with no funct ion peculiar to itself, but capable of being
u8ed in the same relations as the noun. It differs from the noun
only in not being the name of an object; as, John lost his ball=
John lost J ohn 's ball.
" ·hat is a phrase?
vruuouu a ::;ulJ::Litut.c?

How docs a phrase differ from a clause? For what is the personal

31. The ARTICLE enters Into the construction as a limiting adjective. Only a or an, and the, are called .ARTICLES; as, a horse , an
egg, the boy.
32. ADJECT IVE PRONOUNS perform the gramm11tic11l function of
an 11djective, and , with one or two exceptions, may be used, by
ellipsis, in the rel11tion of nouns, us most adjectives · m11y; as, Some
boys will learn, 11nd some will not.
33. So with the PARTICIPLE. It is sometimes used as an element
in the formation of 11 verb; sometimes as 11n adjective; 11nd sometimes as a noun, without losing its governing power as a form of the
verb; as, Virtu e will be rewarded. The gentleman seeing me, came
and spoke of meeting you.
34. The INTERJ ECTION is an 11brupt exclamation, used to express passion or emotion . In the early development of 111nguage it expressed,
perhaps, what now requires a subject 11nd predicate. It embodied
th e _thought, and w11s 11n undeveloped sentence. It is 11 condensed
substitute for a sentence, and gener111ly a comment11ry on the succeeding sentence; as, Alas! the remedy c11me too lute. Gramm11tically it is not considered as connected with other words. Still it
has 11 logic11l dependence, though no r ecognized gr11mmatic11l relation .
RtrnAnK. Though these classes involve no new grammatical functions or
relations, yet a few exercises will assist the pupil in r ecognizing them.

EXERCISES ON THE PERSONAL PRONOUN.

The book belongs to J ames, for he bought it. F ather gave a
sled to the boys, and they thanked him for it. Harry bought
skates for his sister, and gave them to her. William gave a
book to Mary, 11nd she read it.
Of what is the relati ve pronoun an equivalent? How does the article enter into the
construction of a. sentence 1 What grammatical function do adjective pronouns perform 1
llow may they be used ? In what is the participle used as nn element ? In what otht: r
,,. rclatious i~ it used with governing power ? For what is the iut.erjt:ction used?

20

('

INTRODUCTION TO COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

,, .

,•
1

·'·

'

In the first example, what word is used to represent "James"? Ilow do w~
avo id the repetition of "book"? What word is substituted for "book"?
Wh11t iuc these substitutes call ed?
Dm ECTION. L et the p1ipil point out the personal pronouns in the other exercises
an d l cll wha t cuch is su.bsti t utedfor.

TOWER'S

'l'hc teacher r.an e:i: tentl t his exercise by letting the pupil jind examples in his
"!leader," and aualyze them as above j or by requiring exa111]1lcs to be put on the
blackboard , and analyzed by a class ; or each pupil may prepare exercises on his
$[at e, illustrating !tis daily l esson.

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.
EXERCISES ON RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

Here is the man who saved the boy's life. Here is the house
in which John lives. There is the girl whose bonnet was lost. '
John sold the horse which father had bought. Find the ball
that was lost.
What word is u sed, in the fir st example, to avoid the repetition of the word
" man "? IIow would the sentence ren.d by inserting "and he,7' instead of .
"who"? I s "who" substituted for a connectiv e as well as for the noun ~
I
'' ma.n"? What is" who" co.lied? What two clauses does it connect?
DmECTION. L et the pupil point ou t the relative pronouns in the other exercises, .:.
and t ell for what each is substituted, and what clauses it connec ts .

35. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. is the art of speaking and
writing the English language correctly, according to
established usage.
REArARK.
In all cases where usage is fully established by the best contemporary writers, its decisions are law. When, however, good use is divided,
that form should have the preference which is most in conformity with
·analogy.

36. Grammar includes Orthoepy, Orthography, Ety- .
· mology, Syntax, and Prosody.
37. Orthoepy treats of the elementary sounds of
R EJIARK 1. Thus far we have found the NOUN and VERn to be ·
the principal or essential parts of a sentence. Among the subordi- )
the language, and their combination in spoken word;:;. ·
nate parts, were numbered the ADJECTIVE modifying the noun, the
· 38. Orthography treats of letters, and their com,biADVERB modifying the verb, the CONJUNCTION connecting the parts
nation
in written words.
of a sentence, aud the PREPOSITION showing the relation of words.'-', ti
39. Etymology treats of the classification of words,
2. 'l'hese PARTS OF SPEECH, six in number, perform all the grammati cal functio ns of the English sentence. Outside of the sentence, r, ' and ·of the changes made in their forms.
grnmmaticaJly, stands the INTERJECTlON. Within the sentence, the
, , 40. Syntax treats of the grammatical connection of
AltTI CLE performs the office of an adjective, and the PRONOUNS are
words, p~rases, and clauses, in sentences.
sub~titutcd for nouns.
41. Prosody treats of the quantity of syllables, of
accent, and versification.
" 'hat two parts of speech coustitute the principal parts of a sentence? What the sub- ~
This exercise rnay be extended by rec ourse to the Reader, slate, and blackboard,
at th e will of the teacher.

ordirnuc? \Vh a.t parts of speech perform all the grammatical functions in a sentence r
\Vhat parts of speech are used in the relation of others, without developing any new

gnunmatical function 1 \Vhat one is uot gramma.tica.lly connected with a sentence r
.. J

'

What is English Grammar? What does grammar include ? Of what does Orthoi'py
treat? Of what does Orthography treat? Etymology? Syntax 1 Prosody?

(21)

f,

22

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

It is the province of the spelling-book to teach Ortho~raphy;
and Orthocpy is best learned in connection with reading exercises. It seerm
unnecess,,,ry, therefore, to treat of them, in a work of this kind, except so fa1
as they a re related to Prosody.
REMaRK.

\I

ETYMOLOGY.
42. A word that will form the subject of a sentence,
and is the name of an object, is a NOUN; as, Man, tree.
REl!ARK.
A noun may be the name of an object perceptible to
the senses ; as, Horse, tree, man;- or the name of any object of
which we can have an idea or conception; as, Goodness, vice,
intemperance.

43. A PRONOUN is a word used as a substitute for a '
noun; as, John has lost his book.
A personal pronoun shows, by its form, the person it represents.
REMARK 1. The pronoun is not a name, and yet may be used in any
relation of which the noun is susceptible. This is true of the personal pronouns, and, with some few exceptions, of the other classes.
z. Those of the first and second persons, r epresenting the names of t~e
persons speaking, and spoken to, both of wl:om are pr~sent in spoken discourse, are consequently in little danger of bemg used with a doubtful reference.
.,
3. The chief care in the use of the pronoun should be, that the hearer or _,
reader may find no difficulty in determining the noun for which it stands;
and this caution is needful chiefly in the use of the relatinJ pronouns and the
third person of the personal pronouns.

COMMON AND PROPER NOUNS.

Ai though

all nouns are names, yet some are much less definit~ in
their application than others. The noun man, for example, is a
name by which we distinguish rational animals from _the brute
creation, but is of no use in distinguishing individuals of the same
species.
The noun city is a name which may be applied to any one
class of towns, while Boston is the nam0 of a particular city.
What is a noun l Of what kind of objects may a noun be the name l What is a .pro

nounl

COMMON-SCHOOL

GRA¥1!f.A.~_.

23

The fact tbat there is a Boston in Rngla.nd, as well as in MaBm,chusetts, or that there are several individuals who have a.n equal
_right to the name of John, or John Smith, does not prevent us frqm
regarding these nouns a.s a distinct class, tiince they do not receivj'l
these names as the result of a process of generalization, but arbitrarily. vVhenever it is necessary to distinguish between objects
bearing the same individual n~mes, we do it by such limitations as
are found necessary. 'fhus, if we would distinguish between the
two places above named, we should write Boston, Mass., and Boston,
Eng. So, also, where several have the name John; one may be
· J ohn Smith, and another John Brown; and, if there happen to
be more than one John Smith in a certain locality, they may easily
' be distinguished as senior, junior; or first, second, third, &c. In
this case, the addition may be regarded as a part of the name.

44~ Oo1isidered with reference to this distinction,
nouns are divided into common and proper.
45. A common noun is a name which may be applied
·to any individual of a class of objects; as, .A.nimal,
man, river, mountain.
46. A proper noun is a name appropriated to an
. individual object; as, Daniel Webster, New York,
Massachusetts.
REMARK 1. It follows, from the definition of a proper noun, that
it must be in the singular number.
.

2. A noun naturally proper sometimes takes a plural termina1tion, and becomes a common noun.

, 47. A proper noun should always begin with a cap·
: ital letter; as, James, Albany.
48. Adjectives, derived from proper nouns, and com,. mon nouns formed from those adjectives, should begin
with capitals; as, English, Englishman.
HO\v are nouns divided? What is a common noun 7 What is a proper noun 7 How
.. should a proper noun ahvays begin? What adjectives and common nouns should begin
. with capitals 1

•

24

COMMDN·SCHOOL

EXERCISES.
Dm ECTJON. Tell which are proper nouns, and which common, in the followina,
list , and why . Also write the vroper nouns on your slate, beginning each with a
:apital.

Sled, john, spain, tree, wisdom, charles, man, andes, americ~!
teacher, sarah, savannah, mary, anna, chicago, pupil, book, irish1
irishmen, alabama.
DIRECTION.

The above list should be extended, if n eceS&ary.

ABSTRACT

25

GRAMMAR~

NOUN~.

In the first, the crew is spoken of as a unit, constituting the force
by which the ship was managed. In. the second, reference is had to
the individuals constituting that force.
· They differ from a common noun !Ii this; that while a ~ommo~
noun is the name of each individual composing that class, a qollective noun is the name only of the collection, and not of t!ie' 'indi·
·
viduals composing it..
Thus, the term man includes all mankind, and may be applied
each individual composing the class. The term senate,: on the -contrary, cannot be applied to each member. A member of the senate
is a senator.

to

' 50. A COLLECTIVE noun is a name,· which, -though
it is in the singular form, ·denotes more than orie ; as,·
~enate, school, flock, assembly, 9ompany, jury.
-REMARK.
It should be observed, that these distinctions of common, proper,
abstra ct, and collective, are not aJ.l formed on the same principle of divi sion.

Thus, an abstract nouu is generally r eckoned as a common noun also ; while
a. collective noun may be common ; as, Army, - or proper ; as, Congress.

EXERCISES.
DIRECTION.

Let the pupil tell the class or classes to which each of the following:

no>-1ns belongs.

Englishmen, army, uprightness, New York, city, softness,
Afabama, knife, freedom, Washington, party, family, snow, .
greatness, holiness, equality, harshness, cart, meekness, desk,
mountain, sweetness, William, school, class.
There is a class of nouns which deserve consideration from the'
fact that, though in the singular form, they may be used in either
number, yet not without reference to tho sense. 'rhcy are called
collective nouns, and are to be regarded as singular or plural according as they are used collectively or individually.
Sometimes we may use them either as singular or pltiral, and
convey essentially the same idea; as, 'f h e crew was saved; or, The
crew were saved. These two sentences express the same proposition,
nnd are equally correct grammatically.

51. Gender is a distinction of nouns with regard. to
sex.

'Vhat is an abstract noun ? ·

What is"" ~ollective µolll! 1 . :W.h.atis,gender 1

GENDER.
": Every noun is the name of a male being, a female, or of an object
which is of neither sex.
' On this distinction is founded gender.

3

26

27

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

52. A noun which is th e name of a male is of tbe
rnascul·ine gender ; as, JJ1an, boy, represented by the.
personal pronouns, he, his, him, or himself; as, The
ambition of George led him to persevering efforts, and
he has n ow attained his object . .
53. A noun which is the name of a female is of the
feminin e gender ; as, Woman, girl, r epresented by the
personal pron ouns, she, her, or herself; as, Anna was
pleased with her skates, and she is novv on the ice.
54. li. noun which is the name of an object neith er
male nor female is of the neuter gender ; as, Table,
boolc, represented by the personal pronouns, it, its, or
itse?f; as, The boat with its new oars is now ready fo r
Charles to try it.

57. Other nouns 11rc common to both sexes; 11s, Cousin, child,
. parent, bird .

RE~rARIL
In the English lan guage we have nothing, or very little, of
what may be called grammatica l gender, depending on inflexions. The a rticle and adjective no _longer agree with the noun in gender ; .and, for gramm atical purposes it is neccsso,ry to mo,ke this distinction, only so far as is
requisite to represent nouns of the third person, singular, by their approprioto
pcr.:;onal pronouns; as, l\1nsculine, he, his, him, himself; - Feminine, she, her,
herself ; - N cuter, it, its, itself.

RE"AllK 1. Tho gender of these is sometimos determined by the personal
,p,ronoun by which they are represen ted ; a•, llfy oousin h11s sold hU. horse.
Your cousin has loft her school. Or, by an adje.ctive; as, A male child - a
fem"lo chi ld.
2. If the noun is in the pl urn!, it may include either or both sexes, without any danger to grammatical accuracy, since the plural form of the personal
pronoun is the same in each gender.

EXERCISES.
T ell the gende1 of the following nouns, and what personal pronouns
will represe nt each .
DIRECTION.

Boy, sister, brother, knife, mother, husb11nd, p11rent, chair.
child, bird, son, babe, sled, friend, uncle, dog, hat, scholar, table,
neighbor, floor, student, 111mp, goodness, cousin, iron, b11ll, nephew,
aunt, cart, witness, girl, guardian, niece, boot, serv11nt.
3. A pronoun of the masculine gender is used to represent one of a company composed of hath sexes; as, in a school of boys and girls, we say, "Let
ouch pupil study his lesson."
4. The pronoun "it" is used to represent a young child, or any animal
whoso sex is unknown to us ; as, I saw tho child us it slept quietly in its cradle. Tho h>Lre is hunted for its flesh.
5. The pronoun" it" is often used irrespeotive of gender, espcsially when

55. There 11rc 11 few nouns which [I.re still used, more or less genemlly, with [I. masculine or feminine termin[l.tion to denote sex; 11s,
Actor - 11ctres ; instructor - instructress; 11dministrator - administrntrix.
56. In some cases the distinction of sex is m11de by the use of
difforent words.
Thus, son and d[l.ughter indicate the s11me relation, 11nd c11rry
with them, also, the sex of the person n11med.

6. An animal of superior strength or courage is often represented by a
pronoun of tho masculine gender ; but " delicate or timid animal, hy one of
the feminine gender ; as, The elephant raised his trunk. Go to the ant, thou

'Yhen is a noun of the mascul ine gender? What forms of the personal pronoun are
masculine? "\Vhen is a uoun or the f~minine gentler? \Vhat fol'ms of th e personal pro~
noun arc feminine? \Vhcn is a noun of the neuter gentler? " ·hat forms of the personal
])ronoun represent _a n object of the ne uter gender? How far cl o we apply the di stinction
of gender grnmm nt ically ? Do nouns ever vary th ei r termination to denote sex?
au instance. In what other way is difference of sex denoted 1 Give an example.

Give an example of nouns common to both sexes. How is the gender of these sometimes detcrmineLl? I s it necessary to regard gender in the plural? What pronoun is
used when both sexes are employed? Bow is the pronoun "it" used? llow is "it"
used when introductory? What distinction is founded on the qualities of animals? \Vha.t

introductory ; as, It was he; it was she ; it was you; it was John ; it was
Jane; it was a horse; it was the lwuse; it is a table; it is o. woman.

sluggard ; consider her ways, and be wise.

7. When an inanimate object is personified ; that is, spoken of as possessing some attribute of a living being, it is represented hy a pronoun of the masculine gender, if its peculiar characteristic is power, strength, or sublimity ; hut,

t>rououn is usccl in personification 1

..
28

29

COJ\IMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR:·

COMMBN-SCHOOL GRA1if /t!,\:R;

if it is beauty, weakness, or delicacy, by one of the feminine gender, as appears
in the following examples; as, Anger, death, despair, fear , revenge, g'uri;
time, winter, war, &c. , rnaticuUne; :1nd earth, cheerfulness, fortune, hope; ·
~ ~lancholy, moon , music, n at111·e, p ea.cc, pity, Mhip, spring, wisdom., &c. ,jem.znzne; as, '.J;he sun was shorn of his beams. 'l'ho moon sheds her mild ra.diance
d own.
Grim- visa.god war ha.th smoo thed his wrinkled front. Next nnyi;
rushed , his eyes on fire. ll opc, ench anted, smilod, and wnNed her gulden.
hair. F irst fear, his ha.nd, &c. ' Vhen music , heavenly maid, was young.
R evenge impatient rose ; he th rew hUi bloodstciined sword in thunder down,
Clteerfulness, a nymph of healthiest hue,

"'' A few nouns have the termination " ·ess " added to form the fominino ; as,
~uthor, ba ron, count, deacon, dauphin, giant, heir, host, Jew, lion, mayor,
.!J'ltrou, peer, poet, priest, prior, prophet, shepherd, tailor, tutor, viscount.

8. Gender, as previously stated and illustrated, is oxpressed in several'
ways.
l lirst. By different words ; as,
l'-lascu line. Feminine.
Dachelor,

Ilcau,
Boy,
Brother,
Buck,
Bul1,

{M aid.
Spinster.

llelle.
Girl.

Sister.
Doc.
Cmv.

Dullock, }
Steer

Heifer.

Colt,

~' ill y .

Drake,
E arl,

Duc k.
Countess.

Se~ond.

!tfasculine . Feminine.
:Father,
Mother.
Friar, }
Mon k,
Gander,
Gentleman,
Lord,
H art,
Horse,
Husband,
K ing,
Lad,
Man,

F eminine.

Abbot,
A ctor,
Aliministrator,
Arbiter,
Benefactor,
llridegroom,
Chanter,
Conductor,

Abbess.
Actress.
Admin istratrix.
At·bitre ss.
Benefactress.
Bride.
Chant rcss.
Conductress.
Doctress.
Doctoress.
Donna.
Duchess.
Edi tress.

Don,
Duke,
E lli tor,
Elector,
Emperor,

J

Feminine.

Master,
N ep hew,
Pa.pa,

Mis tress.
Niece.
Mam ma.

Goose.

Ram,}

Lady.

Buck,

Ewe.

~ch oolmaster ,

Roe.
l\lare.

Wife.
Queen.
La ss.
Woman.

Si r,
Sloven,
Sun,
Stag,
Uncle,
YVizn.rd ,

Schoolmistress.
~lad am.

Slut.
Daughter.
H ind
Aunt.

Witch.

ny difference of tc rmin,.tion ; as,

ftlasculirie .

Doctor,

Nun.

1'fasculine.

f

l~ J cct r ess.

l:mpress.

JJ[ascu.lin e. Feminine. Ma sculine.
E nchanter,
Executor,
F ouude1-,
God,
Goodman,
Governor,
H ero,
H unter,
I dolater,
Instructor,
Inventor,
Landlord,
Landgr<l.vc,
Hargrave ,
l\larquis,

Feminine.

Enchantress. l\louitor,
Monitress.
Executrix.
N egro,
N egress.
Foundress.
Ogre,
Ogress.
Golldess.
P orter,
P o1·tress.
Goody .
Prince,
PrinCess.
G:werness.
Protector,
Protcctress.
Heroine.
Songster,
Songstress
Huntress.
~ Sulta.na.
Sultan,
I dolatress.
Su ltaness.
Instructress. T estator
Testatrix.
Inventress.
Tiger,
Tigress.
Landla<ly.
'fra ito r,
~'l'a itr ess.
Landgravine. Victo r,
Victress.
l\Iar~ra.vine.
Votary,
Vota.ress.
Marchioness. Widdwer,
·widow, &c.

J
What arc some of th e worth; that retain theit' original gentle r ? What is the first mode ,j
of t.listiubuishing gcmler ? The second r

Third. By prefixing different words, significant of sex'; as, H ebcar, she-bear ; he-goat, she-goat; mankind, womankind; manse1·rant, maid-servant; male child, female child, &c.
., JlEMA.RK. Some words used in the feminine havo no corresponding word
for the masculine ; ns, Amazon, brunette, dressmaker, dowager, launrlress,
111antua-ma ker, milliner, seamstress, shrew, syren, virago, vixen, &o.

NUMBER.
A noun, in its simple form, is the name of a single object; but
most nouns, by a change of form, express more than one; as, Boy,
boys; child, children. This distinction gives rise to number, as a
property of nouns.

58. Number is that distinction of nouns by which
they express one object, or more than one ; as, Apple,
apples.
59. There are two numbers, singular and plural.
60. The singular number expresses unity; as, Apple,
man, box.
R EMARK. P ersonal pronouns have appropriate forms to represent nouns in
the singular; as, I, my, mine, me, myself; thou, thy, thine, thee, thyself;
· yourself ; he, his, him, himself ; she, her, h erself; · it, its, itself.

61. The plural number expresses plurality; as, Apmen, boxes.

ple~,

P ersonal pronouns have appropriate forms to represent nouns in
as, We, our, us, ourselves; ye, yourselves; they, their, them,
You, and your, are common to both numbers.
'Vha.t is the third
the femin ine only ?
ber l 'VIHl.t a.re the
ber 1 What are the
la each number 1

mode of expressing gender? What are some of the words used in
·w ha.t i~ numb-J r as applied to nouns f What is the singular numsingular forms of the personal pronouns? "\Vhat is the plural manplural forms of the persona.I Ilrououns ? What two forws are alike,

3*

30

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

comrnN-SCIIOOL GRAMMAR.

Nouns ending in o, preceded by a consonant, generally add .es

62. Most nouns form their plural by adding " s "
"es" to tlH~ singular; as, Girl, girls; bush, bushes.
RE1fARK

in the plural; ns, H ero, heroes ; wu, woes.

l. It m::iy be stated, generally, that the terminatioi;i,

"s" is tLdded wh en it readily coalesces with the proooding letterg:
If, however, the singular end in the sound of " s,'' or a modification of" s,'' tlrnt is , z, sh, ch, j, or x, the plural forms an additional'
syllable in" es,'' prono unced" ez"; as, Maze, mazes; sa<ib, sashes;
badge, b;ttlges; ch urch, chur ches; box, boxes.
But, if ch lms the sound of k, "s" only is added; as , Monarch,
monarchs.
2. Common nouns ending in "y " preceded by a
change "y " to " i " ::ind add " es" ; as, Fly, flies; lady, lad ies.

3. Other nouns ending in" y "have the regular plural; as, Day;
days; chimney, chimneys.
4. Some noun s, ending in "f" or " fe" form their plural bf
changing "f" to "ve," :incl adding the regubr termination;
Loaf, lotwcs; wi fe, wives.

,,

In these nouns, whi ch are generally of .Anglo Saxon origin, "f" ~
commonly preceded by ::t long vowel.
·
NoTE.

E XCEPTI O~'S .

o preceded by a vowel, generally haves only;
folios ; cameo, cameos.
. 9. Proper nouns, when made plural and no longer appropriated
to an individual, become common nouns, and have s only addud.
1
,
10. Man has men for its plural; so, too, its compounds. But
talisman, Mussulman, which are not compounds, have s in the
plural.

11. The most common irregular formations are the following;
1"oman, women ; child, children ; ox, oxen ; foot, feet ; tooth, tee th ;
goose, geese; mouse, mice; penny, pence, but pennies (meaning
pieces of co in); brother, brothers (of the same family), brethre:1
(of the same association); die, dies (used to stamp with), di ce (uRed
in playing ga.mes) ; genius, geniuses (humttn beings), genii (inrnginary beings); index , indexes (tables of contents), indices (Algebrnic
signs), &c.

DIRECTION.

Staff sometimes has staves, though

r egular plural.

1

6. Those formations which we call irregular, as, foot , feet; chqd,
children ; ox, oxen, &c., were regu lar plurals of certain declensions
in Anglo Saxon, and are now contiidered irregular, because, wit.h:
the severa.l declensions, the processes by whi ch those plurals
formed arc no longer in force.

How <l o mos t. nou ns form their plural ? When is only "s" added?
plural form a.n n.dditi ona l sy llilble? 'Vhen a noun ends in the sound of k, how is the...
plura.l formed? Il ow do nouns cmling in '' y " form the plural? Nouns in hf" or "fe "l
" 'hat except.ions? N ouns in "tfl'? 'Vhat cxccptiou? 'Vlia.t. formations are caUed
irregular?

:;s. Nouns , ending in

't8• Folio,

EXERCISES.

5. Nouns ending in "ff" haves only in th e plural ;
muff's .
ExcEPTt ONS.

ExCEPTIONS. Ca nto, grotto, junto, portico, solo, ha.lo, octavo, quarto, zero,
tjro, meruento, two ; and, with regard to some others, u sn.~e is divided.

ief or

oof j also, safe, fife, str ife,
scarf; gulf, turf, surf, ttLko sonly in tho plum!. Wharf haH s or ves.
N ouns ending in

31

Write the plurals of the following nouns on tlrn slate.

, Chair, table, fox, dish, arch, judge, sire, ark, tetrarch, birch,
letter, boy, cry, story, way: knife, strife, life, mischief, root,
~clief, rep roof, safe, gulf, reply, relay, ruff, flagstaff, goose, hoof,
grief, coach, tax, horse, beauty, key, valley, cherry, tooth, woman,
'potato, echo, zero, studio.
,J

, 12. A, letter or fi gure is made plural by adding an apostrophe
'lfld "s;" as, 3 x's, 5 a's, two \J's, the i's, and the t's, mind your
:e~s and q's.
13. Other par ts of speech, used as nouns, when they have a plural, form it regu brly ; as, the ofs and the furs, the ups and the
qowns, the ins and the outs.
: Bow do nouns in

o form Urn plural? What exceptions? Proper nouns? Give some

d lhe irregular formt\tions.

Jlow is a lette r or figure made plural ? How arc other part.a

of speech, when used as nouns, made plural ?

32

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

14. Some nouns arc soldom used except in the singular. These
are generally th e names of things that m:i.y be weighed or measured,
or rnunes of qu:i.llties ; as, Sugar, coffee, wine, rum, corn, whei1tj
fl our, bre:id, wi::> uom , gootlncss, temperance, brightness. In spe~~;
ing of different kinus, a plnrnl is so metimes used; as, Sugars, toa_s,
colfoes, flou rs, wines. There is a great difference in sugars.
'

, Nom. Though this is general usage, yet we sometimes find the Misses
Porte r, or tho Misses Porters. Tho first id equivalent to tho "Misses." by the
n<L a10 of "Porter" ; and in the latter case " Porters" may bo parsed in apposition with "Misses." Even in the latter instances, it would be better to
<ionsider the two words as one name or phrase. The" Messrs Hunter" is frequently used.

15. Some nouns have only th e plural form; as, Annals, archives, ashes, assets, bitters, calends, clothes, dregs, eaves, embers,
entrails, fili ngs, goggles , goods, ides, lees, letters (meaning !item±
turc), mann ers (me:ming behavior), literati, min utire, morals,· nip.
pern, nones, nupti,tls, orgies, pincers, pinchers, pliers, politics1,
scissors, shambles, shem·s, snuffers, staggers, thanks, tidings, tongs;:
tweezers, vespers, victuals, vitals, &c., and the following articles of>
dress , nam ely: hose, drawers, p[Lntaloons, trousers.

·. 20. In speaking of copartnerships, and of two or more individµals holding office under the same official name, the title is made
plural; as, Messrs. Bates and Co., Messrs. Crosby, Nichols and Co.,
, Judges Mars·h all and Jay, Generals vVashington and Knox, Bishops
:White and Griswold, Lords Napier and Nelson. Here the names
are in apposition with -the title. But the title and names together
CQnstitute a phrase, and should be parsed as such.

lG. Words composed of a noun and the adjective full drop one
"1," and have th e rcg nbr plural; as, Handful , handfuls; mouthful, mouthfuls; pailful, pailfuls; spoonful, spoonfuls.
·
17. In compounus, generally, the principal word takes the" s " !
for the plum!, tholtgh the [Lpostrophe and " s" for the possessive
case sing ubr are [Lnnexed to the end of the compound; as, Court-·
martial, cou rts-martial, possessive court-marshal 's ; father-in-law,; ,
fathers-in-law, father-in-hiw's. So, too, cousin-german, knight-errant, son-in-bw, daughtcr-in-hw, ship-of-war, &c.
1

18. vVords compounded of two nouns, where one is used really as
an >idjedirn, add " s " to the last ; as, Night-steed, night-steeds; :
tide-waiter, water-b[Liliff, man-trap, mouse-trap, steam-engine, &c..,
19. A proper name, with a t itle prefixed, takes the plural form:,
to itself; as, '!'he Miss Porters; the Mr. Hunters. Here the ti~le
:ind name together as a phrase take the plural at the end of the;
phrase; as, ono Miss Porter, two :Miss Porters, &c. One l\1r.
Hunter, three Mr. Hunters.
' Vhat nouns have only th e singular form? Wh at nouns have only the plural form?
H ow· do compounds of a noun and th e adj ective f1lll fo rm their plural? 'What i_s the if
general rul e for compounds? ' Vlmt is it. where one noun is used as an adjective? Wbat
1
is the rule for a proper name wi th a. titl e l

- ,.

33

21. Some nouns, without change of form, are used in both numbers ; as, Deer, sheep, trout, salmon, series, species, amends, news,
means, alms, p[Lins, riches, bellows, gallows, odds, wages . · Also,
the names of sciences; as, 1Esthetics, ethics, mathematics, metaphysics, pneuru[Ltics. So, too, statistics, hysterics, &c.
22. Pains, modified by the adjective much or great, is singular,
and is used as synonymous with effort. Billiards, the name of a
game, is singular.
23. Usage is inclined to consider those words plural that have a
plurnl termination .
' 24. The words cannon, C[Lttle, he[Ld, pulse, sail, shot, weight,nlso, bodies of soldiers, [LS, cavalry, foot, horse , infantry, - though
singlllar in form, are often used in the plural; as, 1'wenty he[Ld of
l~ttle, six C[Lnnon, thirty sail of vessels.
' 25. Some word8 have two forms for the plural; as, He counted
six dozen; he counted them by dozens .
213. Many words from other languages retain their original
plurals.

Is any other form usc<l?

How is lhe plural of copartnerships form ed?

'Vhat nouns

ha Ye the same form in both numbers ? What is snitl of the w ord "pain s" ? Of u billiards " 1 'niat is general "usage" as to plurals? ' Vhat singular forms arc often used io
the plural without change ? What is said of two forws for the plural? What is said of
'l'Ocds from other languages?

-34

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

COMMON-SCHOOL 'G RHrMAR.

1. The following change is into es: Ama nuensis, analysis, anti~hcsi si ~ xis,
ha.sis, crisis, di oorcsis, ellipsis, emphasis, hypothesis, metamorphosis, oasis,
.~ '! ")
pn.rcntbc sis, phnsis, thesis ; and lgnis fn.tuus hn.s ·ignes fo.tl1i.

;:;~,63. Person mark~ the dis.tinction - of nouns ' consid~
ered as roprcsenting the i;peaker, the person _spoken to,
'o;; the object sp oken of.

2. The foll owi ng cha nge us into i: Alumnus, focus, magus, radius, stimt.V
lu s. F ungus, besides its orig inal plural in i, h!1S the regular English plu.rnl;
ns, F ung us, fu ngi or funguses.
3. The foll owing change um into a: A nimalculum, arcanum, datum, d~Siri
eratum, effluvium , errntum, speculum, stratum. But encomium, gymnasifun,
med ium, memoran dum, momentum, and sch olium, in addition to their dei;iy.~~
plural, haven. regular plural ins; us, Med ium, media, mediums.
, 'T

4. The fo ll owi ng c han ge a into c.e : la mina, larva, nebula, scoria.

h as, besides, the regular E nglish plural.

Form~\~
·. i!l'J

5 . The fo ll ow ing c h a n g e on into a : A utomaton, criterion, phenomenon;
besides, the fi rst t wo have the regular plural.

...

G. Miasma has miasmata, and dogma has dogmata and dogmas.

.-11

7. The foll owi ng have only the original plural : Chrysalis, chrysalides'J
eph emeris, ephe merides ; v ortex, vortices ; g e nus, genera. ; l\.'I onsieur, M 'e'ii
sieurs ; virtuoso, v irtuos i.

8. The following h :we, in addition to the original plum!, th e r egular Eng'!
lish plura.l :
···r&
Cherub,
Seraph,
Apex,
Appendix:,

ch crn l>i m,
seraphim,

cheru bs.

apices,

apexes.
appendixes.

a ppend ices,

Cab.-,
Stam en,
llcau,
Band it,

calees,
stamina,

calxes.:!J
stameµs.. ·

beau x,
baml ilti,

beaus.
ba n<lits '.1!.

,4

27. The pro nou n " it, " as in troductory, is often used indefinitely,
irrespecti ve of number; as, It was y ou; it was they ; it was weekJ
and months before we heard from them; it was th e hard times th~~
did it; it is the hearts of the people th11t must first be gained.
P ERSON.
I~

1)

All discourse implies a speaker, one spoken to, ar.d somethin
spoken of; 11nd on this is based the distinction of person, ·as ·d''.
·" ot
plied to nouns.
)Vhat is th e plural of crisis ? Of ign is fatnu s ?
f u ngu s ? \VJrnt is the plura.l of datum ? - erratum?
besides, l11e r eg ul ar plmal in s ? 'Yha t is the plural of lam ina? - f ormula l w.
is the plura l of phenomenon.? - of automaton a.nd crit erion? ·what is the plura~
miasma? - of dogma? \Vha t is the plural of chrysalis ? &c. 'Vlmt n.re the two pl
forms of cherub ? - !:ICraph , &c ? How is th e pronouu h it" often. used, when introductol'J

di u s? -

35

1
;

'64. There are three persons, namely: first, second,
third.

~p.d

,o.65. l. The first person represents the person spe11king; as, I,
John, was in the isle that is called Patmos.
.R ElrAn1c
Personal pronouns have forms appropri11ted to each person.
Tbe. form s of the first person are, - I, my, mine, me, myself·, we our us

'

\)Urselves.

1'

'

( 'I·:·

2. The second person represents the person spoken to; as, Thou
Charles, go home. '!.'he forms fo;:- per'¥lp,al prononns of the second person are, Thou, thy, thine, thee,
l~yself, you, your, yourself; you, your, yourselves, ye.
3. The third person represents the person spoken of; 11s, John baa
l~t his book. The form s for personal pronouns of the third pers on
are, He, his, him, him rnlf; she, her, herself; it, its, itself; they,
U1cir, them, themselves .
William, still art young.

"'RE>I A'RK.
The n oun undergoes no change of form, in tho different per90ns, and is rnrely, if e ver, used in the first person. The personal pronoun,
~owe vcr., as seen a bove, has a special form for each person.

,.
EXERCISES.

. 1

1

DIRECT!ON.

Tell the person o/ the nouns and pronouns in the following sentences.

The man has arrived. James has gone to Baltimore. I,
George Washington, devise and bequeath, &c. Boys, attend to
~~~r lessons. The horses run away. A good boy obeys his
~r.ents. Children, obey your parents. John, bring your books
to"me. The boys are slrnting. Charl es, you may be dismissed.
'W hat is based on this? What is person in nouns r
\Vhat is the first person? 'Vhat forms of the
:JerSOnal pronoun represent the firs t person singular? The first person plural? What
*iea the second p erson r epresent 1 What are the forms of the personal pronouns for the
-:Wha• <loes all discourse imply?

Jaw many persons are appli etl to nouns?

llCood person in both numbers ? What is the third person? What are the forms or the
fe{lonal pronouns for the third person ? ·Does the noun change in form on account oC

""°n

1

37

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR;

It>:M ARK. The pronoun "it," used ns introductory, is often indefinite, an~
irrespective of perso n ; as, It is J. It was thou. It is you. It is he. Joh?,
is it you? It was sho.

J.. saw the boy eating an apple. He went to New
York.
71. The nominative case denotes the r elation of the
subject; as, John runs. Blie walks.

36

CASE.

l 72. The possessive case denotes the relation of a
p'Jssessor ; as, William's hat. His bat.
~-·' 73. The obfective case denotes the relation of an obJ ect; as, I saw the boy. I saw him.

Nouns may sustain various r elations to the other words· in a
sentence.
._; ~
Thus, a noun may stn.nd as the subject of a sentence ; n.s, John
runs. Or it mn.y be the nn.me of an object which receives the
action expressed by the verb; as, I saw the man. 'rhere are, also.,
several other relations in which it mn.y be used.
Case of nouns is founded on this susceptibility of being used .iµ
different rebtions.

66. CASE denotes the relation which a noun or pronoun sustains to the words with which it is grammatically connected ; and is sometimes shown by its for~t·
67. There are three cases, namely : Nominative, Pol!;
'.1
sessive, and Objective.
68. A n oun used as the subject of a sentence, or in.
apposition with the subj ect, 01: in ~he_ predicate,. me~~­
ino·
the same thing as the subject, is m . the nommahve
b
case; as, Solon, the lawgiver, was a wise man.
·'•
69. A noun which directly limits another noun, ex·
pressing possession or something analogous, is iu.t_lw
possessive case ; as, This is William's hat. These a'rll
boys' sh oe~
.
1
70. A noun which is the direct object of a verb •.W'
participle, or indirectly limits a word with ·which ~Us '
connec ted by a preposition, is in the objective case ; ~§,

1. The noun has but two forms to. indicate case. The
'l'he possessive singular is the only modification in the form of the noun, to
.do,note its relation.
REMARK

~imple form being used in the nominative and objective.

•1 .2.

The pronoun generally exhibits the relations of case mw.ch
llfOre perfectly than the noun ; a peculiar form beirig used for each
"case. It is easy, co=only, to determine the case of a noun, by
·substituting a pronoun, which, with one or two exceptions, marks
the distinction between the nominative .a nd objective.
3. Forms of the pronoun, appropriated to the nominative case: I,
.we, thou, you, yourself, thyself, ye, yourselves, he, she, it, himself,
herself, itself, they, th emselves, who.

· fl

~

.

4. Forms of the pronoun, appropriated to the possessive case:
My, mine, thy, thine, your, his, her, its, our, their, and whose.
.,. 5. Forms of the pronoun, appropriated to the objective case: Me,
lmyself, us, ourselves, thee, thyself, you, yourself, yourselves, him,
ihimself, her, herself, it, itself, them, themselves, whom.

74. The possessive case, in the singular, is commonly
form ed by adding an apostrophe and " s " to the simple
"form; as, William's hat.
1

'Yhn.t is the nominative case? What is the possessive case~ What is the objective
Ilow many forms has the noun for case ? 'Vhat two cases have the simple form!
:.:..What case has a different form 1 How does the pronoun show case ? How can we com! ,IDonly determin e the case of a noun 1 What forms of the pronoun for the nnminative
..cue 1 Possessive 7 Obj ective 1 "\Yhat forms are alike in the nominative and objective?
-

n ow is the pronoun "it" often used when introd uctory?

I s there more than · ~

rehlti on that nouns can have to other wonl s in a sentence? "'What a.re some of these r~
lions 1 On what is case foumle<l ? 'Yhat is case? What are the three cases mentioned?
When is a. noun in the nom inative case? " 'hen is a noun in the possessive case? 'Vhtl

is a nou.n in the objective case ?

~ ta se?

llow is the possessive case singular formed? Spell the example.

4

I·

38

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMJII.A.R.

75. The possessive plural is commonly formed· from
the nominative plural by adding an apostrophe; ' as',
The boys' hats.
.:.i
r

1. ·when the plural is not regularly formed, the possessive
the a.pDstrophe and"' S"; as, rfhe children's toys ~

•

talti!s
i '.

-:d

2. ·when the simple form of the noun ends in " ss," the posse&sive singnbr is formed by adding an apostrophe; as, For goodne;J•
sake.
3. Sometimes, in the singular, to avoid an unpleasant successi?p
of hissing sounds, the apostrophe, only, is used; as, Moses' h~t·
For conscience' sake.
EXERCISES.
Dw.~CTIO"N.

TVrite the possessive case of thefollo-wing nouns in both numbers. i•

Boy, girl, woman, ox, duty, bush, tax, la.sh, church, box, arl~,
mon:nch, Judy, table, day, baby, fife, pony, birch, wife, gri~f,
kuifc, hoof, muff, distaff, hero, story.
MODEL.

J olm found his books.
This is a simple sentence, having "John" for its subject, and
" found" for its predicate; the essential or principal parts of 'tqe
sentence.
The svbordinate parts are" books," limiting" found," and sho1~- ·
ing what" John found," and" his," limiting" books,'' and showing
the owne1· of them.
"John" is a name, therefore a noun; a particular name, appr!)pria ted to an individual of a class, therefore a proper noun ; ni:inie
of a male, therefore masculine gender; denotes only one, therefore
sm:;ular number ; name of a person spoken ef, therefore thi·rd
pcr.;on.
How is the possessive plural formed? Spell the example. How is the possessive 'OC
irregular plurals formed? Spell the example. Bow is the possessive formed of singular
nouns in ss? Spell the example. In what other case is only the apostrOphe used ·7 SPcU_
the examples.

u 1 It is the subject of the, sentence,, t)lµ.t of. which ~omep.h~ngj~· as•
,
ii.e~·ted, therefore nominati~e.cfls~. .. . ': : . 1 " · .
' Asking the question, "Wl10 found his books?' ' a~d ~uJ:ist,itutiRV
a pronoun for " John," the answer will be, " I-le found· his books f"
;,~ince "he" is the form for the nominative case, ~h~refore,Jol;m Il).USt
be in the nominative, as it is in the same case-relation.
·
.
_, ,,"Found,'' the predicate of the s~n.te~ce, .o~e of the es~~ntial p:;irts,
,is used to assert something of" John 1'"therefore 'it is' ~ ~efi.b'. ' ·
' ~·,His" is a pronoun, s~bstituted for,; John" ·;' ·}Je~so'n~i, 'as"ithas
a special form to indicate the person; it has also the special fori:ii ..n'.ppropriflted to the masculine gender; singular number, and third per'so1i, to represent the noun "John"' in those particulars. · It has
the form of the possessive case; thus, " His books"='='" John's
books."
" Books " is a common rioun, a name applied to any of a class ;
destitute of sex, therefore of neither sex, that is, ii"euter gender;
-plural, denoting more than one; third person, name of an object
spoken of.

,its

When further advanced, the pupil may learn the cause of
being in the objective case. The fact may be learned by aski~g . tiie
que~tion, "Found what?" and a.n swering it by a personal pronoun. The form of the appropriate pronoun will show its case,
and consequently that of the noun . The ans,ver will be, ·" ,Found
.them." As " them " is the form of the pronoun appropriated to
,.tJ1e plural numb er, third p erson, and _objective ca~e, thercfo~e
"books,, must be in the objective case, since it has the same'' case_r,elation, thongh the noun has no special word-form fort.he obJe~tive.
0

FOIU£ FOR PARSING A NOUN".

... Tell the lcind of noun, and why; the gencler, numsber, and person, and why; also, the case, and
when
·the pupil's progress shall enable him to do so.

why,

l~OR~I

}<'OR PARSING A PRONOUN.

Tell the kind, and for what it is substituted; the
' number and person; and, if of the third person, sm
,.,

~

What is the form for par3ing; a noun 7 What f~r a

pronou~ 1

.. ,

40

41

.COMMON-:JCHOOL GRAMMAR.

COMMON·SCHOOV G'R'AM'1 MR.

gular 1 tell the gender, in which respects the substitute
must agree with what it represents, - and these are
generally indicated by a spec-fol form; and, lastly, the
case, also commonly known by the fo~·m.
1.

~\· 77. Declension of n ouns, and their appr.opriati;y · .p er,
sonal pronouns.

;\

NOUN.

ll

Proper, common, abstract, collective.
PrroPEHTIES. Gender, masculine, feminine, neuter. Numbe~,
singul:ir, plural. P erson. first, second, third. Case, nomiuativ'J,
)
possessive, objective.

,j.

SINGULAR.

Nom .,
Poss.,
Obj.,

man,
ma.n's,

man .

he,
his,
him.

lady,
lady's,
lady.

they,
their,
them.

ladies ,

she,
her,
her.

cargo,

cargo's,
cargo.

PLURAL.

KIND. -

![om.,

:f,qss .,

men,
n1en's,

Obj. ,

men.

ladie~:,

ladies.

it, "
its,
it.
;,,;

.they,
the\::,
them.

.ca_rgoes,

,.

they,

cargp~',

thei~'·

cargoes,

them.

There nre no word-forms to denote the severnl cnse-relntions of the
noun. The simple word is the only form for both the nomirintive ttnd objective
~,elntions. The possessive alone htts 11 cnse~terJl!inntiop.
,, ,
NOTE.

DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.

76. I is the first person; YOU, the second person,
Common Style ; THOU, the second person, Ancient or
Solemn Style ; RE, the third person, substituted for a
n oun of the masculine gender; SHE, the third pen;on,
feminine; and rr, third person, neuter.
SINGULAR.

Norninative,
P ossessive,
Objective,

,[

Common Style.

.Ancient or Solemn -Style.

you,
your,
you.

thou,
thy or thine~
thee.
"

I,
my or mine,
me.
PLURAL.

Nominative,
P ossessive,
Objective,

we,
our,
us.

..

you,
your,
you.

ye,
your,
you.

..

:~

;~

EXERCISES.
1

T ell the case of each noun and pronOun in the following sentences.
what personal pronoun may be substituted for each noun.

DIRECTION.
~lso,

The man is lame. · John's ball was found by us. The boy's
industry is manifest. B irds fly. Where are the children's
books? Father's horse ran away. Soldiers fight . . J ohn's pencil was lost, and James fo und it. I saw him. The ladies' bonnets fitted them. Your book is lost. The heroes' monuments
were crumbling.
RE,fARK.
Thus we find thnt the essentinl properties of nouns, 9endcr,
number, person, and case, belon15, also, in prt~t to all the personrtl pronouns,

and in whole to those of the third person, singular.
MODEL .

[,

Non:. Ye is sometimes used in tho objective, especittlly by tho poets ·; : as,
I've senred yo in tho forests.
., \

With what must the pronoun agree in numbel' and person? When must th e pronoun
agree w'.th it in gender? I-low many kin<ls of nouns are mentioned ? What pro11ertie9
are attributed to noun s? What is thi! division of gentler? - number? - perstlll ? case ? ' Vhat is lhe first person of the pronouns ? - the second 1- the third, masculine 1
- the third, feminine ? - the third, neuter ?

John's dog bit him .
. · This simple sentence has "dog" for its subject, and "bit" for its
predicate; therefore these are the essential parts denoting the action,
and who performed it.
How is the personal pronoun of the first person dccline<l. ? - of the second person, common style ?-second person, ancient style? How is "ye "sometimes used? How is
t' man ," with its appropriate pronoun, declined 1- lady 1- cargo 1 What a.re the prop,.
ertles of nouns? ' Vhat pronouns ha.ye ti1e same 1

4*

42

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

The subordinate or :iccessory pl1rts aro "John's," denoting whose
"dog " did the deed, and "him,'' denoting the object affocted by the
., ·;.
action, or whom th e " dog bit."
As the word "John 's" limits "dog" to a particular dog; of'
which J ohn is the owner, "John's dog" is the limited or modified
subject; and, as " him " limits the action performed by the dog to:
a particubr object, " bit him" is the limited or modified predica~e . ,1
J ou:-; 's is a noun, the name of an object.
P roper, applied to a particular individual.
Masculine Gender, the name of a male being.
Singular Num ber, denotes one object.
Th ird P enon , an object spoken of.
Possessive Case, denotes the r elation of owner, also having an
apostrophe and s, the possessive sign; and, if the appropl'i :1te pronoun be substituted for the word "John's,'' it
will be" his,' ' which, in the tables, is found in the posses~.
si ve case.
Doc is a common noun, any one of a class.
Nlasculine , denotes a male, though, as a generic term, it ofter/
represen ts either sex.
Sin,qular, expresses unity.
Third P erson, spoken of.
No111i nati·ve Case, subject of which something is asserted;
also , if n, personn,l pronoun be substituted in the place of
"dog," it must be" he,'' whi ch is the special form for th ~
nominative cn.se.
Bir is n, 'l:erb, as it is used to assert sop:1ething.
Hrn is n, pronoun, a word substituted for a noun, here put for the
noun " John." P ersonal, showing by its form the perso11
of the noun it represents.
, l•T
Jlfasculine, the appropriate form to represent n, noun of tha,t
, J:..
gender.
Singula r , the form n.pproprin.ted to represent a noun of that
~
numb&.
Third P erson, the form used to represent a noun that is t~~
rrnme of an object spoken of.
. ·Ol;jective Case, the special form n.ppropriated to that case in
the tables ; as, Nominative he, possessive his, objective him,~ 7

CO:MMON~SCHOOL

GRAMMAR.

43

EX.ERCISES.
DmRCTION. L et the pupil parse tJui following nouns and ,pronouns according to
tlfe. for eyoiny model, giving reasons as far as he can .

\. The boy saw me. The dog barks. Horses run. · William
studied his lesso ns. He recited them well. Mary's moth er has
return ed. I saw her. You may go. Boys play. Children
should play. J n,ne was invited by me. They hurt him. · ·She
will come. The men called us. We met them. The book was
sent to us. The bird could not fly; its wings had been injured.
VERB .
1

78. A verb is a word which may be used to assert
or affirm; as, John runs. William is writing. Henry
was loved.
R E MAllK. The verb really asserts only when it is used in the indicative or
potential mood, and the sentence is in the declarative form. A verb in the
irn pern.tivo or infinitive mood, or in an interrogative sentence, docs not assert, but is capable of doing it when put in the indicative or potential mood
and declarative form.

REGULAR AND IRREGULAR.

· . 79. Verbs considered with r eference to the formation of their past tense, and their perfect participle,
are REGULAR or IRREGULAR.
, , 80. A regular verb forms its past tense, and perfect
participle, by adding "ed" to the simple form of the
~resent, or "d" only, when ·the verb ends in "e"; us,
.A.~t, acted, acted ; love, loved, loved.
J REMARK 1. Verbs which change "y" to "i," and those which
double the finn.l consoun.nt, and :idd " ed," are considered regubr ;
as, Study, studied, studied; prefer, preferred, preferi·ed.

·" What is a verb? Do all verbs form their principal parts alike l What, is a regulat
••rb I What other changes a.re called regular I

45

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

COMMON-SCHOOL. GRAMMAR.

2 Nearly all the irregular verbs are of Anglo-Saxon origin,· and
they formed their past tense, and perfect participle, according ··.to
r egular processes in that language. The only process now in force
is the regula1· formation.
,.,

the·manner in which. they are used; ·as,.! returned from . the country yesterday. To-morrow I will return your book.
.,. 3. Verbs commonly transitive, when used to e.xpress an antion _in
relation merely to the subject, are regarded as intransitive.
Thus, " The boy studies well." Here, studies is intransitive,
becausa it is the subjeotive aotion only to which attention is
directed.

3, Every verb, introduced from another language and anglici~ed,
since the English has been rog111·ded as a distinct language, ' h ~
taken the regular formation. Many verbs, also, which were ro;~
merly irregular, are now regular; as, Reach, raught, now reached;
bedeck, bedight, now bedecked.

81. An irregular verb does not form its past tens.a
and perfect participle by the addition of "ed" to the
simple form of the verb, or "d" when the verb ends
in " e" : as, Go, went, gone ; hear, heard, heard; give,
gave, g1ven.

M
·1·1!

1. A transitive verb requires the pronoun directly modifying it to be
in the objective form; as, I struck him. Therefore, we say that a nou11, taking
the place of "him" as the direct object of "struck," is in the same case-rela1io11; we call it the objective case, although there is no· change in termination,
po special fonn to show it ; as, I struck J ohn . . ' I struck the man. He eats
!1em. Ho eats apples.
; ; NOTE

TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE,

. 2. An intransitive vorb will not allow an objective form of a pronoun to be
'substituted for o. noun, after it, without the expression of tho connecting
preposition, showing the modifying relation to be that of tho i11direct object ;
o.s, John has gone home.

82. Verbs are also divided, according to their power
of taking a direct object, into Transitive and Intransitive.

3. The noun in English is varied in form only in tho possessive case,-the
nominative and objective form s being the same. The pronoun ho.s'commonly
throe forms. It is easy, therefore, to decide the co.so of nouns, by substituting pronouns for them.

83. A verb which admits a direct object is transitive; as, I saw the man.
84. A verb which does not admit a direct object :iS
intransitive; as, John went to Boston.
RE.llARK 1. The word "transitive" means passing over, and. 11.
transitive verb is so called, because the action, expressed by the verb,
seems to pass over from the subject to an object; while, in the u~e
of an intransitive verb, the action or being is spoken of only in i!B
relation to the subject.
·
2. Many verbs are either transitive or intransitive, according to
What is an irregular verb?

EXERCISES. ·
In the following sentences tell what the verb ass,,ls ; whether trau1itive or intransitive, and why.
DIRECTION.

The idol of to-day pushes aside the hero of yesterday. Our
,fathers find their graves in our short , memories. History some.times fades into fable. The statue falls from its pedestal. A
·man may lend money, but cannot borrow wisdom. The light of
'h~aven smiles on their path. I stand upon my native hills once
more. I saw him on the battle eve. Is Henry at home? · Peter
went to New Orleans. The man came from France. Charles
has found his knife, but has lost his ball.

J-Iovr are verbs divided in reference to tn.ki nO' a direct

ohj~ct? What is a transitive verb? -an intransitive? What docs the wor~ "transi~

hv e" mean? 'Vlly is a transitive verb so called? How does the intransitive verb di ff.er
from it? Give an example of a verb that may be used as transitive or intransitire, accord·
i..ng to the sense.

' Vhen are transitive verbs regarde(l as intransitive 7 What form of a personal
.pronoun is used to directly modify u..,ransiti -.:_e verb? .'Vill an intrausitiv~ v~rb admit the
sawe form after it? How can we asccrtaiu the grammatical relation of nouns l

,

M

46

COM?r!ON~SCHOOL , ·8R;A.M;MAR•.

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

THEIR is a personal pronoun, plural, and third person, to represent the noun " children ,; in those two respects. 'l'he
plural form is the same irrespective of gender; and .we may
disregard gender except in parsing the third person, singular, of the personal pronouns. Possessive· case, a11 shown
liy its special form.
PARENTS is a common noun, either masculine or feminin.e; here including some of each; plural, third, more than one, and
spoken of; objective case, as the direct object limiting the
action expressed by·the transitive verb" should obey." If
we substitute for "p~uents" the appropriate pronoun, it
will be " them," the special form for the objective case ;
therefore, we know the case-rebtion to be objective, though
the noun has no special form for it.

MODEL.

Ohildreu should obey their parents.
'l'he two principal parts of th is sentence are the word" children,"
of which the assertion is made, and the phrase "should obey,''
which contains the astier tion.
The idea set forth by the two essential parts of the sen tence is
general. Now, by taking a direct object for the act.ion of the verb,
th e obedience is restricted to one class of persons, "parents" only.
By introdu cing the word "their," representing "children,'' the
class of persons to be obeyed is limited to the" ch ildren's parents."
" Parents " and " their " are the subordinate or modifying parts of
th e sentence; "their" modifying" parents," and "parents" modifying "shou ld obey."
'fhus " children" is the grammatical subject unmodified; that is,
as far as the subject "children" is concerned, it is gener al, not
restricted to good, bad, wise, ignorant, great , small, black, white, or
any other kind or class of "children. "
.
" Should obey" is the grammtitic<Ll predicate, modified by the.
subordinate expression "their parents"; and "should obey their
parents " is ·the modified predicate.
·
CHILDREN is a common noun, a name applicable to any of the
class.
Either masculine or f eminine, as it is applicable to either sex,!
and, as here, may embrace some of each .
Plural, more than one.
Third P erson, spoken of.
No minative Case, the subject of the assertion . 'l'he answer to
the question, "Who should obey'?" is "children"; or,
by substituting a personal pronoun of the third, plural,
the appropriate form will be" they," which is the speciaf
form fo r the nominative case.
SrrouLD OBEY is here used to assert, and is, therefore, a verb. The'
principal parts of the verb are obey, obeyed, obeyed; forme(il
by add ing ed, and therefore regular .
'l
It requires a direct object to complete the sense ; as, " Should
obey what or whom? " Answer, "Should obey parents";
therefore it is a transitive verb.

EXERCISES.
DIRECTION. Parse, according to the foregoing model, the nouns and pronouns in
the follnwing sentences; also, the verb.s, so far as to tell whether they are transitive
or intransit ive, and why l The regular and irregular formations of the verb, so far
iu known, may be given.

The man pleased his employer. Father has arrived. I saw
him. The boys walked. Vice degrades us. We should love
our neighbors. James struck Charles. The waves swept on.
!!as J obn gone? Virtue ennobles us. The sun shines. Duty
exists. Hope survives. Heaven rewarded his industry. Success has crowned our efforts.
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VERBS.
0

'l'lie pe1fect participle of a transitive verb, when compounded with
~1e verb" be," in any of its moods and tenses, forms what is called
~passive verb; the distinguishing characteristic of which is, that
~he subject of the sentence whose predicate is passive is the object of
t~e action expressed by the verb; as, John was struck by William
'

The subject is not the agent or doer of the action, but the receiver
object of the action.

~r

How is a passive verb formed?

Wha~

is its distinguishing characteristic r

48

·'

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAM¥AR.

COMMON.:SCHOOL ' 'GRAMMAR. '

85. A passive verb i~ a compound verb, fo1:med by
prefixi~1 g a part of t he verb "be" to the perfect parti·J
ciple of a transitive verb; as, The man was loved.
,•J
RElrARK.
This affords a convenient fo rm for a sentence, when we would
a ssert what is done, but are unable, or do not wish to name the 11ut.hor of the
action ; as, 'l'he mischief was done.
··.'l

86. A verb is called active when its grammaticAl~
subject is the name of the agent or do er of the action
expressed j as, "John loved his parents; " "Willia'm
was injurin g himself."
·11
r

•:ib·

.· ·~ b

PROGRESSIVE FORM.

riT

When the imperfect participle of a verb is compounded with th~ 3
verb "be" in any of its moods and tenses, the compound verb j~ 0
said to be in the progressive form . .
13
The verb so formed is ne:.nly equivalent to the simple activeforiii
in the same mood :wd tense, but genern,lly has more distinct referen'ciJ ~
to time ; as, He sings, he is singing. Here, the first sentence is used'!/
to express his ability to sing, or a habit of singing; while the latter.~
is used more commonly to assert that he is now engaged in the actfo
This distinction, however, does not always hold good.
· , 1;q

87. A verb formed by prefixing a part of the verb
"be" to the imperfect participle of a simple verb, is
said to be in the progressive form; as, John is running.
!

\

' I

; !.ij dj

1. An intransitive verb, when compounded with a prepositfon.,!i
may be used in the l'A SSI\' F: form; as, We were looked upon by the,%6
as traitors, - tlmt is, we were regarded by them as trai.tors . . In ~~e
active ·voice, it wo uld be written, They looked upon u ~ as trn:itors (,,~ 1~
2. Somo intransitive verbs are used either in the active or pas~iv,e
form, "·ith out a corresponding change in their subjects, as actingw~as
acted on; as, J ohn has come, or John is come.
,.,·iq
'VlLn.t, then, is a passive verb? 'Vhen is a verb called active?
progressive \urm? 'Ylu:n may an i ntran ~ itive verb be used iu the pa.ssive form 1
a.mplt:? Example of one used without change of subject?

49

~.3. When an intransitive vero is used transitively, it admits the
passive voice; as, They ran a coach to tho steamboat. - A coach
was run to the steamboat by them.

. i ''
t) ; ' .

EXERCISES ON VERB-FORMS.

Tell which of the following verbs is in the aCtive, which in the pas~ive,
'"f". wluch in the progress iv e form. .4.lso, whether transitive or intra.nsitive. 'I'hia
.t:ercise ca-n be continued in the Reader.
11

" DIRECTION.

,·

Jt is accomplished. The deed is done. I ask no mortal
1
wreath. Hammocks had already been lashed up, and the gun·
deck was flooded in its whole extent. I ascended to the upper
deck. The rain came down in torrents, but I did not feel it.
The mind must be concentrated. The last beams of day were
·streaming through the windows. Time is ever silently turning
'qver his pages. The magazine will be filled. We have been
complaining of the cold. When they spoke, America listened;
aud when they were thinking, America stood still. The scholars
w,ere delighted with the study. The parents corrected their chit.
drea. The partiality of friends injured the boy. 'l'he partiality
of fri ends was injuring the boy. 'l'he boy was injured by the
partiality of friends.
·
MOOD.

Jt ha6 already been stated that the verb does not always assert,
tbougl1 that is often regarded as its peculiar function. It is true
that every verb may be used to assert, and this has been given as its
defini tion.
'By certain modifications, called conjugations, it is made to express
manner of action or being; as affirmation, command, &c.
·The different ways in which the verb is used, give rise to mood;
as, John went declares an act- sim pie declaration. lf John went, expresses a condition. John can go declares power, or ability. John, go
~

What intransitive verbs admit the passive voice? Example? Wlmt is the peculiar
function of a verb? Docs it always assert? What is the definition of a. verb 1 What ie

What i;ives rise to mood 1 What are the ways1

50

'1.
I

I

I
I
I

i'

COMMON-SCHOOL'' GR~M1fAR.

COMMON-SCHOOL GR.AMMAR.

expresses a command. In the sentence, John intends to go:,
is used not to assert, hat to limit an assertion.
, ,·rr
In these several ways, manners or rrwods, a verb m,ay b~ ,.l}sajJo
assert an act or power, to express a condition or command, ·or · to Zi ·
an assortion.
NoTE. It will be perceived that" John went," and "if J ohn wont;'h hsn
. the same modal form, and that the condition does not depend on the form o,f;tbe
verb; but is expressed solely by the conjunction " if," which is. the only ,dill'.ijI'
C!!CC between the two expressions.
The Subjunctive, as a separate, r;i,9ffl,
requiring a special form, is going out of use ; it now reta~n::i no ~P_f8\a1
modal form, except in the verb" be."
~
.
·· i: ni

88. Mood is the MANNER in which the action or being
is r epresented; as, John, go. John went.
89. The I NDICATIVE mood is that form of the
which is used to express sirriple existence or acti,O,Hii
as, John went.
,:d
90. The POTENTIAL mood is that form of the v:erb
which is used to express possibility, liberty, powe,r:1
will, obligation, or nece8sity, by the use of one of these
words, may, can, might, could, would, should, must; ·ids,
John can go.
·.1.~ ro
.·rll'

~Ma y

is used to express liberty or possibility ; can, could, mv;M,
to express power or ability ; must, to express necessity ; should, to expr•
obligation ; would, to express will.
RE,,ARKS.

··)JJB

91. The IMPERATIVE mood is that form of the .v9l b1
which is used to express a comman\i; as, John,_g0,1,,;1,,
Rm.tARK . This form or mood is also used in supplication; ehtreaty/ &s;!j
as John, do go. Give us this day our daily bread.
· ' k>lD
;; Jasq

For what purposes may a verb be used in these several ways?

What is the differeiie

in the modal forms, ' 1 John \Ycn t," a.nd "if John went"? What is mood? ·. W.hat:i:Htbt
Indicati ve mood? E'or what is the Potenti~ mood used? \\'-hat words are used as Bui.
iliaries in this mood? ·what does may express? \Yhat do can, could, and riiight( O'ltpres s?_ 'Vhat doe s must express? -sllould?-would? YVhat does the Imperntl•

generally express ? }'or what other purposes is it usc<l?
emphasis or euLn::a.ty?

The SUBJUNCTIVE mood is that forri:i ·of the v'<hb,
~bich is used to express a condition, or snppo~itip~~ ;
o!aS,: Were the story true, his course might bejustifj.ed.
" v~ 92.

Um1·

REM ARK 1. '!.'his mood has no special modal form except in the anome-nlous verb " be," used either as principal, or as auxiliary to make
eihe progressive and passive forms. 'l'wo forms are given as p'eculiar
• 1t;i •this mood, be and were.
But be is clearly an Indicative or Poten11tfal' form abbreviated by ellipsis; and .the P ast were is just like, tho
lIIfid'icati ve Past, except in the first and third persons singubr, aqd
in_tbe Ancient foqn; as..

Indicative Past - I was, thou wast, he was.
Subjunct!ve Past - I' were, thou wert, he were.
d1 '.'

So that the Subjunctive has really but one peculiar form in ComStyle, and one in Ancient Style. Even these are seldom used
by writers of the present day.

1'
1' mon

r

' 2. A dependent, subordinate, or subjoined clause; connected_'TH.h
"'8ome other part of the sentence by a clausal conjunction, if, though,
'iJmless, lest, except, provided, or provided that, has usually lieeri 'cori~jdered as having its predicate in the Subjunctive mood.. Thus, the
'' amjuriction and predicate together have stood as the mod.alform of
the Subjunctive. So, that any form of the Indicative or Poten,fal, used as the predicate of a clause made dependent and connected
twith another by one of th~ foregoing conjunctions, would be in the
Subjunctive mood.

<lr· .

t NOTE. If a verb is to be parse.d as in the Subjuncth:e, or dependent moci\l,
. wheri it is predicate of a clause connected ~ith a~other by eith er of th~ fore;(~,i.~g.! conjunctious, the paradigm of the Indicative and Potential mn.y be
:used, to s:wc repetition. It is mther with reference to the \vri tings of the
pas~ than to present usage, that the Subjunctive retains a place in grammar.
ts-:i ~ ·;

.

~t.JF.or· whnt. is the Suhjunctive used 1 Is Lhere n peculiar form for this rnoocl 1 In what
.rerh ..1.mly is its modal form found? In making what forms is the verb "l>e" used 11~ a~
;..auxilia.ry? In what forms, then, is this modal peculiarity found? In 'w hat · two persons
[Akine is H wer"!" fuund l Where is " wert" found? Are these forms becoming obsol~te !
;In iwhat clauses is the predicate considered in th e SubJunCtive? -·what cCmncclives ttrc
ued iu such cases? 'Vhat have stood as the· moda.l form of the Suhjllnctive f .
.

52

5.3'

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR;

•• ' J

93. The INFINITIVE mood is that form 'of the vcHJ
·which is used to express being or action witbou~
limitation of number and person; as, John intend~
" <'.!
to go.
"l

REJJARK 1. The participle is a form of the verb, den oting the
state of being or action, as, continuing or unlinished, ::mu :Ls com·
plcte and fin ished, without r eference to tense or time. Thus, the
inqm:fect (continuing or unfinished) participle may be used \~ith
every form of the verb "be,'' present, past, and future, indiilerently•
So, too, the perfect (finished) participle may be u!;ed with the sam~1
2. There are three participles, the Imperfect, Perfect, and
pound Perfect.

Colli~

3. The l.ll PERFECT participle is formed by adding ing to the simple
form of a verb ; ·as, Love, loving; run, runnin g ; die, dying.
l
l
4. The PERFECT participle of regular verbs has the same form
as the past tense. In irregular verbs the form may be found in the
tables ; as, L oved, run, died .
I
5. The Co:uPOUND PERFECT pa1·ticiple is formed by prefixing having
to the P erfect participle; as, Having loved, having run, having died.

prcthren. J oho went to school to learn. , Sorp.e , per~ons; seel'f to
unable to resist temptation. Doubtless he can do it ; wil.1 he
do it, is the question. J ames had finished his task, when father
~turn ed. John may have studied his iesson;' but it was recited
poorly. If he were all; - remember haughty Henry. William
may go, but John must stay at home.
~~

( 1•\

~ · JI

.

.

.

TENSE.

.

,; The form of the verb usually indicates time. Thus, the sentence
•iJ 'Walk" predicates the act of walking a.t the present :·time. ' "]
walked " predica tea the same act' ·in. past time. " 1 shall walk · '~
predicates the same act in future time.
·Ji.The form of the verb may also denote·either-incomplete orfinislied
action. Thus, "1 am walking " predicates an act as unfinished or
:,imperfect. "f have been walking" predicates the same act as completed or perfect. It is on these two facts of grammar that tense is
founded.
·
!• REMARK 1. The PRESENT tense predicates unfinish.ed action at the
1
"p~esent time. It might properly be called the imperfect present. ·.

2. The PasT tense predicates unfinished action at a past time.
'1night be called the imperfect past.

It

.1

3'. The FuTURE tense predicates unfinished action in future time.
It might be called the impeJjectfuture.
EXERCISES ON MOODS.
T ell the mood of each verb in the following sentences, and iAt
re ason for i t . 7 '/te teacher can exte nd this exercise by r equiring the pupil to
do tlte same with sen.ten ces in his r ead.ing·bo ok.
D1RF.CT1 ox.

4. The PERFECT tense predicates action finished at the present
.time. It might be called the present perfect.
Cl

I' .

The boy loved to play, but he could not study. J oho intends
to walk home. J ames might learn, and he ought to study. , );~
have completed our tasks. Children should obey their parents.
I will ask him. I shall attend school because my parents '~.i ~h .
it. Make good use of time. Go to th e ant, thou sluggard, consider her ways, and be wise. R emember that all mankind . ;i,;e
~-----------------------~-+-

W"~t is the Iofinitive mood?

What does the participle denote? Ho•v formed r··l '

5. The PLUPERFECT tense predicates action finish ed ·at a certain
It might be called the past perfect.

past time.

•'1(t

Gl .,.6; The FUTURE PERFECT predicates finished action at a future' time,
~a'nd is rightly named.
rl ,, NoTE 1. This is, undoubtedly, ~he true theory of the. tenses, as may ~e se~n
by applying it to the Indicative mood, in simple sentences.
.

~

·· -------------------------~

!)'•

What indicates time? What else does the form of the verb denote ? On what ls tense
- rounded? What does the present tense predicate? - the past? - the future r - the
perfect ? What docs the pluperfect tense predicate, and what might it be called l

5'"

.

54

COMMON-SCHOOL' GRAJ\IMAR.

2. It does not apply to the same extent to the other moods, nor ·aJways :to
the Indicative, when used in compound and complex sentences.

' ·:('.'J P,

3. With this expln.n ation we shall givo the u•uo.l nom~ucl1>ture, sllgqtli \ '
varied, using it with the foregoing limitations.
·J l ,
.'JS

7. The three teuses denoting unfinished a.otion are the PreBent, ·
Past, and Future. The three referring to fin ished action are the
Perfect, the Past Perfect, and the Future Perfect.

,4 00. ·The FUTURE PERFEDT tense ,denotesAhat . the
action will be .finished at some future time ; as, I sh'all ·
have dined before you get b.a ck. · He will have been
. writing several hours when you get there. ·

Soi.

The .A.uxrLr.rnrns, or helps used iri · cc;:mjugatiIJ.g ,
· v~rbs, are shall, should; vyill, would ; may, might ;:_,-caI1, ,
could, and must; also, do, did; have, had. The yerb ·
8. The Infinitive mood has two forms,- the simple or present, and '}
b~, , in all its parts, is used in mal~ing the. Progre~sive
the compound or perfect; as, To lo'IJe, to have loved. The old names·J
are retained, with this explanation, that they do not indicate tima<!J . · and Passive forms of a verb.
·, .
1

''

forms, but merely state of being and action, as finished or unfinished.

D4. Tense marks distinctions of time, and
ness or incompleteness of <1ction.

complet~w

95. The PRESENT tense denotes present time and in· ,
I am writing. I am heard. ',

complete action; as, I see.

96. The PAST tense denotes past time and incomplett ,
action ; as, You saw. He was writing. The noise wds

heard.

-ub-

97. The FUTURE tense denotes future ti:i;ne, witho~{~
reference to the completeness of the action · as 'l'hev
'
'
:.1110
will see. You will be writing. The skates shall q.~16

mended.
. ·1.d
98. The PERFECT tense denotes that the action isa
.finished at the present time ; as, John has written. H6'd
has been writing. We have been informed of the fact'.iw
· ,! ua
99 . Th
. e PAST PERFECT tense denotes that the actiwril1
was finished before some past time ; as, I had writte,n:d
He had been writing. They had been pardoned.
,;;d
What does tte future perfect predicate? What are the three ten ses denoting unfin - ,,
fshed action, called ? - the three denoting finished action 1 What is tense? Whit d~~
2.r1
the pr8ient tense denote? Give the examples. What does the past tense denote

1-·the

future 1- the perfect ?-the past perfect 1

''-':wa

REMARK.
Do, did, done ; have, had, had ; will, willed, willed, and be,
was, been, are also used alone, being _entire verbs. '

EXERCISES ON TENSES.
Tell the tense of each .verb in the following sentences ; al.so th.e mood .. 1
This exercise may be extended by rec:irring to the Reade.r.
..

. DIRECTION.

and forw .

, The hoy loves his book, because be .can read it.. · T.he te11cher
de~ires to see your slate. The ,_sound of footsteps had entire!'y .
ceased. The sunbeams _were faint)y streaming through the \Vindow. I sat down to rest myself'. Each hour has rolled us
oiiward toward the grave. These records will be obliterated,
and the monument will cease to ·be a ·memoriaL He was roused
by the sound. Such things had been, and bad perished. · 1 have
· nQ,t yet .heard from him. The Puritans: had heard of America
b~fQre they went to Holland. When you call for, me, I will go
. wi~~ you . . How many will have passed away b.efore to,m,orrow's ·
' sun shall set! Once I loved torn ocean's roar. Deep sl.~eP had
·fa:lien' on the destined victim. By diligent study, the boy might
have learned his lesson in season. The horse would run. ·The
. battle had been fought. · The lion can be tamed; · The enemj !
Th~ future perfect? How are auxiliaries used?
r.

·

·

Give the priucipal ~p_rts

What are ·theY ? HOw is the ·verb ''be "
1
aµd be~· not ~ed aS

ar"do, have, will,

;
.d

56

57

COMMON-SCHOOL ·GRAMMAR.

might have been conquered.
may have been late.

Did he ask the question?

John

ntO indicate number and person! •These twp, alone necd·be,inastered
by the pupil.
.. ,
·' ·'..
A subj ect of the singular number and third person, requires a
change in the form of the verb, when it is in the present or perfect
tenso of the Indicative mood. The t ermination " st, " or " est ,"
. though used only in the second person, singular, is now exclusively
:·..~ppropriated to the Ancient or Solemn.Style.

EXERCISES IN CONSTRUCTION.
DIRECTION l. Taking "boys" as a subjec t, consti:nct sen teno~,
asserting necessity, in as many ways as possible, using for predic<1,tcs
the following verbs, in the active and progressive form, and in the
passive, if they are tmnsitive: play, buy , and go.
2. Assert liberty or permission, with the verbs receive, give , a~d
walk, as abovo.
3. Assert power or ability with the verbs choose, obey, and write.
4. Assert obligation with read, learn, find.
5. Assert possibility with recit e, remain, sell.
6. Assert will with go, defend, break.
7. Use the follO\ving verbs to limit the assertion made by another
verb: go, run, learn, read.
8. Uso the following verbs in command or entrea ty addressed to
"boys" : study, obey, give , run.
9 . Use the following verbs in simple declaration, with" boys" for .
the subject: ask, recite, come, fin ish.
DrnECT IO!i . T he above exercise should be con tinued on the slate or otherwise, at
the discre ,ion of the t eache r .

o•l. 102. In Common Style a verb is varied on account of

the number and person of its subject only in the pres[. ent and perfect tenses of the Indicative' mood. ' .
·'

PRL.'ICIPAL PARTS.

Present - love, Past- loved, Perfect Participle - loved ..
COMMON STYLE.
The following are the modal and tense forms for subjects of any
~· number and person, with the two variations in the Present and Perfect for the
· third person, singular.

.

R EMARK.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

The form of tho verb is sometimes changed to indicate th e number and person of the subject. This, in many languages, is effected
by terminational inflections, and is of mu ch more extensive application than in English.
NoTE. In the Latin, for example, the number and person of the subject
urc indica ted by the termination of tho verb.

In English, if we except the anomalous verb "be," th ere are,
according to present use, but two instances of such a change, Mim~ly
Is th e verb e ver varied to show the person an<l number of its subj ec t 1 How ls it gen·
ernlly effected f

~

wi th

a subject of the third person ·singular-loves, or
does love.
OLD FORM - loveth or doth love.
with any other subje.c t-love or do love.
P ast - with any subject - loved or did love.
0
• "' F uture -with any subject - shall or will love.
J• •;~with a subject, third person, singu~ar-bas foved. ; .
· J · P erfect · 0LD FORM- hath loved.
with any other subject, .
·. . have' loved~ .. ,,
fo .P ast P eifect - with any subject,
bad. loved ..
Future P erfect-with any subject - shall or wi}l have l~_~ed. , .
Prese11.t -

NUMBER .AND PERSON.

'

Even in these two tenses there is no variation, except;when the
subject is of the third person, singular.
R EMARK.

,··· Il ow many v ariations in English? W'hen are they macJ.e? Where do we find .the ter·
'" iroination u st n or " est ~ ,? In C01:q.mon Style in wbn.t te ns~s is. a ve.rb varried ,? . For what
'- person nnd numbe r of the subject is the verb varied? Io what mood only 1 In w'hat
• - tenses of that mood 7 What are the forms in the present, when the s ubject is thir<l, sin·
. . 1 ~ula.r1 'l 'hc forms for a.ny other . subj~ct.1 .Forms i~ the perfe~.t, wi.l h a subject. Lhir~t sin·

gular 1 ~·or any other subject 1 What is the only form of Uie past 1- of the f~:i:r.~ !o! U1c past perfect? - of the future perfect I
·

1:~

58

CO MMON-S CHOOL GRAMMAR.

COMMON-SCHOOLl

59

FORMATION OF THE TENSES IN THE ACTIVE .FORM.

POTENTIAL MOOD.

Present - m::iy, c::in, or must love.
I'ast - might, cou ld, would, or should love.
P erfect - m::iy, c::in, or must h::ive loved.
Past P e1fect - might, could, would, or should have loved.
BIPERATIVE MOOD.

104. The compound tenses of the Indicative, and. all
the tenses of the Potential mood, are formed by prefixing the following auxiliaries severally to the .simple
verb or its perfect participle.

Love, or do love.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present - simple form of the verb.
Past - adding d or ed
l h .
Future - prefixing shall or will 5 to t e simp1e form.

INFINITIVE MOOD.

Present, or simple form, to love.
P e1j ect, or compound form, to have loved.

Perfect - prefixing have or has
~ t o th e per1ec
e t
parPast Pt'rfect - prefixing had
tici le.
Future P erfect "
shall or will have
p.

PARTICIPLES.

(Continuing or unfinished f orm ) Imperfect, loving,
(Fi nished indefinitely) Simple P erfect,
loved,
(Finished definitely ) Compound P erf ect ,
having loved.

POTENTIAL MOOD.

ANCIENT OR SOLEMN STYLE.
1.

)~m.A'.MMiR. ·

103. Used only with a subject of the second person
.
l ar.
'
smgu

l

Present - may, can, or must
h .
e
.
to t e simp1e iorm.
Past - might, could, would, or should
P eij ect-muy; can, or must, have
l to the perfect
Past P erfect -might, could, would, or should, hav~ 5 purticiple.

I NDICAT IVE MOOD.
INFINITIVE MOOD.

Present - lovest, or dost love. Past - lovedst, or didst love.
Future - shalt or wilt love. P e1fect - hast foved.
Past P e1f ect - hadst loved. Future Perfect -wilt have loved.

Present - prefixing to to the simple form.
·Perfect "
to ha·ve to the perfect participle. ·
BIPERATIVE MOOD.

POTENTIAL MOOD.

The simple form of the verb, or the auxiliary do prefixed to it.

Present - mayst, or c::inst love.
Past - mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst love.
Perfect - rr.aysb, or canst have loved.
Past P erfect - mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have loved.

PARTICIPLES.

Are verbs in th e Potential, in Common Style, ever vari ed ~n account of the person ~d_.
number of the subj ect? \Vbat is the on ly form for the present tense? - for the past?-:""'
tl1e perfect? - the past perfect? ' Yhat are th~ only forms of the Imperative mood'?
" 'hat is the simple form of the Infinitive? - the compound form? How many fol'ms has ;f
the Infinitive ? Ilo\V many participles. What is th e continuing form called? "What
!
the form? 'Vhat is the fin ished indefinite 1- the fin ished defi nite call ed? - the form~ ' 1
Wi th whu.t subject on ly is the Ancient or Solemn Style used? Wh at is the form for the ·.
pres~ nt tense, I ndicat ive? - for the past? -fu ture 1- perfect?- past perfect? _ . future·:4
perfect? What is the form for the Potential, present, Ancient Style 1- of the past? _;' ' 1

is ·

the perfect 1 - past perfect ?

·'<i

linperfect - adding ing
}
.
.
p .r, t d · d
to the simple form.
Szmp 1.e er.1 ec ore
Compound Perfect - prefixing having to the perfect participle.
llow are th e compound tenses of the Indicative and all the tenses of the Potential formed 1
What is the presen t, Indicative? Row is the past tense formeU 1- the future ? - the
perfect 1- the past perfect - the futu~e perfect 1 I-low is the present of thu Potential
form ed ? - the past? -the perfect 1- the past perfec t? . How is the present Infinitive
formecl ?- the pe rfect? How is the Imperative. mood formed? How is th e imperfec t
pa.rticiple formed? -the simple perfect ?- the compound perfect 1 'Vhat tenses of the
Indicative are formed by prefi xing auxiliaries to the simple verb? What to the perft>et
par ticipl~? What to each in the Potential mood 1

60

COMMON-SCHOOL' GRAMMAR.

EXERCISES.

with a subject, third, singular, has or hath been.
} with any other subject,
.
.
have boen.
•' P ast Perfect - with any subject,
had been,
" Future P eifect-with any subject,
shall or will have been.

L et lllr.pHp'i!,from the 71rinoipal part& of the.fullowtn.g verb~, f~rm
the mo~l s .<mcl tenses in lite way above given , and write out the ac tive fon11s ..u;il h
the variat10ns required on ac count of th e number and person of a subjec t in l1te
Cummou Styl.e; also in the li'ormal or Solemn Style.
])IRECTION'.

P erfect -

POTENTIAL MOOD.

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

Pres ent.

Past.

wa.de,
form,
differ,
omit,
cry,
go,
rise,
teach ,
command,
obey,

Imperf-ct Participle .

waded,
formed,
differed,
omitted,
cried,
went,
rose,
taught,
commanded,
obeyed,

wading,
forming,
differing,
omitting,
crying ,
going,
rising,
teaching,
commanding,
obeying,

walled.
formed .
differed .
omitted .
cried.
gone.
risen .
taugh t.
commanded.
obeyed .

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF TIIE IRREG ULA R VERB . " BE . "

·"

INDICATIVE MOOD.

a subject of the first person, singular,
P resent- with a subject, third person singular,
.
.
.
with any other subject,
Past \ w'.th a s nbj ec t,.firs ~ or third person, singular,
~ with any other subJect,
.
.
.
Futurewith any subject,
shall or

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

am. ,1
is.
are.
wa 8 .
were.
will .be.

,..
' Vhat arc the principal parts of the ve rb "be"? I n which tenses is it varied on nccoutl t
of its subject? In the present, ln<licntive, what is the form for the first person, sin~ ular 1
for a subj ect of th e tlilnl person ?- for nny other subject? In the pn.st tense, wha.t is
U1e form for a. subject, first or third person, singular? -for any other subject? - for lh'e
future?

P ast -were.

P resent - be.

IMPERATIVE.

Be, or do be.
INFINITIVE .

P resent, or simple form, t o be.
have been.

P erf ect, or compound form, to

P ARTICIPLES.

Impeifect - being.

COMMON STYLE.
Tho intransitive and often auxiliary verb "be" is vari'ed on
neeount of the person and num ber of its subject in only the Present, Past,
and Perfect of the Indieati ve mood.
REMARK.

~

P resent-may, can, or must be.
P ast - might, co uld, would, or should be.
P erfect - may, can, or must have been.
Past Perfect - might, could, would, or should have been.

P erfec t Particip/1.

P resent - am or be, Past - was, Perfect P articiple- been.

wi th

61

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

P erfect - been. Compound Peifect - having

peen.
ANCIENT OR SOLEMN STYLE.

105. The l:!everal forms of the verb in this style are
used only with a subject of the second person, smgular.
INDICATIVE MOOD.

P resent - art. Past - wast. Future - shalt or wilt be.
P erfect - hast been. Past P erfect - hadst been.
Future Perfect - wilt have been.
I n the perfect tense, what is tho form for the third person, singular 7 - for nny other
subjec t? VVh a.t is the only fo rm of the future? - of the pas t perfoct? - of the future per·
fect? \ Vhat arc the forms of the present Potential? - of th e past? - of the perfect? of the 11nst perfect? ' Vhat forms of the Subjunctive 7- of th e Imperative? \Y1rnt is the
form of the present I nfini tive? - of the perfect? What is the imperfect participle? thc perfect? - the compound perfect.? With what subject are the forms of the solemn
style used? \ Yhat is the form for each tense in the Indicative mo.od?

6

62

SUBJUNCTIVE .MOOD.

POTENTIAL MOOD.

Present - be {. hidden .
pqst _....,.... were. ~

P resent - muyst, or cunst be.
P ast - mightst, couldst, wouldst, or Hhould8t be.
P erfect - mayst, or canst huve been.
Past P erfect - mightst, co uldst , wouldst, or shouldst have been.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

B.i hidden.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

INFINITIVE . MOOD .

P ast - wert.
, I

-:'..:I

,,

106. A passive verb is fo rmed by annexing the per· ·
fe et participle of a transitive verb to the verb
any of its moods and tenses; as, Am loved.

. 63

COMMON-SCHOOL, cGRAMMAR.

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

Present - to be
{ hidden.
Perfect - to have been ~
PARTICIPLES .

Present - being hidden. P erf ect - hidden. Compound P erfect having been hidden.

iL

107. The PROGRESSIVE form is made by annexing the
imperfect participle of a verb to the verb "be" m
.J
any of its moods and tenses ; as, Am writing.

E:, "DmECTION. Let the pupil write out in .fu.ll a synopsis ~f the follo'wi"!q v"erbs,

108. Synopsis of the Passive form of the irregril_~r
v erb HIDE.

,.P,..re.s, ~n t.

PRL.'!CIPAL PARTS .

r

• j

Present -

hide.

Past - hid.

P erfect P articiple - hidden.

COMMON STYLE.
INDICATIVE MOOD.

Pres. - am, is, are. Perf. - hus or ha th, have been }
Past.- was, were. Past P erfect - had been
Fu -shall or will be. Fu. Per.- shull or will have been
POTENTIAL MOOD.

P resent - may, can, or must be
}
,,
P ast - mi ght, could, would , or should be
. ··
P e1j€ct - muy, can, or must have been
, h_i~den.
Past P er . - might, co uld, would, or should have been .
, -,

,:
1Vlmt i ~ the form for each tense in the Poten ti al mood? \Vh at is the only form thatj s
varied in the Suhjunctive? I-low is a passive verb formed ? How is th e prog ressive form .
made? 'Vhat is the form of each tense in the passive I nd icative l \Vhat for the Pote'ntia,P
Wha~ for each tenst? io the Subjunctive mood ?
·
·" '- u

5r

!µ-ansitive, in the progressive and passive forpis i but, if intransitive, in the ·· p1·og~es- sh·e form only.
, ·

'm:ike,
form,
walk,
deceive ,
limit,
remit,
sleep ,
run,
fight,

Past.

made,
formed,
wal ked,
deceived,
limited,
r emitted,
slept,
ran,
fought,

swim,

B\Yam,

burk,
know,
try,

ba,rked,
knew,
tried ,

Imperfect Participle.

making,
formin g ,
walking,
deceiving,
limitin g ,
remittin g ,
sleeping,
running,
fighting ,
swimming,
barking,
knowing,
trying,

Past

Particip l ~ .

nuide.
formed ~

.. walked .
deceived.
limited.
remitted.
slept.
run .
fought .
swum.
barked.
known.
tried.

" 109. The CONJUGATION of a verb is a conn ected view
of all its forms, as varied by mood, tense, person, and
nu mbe r.
~, 'n int is t-h.e form of the Imperative
·
· . the .form
mo00 ? .Wh_a t ts
. .for the lnlinillve
~
:.: l
. What forms for the partici ples? ' v.-· bat is tll~ ~~njugalio.q 9.f. a. .ver!>_?,
_: .-;

64

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

COMMON-SCHOOL (}RA¥MAR .

110. Conjugation of the irregular and intransitive
verb

BE.

NOTE. In the Common Style, this verb is varied, on account of the person
or nuwber of its subject, only in the present, past, and perfect t enses of. the
Indicati vo mood.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.

Present - am or be.
I

'(

Past - was.

P erfect Participle - been.

NoTE. Trrou and YE are the pronouns chiefly used in the Ancient or Sol·
~mn Style, but the verb is varied only in the singular. The old form is put
10

Italics.

e'I Past - I, you, be; we, you or ye, they might, could, .wou!d, or
should be. Tlie>u mights!, couldst, wouldst, or should.st be.
P erfect - I, you, he; we, you or ye, they may, can, or must have
~.
been. Thoi. mayst or canst have been.
·
.
O,j 'Past P erfect I, you, he ; we, you 'or ye, 'they migh,~, ,c,o,~l~,
would, or should have been. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst,
or shouldst have been.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

- If I be, you or thou be, he be ; we be, you or ye be,
·
they be.
Past - lf I were, you were or thou wert, he were; we were, you
or ye were, they were.

1;, . ]>resent

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present tense, singular - first perRon I am ; second, you are or thou
art; third, he is. Plural- first person we are; second,
you or ye are ; third, they are.
·;; .
P ast - I was, you were or thou wast, he was ; we were, you or
ye were, they were.
",.
Future -I, you , he; we, you or ye, they shall or will be. Thou
shalt or wilt be.
P erfect - I have been, you have been or thou hast been, he hath'
or has been; we, you or ye, they have been.
Past P e1:fect - I, you, he; we, you or ye, they had been. Thou
hadst been .
Future P e?fect - I shall, you will or thou wilt, he will; we shall,
you or ye will, they will have been.
.. \

Present - I, you, he ; we, you or ye, they may, can, or must be,.J
Thou mayst or canst be.
" ;!.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- ·

\.

In what tenses is "be" varied on account of the person and number of its subjcc~ 1·

\~ ~1at a1:e. the princip.al parts? What pronouns are used as subjects in the old styl~ln

,.:

,: NOTE 1. This mood has, as peculiar to · itself, only the two forms above
given, preceded by if, &c. But, a.s auxiliary, they make a pa.rt of· the passive
and progrossi ve forms. Shakspeare uses a special form in the present, old
<tyle ; as, "If that thou beP.st a Roman," &c.

for

l ' 2: W ere is sometimes used
would be, after a supposition, &o. ; a.s, There
were no need= there would be no need. This mode of expression is going

011t of use.
IMPERATIVE l!OOD.

Be, or do you or thou be,; be, or do you or ye be.
INFINITIVE MOOD.

Present - to be.

Perfect-to have been.
PARTICIPLES.

POTENTIAL MOOD •

NOT~. A :orb in this mood is not varied on account of the person or nllll'r
· o.I
bcr of its subject, except in the Ancient Style.
.~

65

" 1th whi ch o~nc :tlonc is the verb varied 1 ·w hat is the present Indicative? ·what is the
old form? " 'hat furm for th e first person, singular? 'Vhat form for th e third, singular 1
":hat for all others? 'Vhat form for the first and third, singu lar, of the past tense l
" ·hat for th e rest? Vi"h nt for old style? ·what is the on ly form for the future in t!le·l
common st.}~le 1 "·h at for the ancient style? "What is the form of the third, singular, i[/
th~ per fect· 'Vli nt fo rm for th e rest? 'Vhat for old style? What is the form for th~s
past .perfect l 1Yha t in old style 1 " 'hat is the form of the first person of both uum~:i
bers rn the future pcrfC'ct? What for the rest? " rha.t in old style? 'Yhat is the furnl ro/f
the Potential present in common style ? _in old scyle l
,.,,1

Imperfect - being.
been.
·

P erfect - been.

Compound Perfect .- having

REMARK. 1. We have seen that a verb in the Common Style is not v11-ried
on account of the person and number of its subject, except in the third.person,
lingular, of the present and perfect of the Indicative mood in the active form ;
and, in the progressive and passive forms, we shall find it vary just as the verb
«be" varies, which is used as an auxiliary in the formation of the progressive
and· passh•e.
.
'.
'

.

.

What is the fonn for the Potential past in common style?- in old style?- for the perfect? - for the past perfrct? ' Vhat is the peculiar form for Lhe Subjunctive present 1
What for the past ? \Vhat is the vnriation for the ancient style in the past 1 'Vbat
~ a!e the forms of the Imperative mood? What is the form of the Infinitive present~ of ~he perfect 1 What is the imperfect participle? - perfect?- compound p erfec ~ 7
'Yhere have we found the verb varied in the common style 7 Row wil) it vary in the
progl'essive and passive formi ?

6*

GG

COMMON-SC HOOL GRA MMAH.

2. \ Vo ha.ve seen th :i.t

rt

vcrU is varied also in th e second person, sinJulnr1

PAST.

with a subj ec t in the Formal or Sol emn Style ; as, Thou lovest or dost lo\•e.
3. The oldfonns of th e prese nt nnd perfect in tho third person, singular,
cn<l i!lg in "th," th o ugh fo und in books, n.ro seld om used by late wri ters ; n.s,
Present, he lov et h or doth love. P e>fect , ho ha th l oved .
4 . The aux i liaries do n.nd did a.re u sed for emphn.si.s, n.nd in asking ques-

tions ; in the I:itter c11se, they precede the subject ; a.,, J ob n did go . Did
John go? Also, do is used in the Imperative mood, in 1:11treaty and suppliccr
tio-n .

111. Conjugation of the regular, transitive verb,
in its several/orms.

SINGULAR.

Simple.

I loved,
You loved,
:' 2. { Thou lovedst,
. 3. He loved,

"

PRH<CIPAL PA RT S.

Past - loved.

did love,
did love,
didst love,
did love,

We
You or ye
They

~ loved,

Nom.

Passive.

was loved.
were loved .
wast loved.
was loved. ·

did love,

were loving,

were loved.

FUTURE.

R1rn AUK.

The follmring is " synopsis or connected view of these
of the verb love.

Progr essiv e.

was loving,
were loving,
wast loving,
was loving,

PLURAL.

l.
2.

3.

P erfect Participle' - 'loved.

Three forms are used actively ; name ly, the simple, emphatic.
a.nd progress ive ; and one form passively , by the use of the perfect parti
ci ple wi th th e auxiliary "be." The emphatic form is mad e by u sing the auxi liaries do and did ·with the simple form of the verb ; consequen tly there are
only two t en ses in this for m, the Present and Past of t h e Indi cative. Tho
Imperative mood uses do in emph!ttic entrc'1ty or supplication.

Emphatic.

l.

L OVE,

P resent - love.

6·7

COMMON-SCHOOL GR:A.MM:A.R.

SINGULAR.

Simple.

hh•ll onill
}
You shall or will
cc 2· { Thou shalt or wilt love,
:.:. He shall or will

'
l•··

Proqresstve.

Pa.ssive.

1.

be loving,

be loved.

be loving,

be loved.

been loving,

been loved.

been loving,

been loved.

Th e Ancient or Solemn Styl e is printed in Italics .
PLURAL.

l ~:nICATIVE MOOD -

r rrnSEl\ 1'.

SINGUI~A I-t.

Simple .

l.

-~ .

Emphatic.

I love,
5 You lovo,
9
~ - e Thou lovest,
3. H e loves or loveth,

Progressive.

du love,

am loving,
do l ove ,
are loving,
dost lovt ,
art loving,
<loes or <loth love, is loving,

P as.'fiv_
e.

am Iovod ·

Simple.

2.

We
Yo u or ye

3.

They

~love,

Emphatic .

is loved.

do love,

SINGULAR.

1.
P rogressive.

We shall or will
~
You or ye shall or will love,
They shall or will
PERFECT.

PLUHAL .

l.

1.
2.
3.

P assive.

[Lre loving,

Ih•"

You have
2· { Thou hast
: 3. He ha.9 or hath

}
loved,

PLURAL.

1'he whole of what verb is us<.:U as an auxil iary in form in g progress ive aw l pass ive
verbs? \V hcn is a verb vari ed in the second pcrsonl singular 1 lf uw do the old forms
of the prese nt aml perfect end? Hmv are the auxiliaries do and d id used ? Give the
verb i: love" all th rough in each of its forms.

1.
; 2.

3.

W e h11ve
You or ye have
They have

~ ·loved,

68

COMMON-SCHOOL GR.,UIMAR.

COMMON-SCHOOL'

PAST PERFECT,

PLURAL .

Simple .

l

1.

Proqressive .

I had
5 You had ~
2 · ( T hou hadst f loved,
3. H e lmd
J

been loving,

P ass ive . .

1. We
2. You or ye
3. '!'hey

3.

'·''

.

would, or should

love ,

Progressive .

P assive.

be loving,

be loved.

PERFECT.
SIN GU LAR,

We had
~
You or ye had loved,
They had

been loving,

been loved

1.
2.
3.
2.

I
~
may, can,
} ·
d
or
You
1ove ' been loving,
Ile
musthave
Thuu mayst , q-c. , have been

been loved.

FUTURE PERFECT.

''

"

l

~ might,
.
· ,
could

been loved.

P L URAL.

l.
2.

• ·

Simple

SINGULAR,

69

GR'.A'.MMiii.

PLURAL.

SINGULAR,

l.

I shall have
\ You will have
· 2 · ( Thou wilt have
3. He will have

1
J

loved,

been loving,

been loved.

l. We
2. Yo u or ye
3. They

~

mn,y, can, ~
or
loved,
must have
PAST PERFECT .
SI NGULAR,

PLURAL ,

l.

2.
3.

been loving, been loved.

We shall have
~
·
You or ye will have loved,
They will have
POTENTIAL MOOD -

been loving,

been loved,

l.
. 2.
·3.
2.

I
~ might, could , }
You
would, or
d
He
should have
love '
Thou mightst, o/c., have

been loving, been loved.

PRESfu'IT .
PLURAL.

SINGULAR.

1.

.'

2.

~ou ~ may, can ,

3.

He

or must

2.

T hou mayst, o/c.,

f

love,

be loving,

be loved.

J

SUBJUNCTIYE l)LURAL .

l.
2.

3.

We
You or ye
They

l. We
~might, could, ~
2. You or ye
would, or
loved,
3. They
should have

~ may, can, ~
or must

be loving,

be loved.

p,\ ST,

2.
3.
2.

IYou
He

could,
~ might,
.

would, or should

Thou mightst, q-c.,

}10,,,

~

Pass .

Prog.

Pass.

We be ·
-~
loving, loved. You or ye be loving, loved .
They be
IMPERFECT.

SIN GULAR.

l.

PLURa L.

Prog.

love,

been loved.

PRESENT .

SING ULAR.

l. If I be
2. lf you or t/wu be
3. If he be

been loving,

If I were
}
We were
5 you were loving, loved. You or ye were
2 1
· lf ( thou wert
'£hey were
3. lf he were

1.
be loving,

be' loved,

~

loving, loved.

70

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

COJIIMON-SCHOOL

H!PERATIVE MOOD .

Singular . Love, love you or thou, do you or thou love';
P lural.
Love, love you or ye , do you or ye love.
'
P rogressive. Singular . Be lovin g, be you or than loving, do you
or thou be loving. P lural. Be loving, be you or ye
loving, do you or ye be loving.
Passive. Singular. Be loved, be you or ye loved, do you or ye
he loved. Plural. Bo loved, be you or ye loved, do you
or ye be loved.
i·
Simple.

• !1

INFINITIVE MOOD .

Simple.
P resent - to love.
Peifect - to have loved.
1
Progressive. "
to be loving,
"
to have been loving.
Passive.
"
to be loved,
"
to have been love_d.
PARTICIPLES.

Simple. Imperfect - loving, Perfect - loved,
Compound P eifect,having loved,
Progressive.
Compound P erfect.
Passive. Present - being loved, "
"

having been lovirg,
having been loved:

MODEL.

The war-cry has ceased; the council-fire is fast g·oing
out; and the hop es of the red man will soon be extinguished.
·'
\ '

'

'

This sentence is co mpo<0 r1 . r three independ ent clauses, connected
by " and " implied betll"cen the first two, and expressed between
_the last two. The subjects are "war-cry," "council-fire," and
"hopes;" the predicates, "has ceased," "is going," and ·~will
be extinguished. "
.
,,.is aver b used here to assert of" war-cry " its cessa·i !
" l::r
.iAS CEA SED
tion. Principal Parts, ce<1se, ceased, ceased. Regular, forms its p~~ ~
tense and P erfect parti ciple by adding d only, as the simple vci·b
ends in e silcn t. I ntransitive, does not require an object to receive
its action. A ctive, as its subject is the agent or doer, not the r~­
ceivcr of the action. indicative mood, simply expresseR or dcclal'cs

· GR~bnIAR .

.71

the action. P erfect tense, predicates action finished at the present
t_ime. As its sttbject, "·war-c,.y," iR third person,, singglar, the verb
becomes "has ceased ," inst~ad of" have ceased,''being i~- ~n~ of
_the only two tenses varied on account of the person and number of
) ,he subject.
·' "Is GOING " is a verb, used here.to _assert som_ething. of its subject,
" council-fire." Principal Parts, go, went, going, gone. !..-regular,
"Claes not ·form its Past tense and Perfect participle by ad.di1jg ed to
l
the simple form "go." Intransitive , admitting no direct object to
limit or modify its action . Progressive form, denotes definitely an
unfinished and coutinuing action. In.dicati·ue mood, simple declaration or assertion. Present tense, denotes present t ime and incomplete action. 'l'he Progressive form is made by prefixing some part
of the auxi liary verb " be " before the imperfoct participle of any
verb. As its suhject is third person, singular, th e verb takes the
·form" is going," which is the one appropri a ted to tlrnt person and
number.
" W 1Lr, nE EXTL\1GUJSIIED" is a verb, -here used . to assert the
destru ction of " hopes," its subject. Principal Parts, extin gu ish,
extinguished, extinguish ing, extinguished. R egular, forms its Past
' tense and participle by adding ed to the simple forui. Transitive,
r'equires an object to receive its action. P assiveforrri, as ·" hopes,"
the object of the action, an cl receiver of it, is here the subject-nominative of the verb. Indicative mood, simple assertion. Future
-;J.ense, denotes future time. Its subject "hopes" is third person,
plur<11 ; but a verb in this tense in common style is not varied on
aceoun t of th e person and number of its subject.
EXElWISES.
j. , DrnEt:n o:-i. Parse lite verbs only, as in the above

Mod ~ l.

1

l!i' The boy recited his lesson. The boy was reciting his lesson .
The lesson was r ecited by the boy. He may be chosen. He
··111.i ght have been elected. Go in peace, and return in safety.
J.. . \
•
.
,:
,'.I'he men will so_on return. John has gone to school. John
~-{·ecites his lessons wel l. ThlJ task ha~ been a,c complished. The
: b.ook had fallen from his _h and. lJe will be frozen. The c4ild
oslept well.
. ,· ,; ,·;.•·

72

COMMON'SCHOOI:.' ' GRAMMAR:

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

DIRECTION. Let the pupil write out in full the conjugation of eac h of the follquing verbs in the Simple, Emphatic, and Progressive form s; also, of all the transitive
verbs in. the Passive form.
'

Live,
Give,
Teach,
Deny,
Say,
Find,
Commit,
Wait,
Choose,

lived,
gave,
taught,
denied,
said,
found,
committed,
waited,
chose,

lived.
given.
.taught.
denied.
said.
found.
committed.
waited.
chosen.

REMARK. The I NTERROGATIVE form is used in asking questions; and the
subject is generally placed between the auxiliary and the verb ; a~, Docs he
love ? Was he loved? Did they love? H"s h e been loved?
DIRECTION.

Let the pupil write some of the above verbs in the interrogative form.

T he following Paradigms are given in full, for referenc e, and not for study.

112.

CONJUGATION

of the irregular, transitive verb

TEACH.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.

Present,
teach,

P ast,
taught,

Imperfect Participle,
teaching,

P erfect Participle,
taught.

113. SIMPLE ACTIVE FORM.
N oTE.

'"

/.;.
. .l

·'

The Ancient or Solemn Style is put in Italics.
INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present, Singular - first person I teach, second, you teach or thou
teachest, third, he teaches; Plural - 1. We teach, 2, you
or ye teach, 3, they teach.
·
Past - I taught, you taught or thou taughtest, he taught ; we
taught, you or ye taught, they taught.
.
Future - I shall or will teach , you shall or will teach or thou
shalt or wilt teach, he shall or will teach ; we shall or will
teach, you or ye shall or will teach, they shall or will
teach.
·
Perfect - 1 have taught, you have taught or thou hast taught, he
has or hath taught; we have taught, you . or ye havo
taught, they have taught.

'•

-»Past P erfect - I had taught, you had taught or t~ou hadst ta?ight,
'"
he had taught; we had taught, you or ye had taught, they
had taught.
Future P erfect - I shall have taught, you will have taught or
thou wilt have taught, he will have taught ; we shall have
taught, you or ye will have taught, they will have taught.
EMPHATIC FORM.

Present - I do teach, you do teach or thou dost teach, he does or
doth teach; we ·ao teach, you or ye do teach, they do teJ.ch.
Past - I did teach, you did teach or thou didst twch, he did
teach; we did teach, you or ye did teach, they did teach.
INTERROGATIVE FORM.

Do I teach? · Did they teach? Has he taught? &c.
POTENTIAL MOOD.

Present-I may, can, or must teach,-you rr.ay, can, or must:
. .
t each, or thou mayst, canst, or must teach,- he may, can, or
must teach ; we may, can, or must tetich, -you or ye may,
c11n, or must teacl1 ,. -they ·may, can, or must teach .
Past - I might, could, would, or should tettch,-you might, could,
·
would, or should teach, or thou mightst, couldst, wouldst,
or shouldst teach, -he might, could, would, or should te.11ch;
we might, could, would, or should teach, -you or ye n11ght,
co uld, would, or should teach,-they might, could, would,
or should teach .
P erfect - I may, can, or must have ta.ught,-you may, can, or.
must have taught, or thou mayst, canst, or must havdaug!tt,he may, can, or must have taught ; we may, can; or must
have taught,-you or ye may, can , or must have tau ght,":.
they may, can, or must have taught.
··
Past Perfect - I might, could, would, or should have t11ught'.-you
mi ght, could, would, or should have taught, or t'.wu mightst,
couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have taught,-he ·might, could,
would, or should have taught ; we might, could, would, or
should have taught,-you or ye might, could, would, or
sho{ild have taught;- they might, could, would! .or should
. ;.J
have taught .
7

74

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

.cmrnoN-SCROOL 'GR'.!MMA'R.

IllPERATIVE.

Tea1Jh thou, or do thou or you t each ; teach ye, or do you
teach .
I NFIN ITIVE.

Present - to teach.

Perfect - to have taught.
PA!tTICIPLES.

Imperfect -

teaching.
Compoun~ P e1fect -

Simple Perfect haviug taught.

taugl;~,

114. PA SSIVE FORM.
I NDICAT!VE.

Present - I am taught, you are taught or thou. art tmtght, lie is
t<tught; we are taught, you or y e are taught, they are
taught.
Past - I was taught, you were taught or thou wast taught, he was
tau ght; we were taught, you or ye were taught, they were
bwght.
Future-I shall or will be taught, you shall or will be taught or
thou shalt or wilt be taught, he shall or will be taught; we
shall or will be taught, you or ye shall or will be taught
.
they shall or will be taught.
P erfect - I have been taught, you have been taught or thou hast
been taught, he has been taught; we have been taught, you
or ye Jiaye been taught, they have been taught.
'
Past P cif ect - I had been taught, you had been taught or thou
hadst been taught, he had been taught; we had been taught,
you or ye had been taught, they had been taught.
F'uture P e·ifect - I shall .have been taught, you will have)ipen
taught or thou wilt have been taught, he will have b,~!l
9
t:111ght; we shall have been taught, you or ye will 1;rLVe
been taught, they will have been taught.
P01'E1i'fIAL.

Present-I may, can, or must be taught,-you may, can, or must
be taught, or thou mayst, canst, or must be taught, -he may,
can, or must he taught ; we mity, can, or must be taught, you or ye may , can , or must be taught, -they may, cau,
or rnu~t be taught.

75

Past - I might, could, would, or should be taugh t , - you rn ight,
could, would, or shou ld be taught, or thou mightst, couidst,
wouldst, or shouldst ba taught, - he might, could, would, or
should be taught; we might, could , would, or should be
taught, -you or ye might, could, would, or should be
taught, - they might, could, would, or should be t:wght.
P erf ect - I may, can, or must have been taught, - you. may, can,
or muHt 1111ve been taught, or thou ·mayst, canst , or must have
bee n taught,-he may, can; or must have been taught; we
may, can, or must have been taught, -you or ye umy, can ,
or must have been taught, - they may, can, or must have
been tau ght.
ai Past P erfect - I might, could, would, or should have been taught,~·: .
you might, could, would, or should have been taught, or
thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst ha·ve beP.n taught, fL,
he might, could, would, or should have been taught; we
l" •
might, could, would, or should .have been taught, - you or
ye might, could, would, or should have been taught, -- they
might, could, would, or should have been taught.
SUBJUNCTIVE.

, Present -lf I be taught, you or thou be taught, he be taught;
we he taught, you or ye be taught, they be taught.
Past - lf I were taught, you were taught or thou wert taught, he
·were taught; we were ta.ught, you or ye were taught, they
were taught.

.: :

IllPERAT!VE.

n ' Be taught, be thou taught, or do you or thou be taught; · be
laught, be ye taught, or do you or ye be taught.
~· J

INFINITIVE.

Present -

to be taught.

Perfect -to have been taught.
PARTICIPLES.

Imperfect - being taught.
Perfect - taught.
Compound P erfect - having been taught.

~:;l
'

'

'

"'"'

~

J'.r

.. J{
'.,.,-· v.
'.h~ t.
':

J•

r
,\\I
-~

{

1

/.

"."~!

I'·:

, l:
I

.' •tv1
t.·"
.C.:J

, 'I'
~

(•:fli

~ tl
" !f\

it

.l ,.

,< !

·\ .

~·

.i

Present.

Past.

Abide,
Am or be,

abode,

Arise,

Bear, to produce,
Beat,
Begin,
Bend,
Beseech,
Bid,
Bind,
Bite,
Bleed,
Blow,
Break,
Breed,
Bring,
Burst,
Buy,
Cast,
Chide,
Choose,
Cleave, to split,
Cling,

Come,
Cost,
Creep,
Cut,
Do,
Draw,

drove,

TIL• pupil may write on ltzs slate the fell form of the progressi,v.e'.iii ·

all its parts.

116. The following verbs are ir_regular
more of their principal parts.
was,
arose,
bore, bare,
bore, bare,
beat,
bega.n,

bent,
besought,

bid, bade,
bound,
bit,
bled,
blew,
broke, brake,
bred,
brought,
burst,
bought,
cast,

ch id,
chose,

clove, cleft,
clung,

came,
cost,

crept,
cut,

did,
drew,

Ill

one

::. i1
'·: i"i
~H'

.

Imperfect Participle.
abiding,

being,
arising,
bearing,
bearing,
beating,
beginning,
bending,
beseeching,
bidding,

binding,
biting,
bleeding,
blowing,
breaking,

breeding,
bringing,
bursting,
buying,
casting,
chiding,
choosing,
cleaving,
clinging,
corning,
costing,
creeping,
cutting,
doing,
drawing,

* Bare in either verb is not used by late writers.

· · "'. d~inking,

drank,

The same as the Passive, except teaching takes the pla.ce of taught}
Only the Compound Perfect form of the participle is much us~.•i~
as, Having been teaching.
.<··~:'.{

been.
arisen.
born.
';).
borne.
beaten, beat. ~
.. J
begun.
,
1
bent, bended. ;;
besought.
bidden, bid,
bound.
bit.ten, bit.
bled.
blown.
broken.
bred.
brought.
burst.
bought.
.·.. J '
cast.
. iJ
chidden, chi,~·,J
chosen. . ,, l~
cloven, cleft: .
:,.>if.
c1ung.
come.

cost.
crept.
cut.
done.
drawn.

eat,. at~, .
fell,
fed,
felt,
fought,
found,
·fled,
flung,
flew,
forgot,
forsook,
froze,
got,
gave,
went,
ground,
heard,
hid,
hit,
held,
hurt,
kept,
knew,
laded,
lo.id,
led,
left,
lent,
let,
lay,
lost,
made,

.

meant,
met,

pnid,
put,
read,
rent,
rid,

Perfect Participle.

Imperfect Pa,rticiple.

Past.

115. PROGRESSIVE FORM.

DTRE C TIO~ .

77

C0¥¥0N-SC_B:O()J,.··, ~R.AlifMAR.

001\BION-SCHOOL GR.AMMAR.

Bear,* to sustain,

: '_·u 1

.~

76

driving,
eating,
falling,
feeding,
feeling,
fighting,

findi~g,
fleeing,
flinging,
flying,
forgetting,
forsaking,
freezing,
getting,

giving,
going,
grinding,
hearing,
hiding,
hitting,
holding,
hurting,
keeping,
knowing,

lading,
Jayi;,,g,
leading,
leaving,
lending,
letting,
lying,
losing,
making,
meaning,
meeting,
paying,
putting,
reading,
rending,
ridding,

.,

drank, drunk.
driven.
eaten.
fallen.
fed.
felt.
fough t.
fou~d.

fled. ·
flung.
flown.
forgotten, forgot.
forsaken.
frozen.
got, gotten.
given.
gone.
ground.
heard.
hidden, hid.
hit.
held, holden. ·
hurt.
. kept.
known.
Jnden.
laid.
led.
left.
lent.
let.
lain.
lost.
made.
meant.
met.
paid.
pnt.
read.
rent.
rid.

*Lade, to dip, and lie, to .tell a.falsehooo, are regular.

7*

78
~

sS·t
·f'

·f

'

Pre!ICnt.

Ride,
!ting,
Hise,
Run,

Say,
Se-e,
Seek,
8cll ,
Send,
:Se t,
:Sit,
8hake,
Shed,
Show,
Shoe,
Shoot,
Shred,
Shrink,
Shut,
Sing,
Sink,
Slay,
Sleep,
Slide,
Sling,
Slink,
Smite,
Speak,
o vced,
Spend,
Spin,
Spit,
i:iplit,
Spread,
Spring,
Stand,
Stc,11,
Stick,
Sting,
Stride,

Strike,
~tr i ng,

Past.
rode,
ru.ng, rung,
rose,

ran,
so.id,

Imperfec.t Participle .
riding,
ringing,
rising,
running,

e11ying,
saw,
seeing,
sought,
seeking,
sold,
selling,
sent,
sending,
set,
setting,
sa.t,
sitting,
shook,
sh11king,
shed,
shedding,
showed, shewed, shew, showing,
shod,
shoeing,
shot,
shooting,
shred,
shredding,
:::bruuk, shrank,
shrinking,
shut,
shutting,
sang, sung,
singing,
sank, sunk,
sinking,
slew,
slaying,
slept,
sleeping,
slid,
sliding,
slung, slang,
slinging,
slunk,
slinking,
smote,
smiting,
spoke, spake,
speaking,
sped,
speeding,
spent,
spending,
spun,
spinning,
spit, spat,
spitting,
split,
splitting,
spread,
sprca.cling,
sprang, sprung,
springing,
stood,
standing,
st0lc,
stcn.ling,
stuck,
sticking,
stung,
stinging,
strode, strid,
striding,
s truck,
striking,
struug,
stringing,

79

COMMONrSCHOOL.. '·GRAMMAR.

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.
Perfect Participli'i
rodo, ridtlcn . . oa
J:uug.

.,.a

rhrnu.

'.,,3

run.

·"a

· ~i Yi a ~
•aid.
·.· 11.i-.:T
seen.
,,,T
sought.
·, ,.T
sold.
r.ir
sent.
.·.!T
set.
·:."£
sat.
sh11kcn.
shed .
sh own .
shod.
shot.
shred.
shrunk.
shut.
sung.
sunk.
slain.
slept.
slid, sliddim ,·1 .
. '· A
slung.
-. ([
slunk.
smitten, smit;·I J
,J
spoken.
sped.
spent.
spun.
spit.
split.
spre11d.
sprung.
stood.
stole.
stuck.
stung.
stridden, stri<IP
struck, stricke'~!
strung.

Stri1•e,
Swear,
Sweep,
Swim,
Swing,
Take,
Teach,
Tare,
Tell,
Think,

Past .
strove,
swore, swea.r,
swept,
swam, swum,,
swung,
took,
taught,

tore, tare,_
told,
thought,
threw,
thrust,
trod,
wore,
wove,
wept,
won,
wound,
wrote,

Imperfect Participle.

striving,
iwea.ring,

Perfect Pa,ticiple.
striven.
sworn.

sweeping,

swept.

swimming,

swum.

swinging,
taking.t
teaching,
t earing,
telling,
thinking,
throwing,
thrusting,
treading,

taken.
t11ught.
torn.
told.
thought.
thrown.
thrust.
trodden, trod.

wearing,
weaving,

weeping,
winning,
winding,
Wiiting,

~ny u ng.

worn.

woven.
wept.
won.
wound.
written.

117. The following verbs, besides the irregular
forms here given, have also the regular forms.
Past.
awoke,
bereft,
blended,
built,
burnt,
caught,
clave,
clad,
crew,
to venture, durst,"'
dealt,
dug,
dreamt,
dwelt,
gilt,
girt,
gro.ved,

Imperfect Participle.

awaking,
bereaving,
blending,
building,
burning,
catching,
cleaving,
clothing,
crowing,
daring,
dealing,
digging,
dreaming,
dwelling,
gilding,
girding,
graving,

* DarC, to challenge, is always regular.

Perfect Participle.

a waked.
bereft.
blent.
built.
burnt.
caught.
cleaved.
clad.
crowed.
dared.
dealt.
dug.
dreamt.
dwelt.
gilt.
girt.
graven.

80
Present.

IJ.ang,

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMA1>.
Past.
hung,*
hove,

Imperfect Partici'ple.

working,

Perfect Participle.
hung.
he<Lvcd.
hewn.
knelt.
knit.
lit.
laden .
mown.
pent.
quit.
riven.
sawn.
sudden.
shapen.
sha,-en.
shorn.
shone.
slit.
sown.
spelt.
spilt.
strewn.
strown.
swe<Lt.
swelled.
wet.
whet.
wrought.

wringing,

wrung . .

Seethe,
Si1'1.pe,
Shave,
Shear,

shaped,
shaved,
sheared,

Shine,

shone,

hanging,
heaving,
bowing,
kneeling,
knitting,
lighting,
loading,
mowing,
penning,
quitting,
riving,
so.wing,
seething,
shaping,
shaving,
shearing,
shining,

Slit,
Sow, to scatter,
Spell,
Spill,

slit,

slitting,

sowed,

sowing,

spelt,
spilt,
strewed,
strawed,

spelling,

lhmve,
1-Icw,
Kneel,
Knit,

Light,
Load,

.Mow,
Pen, to enclose,
Quit,
Rive,
Sa.w,

Strew,

hewed,

knelt,
knit,
lit,
loaded,
mowed,

pent,
quit,
rived,
sawed,
sod,

Strow,
Sweat,
Swell,
Wet,
·whet,
Work,

whet,
wrought,

Wring,

wrung,

sweat,

swelled,
wet,

COMMON-SCHOOL .GRAMMAR.

spilling,
strewing,
strawing,
sweating,

swelling,
wetting,
whetting,

Quoth I, quoth he, and quoth they, in the present and past tenses, aru u sed
only by quaint writers. Beware (be aw<Lre) is used chiefly in tho Imperative
and Infinitive . Hark is mostly confined to the Imperative. Oujht becomes
oughtest in the Solemn or Formal style.

I.MPERSONAL VERBS.

119. An impersonal verb asserts being, action, or a
Rtate of things, where the agent, well known, unknown
o.r indefinite, is represented generally by the pronoun
it; as, it rains, it thunders, it lightens, it freezes, it hails,
&c. Such expressions are used chiefly in respect to
the state of the weather, atmosphere, &c.
REHARK I. Methinks= I think, methought= I thought, mescems =it
seems to mo, and meseemed=it seemed to me, &c., are anoma.lies, and may
bo classed here.

2. In such expressions as "they say," &c., they is used to represent indefinitely persons unknown or persons in general, somebody, ~·c.

FORMS AND PROPERTIES OF VERBS.

DEFECTIVE VERBS.

118. A defective verb is one that is wanting in some
of its parts ; as, Can, could, may, might, shall, should
will, would, must, ought, quoth, beware, and hark.
'

81

1

PRINCIPAL PAR'rs - Regular, Irregular, Defective.
Krnns - 'l'ransitive, Intransitive.
'1'1u NS l1'IVE FORMS-Simple Active, Emphatic, Progressive, Passive.
INTRA NSITIVE F01rns - Simple Active, Emphatic, Progressive.
Moons - Indicative, Potential, Subjunctive, Imperative, Infinitive.
'l'ENSES -Present, Past, Future, Perfect, Past Perfect, Future
Perfect.
N UM llER - Singular, Plural.
PERSON- First, Second, 'l'hird.
PARTICIPLES.

I. Wis, and its past tense wist, are found only in
Wit, to know, and its past tense wot, are seldom found, and
writings; but its infinitive to wit_, mc~ning namely, is still used.

ACTIVE Fomrs - Imperfect, Simple Perfect, Compound Perfect.
' PASSIVE Fomrs-Imperfect, Compound Perfect.

* Hang, to deprive of life by hanging, pen, to write, and s-ew, to sew cloth, are re~.. .
ular. Strew is going out of use; it is pronounced like strow, and the latter spelling ia
prevaiJing. Shew, pronounced like show, has given place to it.
. J

. What is an impersonal verb? Give examples. How are such expressions used? '\Yhat
anomalies? - general expressions? Give the forms and properties of verbs - of par·

RElfARK

liciples.

/
82

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

COMMON-SCHOOL'; GRAMMAR)

FORM FOR PARSING THE VERB.

subjoined and dependent cluuse to express a supposition, by one of
t!I-~ peculiar forms found only in this verb or auxilia,ry, ''if'' l;>eing
implied. Pa~t tense, and not varied for the persol). and numb.er of

Regnlar or irregular in formation of principal parts; give
parts; how formed; transitive or intransitive, and why; in whati
form; how the snbject is affected by the manner of the assertion'·•[
what moo_d, and why; what tense, and why; varied or not '
account of the number and person of its subject, and how.
FORM FOR PARSING THE PARTICIPLE.

wh~~~

. From wha_t verb derived; the form; in what relation used;
m the r~bt1on of the adjective, parse it as an adjective; when
the r elat10n of a noun, :is a noun.
MODBL.

Were John successful, it might render him
to try again.

''..·!
··::: ; 1:

~- ....:111.
I

'

11

~

'

s..:.. ·:

r: ,:.'

!·

'l1

~.

"

'·

~

'•' 'fl

·-·- II:·
'' ___I '

. In this compound sentence the dependent and subordinate clans:·
with the independent clause by the conjunction " if,,.
~mphed; as, "\Vere John successful " = if John were successfui~ ·
if John should be successful, &c.
'.
"It,''. substituted for the clause containing the supposition, i~l
the subject, unmodified, of the independent clause and "mio-ht'
ren~er" is the predicate, which is directly modified b~" him " :~J'
"him" by ". ,a nx1011s,
·
" an d " anx10us
·
" .indirectly by the 'phrase
"to try agam." The modified pr.edicate, then, is all of the claus~i
except the subject" it."
''"t
"John" is the subject of the subordinate or dependent clans~' !
and " w~re " is the predicate, which is modified by " successfut'; -;:i
the ,quality denot.ed by " successful " i8 asserted
of Joh n m
· th e
.
pre
" John"
is ~o proper noµµ,
'"'
. d
. 1cate, instead
.
. . of beinoo assumed.
.
,.
Ihtme
· ., ,smgu·
1 , fof an. mdwufual;
..
, masculine gender • of
. a . male
'. b emg
m, o _one , thn d peison, spoken of; nominatrve case, because It is
the su bJect of the assertion, :incl if a personal pronoun be substituted;
f~r "John" th e appropriate form will be" he," which is the spei
ma! form for the nominative of that gender ::rnd number.
, .,1 1
"w
' ,, th e pre d'1ca,te of the subjoined clause, is used to assert,o:
. ere,
and is, th erefore, u verb. Be, was, been, irregular. Intmnsitive .
cannot take a direct object after it. Subjunctive mood, used in;;
~s co~nectcd

Give the forms for parsing a verb and participle.

its subject.
• ~.' It" is a personal pronoun, showing by a special form the per1
son, number, and gender, of what it r epresent.'l ; here subetituted
for the dependent or subordinate clause, and representing the fact.
supposed in it.
Third person, singular; nominative case, and
is :the grammatical subject of the clause. The form being the
same in the nominutive and objective, does not indicate the case.
"Might render" is a verb, here used to assert. Principal parts,
Present render, Past rendered, Perfect Participle rendered. Regular,
because its past tense and perfect participle are formed by adding
ed to the simple form of the verb. Transitive, as it takes after it 11
direct object," him,'' which has the form of the objective case. 'rhe
Simple Active form, the subject-nominative being the agent or doer,
n.ot the receiver of the action:; the receiver or object of the action is
"him" in the objective. Potential mood, expressing possibility or
power, by the auxiliary might. Past tense in form, but future in
meaning, the definitions of the tenses seldom applying in this mood.
A' .verb in this mood is not varied by the person and number of its
sµ'. bject.
" " 'ro try" is a regular verb, try, tried, tried; intransitive, takes no
object after it, and here used in the sense to make an attempt, to .
make an rjfort; Infinitive mood, simple form used to denote pur- .
, . pose, and limits "anxious," showing for what "it would render
~!1n

anxious,"
EXERCISES.

Give clausal and phra.~al an.alysis, and, according t.o model, parse the
verbs and their su bjects, giving kind,form,properties, and modifying relations.
:'DiRECTION.

.. vVe may scatter the seeds of courtesy and kindness around us
expense. we shall not see in life the end of human
l\Ctions.
Half a quire of foolscap had been folded , into the
shape of a writing-book for me by the maternal hand, and I had
succeeded in obtaining a penknife. Avoid slander as you would
a scorpion. Experience keeps a dear school, but fools will learn
in no other. Charity should begin at home, but should not end

~t}ittle

the1e.

84

COMMON-SCHOOL! GR-.A:MM1AR ;

COMMON·SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

By entertaining good thoughts, you will keep out evil ones.
Men may be pleased with a jester, but they never esteem hiuit
Show method in thy study, if thou wilt acquire true wi8do·m.
The man was swimming for lifo. By learning to obey, you will
know how to com mand. A thousand probabilities cannot make ·
one truth. P onder again and again on the divine law, for ·afl.
things are contained therein.
· d~
ADJECTIVE.

. •!.

120. An ADJECTIVE is a word used to define or limit
the meaning of a noun, or to express a quality of the
object named ; as, three, old, industrious.
.; !
r

1. Most adjectives may be used, by ellipsis, as nouns,
when no obscurity can arise from such use ; as, The good are happy.
REMARK

2. An adjective used as a noun is always of the sa.me number' as '
the noun would be if expressed; it is generally preceded by the article "the," and is parsed as the noun would be, if supplied. It i·stains, also, its force as an adjective.
''
3. An adjective formed from a proper noun is called a proper adjective; as, American from America, English from Engbnd. A}l
others must be common. This distinction may be disregarded, .efi/
cept in beginning proper adjectives with a capital letter.
4. Adjectives, used to define or limit, without expressing quality,
are the NUMERAL adjectives, one, two, three, four, &c., called carr/j..
nal; first, second, t hird, fourth, &c., called ordinal; also, single,
double or twofold, triple or threefold, &c. Others expres8 qua\jty,
and describe.
' ...':! I

5. The cardinal numerals are plum! except the word " one,.f
When used as nonns, they can take the plural form, and be declined .
like nouns; as, I will not destroy them for ten's sake . Hi~ banner:f
millions meet. '.l'hey were all rtt sixes and sevens. Th ey nmrch~d ·ij.y
twos and threes. They were sent off by fifties and hundreds. ·
'Vhat is an adjective ? 'Vhen ca.n adject ives be used as nouns? Of what number are
they when so used? How are they parsed ? What is a proper adjective? What are
numeral adjectives 1 Which are called cardinal ? Which numeral I

85.

.-- N OTE 1. Us!\ge sanctions the expressions, three couple, three sc<>re, tl;iree
pair of shoos, Ii ve hundred, six thousand, &c.
.2. Many is joined with n singular noun when a intervenes ; as, Full many
~ gom. Many a nmn . Man~ a flower.

,_,

_. 6. Two or more words joined together often form a compound
·adjective; o.s, shame-faced, moon-eyed, sky-blue; the three-leaved
'clover; a.fourjooted animal.
7. Nouns are sometimes used as adjectives; as, A gold ring, a
silver pitcher , an iron post, a stone wa!I.

9

COMPARISON.

..

An adjective may be made to express different degrees of quality; as, useful, more useful, most useful;
less useful, least useful.
· '.~i.,· 1 21. The different degrees of comparison are called
,Positive, Comparative, and Superlative.
u

., ''122. An adjective in the positive form simply expresses the quality
"of >m object; as, useful, wise. Thus, he is a' useful man. He is a
wise man.
·:· 123. 'l'he comparative form expresses a higher or lower degree of
.ltb.e quality ; as, more useful, less useful; wiser, less wise. Thus,
-Iron is more useful than brass. John is less wise than his brothers.
William is wiser than he was.
',-1 ' 124. The superlative form expresses the highest or lowest degree
. -~f the quality; as, most useful, least useful. Thus, Iron is the
.most useful metal. Solomon was the wisest of men.
The different degrees of comparison are made by changino- the termination of an adjective, or by prefixing certain adverbs
0
' to its sim pie form.

· " REl!ARK.

L.. 125. Adjectives of one syllable are generally made to express a
1hio-her degree by adding r or er, and the highest by adding st or est,

''t 0 ° the positive form; as, wise, wiser, wisest; black, blacker, black68t; sad, sadder, saddest.
126. Adjectives of more than o.ne syllable are generally made to
What is a compound adjective 1 Give the·examples of adjectives compared.

8

86

COMMON-SCHOOL

GR.A.~CM.A.R.

express a higher degree by prefixing more, and tho highest by prefixin g must, to tho positi ve form; as, famou s, more famous, mq~
famuu s ; industrious, more industrious, most industrious.
·,d
1:27. Adjectives arc m'ide to express a lower degree of the quality
by preLixing less, and the lowest by prefixing least, to the positiy_e
form ; as, wise , less wise, least wise.
'"
128. Adjectives of two syll11bles, ending in y or silent e, are generally compared li ke monosylhbles, but may be by adverbs; as,
simple, simpler or more simple, simplest or most simple; holy,
hvlier or more holy, holiest or most holy.
:Ll" om. Where er or est is added to a word end ing in y, the y is changed to
i, as above.

129. Some adjectives are co mpared irreglllarly; as, positive good,
comparative better, superlatiYe best; bad, ill or evil, worse, worst;
for, farth er or further, farthest or furth es t; fure, former, foremost
or first; hind, hinder, hindermost or hindmost; li ttle, less or lesser,
least ; late, later or latter, btest or last; low, loll'er, lowermost or
lowest ; mu ch or many, more, most; near, nearer, nearo.:;t or next;
old, older or elder, oldest or eldest.
,.
130. Th e following lack the positive or simple form; as, comparatiYc inner, sllperlative innermost or inmost· nether nethermost; upper, uppermost or upmost; under, und~rmost; 'outer · ~r
u tter, outermost or utmost.
131. The adverbs, very, exceedingly, indeed, much , &e., 11re used
with adjectives to increase t'he degree of the quality; as, very good,
t;<ry good indeed, much better, exceedingly abundant, the very best.,
132. The termination ish is sometimes added to an adjective ·to
diminish the degree of the quality designated; as, black, blackish;
r ed, reddish.
133 . Numeral adjectives, and those denoting shape, material, or
pos ition, or a quality incapable of increase or diminution, and those
alr~ady comparative or rnperlative in signifimition, are seldom compared; as, twenty, round, horizontal, dead, right, perfect, rear,
in fe ri or, front.
' Vhat other adverbs may he prefixed to adjectives to inc rcn.se the degree? 'Vhat ~
the effect of the term ination Hi.sh,,? \Vhai adjectives are seldom compared?

COMMON-SCHOOL GRA.MM'.A.R.

87

1. Good usage, however, admits o( comparison in so11'.e
~f the above c111sses ; as, He was more free· in·1his manners than .his
brother. This book is more per.feet than the preceding ·copies.
·(: 2. Old writers frequently compared adjectives not now com~ared,
'a~d even used double comparatives and superbtives, now studiously
· avoided; as, The chi~est among ten thoutiand. Th~ most straitest
sect. '£his was the most unkindest cut of all.

· " ' 'REMARK

FOK\I FOR P ARSL'\G AN ADJECTIVE.

If it admits of comparison, tell the degree, and what it limits.
llODEL.

With its clear streams, beautiful flowers, and noble
:trees, the old homestead offered to the weary a. most
'Welcome repose.
A simple sentence, wi.th "homestead" for its subject, and. " _offered" .for its predicate. The other parts are siwordmate, mod1fymg
these two essential parts.
.
" Homeste 11d" is directly mc:ldified by the definite or demonstratwe
'word" the,'' and by the descriptive word" old, " and indirectly by
. the three descr iptive phrases that precede, connected together by
"and" expressed or implied.
" Offered " is directly limited by the objective phrase " a most
•welcome repose ; " and indirectly by the phrase "to the weary."
,'. 'rhe noun "streams" is directly mOdified by the word "its,'' a
substitute for "homestead;'' and "clear," expressing the quality
of the streams, and describing their condition as to the purity and
transparency of the water.
. · ,;
.
The noun "flowers" is directly modified by "beautiful, desorib ·
_ing their appearance.
. '£he noun "trees" is directly modified by "noble," de:icribiog ·
them as to quality and 11ppcarance.
. " Weary" is a word used here to des?ribe objects so clearly known
to be hum<in beings, that the word persons may be better .im~b~d
&ban expressed; . and the definite word " the." that would linnt
"persons" if expressed, here limits "weary." The phrnse, " the
weary"= those or the persons who are weary.·

88

CO~DfON-SCHOOL

GRAMMAR.

The nou n " r epose" is directly modifi ed by the phrase "mos\
welcome, " do:;cribing its qu<ility, and imp uting that quality in the
high est degree .

. i

.·,

"llorn oste,ul " is a common noun; no se:r , therefore neuter geuder; third person, sing ular, and nominatioc case, grnmmatical SLtbjuot
of th e sen te nce ; t ho modified subj ect bein g "hornestead " and all;
th o words that prcceJe it.
·' OlforcJ , " t he grnrnmatical predi ca.te, here used to assert somot !1ing of " homestead, " is a verb. Present oiler, P ast offered, P erfect
l ·'urli.-ip!c offered; regu lar, forming its princip<d par ts by at!Ji1 1i; ed
t o t he sim ple fo rm. Tra nsitive, lrnvin g the nonn "repose " <ts tho
direc t uljcc/. of its .iction, limiting th e a.Der to tlmt single thing. In
t he Active form , hec:inse the sul:~j cc t-nominative is th e agent or doer,
and nut the r eceiver of the a ct asserted. Indicative mood, it simply
decla res. P ast tense, it denotes an action, in ptist time, incomplete
or co nt inuin g ; :is, ~(jcrcd=was offering, denoting continuance, or
an n11li11i si,cd act. -'\. Yorb in this tense is not vari ed, in Common
Style, on '' ceo un t of t he p erson and number of its subject .
"L'l e~n , ' ' tl e~c- ri b i n g " s troa.1ns," is a.n adj ectir o ; pos itive or simpl e form clear, co rnparn,tive cleare·r , sup erla tive clearest . In the
posit irc dogrne, attributing to t he " streams " th e qu:ility of water
called clearn ess.
" J3oa ut iful ," here descriptive of "ilowers," :ind assuming fur
th em the qu:di ty of beauty , is an adjective, in the simple form ur ·
posit irn degree ; .is, posit ive beautif u l, comparative more beautiful, '.
snperla t irc most beautiful.
"Noble,' ' describing" trees" and t elling their quality, is an adjective of two sylla bles ending in silent e, and therefore generally
COlll]Jarod by r and st; as, noble, nobler, noblest. Here it is in tho
si1n plo form or positive degree.
,
" O!cl" describes " homest e:id" as possessing the qnulity of age,
rin d is .in adjec tive in the simplo form, compared thus; positii'e
o1d, ~ o mpar:t t iY e o/rlr:r, superfative oldest.
" ·w a,~ry " describes ol~jects not expressed, but capable of being
tired , as th o q mtli ty of wearin ess is ass um ed for them; here obYi oasly frorn t he co nn ecti on, " weary persons " ; thus " weary " is '.
an aclj cctirn in the simple form . Bnt, as th e phrnse" the woMy" is '
substitu f·ed fo r " we.iry persons,'' the word "weary" i'S here used ·
in th e r eLition of n, noun, n,nd is to be pn,rsed n,s such. It is in the

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

89

plural number, substituted for " persons," as adjectives used in the
rela tion of noLms tU"O :il w:iys of the same number as the nouns they
reprm;ent. It also retains its adjective sig nificati cm of quality. Its
ci>se-rt>hiticm is funnel to be objective by snbstitut ing the appropriate
porsu1ml prononn "them,'' the specitil form for the objective cas9.
" i\Iost welcome" is a phrnse describing " r epose, " .is posse8.;ing
th o riuali ty in the hi ghest degree. It is an adjecti \'e , in the supcrkri1·e degree; as, welcome, more welcome, most welcome . Although ti
rli8>ylbl.Jlc ending in silent e, yet it is compar ed by tho acherbs more
am\ most.

l

·\
/

_1j
~

"

' I

EXERCISES.
Anal yze the following sentences, giving the clausal and phras.a l
relations, a.n(l p ars t~ the adjectives in accordan c e with thP model.
DrnECTIO N .

'!.'he grim w;i,rriors of Israel marched into the defenceless city.
The people awoke n,t earliest dawn. The strong encourn,ge the
weak, th e young are obedient to the aged. A thin mist, curling
upward, revcn,ls the white tents of Israel gleumiug in the soft
light of early dawn. The days are calm; the nights are tranquil ; the apples drop in the stillest hours. More dear, less
bean ti fol than June, September is the heart's month. If our
unselfish eye would behold it, August is the most populous and
the happi est month. Fish seek the deeper pools, and the air is
resonant of insect orchestras.
ARTICLES .

134. A.n ARTICLE is a word used ·with a noun to limit
its meaning, without expressing quality.
135. A. or AN is called the indefinite article, and THE
the clejinite article.
REl!ARK 1. "Give me a book ."
Only one book is here required,
and any book would answer the request, as no defin ite one is specified. It merely limits in number, but in other respec ts is indefinit e.

What is an article ? Which is the definite article 1 Which the indefinite 1

s•

l

~· ,

- -/
90

COMMON-SCHOOL GHAMMAH.

2. " Give me the book." Here some particular book is specified;
whioh llJone will answer the r equest, " Give me the books." The
request is still cleiiuite.

136. The lliclefinite artiole a or an limits a noun to
one, but not a particular, object; as, Bring me a book.
Bring· me an apple.

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

man had a few thoughts and a little wisdom.
negative; the second, affirmative.

91

The first sentence is

FORM FOR PARSING AN ARTICLE.

Definite, indefinite, why? Form ; when a is used, why? when an
is used, why?
MODEL.

Here the [Lrticle a or an restricts to one book or [Lpple,
but is indefinite as to what book or apple . It is equivalent to the
word" any," restricted to the singul[Lr number.
RE3JARK.

137. The De;foite article the limits nouns to particular objects ; as, Give me the book or books.
REnJARK 1. Give me the book or books= Give me this or that:
hook, or these or those books. Here the [Lrticle "the" is nearly
equivalent to tbe clemonstrntive adjective pronouns this or that, these
or those.

2. A is used before [1 word beginning with a consonant sound; as,
A man, a boy, a union, [1 young man, a eulogy, a wonder, a useful'
person, nmny ti one, such [1 use, a yew tree, a ewer.
3. An is used before a word beginning ·with a vowel sound, or the"
sound of h when the accent is on the second sylbble; as, An ox, an: ·
apple, [Lii hour, an honorable man, an heroic exploit, u,n historical' ·
fact.
4. A, though singular, is often used before an adjective of number; [LS, A few men, tt great many men.
5. A noun used without an article is unrestricted, and is gener-"
ally taken in its widest sense. '£hus, the word man, without a11t
article before it, stands for mu,nkind or the human race. Sometimes
the use uf the article gives a genernl signification; as, The horse is:
u, useful 1111i1m~l =horses u,re useful anim[Lls.

-·

G. The omission of the article a sometimes renders the propoAitioru
negative; as, The nrnn had few thoughts and little wisdom. The,
How does the ind efin ite article limit nouns? - the definite?
- a nouu without an article? '11he omission of al

1Vhere is a used 1-an f~
.·_, j

.A.n hour had passed, an awful hour in a night of
storm and tempest, and the boat yet struggled with
the waves.
This sentence consists of two independent assertions, connected
" Hour," the subject of the first cbuse, is directly
modified by" an," limiting it to one, but indefinite u,s to what hour.
It is also directly modified by the phrnse, "an awful hour," which
is repeated for emphasis, in apposition with the first word "hour,"
denoting the same period of time.
The second word " hour" is directly modified by the descriptive
'lfOrd " awful," u,nd by " an" ; it is also indirectly modified by the
phrase " in a night," which phrnse is indirectly modified by the
descriptive phrase " of storm and tempest." " Night" is directly
modified by " a." The modified subject is the whole clause except
' i Imel pu,ssed. "
" Boat," the subject of the second clause, is directly modified by
"the,'' limiting it definitely to a particular boat.
"Struggled," the predietite, is directly modified by" yet," and
indirectly by the phrase " with the waves."
"Hour" is a common noun, neuter gender, singular number,
third person, and nominative case. (Why ?)
·
' The indefinite article" an," modifying" hour," is used because
it is followed by a ·word beginning with a vowel sound.
"!fad passed,'' the predicate unmodified, is used to assert, and
is, therefore, a verb. Principal parts, pass, passed, passed, regubr.
(Why?) It mu,y be either transitive or intransitive, according to
the sense ; here intransitive, requiring no object after it. Simple
Active form ; Indicative mood, simply declares an act. Past Pe'lject
tense, denotes that the action was completed in past time. This

by " u,nd."

-- -- -- -- -- - -- -- -- - - /
92

93

COMMON-SC HOOL GRAMMAR.

COMJIION-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

tense is not varied on ticcount of t he person and number of the
subject.
",\n " is an ar ticle modify ing " lwur," nsed before "awful,"
beg inning \l" ith a rnwel sound. It is indejinite, mecining any hour
consistent wi th the succectling restr ictions or lim itations.
".Awful " is a descri p ti ve afUectice, attributing a qual ity to
" l1our " ; iu the p(lsiti,·c or simple form.
" A " is tLn article modify ing " night " ; indefinite, meaning any
"night" under the r estriction of the limiting phrases "of storm
and tom pest.''

fonnd n.tion of a monument to th e memory of the ea rly friends of
America n Independence, we have now laid. An aged nrnn,
without an enemy in the world, is mn.de the victim of a butcherly murder, fo r m ere pay . B eauty is an all -pe rvading presence; it unfolds in the numb erless flow ers of the spring.
PRONOUNS.

138. A PRONOUN is a word used as a substitute for a
noun ; as, J olm lost his book.
139. Pronouns m ay be divided into personal, adjective, relative, and interro gative.

" 13uat " is a common nonn, nen ter gender, singnhr, third person, alld noniinativo ease. <''\Thy'!)
" The" is tLdefinite article and modifies boat, limiting it to a particnbr boat . Tims, "the bolLt" is the modified imbject.
" Strugg led,' ' the grammatical pred icate, used to assert someth ing or " bu;tt ," is ti rc!Jular verb, form ing its Past tense and Perfoct .P;nt ic:ipl0 by adding d to the simple form; as, struggle, struggled,
sl.l"!l!J!Jlcd. fo t ransitice, i.Lllowing no direct object after it, and making eom plcte se nse \Yi th its subject. Simple Active form .
P ast ten su, denotes an action continued in past time, unfinished;
as, stru.!J!Jlcd = was struggling . A verb in this tense is not varied in
tho Si111ple .4.cthe form on account of the person n.nd number of itB
Sllbject .
" \V aves," which indirectly modifies "stl'llggled," with which it
is connucteu by " wi th,'' is a common noun, third, neuter, plural.
(W i1y "! ) 'l'o a~cert'1in the case, answer, by an tippropriate personal
pronoun, t he qu estion, "With what?" '.!.'he answer will be" V\ilth
them ." " 'l'hcm" is the special fo rm for the objective, third, p lural;
therefore " wtwes " is in the objective case .
" Tho" is used t o specify particular objects ; i t is, therefore, a,
definit e article, and modifies " WlLves . "

ExcEPTION.
You and it 11rc in the nominative '1nd objcctirn, and her is
·found in t he possessive and objective.

EXERCISES.

4. P ersonal pronouns generally have appropri ate forms to denote
the number of the noun s they r epresent , as, singular, I, my, or mine,

D11u·:CTIO);.
An alyz e the following sentences as in the above model, giving the
clew.sat and phrasal relatio ns, and parse lite noun, verb , adj ective , and a rticle, so far
as it n~yurds kin ds,furms,z;ropcrti cs, or modify ing rela tions.

Make tho proper treatment of friends a habit. The works of
Shi1k speare, aud the E ngl ish Bible, were his special study. The

R EllARK 1. Person al pronouns have a ppropriate forms to indicate
the grammatical person of the nouns they r epresent ; as, first person, I , my or mine, me, we, our, us; second pernon, thou, thy or
thine, thee, you or ye, your ; third person, he, she, it, his, her, its,
him, they, their, them .

2. Personal pronouns of the third person and si ngu lar number
have appropr iate forms to denote the g ender of the nouns they r ep-r esent; as, masculine, he, his, him; f eminine, she, her; neuter, it,
its.
3. P ersonal pronouns generally have a ppropri a te forms t o indicate the case-relatio n in which they stand to other words in a sentence; as , nominative I, we, thou , ye, he, she, they; possessive my
or mine, thy or thine, our, your, his, its, their; objective me, us,
thee, hi m, them.

\'fh:i.t is n. pronoun? H ow arc pronouns ch1s:;ctl? 'Yha.t arc personal pronouns ?
Wh ich pl'O nouus at·c of the first pcrso n ?- of the seco n<l ?-tlii nl ? 'Vhat pronouns
have forms to denote gender? " 'hich forms arc fot• the masculine? - feminine?- neuter?

Wli ich form s of the pronouns are in the r.ominntive case? - possessive? - objective
Jn wha.t two cases are you and it found? In wha.t two is her fouml?

r

/
91

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR •.

me. th ou, thy, or thine, thee, he, his, him, she, her, it, its; plural,
we, our , us, ye, th ey, their, them.
.0
ExcEPTlON.

Y ou n.nd your are in both numbers.

PROPERTIES OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

PERSON" - First, Second, Third .
NnrnER - Singular, Plural. ·
GE~DER - (on1y in third, smgular) ~fascul ine, Feminine, Neuter.
CASE - Nominatire, Posses,ive, Objective.
FORM FOR PARSI NG A PERSONAL PRONOUN.

Substituted fo r what; decline as in the table · number ; person;
'
gender (if third, singular) ; case-relation .
MODEL.

Th e boys desired J olm to visit them, an d they are
now expecting us to call for him on our way.
. ". ~oys'." the subject of the first clause, is mod ified by "the," '
l rmrt rn g it to particuhr "boys." " Desired," the grammatic:il2
pred icate, is modified by "John ," and "John" by the phrru\ i
" to Y isit them ." Th us, " desired John to visit them " is the
modified predicate ; and " th e boys" is the modified subject: ·
"Them " modifies "visit" as a direct object li miting its action. ?.r
" Th ey" is the subject, unmodified, of the second clause. "Are 0
expecting," the predicate, is directly modified by" now" and itsl
object " us" ; and "us" by the phrase " to c:tll for him on our J
way." Thus, "are now expecting us to call fo r him on our way" ''
is the modified predicate. " To call " is indirectly modified by th0 ~
t11·0 phr:tscs "for him" [l,nd" on our way."
..
Tln:s the se ntence comists of two independent :isser tions, with the
clauses co nn ec ted by "and," making a compound sentence.
'Vhat forms of the pronouns are singular ?- what plm·u.I ?-what the same in both 1
numbers? What is the form for parsing a personal pronoun?
·

95

" Tho " is a definite ar ticle, modifying "boys," limiting them to
objects well known .
" Boys" is a common noun, masculine, plural, third person
( Wliy ?) ; nominative case, the subject of th e clause; and, if the appropri:1te form of the personal pronoun is substituted for "b oy~,'' it
will be they, the special form for the nominative of that person and
num ber. "Desired,'' here used to assert something of" boys," is
a regular, transitive verb; desire, desired , desired; forms its Past
ten.se :ind P erfect Participle by adding d to the simple form ; takes
"John" as the object of its action . Simple Active form. I ndicative mood and Past tense, and as such is not varied on account of
th e number and person of its subject.
"John" is a proper noun , masculine, singular, third person.
( Why?) If represented. by 11 personal pronoun, it must be by one
of the special forms appropriated to the third, singular, masculine.
By substituting these special forms, he, his, him, severally for
"John," we find" him" to be the proper one, and that "John"
is in the objective case.
" Visit " can be used to assert, and therefore by the definition is
a verb; visit, visited, visited, forming its Pust ten se and Perfect Participle in the regu lar manner ; transiti'l:e, takes a direct object after
it; Infinitive mood, and present or simple form, used wi th "to"
and without a subj ect-nominative, indefin itely; it modifies "John "
by showing the purpose for which he was desired.
"Them" is a pronoun, because it is substituted for the noun
"boys" ; personal, because the person of the noun it represents
is kn own by the form of the pronoun. Its special form here
s~o ws it to be third person, plural. "Boys" is masculine gender;
b,11t, as the form of the pronoun is not varied, in the plural,
on account of gender, in parsing th e plural of pronouns, gender
may be disregarded . Nominative they, possessive their, objective
them; in the objective case, the direct object of the transitive verb
"visit ."

"They" is a personal pronoun, representing" boys," and in the
nominative case, as subject of" are expecting."
"Are expecting " is a verb, used here to assert something of
"they," its subject; expect, expected, expected, reguhlr; transitive,

h11•!ng "us " in the objective case as the direct obj ect limiting its

96

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

COUUON-SCHOOL GRAMJ\1.AR.

action . P rog ressive fo rm , made by pr efix ing some par t of the auxili tiry " \Jc" to t he imperfect parti ciple of the verb ; l ndzcative
mood, simply <ledarcs ; P 1·esent tense ~ l 10\YS that th e acti on is unfinisiwd, co ntinuing , 0 1· going on at the p resent time ; p lur al fo rm of <J.UX·
ili ary , beca use t he subjec t " th oy " is plum!.
·
' ' Us '' is a perso nal pronou n , repr ese nt ing the speaker ::md tho se with
him as a compauy . Singular , uom imit ive I , posseEsivc my or mine,
objective me ; P lural, no!ll.imi tivc we, posscs.-;ivc our , objective us.
II:11·ing the special fo rm fo r the fir st person, plural, and obj ective case,
i t is th e dired object of the trnn sit irn verb " arc expect ing ," li mitin g and r es tri cting t he action of that verb to cer ttiiu individuals
iu cl udcd in t he word " us."
" To call " can be u sed t-0 assert, .and is ther efore a verb . Call, called,
called , regular. It may be either tran sitive or intransitive, accordi.ng
to t he sense ; here it is intransitive, as it does not hike a direct object,
but is lirni tcd indircctlv by " him" and "way,'' whi ch are connectetl with it by " fo r " and " on. " I nfin itive mood, used wi ch
"to, " and wi t hout :t subjcc t-nomin ati rn , in the simple form, and
modifies "u s, " li u1 iting their cxpccttitions wi th r egard to " us " to
t l1 is act or resu lt .
" Hi m" is a personal pronoun, subst ituted fo r " J ohn, " and repr esen ting " J ohn" in gender , number and person. Nominative
he, p ossessil-c his , objectirn him ; " him " is th e speci,il form fur
the masculine, singular , third person, objective, and indirectly limit~
th e in trnnsitirn verb " call, " with whi ch it is connected by" for ."
" Our " is a perso nal pronouu, showing, by special for m, th e per- ,
son and n umber represented , and its own case. Like " us , " it is ·
substituted for t he speaker, including those with hi1i1. Its form
shows it to be first person , p lural, ;md possessive case ; it li1nits
"way .:'

_ strangers, and waved them off with his hand. Gilbert Ainsli:
was a poor man; and he had been a poor man all the days of
his li fe . Thou, William, still art young. I leave my example
as a legacy to you, my children. The trees are now in their
full est foliage. Father called us, and we ran to him at once.
George, mother asked for you; she wishes you to find the cow.

I have lost my shoe-string.
COMPOUN D PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

140. Personal pronouns united with self, form compound personal pronouns ; as, mys.elf, thyself or yourself, himself, herself, itself, and their plurals, ourselves,
' yourselves, themselves.
R EMARK 1. They are used only in the nominative and objective
cases, and the form is the same in each.
2. They are mostly used for emphasis; as, I did it myself, I myself did it. H ere my self is in apposition wi th I.
. 3. Sometimes they are used reflexively, when the agent and object
acted upon are the same; as, I blame myse?f. . :he man saved him·
self. Here each is the direct object of a trans1t1ve verb.

4. They are called compound personal pronouns because they have
appropriu.te forms to indicate the speaker , the person spoken to, and
the object spoken of.
NOMINATIVE AND OBJECTIVE.

2d Person.

1st P erson .

Sing.
EXERCISES.

thyself or yourself,

Myself,

P lural. Ourselves,

Annly -:: c tlu:fo!low iny se nt enc es , gi ving l ite cla usal an d p hrasal relations; also
th o~u: <~( 11un118, vc rlB , adjcctivcs, articles , and personal p ronuuus, w ith their kinds,
fo rms and proper t ies , parsing them acc ording lo th e models .

T he shep herd gave the a larm, and lay clown again in his plaid.
'.l'hese Co vena nt.ers may tum ble clown upon our heads pieces of'
r o<.:k from t heir hiding-placc8.. The old man took notice of the

97

yourscl ves,

3d P ers on.
Mascu line. Feminine . N eut er. ·

himself, herself, itself.
) themsel \'es (without re( gard to gender).

How are compound personal pronouns formed ? What a.re th ey 7 In whi ch cases are
they used 7 Do they vary in form on account of case ? How are they u:3ed ? 'Vhy called
pe•i\Onall

9

98

COA!bION-SCIIOOL GRAMMAR.
PROPERTIES OF COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

P rnsoN - l<'irst, Second, Third.
Nu)IBER - Singu lar, Plural.
GE:,<DER- (only in third, singular) Masculine, Feminine,
CASE -Nominative, Objective.
FORM FOR PARSING A COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUN.

Substituted for what; decline as in table ; number ; person ;
gender (if third singular ) ; used emphatically or reflexively; in what
case-relation .
MOD E T.,.

John did it himself, and he may blame himself for
the result.
H ere two independ ent clauses are connected by "and," expressing
the relation of addilion .
"John" is the subject of the first clause, and is directly modified
by " himself," used here for emphasis; and " John himself" is the
modified subject. "Diel," the pred icate, is directly modified by
" i t , " as the object of the action, and "did it " is tho modified predicate.

,I

<
I

"He," substituted for "John," and r epresenting "John" in
gender, number, an d person. is the subject of the second chrnse,
and is not modified. ".May blame,'' the predicate, is directly modi
fied by " himself,' ' here used reflexively, being the ol~ject of its action - and indirectly by th e phrase "for the result" ; and "may
blame himself for the result" is the modified predicate,
"John" is a proper noun, third, singular, masculine, and nominati·rn , subject of " did."
"Did ," is an irregular transitive verb; do, did, done; has "it"
for the direct ol\jec t of its action. Simple Active fo rm, In dicative
mood, .incl Past tense, sim ply clecl:ues an act in past time. It is not
varied on .icco unt of th e person and number of its snbject.
" It " is IL personal pronoun, and has the special form of the
third, si ngnhr, neuter, ol"\iective, directly limiting the transitive
verb " did."
"Himself" is a compound personal pronoun, representing" John,"
having the special form appropriated to the third singular, mascu- .

COMMON-SCHOOL GRA.IDiA.R.

99

· th e s~me. person as" J ohn,''
. here used for emphasis, meanmg
me,
. in appos ition with i t.
.
d " . " J ohn " and h.ivand hein" in the S<tme case
0
n sub~t1tute ior
,
.
"lie " is •L perSOI1'L 1 pron 0 U. '
]"
d nomi native j
an
,
th
third
Sll1"'ubr,
mascu
me,
l
0
ing the fo rm or
e
',
blame " as its gram.
. "
" ma
y
it is the subject of the clause, havmo

1.

m<Ltical prcdic<Lte.
t is a verb. blame , blamed,
,, being used to asser ,
'
bl
" :1>'fay ame,
.
h"
to
· · t kmrr " lllSeIf ,, as a direct obiect
J
blamer!, regular ; trans1trne, a "o. . Potential mood, as it declares ,
. .
t" . Sim,,ze Actzve iorm ,
A
1iu11t Its ac 10n'
Tr ·y " may ,, penr11·ssi"on , Present tense.
by aid of the auxi mr
. '
t of tho person and num,·erb in this mood is not vaned on accoun
ber of its subject.
oun in the ob>J'ective case,
.
pound persona1 pron
,
. .t.
.
tho transitive verb" may
. "Himsel f " is .a com .
. l
the direct obJect 1im1 mg
used reflox1ve Yas
.
t"'
to the obiect represented by
,
d . t · cting 1 ts ac ion
J
d
bl:ime,' an res n
.
·
d modifies" result," e.
lf" "'l'he" is an article; definite, an
l
" 111n8e .
1 d k vn
.
" particular and specified re~ult, a re<i y no' .
not1ng '"'
EXERCISES.
.
hrasal analysis of the following sen.tences, ~ilh
Dm ECTION. Owe the clausal and p
.
.r tl•e nouns verbs, adjectives , arhcles,
.
r.
and relations DJ
· '
d·
the kinds, proper he.~ , J arms,
ersoua.l ronouus, parsing according t o prece mg
pCrsoual pronouus, and com pound p
p
models.

y

aed yourself by such neglect of duty. You yourou wrono
mned for avarice. The seamen threw them self are much con~e th l" ht vessel I will be p resent myself,
·
.
b t
l
in a mass mto e ig
se ves,
,
We defended ourselves m the es
and attend to your wishes.
way we could.

141. Adj ective pronouns a~e ~ubstituted for nouns,
'lr directly limit them, like adjectives.
NOTE.

When used

"w S

nouns, they do not often tn.ke the article before

them
d 1 1 · 11nd threo
A ~ow of them have different forms for the singulllr an p um ,
of them are declined like no uns, when used o,s such.
What are adjective pronouns l

.!
!

·1

/
100

~42. This, that, these, those, former and l::itter, specify particula1
objects, a nd are hence called demon:;trative.

143. Some, other, another, one, any, all, such, both, none, few.,
many, much, several, &c., do not specify particular objects, and are
hence called indefinite.
REJ!ARK 1. Another is used only in the singular ; and is thus
declined, namely:

Nominative, another.

2. One and other are
Nominative, one,
Possessive, one's,
Objective,
one.

. '1

·f

..

'· .f.,

'",I;

Possessive, another's.

Objecti·ve, another.

used as nouns in both numbers.
other,
P lural. ones,
others,
other's,
"
ones',
others',
other.
"
ones.
others.

EXAMPLES. The little ones' home. The nest was full of little ones.
I hear some one's footstep. A tear for others' woes. The great ones
of the land.

~44 ..Each, ev_ery, either, and neither, indicate separately the
objects mcluded ma whole, and are hence called distributive .
REMARK.

E very is never used as a noun.

145. Ours, yours, hers, theirs, mine, and thine, denote possession,
and partake of the nature of adjectives ; hence called possessive.
1. They are derived from the possessive case of the pe1sonal pronouns, our, your, her, their, my, and thy.
.
REMARK

2. Our, your, her, their, my, and thy, denote possession , because
they are in the possessive case. Ours, yours, hers, ~heirs, mine, and
thine, denote possession by virtue of the meaning of the words.
ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.
.•

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

Krnns - Demonstrative, Indefinite, Distributive, Possessive .
FORM FOR PARSING AN ADJECTIVE PRONOUN.

The kind ; in the relation of adjectives, parse as adjectives; in the
rcbtion of nouns, as nouns.
Which are demonstrative? ' Vhich are indefinite? What number is another? Decline
other, another, and one. Which are distributive? Which possessive?

101

MODEL.

These books are ours, and each of them will please
the little ones at home.
This compound sentence contains two independent clauses connected by " and."
· "Books," the subject of the first clause, is directly modified by
" these ; " " ours " in the predicate denoting possession or ownersh ip, not assumed , but asserted of "books."
"Et1ch," representing book, and substituted for" each book," is
the subject of the second clause, and is indirectly modified by the
phrase " of them" ; the predicate, "will please," is directly modified by " ones," as the object of its a.ction ; "ones" is directly modified by the definite article "the" and the descriptive adjective " little," and indirectly by the phrase " at .home."
" These " is a demonstrative adjective pronoun, specifying and
pointing out some particular books, obviously presen~ to the spea~er
and those with him; plural form, used in the relat10n of an adjectirn, and limiting " books."
"Books" is a common noun, neuter, plural, third, nominative,
the subject of the verb" are" ; and, if a personal pronoun wer.e
substituted for it, it would be represented by " they," the nominatire form.

"Are," the predicate, is a form of the irregular, intransitive
verb " be," Indicative mood, Present tense, and plural form, to agree
with its subject-nominative "books" in number.
" Ours" i8 a possessive adjective pronoun, in the predicate, directly limiting" are," and referring to the subject.
"Each " is a distributive pronoun, used in the relation of a noun,
sino-ular, nominative, and subject of the verb" will please.''
.~Them" is a personal pronoun~ subs ti tu ted for the word " books,"
and representing it in number and person; it has the special form
appropriated to the third, plural, and objective.
. .
"\'Viii please," used to assert, is a regular, trans~t1ve verb;
please, pleased, pleased; and has " ones" for its direct object. Simple Active form ; Indicative mood, Future tense; it simply de~lares a
future action. Not varied by the person and number of its subject.

9*

'..( "

':(

i

I'

1

/'
I ':-· 1. .

I

I

' ··1··

I'.'··
t

·,.,

/
102

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

''The' is tL dr.finite artide, pointing out particular objects, 01•
thoRe hefore 8pccified or :.1lludod to; here limiting "onos."
"Little" is :Ln adjectice, describing "ones" as to size; positive
or simple form little, comparative less, superlative least; in the positive degree , and limits " ones. "
" Ones" is an indefinite pronoun, used in the relation of a.
nonn, and declined like a noun; third, plural, objective, as the
direct object of "please"; as may be further made evident by
substituting fo r it the appropriate personal pronoun "them,"
the special fonn for the objective.
{
1'

EXERCISES.
DrnECTIO~. JVith the clausal and phrasal analysis of the following sentences, give
t he kin(ls, forms, 71ropertie.~, and several relation.er, of tlt.e nouns, verbs, adjectives,
articles, personal })l"Onouns, compound perSonal pronouns, and adjective pronouns, para-

i ny them. according to the models given .

1.

Matches and overmatches ! Those terms are more applicable
el se where than here, and fitter for other assemblies than this.
Scldo 111, if eve r, has a speaker in this or any other country had
more powerful incentives to exertion. W e wish that this structure may prochlim th e magnitude and importance of that event
to every cla ss and every age. Every upp er yard-arm was tipped
with lightning, and each blaze was as large as that of a candle.
All other graces contribute to this. The Mantuan bard still
sings in every school. One of the daughters went forth to
milk the cow, and another began to set out the table for supper.
To this a udi ence, gathered on that day from every part of the
land, Everett spoke. The ship can make no head against this
sea, under that rag of canvas.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

14G.

RELATIVE

Pronouns am used to rcprcsm~t nouns

and connect clauses ; as, Here is the book which I
wanted.
llow are relative pronouns used 1

COMMON~CHOOL GRAMMAR.

103

REMARK 1. As the antecedent stands in one of the connected
cltmsos , a,nd its substitute in the other, the relative can be used only
in compound sentences.
2. Thus the · rela,tive performs the office of a noun for which it is
substituted; and of a conjunction, in joining clauses. The. whole
relative clause directly modifies the antecedent or word for which t~e
relative is substituted, just as an adjective modifies a noun; and is,
therefore, called an adjective clause.

147. The simple relatives are who, which, and that; and are
thus declined, being the same in both numbers :
tha,t,
which,
Nominative, who,
whose,
Possessive, whose,
that.
which.
whom.
Objective,
NOTE. Wh ose as possessive of winch; as, This is the question, whose solution I require= the solution of which I require.
REMARK 1. Who is used to represent persons; which, other objects ; as, I knew the ma,n who was rescued. Here is the sled which
George wanted .
.
2. That is used, in place of who or which, to represent e1the~ persons or things ; as, I knew the man that was rescued. Here 1s the
sled that George wanted.
3. After the word same, or after an adjective in the superlative
de"'ree that is preferable to who or which; also, after the interrogativ~ "~ho," and after an antecedent consisting of both persons. and
things ; as, This is the same person that we saw yesterda~. Cicero
was the most finished orator that Rome produced. Who is the person that saw it? Here are the boy and sled that we saw yesterday.
MODEL.

We soon found a boy who was eager to go.
This coropotrnd sentence consists of an independent cl~us~, and th_e
relative clause, "who was cager to go," used a,s an adJect1ve modi- ·
In what sentences are relative pronouns used 1 'Vhat are the two functions of th~ rel&tive? Decline the relatives, and tell how they are varied, and how each is used. When
Ls that to be preferred 1

/
104

COMMON-SCHOOL , GR~MMAR.

COMMON-SCHOOL . GRAMMAR.

fying " boy," in the independent 11fa11 se. The relative clause is bore
restri ctive, telling what kind of a boy we found.
· --,
"\Ve," th e subject of the main or leadin rr clause is not modified·"
"found," tho predicitte, is limited by a ,:ord sbo~in"' when "w~
f~und," and by an other word showing what we found. As the adjective clause modifies "boy," "soon found a boy who was ea"'er to
go " is the modiJied predicate of the sentence.
'" · .
" Wh o," s~bsti tn te~ for "boy," and representing it in person
and number, is th.e wbJ ect of the adjective chtuse ; and "was," the'
~ 1·:i mmat1 cal predicate, asserts the quality of eagerness, which is limited by ~he phrase " to go," restricting the boy's eagerness to this'
one action ; " eager" is an adjective in the predicate limitinu
"was," and referring to its subject.
"
" Who" is ii relative pronoun, relating to "boy" for its antecedent, and_ agreeing with it in number and person; consequently third
p.erson'.smgular; and it has tho form appropriated to the nominative, berng the subject of" was," and thus used in the relation of a
noun; it also connects the two clauses, performing the office of a·
conjunction.
EXERCISES.
DIRBCTIO ~.

G ive t/1r. clausal and phrasal analysis of tile following sentences.

als~ , the km d:fonn, pr ope rties, and seve ral r elations of th e noun s , verbs, aLlj ecti\'·cs' !
~rt1clc~. personal pr.onouns, c ompound personal pronouns, adjective pronouns, and rcia.:i
tivc p1onouns,pars1ng them according to the models.

.,

I repeat it, and call on any man who hears me to take down
my words. The church in which they assembled was hewn by
Go~'s hand, ~ut of the eternal rocks. The younger ones l; ept'
g azmg down mto the pool, in which the whole scene was reflected ..
T he shepherd who had given the alarm had lain down aD"ain in
his plaid. 0, Dece mber, in thy constellation is set th~ star ·
whose rising is the sign, forevermore, that there is life in death ;.
The ~1and that governs in April, g:iverncd in January. Boston
:vas '.n her agony of grief for him, whom so lately she had borne
m tnumph through her streets. Of every tear that sorrow ing
mortals shed on such green graves, some good is born, some
gentler nature comes.

105

, i48. What, whatever, whatsoever, whoever, whosoever, whosesoevcr, whomsoever, whichever, and whichsoever, contain both the
antecedent and relative, and constitute a part of each of the two
claui;es they connect.
REMARK l. " ·what
=that or those which; as, "I saw what
he had"; that is, "I saw that which he had." "Whoever"= he
who ; as, "1-Yhoever will may come"; that is, "He may come who
will."
2. Pronouns thus compounded are called Compound Relative Pronouns. ·what and its compounds, also whichever and whichsoevq, are
sometimes used at <tdjective pronouns.

MODEL.

I saw in a store what will answer your purpose.
The sen tcnce consists of two clauses, connected by the pronoun
"what," which serves to make a part of each, being equivalent to
that which; as, I saw that which will answer. Thus it limits the
predicate of the first clause, being the direct object of its action, and
Li ,Lt th e same time the subject of the second clause.
" I " is the subject unmodified; and "saw," the predicate, is indirectly limi ted by the phrase" in a store," modifying it as an adverb
of place ; it is also directly modified by "what," as its object.
Thus, " saw in a store what will answer your purpose " is the
modified predicate of the sentence.
"1-Vill answer, " the predicate of the dependent clause, is directly
inodified by " purpose," limiting its action to a definite object; and
"purpose" is limited by" your," telling whose" purpose." Thus,
'.' will answer your purpose" is the modified predicate of the clause.
The adjective clause, " which will answer your purpose," directly
modifies " that," the antecedent - as is apparent when "what" io
resolved into two parts to show its relative situation in each clause.
" 1-Vhat" is a pronoun, including the antecedent and the relative,
used commonly where the antecedent is indefinite or general; it is in
the objective cusc, as the direct object of the transitive verb" saw";
Mention the pronouns that contain both antecedent and relative. To what is each
equivalent? 'Wha.t are they called?

j

l
'l

~l

106

-~
.I

~

.,
.,

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

at the same time, as p:ut of the subordinate clause, it is the subject
nomiuutive of tho pnxlicute "will answer."

"What" is an interrogative pronoun, representing the thing or
things concerning which the quei;tion is usked, in the relation of an

EXERCISES.

object of the action expressed by the verb; it is, therefore, in the
objective case.
EXERCISES.

DI R ECTIO~. Togeth er w ith clausal and phrasal analysis ,give the kind,form,prop
er ties , and rPlations , of alt the parts of speech thus far developed, parsing them ac
co rding t o the given models.

DIRECTION.

.J

0

1
J

,

Whose book did you find in the barn? Who asked you to
bring the sled? By whom was the project opposed? What
does the man hope to gain by such conduct? Which course do
you intend to take ? Who bought the skates for you? What
boy will try them ?

N OTE

Which did you find ? What does he want?

l. Wh o is used for persons only ; which and what for

KINDS-

Simple, Compound, Interrogative.
Person, Number, and Case.

FORM FOR PARSING RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

Tell the kind ; antecedent ; person, number ; and case-relation.

both persons and

two, is no longer used as an interroga-

RE:UARK.
The word that answers a question should have the same
regimen as the interrogative pronoun used in asking it; as, Whose
book was lost? John's= J ohn's book was lost.

\I

PROPERTIES -

.ADVERBS.

things .

2. vVlwther, meaning which of the
tive, though it formerly was.

:-·

KINDS AND PROPERTIES OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

ol~jccts of invuiry , are called INTERROGATIVE pronouns; as, Who

wa s there '?

Give clausal and phrasal analysis, and parse all parts of speech for

which mudels have been given .

·we

shall be remembered in after ages by what we ourselve~
have done, and not by what others have done for us. Whatsoever our hands find to do, we are commanded to do diligently.
·whoever wishes to understand, must give earnest attention.
·what the man had, was given freely. Whatever we und ertake,
we should thoroughly finish. What cannot be avoided, must be
endured. He forgot what his father said. Whoever would gain
wealth, must be industrious.
14D. W ho , which , and what, representing persons or things us

,,

107

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

150. An

ADVERB

is a word used to modify a verb,

.

'well.

He is a remarkably good boy.

He learns very

fast.
1. .Adverbs are generally substitutes for longer modifying
npressions ; us, J ohn will return on the next day after this day=
John will return to-morrow. John will return within a short time=
John will return shortly, or J ohn will soon return. John is in this
place al the present time = John is here now. John did it in a careful
manner=-= John did it carefully. For the most part= chiefly. llV a
Aigh degree= very or exceedingly.

'l :=!:
"•

. t •' ·
:r c.

~

MODEL,

A simple interrogative sentence, having its subject "John" between the auxiliary and the verb, to give it the form of a question by
its nrrnngcmcnt.
"Ditl finu," the predicate, is directly modified by" what"; and .
" did Jind what " is the modified predicate.

2. M0difying expressions abbreviated by ellipsis of the ccnnect-

~<'

,j

l

What is an adverb 1 For what are they substitutes? What are adverbial phrases l

~,.

\I I

I ..11
'
; fTJ~
'i~'

I

.

What are the interrogative pronouns 1

(

'I

REMARK

What did John find?

~

a11 adjective, or another adverb; as, The boy recites

~1· '~:
"'

l f;t> •'

l .s .
I '

/
108

COMMON-SCHOO.I., .. GRAMMAR.

ing word, the limiting word, or both, are inseparable
phrases; ns, in vain, in general, long 11go, long time ago, not 11t a11;
at random, long since, long time since, 11t le11st, at most, by''nfi
means, at length, at the worst, of late, step by step, side by side
&c. As soon as, as well as, &c., are connecting phrases, gene:ra:n;
denoting comparison.
:

_.) 6. Yes und no answer a question, and usually represent or stand
fRr the thought contained in the que.s tion, affirming or denying it M
~,yroposition.
, '.;:17. Amen represents the thought contained in the preceding sen~
~nee or puragraph, reiisserting it with the wish that it may be so.

3. vVhen the adjective ends in "ly,'' another "ly" cannot w~U
be added ; thus a phrase becomes necessary ; as, in a lively manner
instead of livclily.
-.•
4. Logicully, adverbs muy be divided into the following claBBeil
Many subdivisions might be made, but such distinctions would be,oe
little use etymologically, and may be disregurded in parsing;
·· -=
5. Time. Now, then, when, soon, lately, hereafter, always, nev~i;
often, seldom, before, already, &c.
·· •
6. Place. Here, there, where, elsewhere, up, down, away, forward, below, within, whence, thither, &c.
,;

7. il'lann er . \-Veil, diligently, thoroughly, wisely, thus, so, easily;
truly, first, secondly, thirdly, next, &c.
8. D egree . Much, more, most, little, less, least, very, exceedingly; •
almost, only, quite, too, as, even, rather, &c.
9. Cause. Therefore, then, consequently, why, hence, wherefore~
thence, since, &c.
.::l
10 . .Adverbs of time unswer the question, When? or how long?Of number, the qu es tion, How often? or how many times?

. ·. a

I

"'i*
•I

·1

109

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

11. Adverbs of place answer the question, Where? or in what plai;el ·
Whither? or lo what place? Whence? or from what place?

12. Adverbs of manner answer the question, How? or in w119f
~?
~
13. Adverbs of degree unswer the question, How much? or to wh'(;i:
extent?

14. Adverbs of cause answer the question,
what purpose? or on what account?
15. Now denotes present time; lately, past time;
time; secondly, order of time or arrangement.

18. Namely, or to wit, usually represented by viz., embraces what
: jj>llows in the sentence.
·" NOTE. These last four o.re genero.lly used independently, and are not pursed
as modifying particular words.
1

,,19. Some adverbs are formed by the union of two or more words:
118, indeed= m and deed; wherewith= where and · with; herein
=here and in; whereby= where and. by; sometimes= some and
times; wherein= where and in; nevertheless= never and the and
fus; whereunto =where and unto.

-: 151. .Adverbs used in asking questions are called
interrogative adverbs ; as, Why? when? whither?
,whence? how? where? wherefore?
There is often used without reference to its meaning;
There was a frost this morning.
In such cases it is a mere expletive, and may be called an introduc1,o,ry adverb, used for euphony, that the verb may precede its subject
lmi.oothly. It regards the sound and not the sense of the sentence.
REMARK.

DB> There is little nope of escape.

· - 152. Some adverbs may be compared; as, Soon,
.sooner, soonest; often, oftener, oftenest; least wisely,
less wisely, wisely, more wisely, most wisely.
.153 . .A. few are compared irregularlY.; as, Well, better; best; ill or badly, worse, worst; much, more, most;
r' far, farther or further, farthest or furthest.
~t

.

An adverb in the comparntive or superlative degree
has the article " the " preceding it; as, The oftener I see
· him the better I like him.
RElrARK.

~metimes

How are adverbs compared 1 Which are compared

\.

110
N 01·1~ .
]Jhrascs ,

-.

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.
IToro "tho oftener" and "tho better" may be parsed as adverbial
Supplying the ellipsis will be awkward.

CONNECTIVE ADVERBS,

154. Connective ad verbs conn ect clauses, and express the relation of time, manner, &c., tha.t exists
between them; as, " I was fond of sport when I was
)'oung." H ere" when"= at the t'ime in which; it den otes identity of time between the assertions in the
two clauses.
1. "When father returned, he gave me a book." Here
' when" denotes identity of time between the two actions, Thefl>.
fore, " when " not only connects the two clauses, but also shows the
r elation of time .
2. The whole adverbial clause, "when father returned," modifie11
the pred icate of the independent cla,usc, as an a,dverb of time. So,
t oo , in tho first example, the a,dvcrbial clause is an adverb of time,
modil)- ing the predi cate of tho independent clause .
REJIARK

3. Thus, "where" = the place in which; that is, the refation ii
between two ebuscs connected by it is identity of plac.e.
'' How '' = the manner in which; before = at a tim e preceding that i11
which ; tlmt is, it ma,rks priority of time. ''After '' denotes subsequent
t ime, &c.
4. The ach erbia,l clause is alwa,ys dependent, a,nd modifies the prcd.
icatc of the cbuse with which it is connected.

shO\\'S

KINDS AND FORMS OF ADVERBS.

Krnns - Time, place , manner, degree, cause.
Piw PERTIES - Modify, connect.
Fo1rns - Positive, Comparative, Superfative.
FORM FOR PARSING AN ADVERB .

Kind; fo rm; compare it; wlmt it modifies, or connects.
MODEL.

The ooy was very anxious to go where he
study more diligently.
What are

councc~ivc

adverbs 1

/·

111

'.l'hc two clauses of this compound sentence are connected by the
It

connective adverb " where," equivalent to to the place in which.
mtirks identity of place.

"Boy," the subject of the first clause, is limited directly by" the,"
· and the qua,lity expressed by "anxious " is asserted of " boy";
' ~ and this quality ill inteueified in degree by" very," which directly
, modifies " anxious" ; the phrase "to go " limi ts " anxious," denoting the purpose or object of the boy's anxiety,
"'l'o go" is directly modified by the clause" where he could study
more diligently" ; an " adverbial clause " used as a,n adverb of

"
·\
/

'"

:T

place.

" Ile," the subject of the adverbial clause, is not modified.
"Could study ," the predirate, is directly modified by the phrase
"more diligently.''
" The" is a definite ar ticle, modifying "boy," and pointing out
, some particular boy known, or previously alluded to.
" Boy" is a common noun, a name applied to any one of the
class ; ma,sculine, a male; singular, but one; third person, spoken
of; uomina,tive case, the subject of the clause; if represented by
ita appropriate personal pronoun, that form will be "he," for the
thirtl, singular, masculine, nominative.
'' V{ a,s " is an irregubr, intransitive verb in the Indica,tive mood
·Past tense, with a form varied to aD"ree
wi~h a subiect
in the third''
0
J
singuhr.
"Very " is a,n adverb, modifying the adjective "anxious."
"Anxious" is an adjective in the predicate, limiting " was,''
. and rnferring to "boy."
"'.l'o go " is a verb, because it can be used to assert; go, went,
~~ne, irrcgu1a,r; intransitive , does not admit a direct object ;.-Infiu1tivc mood, consequently not limited by number or person; used
· indefinitely to denote a purpose or object, and limiting" anxious."
" ·where" is a connective adverb, uniting the adverbial clause with
the independent cbtise, and marking identity of place.
"Ile" is substituted for " boy," a,nd represents that word in gender, number, and person . It has the spccia,l form of the masculine
~rd, singular, nomina,tive, and is the subject of the adverbial clause'.
" Could study " is here used to assert, and is a verb . Present
!!udy, Past studied, Perfect Partici pie studied; regular ; either

,,

V'

112

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

transitive or intransitive, to be determined by the sense;
sitive, llsed to signify an act not limited by any expressed de
object, but gcncrul in its sen se; simple active form. Poteo
mood, declares, with the aid of " could, " the boy's power or ,
ity to "study more diligently." This mood is not varied for~
person and nmnber of its subject.
"More diligently" is an adverb; positive diligently, eOmJ.)(ln,i.~
more diligently, Sllperlative most diligently; comparative degree, "
modifies "could st udy," whereby it is asserted thut the "ll<i
could perform the act in a higher degree there than elsewhere.

•NoTE. A noun or pronoun indirectly modifies another word, by means of
· .connecting proposition oxpre•sed or implied, and the case-relation of the
ifying word is thus shown to be objective.

.,

The man worked slowly and diligently.
ingly well. He eats more carefully now. John arrived
the ship sail ed. They managed their affairs most prudeo
The ship sailed after John came. H e walked very slowly . .:
ship will su,il when John comes. The speaker was quite ea
in his manner. vVhen John arrives, the ship will sail.·
man was very eager to go. vVhen John arrived, the ship · ·
The sooner he goes, the better. The ship sail ed as soon as
arrived. He will find it where he left it. He may go whi
h e pleases. The horse stood still while we were getting .·
the wagon. John drove too fast for safety. He rode much
ru,pidly.

'

'I

' ~

, -: I

PREPOSITIONS.

155. PREPOSITIONS are used to connect words;
show the r elation between them; as, Charles :·
from New York to Bl.l.ltimore. Wealthy men sh.
give liberally= Men of wealth should give with l,ij ~
ality.

"

\

'l'he preposition is used chiefly before nouns and their
..Ubstitutos , co nnecting them with the words to which they stand in
~e relation of modiliors, as adjectives or adverbs; as, Men of wealth
~buld give with liberality. Here the phrases , "of wealth"=
~a/thy, and "with liberality"= liberally ; this performing the
ollicc of an u,dverb, -that, of an adjective.
1.REJrAI\K .

when phrases beginning with prepositions limit verbs,
when they limit nouns, they a ro adjective phrases.

EXERCISES.
Drn ECTIO::\ . Analyze the .following sent ences, giving t he
analysis; also, the kinds, forms, properties, and mod1fyin.y relations, of lhe ...
verbs, aclj ect.ivcs, articles, prououns, and adverbs, according to previous model&~;i
in µarsiny connect ive adverbs, show the relati on they mark between the actions ·~ n
conn ected c lauses.

113

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

LIST OF PREPOSITIONS.

Abroad, about, above, across, after, against, along, amid,
idot, among, amongst, around, at, athwart, before, behind, below,
cath, beside, besides, between, betwixt, but, by, concerni ng, down,
during, except, excepting, for, from, in, into, notwithstanding, of, off,
"', over, pu,st, regarding, respecting, round, save, since , through,
ughout, till, to, touching, toward, towards, under, undernen.th,
' ti!, unto, up, upon, with, within, without.
i'l•
RElrARK l. The above words are generally u sed as prepositions,
' take after them the objective case of a noun or pronoun; used as
modifying term; but, when they are used without the .modifying
' of relation, they are commonly parsed as adverbs.

'>'

'2, But,

meaning e:r:cept, is a preposition; meaning only, it is an
·rb ; otherwise used, it is a conjunction.
. Save and except may be parsed as verbs, but are generally recd as.prepositions.

4. Concerning, excepting, regarding, and touching, have ceased to
considered as participles, being classed as prepositions merely.
5. The adverb out, and the preposition of, used together, form
. t may be called a compound preposition. So, also, the participle
,rding and to; over against, from above, from beneath, from bed, from between, from off, from within, from without, &c., may
'.classed t hu s. But all may be scpaiated in construct.ion, by sup. gun ellipsis.
What case do prepositions take

uft~r

1,

them 1 J·

J·

114

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMM.AR.

G. Like , n igh, near, and opposite, are, by Rome, parsed aa
sitions.

COMMON-SCHOOL. GRAMMAR.
pre~

MODEL.

J ohn sailed from New York to L ondon in a ship.
" J olin " is the unmodified subjed of this simple sentcnp,i.
" Sa iled," the predicate, has connected with it three phrases mu<Ji·
(y ing it.
'l 'i1e fir~t phrase, " from New York ," = an adver b of place; the
nceoml, "to London, " = an adverb of p lace ; the third," in a Rhip,"
=an adverb of manner . 'l'lrns the three phrases, two as adverbs oC,
place , nn ll one of manner, modi fy the predicate " sailed,' ' making
" sailed from New York to London in a ship" the modified prcdi·
.[
ca tc.
" From" is a preposition, connecting " New York,' ' the modifying
term, wi th" saileJ ,'' the other term of the relation.
.
" 'l'o" is a preposition, connecting" London ,' ' the modifying tcr~1
" ·ith "sailed ."
" In " ii; a preposition , connecting" ship " with "sailed ."
_
"New York " is a proper noun, neuter, third, singular; jD
t he objective, because the modi fy ing term lLlways stands in thM
case-relation to the modi fying word; objective lLfter the prcpos;lillll
,; from."
" Lomlon " is lL proper noun ; ncu tcr, singular, third ;
aft{)r tl1 c prepositi on " to ."
" A " is an indefinite rrrticlc, limi ting " ship."
"Shi p" is a common noun, third, singubr, neuter;
after the preposition " in. "

EXERCISES.

-

*

~

DrneCTIQ~. Give t he clausal and phrasal r elat ions of t he following scnlencra;
kintl.<t,forms , prop er l ies , and modifying re lations , of t he seve ral nouns, verbs, ·
tivcs, al't ic les, pronoun s, udrcrbs , and 11rcpositions , acc ording to foreyoiny ~ouel~ 1 c

1Z

M ahomet still lives in his practi cal and disastrous influtnce
the E ast. '.l'he sun sets beyond the western hills, but th e t.,:;
of lig ht behind him guides t he pil grim to his distant lioll!
B ea uty haunts the depths of the earth aud sctL, and gleams

115

' in the hues of the shell and the precious stone~ An infinite joy
1s lost to the world by the want of culture of this spiritual endowm ent. Every husbandman is living in sight 0f th e works of
a divi11 e artist. From the diffusion of the sense of beauty in
ancient G reece, and of the t aste for music in modern Germany,
.twc learn that the people at large may partake of refined gratifi··catio11; .
CONJUNCTIONS.

. 157. CONJUNCTIONS conn ect words, phrases, clauses,
1
and :;e nton c:es ; as, William "\-vent to Baltimore a11d
~i·~Yashington. They can go by land or by water. J olm
went to New York, but Charl es remain ed at home .
NOTE 1. The conjunction "and ,, sometimes conn ects words al one ; a~, two
and three arc five . H ere tho quality or fact in the predicate, asse rted of t ho
•·compound subject , is not true of either part alone. Such cases arc mre • .

2. " J ohn and J a.mes are good boys." This is scpa.rnhlo ; as, " J ohn is a
good boy, a nd J ames is a good boy." So thnt here, as in almost every in>t•uce, by supplying the ellipsis, tho conjunction mi>y bo made to connect

R E:.tA RK

l. Conjunctions form no part of the phrases , clauses , or

.Sf.!1/cnces , whi ch they connect.

2. Conjun ctions connect words of the same class , in the same relatirn ; similar phrases, in like relations ; and like or unlike clauncs,
.iv the sa me or dilforent relations.
3. \\Tords and phrases connected by conjunction8 h3.ve a common
dep~m1cn cc.
4. Conj unctions, for the most part, connect clauses only; a few
\X)nncct also phrases, and sometimes words.
. 5. "That,'' as a conjunction, stands only in a substantive clause ;
and, whether the cbuse is subjective or objective, is often a mcro
µpl etivc.
l
. 6. Some words are used merely to introdu ce conjunctions; so far
is they serve to direct attention, they arc emphatic; bu t , us th ey do
'.. WbaL do coujunciions connect?

What is U1e peculiar function of th e conjuucLion 7

116

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

COMMON-SCHOOL

not connect , they would otherwise be expletive . 'fhey are really
in troductory, ami' arc usually called correspouding conjunctioru; or
cu rn:h t i n:~ .

'B

N OTE 1. Th us, or may be prccetlcd by wh ether or either, nor by neither, ylf.
or ~t ill Ly a/th rmylt or though, &c. But most of the wont s usually cuws iUop~
as correspond i ng c onjunc tion s a.ro clca.rly rcfcr:Lblo to some otlicr cum:truotion

n.nd rc;; i mcn.

Tim s, both i::; never a conjuuctiun, tlwugh set down.

u..::;

suc hf
1

irorrcspumli ug wi th anrl.
2. A correspo nding conjunctio n never con n ects, and it mn.y be pa.r~ed mcreIJ
a s introduct ory to tUe rea l co njunction that performs tile connecting ollice1
a nd i;-5 the Ct.rnscqucnt iu the co rrcla. tio n.

".

i. A nd, and the conjunctive phrase as well as, express additi on,
aml connect independent clauses, phrases having 11 comm on depcrid·!
ence , a nd words of the same clai;s in the same relation.
8 . Or, denoting alternative , nor trnd neither negative, also connect
independent cl'1uses ; though neither is often in troductory, corrclatirn with nor.
0. B ut, nevertheless , notwithstanding , still, y et, denoting Opp<llli·
tion, contrast, or concession, also connect independent clauses.

10. If, although , though, excqit, lest and unless, connect dependent or subordinate clauses with those on which they depend. When
a clause thus dependent is connected with an other by one of thC88
conjunctions, i ts predicate is said to be in the Subjunctive mood.
They denote condi tion, doubt, supposition.
11. F or :ind because precede a rea son ; therefore and wherefore,
an in fe rence; since , that, &c., a cause or result; and are ei thcr
·i
causal or ii/alive conjund i J i:s .

G:(l.AMM.A~.

117

~ion under a condition expressed in a Hubjoined clause; tb; other df'11yiug thn condition supposed in the former memtier for the sake uf
argument.
The dependent cl11usc, " we fail," is connected with the indepen.
:dent clause, " it can bo no worse for us," by " if," which 11lways
!connects the subordinate clause in which it stands with some o•Jwr.
" 'l'hc other independent proposition, "we shall not fail,'' i~ .:ontcctcd with the first member of' the sentence by" but," expre!:.iing
contrast or opposition.
'( "\>Ve,' ' representing the speaker and those with him, is the sub'ject, unmodified, of the subjunctive clause, and " fail" is the unmodified predica te .
" It, " representing the suppositwn contained in the subjoined
j huse, is the subject of the leading clause; "can be," the predicate,
Is limited by " worse," 11n 11djective in the predic11te, whereby its
quality is asserted of the subject ; and" worse " is directly modified
l oy the 11dverb " no,'' 11nd indirectly by the phrase " for us."
·. " We" is the subject of the last independent clause, and " shall
foil" is the predicate, modified by "not," giving it a neg11tive
··meaning.
"If" is a conjunction, used only to connect a subjunctive clause to
-.iOme other ; thus, " foil," the predicate of this clause, is said to be
niu the Subjunctive mood.
,Ix " Can be" is here used, by means of the auxili11ry" can," to
.!declare possibility or power of its subject.
"Shall fail" is 11 simple declaration in the future, ncg11tived by
.the 11dvcrb " not."
~ .. "But" is 11 conjunction, used only with clauses, and here conn.icting the two independent or coordinate clauses.

12. T han antl as denote comparison; than follows compamtivar,
tbe w JrJs other , as , &c., positives.

EXERCISES.
Give th e clausal and phrasal analysis of the sent ence.11,and the forms,
vropertics and re/alior.Ai of aU the parts of speech for which models in par.1in.g
DIRECTION.

MOD E L.

hal'C bec1t y'iven.

lf we fail, it can be no worse for us; but we
n o t. fail.
Thrrc nrc two members to this compound sentence ; one indeplu.
dent, stating a fa ct based on a supposition, or rather m:iking an a~

n·

·

As he ma kes the final gash, the faithful knife falls from his
little, nerveless hand. The echoolmaster made her no ac.swer,
..,~ut bent over her in silence, for his heart was full. As the
·1grandfath"r approached, the church clock struck the hour of

l

:

118

COMMON-SCHOOL. GRAMM.A.I~.

COMMON-SC HOOL GRAMM AR.

sehool, and their friend withdrew. vVe die, but leave an illfluenee behind us. Each on e of these monum ents has been watered
by t he tears of the widow, the orphan, or the patriot. G encra.
tion s have p•tssed away, and mourners and mourned have sun~ )
t ogether in forgetfu lness . l\fony suoh miracles are set before ..
us ; but we recognize them not, or pass them by with a wo rd or'.i;
a smil e of short surprise. The aged sat down ; but they wept .i
not. If they had the vices of savage life, they had the vi1'!.ucs
also . If we postpone independ ence, do we mean to carry on, or (
t o give up, t he war? The tree falls in the forest; but, in the '
lapse of ages, it is turned into coal, and our fires burn now the
~
brighter because it grew and fell.
IN'r ERJECTIO NS.

158. An INTERJECTION is a word used to express sud·
den or violent feel ing, emotion, or passion; as, Ha I
it is Pythias.
HE)!AHK l. The inteijcction is an undeveloped sentence; as, 0 !
th a t I had the wings of a dove = I wish that I lmd the wings of a ciove. !

Nom. Many in terjections arc merely verbs in the Imperative mood ; as, 1
bltrk ! behold! hush !
r

2. The fo llowing cb.ssification is merely logical, indicating the )
in tc1:jcctions a ppropriatecl to express a particular crnotion, anll not to l
be rcg:w<lcd in parsing.
3. ExprcEsirn of grief - Rlas, alack, oh, woe, ah, well-a-day.
pain - oh, oh dear, ah. Of joy - lrnzza, hurrah. Of laughter h a, ha, ha . Of contempt - pshaw,·fudge, poh, tut-t ut. Of dislil:c - fie, fo h. Of repulsion - avann t, off, begone. Of wclcome hail, all-hail. Of surprise - ha, hah, what, oh. Of wonder - ha,
strange. Used in calling - ho, hallo, what ho, avast, hem . In
silencing - h11 sh, hist , mum, hark. In diretting sight - sec, look,
lo, behold . In intensifying or desiring - 0.
4. The intc1jcction has generally no grammati cal connection with
other words, thn.t requires to be regarded in parsing.
parsed ns grammatically independent, and its logical
always sufficiently apparent.

119

UODEf~ .

0 ! that I had the wings of a dove.
This senten ce consists of an undovcloped and an objective clause,
connected by the conj m1ction " that."
. .
.
'!'he undovolopc<l clause is the in te1jection "0," which i s eqmvalent to " I wish." 'l 'he objective clause is the direct object of the
implied prellicatc of the unllcveloped clause.
" I" is the subject of the dependent clause, " ha<l " is the
predicate, and "had the wings of a dove" is the modified pre<l.icate.
"Had" is directly modified by "wings,'' as its object limiting its
action· and " win<rs" is modified by the article " the," and indirectly J)y the phra~e "of a dove," which, being descriptive, is here
au adjective.
EXERCISES.
D IRECTrnN.
Giue the clausal and phrasal analysis of the following sentenc es, and
parse nll the parts of speech according t o the given models.

Hurrah! the foe is moving l "Ha! Bernard," quoth Alphonso. ·vVhy, zounds ! they shut t he gates at ten. 0, may
he never more be warm! Hail, holy light! 0, save me, Hubert, save rric ! Whew ! whew ! what a fuss about nothing.
O ! fo r a lodge in some vast wilderness! Alas ! I, then, have
chid away my friend. Hark ! a shout falls on his ear from
above.

: "I

1~0

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR .

1 21

..,
In our division of clauses, wo purposely abstain from all distinctions except sucil a,s are grammatical. It is sufficient for the
purposes of analysis, to recognize the following distinctions, namely :
CLAUSES.
L_----,

:-

Dependent.

Independent.

·r- -

INTRODUCTION TO SYNTAX .

·-

As th ere is a synt:ix of words, treating of their oflices and rclati'Jns, as arranged in sentences, so there is a syn tax of cla uses and
pbmses.
A perfect system of analysis must r ocogni ze verbal, phrasal and
clausal syn tax.
Now, th eEc sereral kinds of syntax are not always distinct; nor
is an tinalysis fo unded on either of them alone, co mplete. What is
commonly call ed parsing, that is, verbal analysis, is often defcctire,
or im possible, if not combined wi t h phmsal and clausal analy;is.
Loo k, for example, at the following sentence : ." A gentle dalesnrnn 1ies almost at the root of that tall pine." Technical parsing
takes no notice of the fact that" at tho root" is an adverb, mod ifyin g "li e~," or that "of that tall pine" is an adjective, modifying
''root."
In this r espect it is defective, and, in consequen ce of this defect,
it fai ls, also, in its own sphere, and is obl iged to violate its own
rul es by parsing " almost" as modifying a preposition. " Almost"
e111111ot be pa,rsed consistently with the definitions rrnd rules of grammar, without recognizing the adverbial power of the phrase" at the
r oot."
The question, therefore, of th e relative importan ce of parsing and
analysis, which some have mised, cannot he entertain ed; since each
is necessary to the other, and both to the completeness of the analysia. Bes ides, some of the rules of syntax - to be appl ied in p:using - presuppose anrilysis; and others can be vindicated only by
r ecognizing the prin ciples of phrasal and clausal amilysis.
In re:;oldn g :i sentence into its elements, th e ordci·, so far as po&. ·
sihlo, sho11 lcl be from the genernl to the particular ; tlrnt is, from
clausal, tl1rough phmsal, to Yerbal.

SubstaLtive.

---,

r

Adjective.

Adverbial.

Subjunctive.

Objective.

Subjective.

159. Every sentence contains, at least, one independent clause.
160. A substantive clause is the grammatical equivalent of a noun ·
as, Know, then, this truth, " Virtue alone i.s happiness below ." Know
what trnth? " Virtue alone is happiness below. " So the substantive clause is in apposition with" truth."
161. A subjective clause is equivalent to a noun in the nominative
case ; as, That you have wronged me doth appear in this. A Jae.
doth appear. ·what fact? "That you have wronged me." · Who
he was is not known.
Hi2. An objective clause is equivalent to a noun in the objective
case ; as, The farmer declared that his watch had gained half an hour
i11 the night.
Declared a fact. What fact? " '!'hat his watch had
gained half an hou r in the night. " " I know who saw him."
163. An adjective clause is equivalent to an adjective; as, The
man who is wealthy, should give liberally= the mari of wealth = the
wealthy man.
! 164. An adverbial clause is equivalent to an adverb; as, When he
came down to brealifast, the fo.rmer declared that his watch had
gained half an hour in the night. The farmer declared then.
\V hen did he declare? " When he came down to breakfast."
1G5 . A subjunctive clause has its predicate in the Subjunctive
mood ; as, .1f he come, I shall see him.

166. A. PHRASE may perform the office of a noun, an
adj ective, or an adverli.
11

'·..

122
lli/. A

COMMON-SC HOOL GRAMMAR.
p hra.~o

COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

which performs the office oftt noun, may he c01lled

a suhsta11/i or. pl11·;1se. I-iii; being lame prernnted his going= Lamtness
l ''"" rnn tcd l1is dt purture . l11 s being lame froctl hiill frum lllili tary

duty.
l G.. . A suljcctive phrase is equ ivalent to a noun in th e nominatirn c;tse; a,;, Tu see the sun is pleasant= & ei11g (tho sun) is pleasant= The sight (of the sun) is ploas;tnt. "What is pleasan t"! "'l'o
sec the sun ." "Liberty or Death," " ·us the cry. "A Homo,
_;_ Gonlvn," was the cry.

1

] G\J . _.\n ohjcctivc ph r:tso is equivalent to a noun in the ohjcctivo
c,tsc ; :ts, 1 know how to do it. I know the way or manner. His
]Jeing lame prern nted his going away = departure.

170. An adjective phrase is equiv::iJcnt to an tLdjective ; as, Ile wus
a man of wealth = IIe was a wealthy man.
111. An a(h erbial phrase is eq11ivalent. to an adverb ; as, H e c:i.me
to this p lace = Uc cal.llc here.
Non :. A phrase, u sed as a conjunction, o. proposition, a
cases, as an adverb, is inscpa.ra.blc .

verb, and, in some

EXAMPLES OF ANALYSIS,
CLAUSAL, PHH.ASAL, AND VEfillAL.

" When the farmer came down to breakfast, ho declared that his watch had gained half an hour in the
>'
n ight."
.J

.•

This is a compound sentence, consisting of three clauses . "He
decl::tred" is an independent clause; " that his watch had gained° 3
half a n hour in the night,'' objective; and" When the farmer C[l.ID0 1
dow n to hrc;tkfast,'' adverbial .
J
The ohjcctirn cbnse is connected with the independent clause by
the conjunction " that."
The <tth crbi;LI clause is connected with the independent clause by :
th e connective ntlvcrh "when."
The adverbia l phrase " to breakfast " limits " came." The adjec- 1
tive phrase "of an hour" (the ellipsis bciv.; supplied ) lilllits ~

123

"half." The adverbial phrase "in the night" limits "had
g<Lined."
'i'he subj ec t of tl1e inrlcpcndont clause, " he,'' is a person:tl pronoun, usctl iu ~ tcatl of the noun "fo.nn er. " ltti form shows it tu be
of the masc uline gender, singu lar number, third person, und in the
nomin>ttivc ca8e, to agree in these respects with the word it represents. The regular, transitive verb" declared" is the predicate;
it is in th e indicative mood, past tense; singular number, and third
persc1n, to agree with the subj ect" he."
"Declared" is directly limited by the adverbial chuse , and by
th e ul•jective cluuse, wh ich is its direct object.
"Farmer,' ' the subject of the adver bi:i.l clause, is a. common noun,
of the mascn line gender, singular number , third person, and in
the nominative case. It is directly limited by the definite article
" th e."
"Came," the p_redicate, is an irregular, intrans itive verb; indicatirn mood, past tense ; th ird person, singular, to agree with the
subject "farmer." It is directly limi ted by the adverb "down."
'!'lie connective adverb "when" marks the relation of the two
predicates "declared" and " came" in reg:i.rd to time.
"Breakfast" it a common noun, of the neuter gender , singular
mun ber , third person, and objective case after the preposition •' to,''
wh ich connects it with "came."
. "Watch,'' the subject of th e objective clause, is a common noun,
of the neuter gender, singular mu11ber , third person, and in the
n1nninative ca~e. It is directly limi ted by the personal pronoun
"his,' ' referring to" farmer," with which it agrees in gender, number, and perbJn. "His" is in the possessive case .
'!'be predicate "had gained" is a regular, transitive verb ; indicative, past perfect; third, singular, agreeing in these two latter
re:ipecti; with " watch." The predicate is directly limited by the
common noun" half," which is of the third, singular, objective .
"An" is an indefinite article, limi ting "hour ."
"Hour" is a common noun, neuter, third, singular, and objective after th e preposition " of" implied.
"Night" i ~ a common noun, neuter, third, singular, and ohjectivo after th e preposition " in ," by whi ch it is connected with" had
gained." It is directly limited by the definite article " the."

I'.,

124

OOMl'rIO~-SCHOOL

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

The snhject of this sentence is not modified. The modified pre<li
ca.te is "decbred," with its modifi c;i,tions, by the adverbial and
objectiye clauses.

"William go es to school."
This i8 n. simple sentence. " "William" is the grammatical sul;
jed, :md is not mod ified. " Goe8" is the grnmmatieal ]'l'c<licate
a11d is lll o<lifie<l by the adverbin.l phrase "to school. " "Uo08 tt
~choo l " is the modified predicn.te.
" William " is :L proper noun, masc uline, singubr, third, norni·
nn.t. irn .
" Goes" is an irregular, intransitive verb, active voice , indicative, present, third, singular.
"School " is a comm on noun, neuter, third , singular, [Ind ol> /
jeeti,·e after the preposition "of," by which it is connected with
" goes ."

"John walks and runs."
This sentence has a compound predicate. "John," the grammat ical subject, is not mod ified. "vValks" and "nrns " are con·
nected by "and,' ' neither of them being modified .
" J ohn" is a proper noun , masculine, third, singular , nom inative.
'
·' 'iV::ilks" is a regular, intransitive verb, in the indicati>e,
present, third, singubr; agreeing in the two btter respects \\·ith
its subjec t " J ohn."
:
" Rlln s " is parseil. in tho same manner ::is " walks," except that
it is irreg ubr.
·

GRAM~~AR.

125

SIMPLE RULES OF SYNTAX.
J

I.
The subjcot of a finite verb is m the nominative
case ; as, The boy studies. H e will learn.

,·

RULE

Norg.

A verb isjinit c when it is limited by number and person.
MODEL.

Th e boy studies, and he will learn.
This sentence is compound, consisting of two propositions. Each
umy staud alono, and make complete sense by itself. Othcrwitic connected, t he latter clause might be a consequent of the former;
as, Tho boy studies; tlwrefore he will learn. Or, The boy will learn,
because he stuclies.
'l'bc conjunction " and," connecting the two clauses as independent
propositious, merely expresses addition .
"l3oy," the gramm;J,tical subject of the first clause, is limi ted by
the definite ::irticle" the,'' denoting some particular boy before the
eye or the mind, and thus made sufficiently obvious to the hearer or
reader. Hence " the boy " is the modified subject.
·" Studies " is the predicate of the first cbuse, and " will learn "
of t.hc second. As neither predicate is modified, the a.ssertion in
each clause is unlimited and general. " He," the subject of the
&:cond clu.use, represents" boy," and is not modified.
"Iloy" is a noun, because it is the name of an object; a common
noun, because it is the name of any one of a class; of the masculine
gender, bemuse it den otes a male being; of the singular number, because it denotes only one; of the third person, because it represents
tb e object named as spoken of; in the nominative case, because it is
the subject of the finite verb " studies," here used to assert something of the person denoted by the word" boy."
" llc" is [\ pronoun, because it is substituted for a noun ; p ersonal, because its form shows of what person it is ; it has the
form appropr i;J,tcd to the masculine gender, Mingula.r number , and
third person of the personal pronouns, bec::iuse it must ;J,grcc in
these respects with the noun "boy," which it represents; it iH<M
allio the form appropriated to the nomin::itive case of tho pcrtional
a~ocrLiou

11*

\

~/

.

,.

.

/
126

. 127

cmrnoN-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

pronoun, becau se it is the grn.mmatical subject of the verb "wilJ
learn," whi ch asserts somctliing; of it.

Here ,tre two propositions, each asserting a distinct fact, and yet
co nnected hy the clausal conjunction " that," tibuwing t he relation of cause and effect between them , as to make the former asoertiun ,1 consequent on the fact stated in the latter ; that is, a rE.s ult
of t he cau se spooified in tha,t proposition .
Of th e8o clauses "I" a,nd "teacher" are the subjects;" a,m"
am! " is respected " the predicates . " Glad " an adjective in tho
predica te refers to the subject "I"; and thus the qmllity of ghlllJH.'od i.o 11ot assumed of th e subject, but is asserted of it.
" 'l'he" is a definite article, limiting " teacher" to some par tic11 br
one before the mind or eye ; and " tho teacher " is the modified
sr.'.-:iect.
., Is respected," the predicate, is limited by the phruw "by liis
pupils" ; and " is respected by his pupils" is t he modified predicate .
"Pupils" is limited by the pronoun" his," representing" teacher. ''
The pred ica te " is r espected" would be here used in a general and
indefinite manner, unless r estricted by the phrase " by his pupils."
This phrase rnodi£cs the g eneral me[lning, and limits to a defi11ite
class the respect shown to the teacher.
" Am" is a verb, beea,use it is used to assert. Principal parts,
Present" he" or "a,m," Past" was ," Perfect p,u tieiple " been " ;
irregular, bec:iusc its past ten se and perfect participle are not fim11ed
by th e additi on of d or ed to the present or sim ple form; intransitive, beca use it dues not take ll word a,fter it in the objective case , as
· the direct object of the verb; Indicative movd, because it silllply de, clarcs; Present tense, because it r epresents the being :.ts incom: plctc and aSJCr tcd in present time ; this verb a,lone has a special
form appropriated to the singu lar number and first person, and it
-- agrees in those respects with its subject-nominative" I."
" Is respected" is a verb , because it may be used to assert ; anrl ;t
is s::i nsed here. Present" respect," Past" respected," Perfect P:1rticiple "respc1;tccl"; r rg nlar , bcc:iuse its past te11f;c :incl perfect p:1rticipl c :ire funned by tho add ition of ed to th e pre,~nt or si!llple
furlll; transitive, becau se it can take a noun Rfter it in the ob,jc·ct ive
case :·R t he cl ired obj1;c;t of itti action ; as, " Hi s pup ib r csrectcd t he
tcaclttr "; passive, because it is formed by anncx i ng the perfect participle " r e~pectecl " to " is," a part of the verb " lx'," and beca,uso

GE~EIUL Dn:ECTIOY.

Ia all the E xercises under each

Ruu:, analvze lite several sentences , acr.:orcling to the

lllODEr.,

gil:ing bulh clau:sal and phrasal analysis; but parse llwoc
words only that come under the giv en rule. It will be well
fur the pupil to write out in full on slate or paper the
au:tl yb is al)(l parsing of these e:i;er cises, and f requently 011
the blackboard, citing any RuLES that will apply. Also,
write fire 1;c11fences wider each rule, pointing out the word
or words to which the rule applies.
EXERCISES.
DrnECTIO ~. If the s u bj ec ts of the followi ng exercises are noun s, t ell eve rything
t hat cmi be sa id of the nou n, with reasons for t he particular application; if pro
nou ns , for wha t th~y are substilldes, in what respects t. ltey repres ent the substit ute!,
wha tever else pertains to th e ir particular reyim.e n, and reCLsonsfo r all.

The wreck had evidently drifted about for some months.
Benevolence conlers the high est enjoyment. Father has not
return ed , nor wil 1 he be at home for a fortnight. Ell en love~
her book, and she will excel in her s tudies. Anna loves her
book, because she can read it. Charles has not had the knifo,
nor has he seen it to-Jay. The language is good , and Trim
reads very well. The boy will learn , if he studies faithfolly.
The man was confident that he lrnd done nothing wrong. We
must persevere in well doing, and then we shall not fail. If you
act upright ly, conscience will approve. You will have abundant.
tim e for study, if you ri se early in th e morning. The trees were
in bl ossom, and the air was fi lled with fragrant perfumes. Vegetation is constantly advancing, though no eye can trace its steps.

II.
A verb agrees with ito; s ubje ct-nominative in number
and person; as, I am. H e was loved . Boys play.
R ULE

MODEL.

I am glad that the teacher is resp ected by his pupils.

Ao

,.

l

,.,

128

COMMO N-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

COMMON-SC HOOL GRAMMAR.

· phrase " three cows " to the phrase " his best horse, " as they havo
· a common dependence, being direct objects of the transitive verb

the direct object of the verb is here made its subject ; lndicathvmuod, bcu;tu ~c it ~ imply tlccliLrcs; Present tense, because it rcpresen.ta
a11 u11ji11is!ted ad iuu as .r;oiny on in present time ; it has the form
fi]>[Jl",>J> l"i<L tcd tu the oing;ular number and third person, to agree in
ti:l·w0 l\::;p eeto witl1 ito oubjed-nomlr.ative" teacher. "
EXERCI SES.
DrnEl:Tlfl'.'.

G ive the causal and phra:Jal analy sis of the

foll~winy

sen t ences,

par.1.; i11y 011 /y the vcr\Js.

U' thine ene1uy hunger, give him breud. The rocks crumble;
th'" trees fall ; th e leaves fade; and the grass withers. Gcuerati cn1s l1a 1·e passed away, and mourners a nd mourned have sunk
togeth ci' iuto forgetfulness. The wind was blowing a smacking
breeie, a nd we were going at a great rate through the water.

Rithcr, thy hand
H ath reared these venerable columns; thou
D idst \\"Cave this verdant r oof.
Tlt e 11au11) of the ship could not be ascertained. The wreck
h ad ev illeutly dril"ted ab out for some months. A word once
u 1tcrcd can ueve r be r ecalled. "YVe should cultivate a taste for
tit <! bea utiful. His mind has not been cultivated, or else bis
ge11ius has been bent out of its proper channel. The mind or
t lte sa rnge has m:wc r bccu discip li ned by study; t herefore, it il!
di ~ ti 11 g ui s hed only fo r strength and fero city.
R ULE

III.

Adj ec tives descri be or limit nouns, and their subbtit ute<l; as, Good men. S even men. They are happy.

129

1

" lost."
This may be fo.rther seen by supplying the ellipsis and making
~wo clauses ; 11s, " 'l'he farmer lost hiti best horse , ar: -! the farmer lost
three cows.'' Thus the two connected phrases have L common dependence or relation.
••Betit '' is an adjective; positive good, comparative better, su perlativo
best; irregularly compared, is in the superlative degrCf:, because it
expresses the highest degree of goodness compared witL his other
horses , and modifies " horse,'' restrfr.ting in quali ty, and excluding
all his other horses.
" Three" is an adjective; numeral, because it denotes nnmher ; cardinal, denotes how many; and limits the noun" cows" in number,
lmt in no other respect. _Numerals cannot be compared.
'
EXERCISES.
Dm ~<..."TlO N .

After clausal and phrasal analysis of each sen tence, varse the sc.1,eral

adj'.:ctives in each .

The calm shade shall bring a kindred calm, and the soft breez.e
shall waft a balm to thy sick heart. H e had a good mind, a
sound judgment, a vivid imagination; and yet he was not a ge·
nius. The first and great object of education is mental discipline. I t was now the hottest time of persecution, and sec ret
places were sought for the worship of God. A rapid torrent
roll ed its way through a chasm of cliffs several hundred feet high.
The sold iers dashed down a less precipitous part of the banks,
and wit.It more rapid strides they hurried up the channel. In
the most energetic and high-wrought things Webster ever uttered,
there was a quiet tone of moderation.

:M ODEL.

Th e farmer lost his best horse and three cows.
Herc" farmer "is the subject ; and" lost,'' the predicate, is directly
mod ified by the objective phrases" his best ltorse" trnd" three cow•."
Th e mudilied prclliccite is " lost his best horse and three cows."
"Horse " is limi ted in quality by the word" best," and the word
" COW8" iti limited in number by" three ."
"And" eonnccts the

'·

l,,

RuLE IV.

The article A or AN limits nouns of the sin gular number only; as, A man, an hour.
The article THE limits noun s of eithe r number; as,
The man, the men.

.,
I

r
I '

l· .

130

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

C!O¥MON-SCHOOL GRAMM.AR.

MODEL.

MODEL.

T he mun hired a carriage, and we rode for an hour.
Two independent clauses, connected by" and,'' making a coniponnd sentence .
" i\bn " and " we " arc the subjects, and " hired " and " rode'.'
the gra mmatical predicates.
"Hired" is limited by "carriage," as the direct object of its
ncti on, and" hired a carriage" is therefore the modified predicn,tc.
"Rocle" is indirectly modified by the phrase" for an hour,'' limi ting the action as to time; and " rode for an hour " is the modified
predicatD.
" The " is a definite article, and limits the noun "man " to ~u!J,l~
particular man, before spoken of or pointed out.
"A" is an indefinite article, and limits the noun" carriage" indefinitely, without specifying any particular carri age.
"An" is nu indefinite article, and limits the noun "hour " to one,
but indefinitely to any one. "An" is used instead of a, because it
comes before a vowel so und; ash is silent.
EXERCISES.
P oint out the following sentences, the clauses and phrases and their
relati9ns, a nd parse the articles.
DrnECT1ox.

I once saw a boy, on a public occasion, climbing the ligbtningrod on th e lofty spire of a meeting-house. Beauty is an all'.
pervading presence. '!.'he ocean, the mountains, the clouds, the
heavens, the stars, the ri sing and setting sun, all overflow with
beauty. A mighty army, flushed with victory, is approaching
the wall s ; a victorious chi eftain is leading them forward; an
unknown and mysterious God is marching before them. The
heavens and the earth had a beginning, and they will ha.ve au
end. The night was shutting in about the house, and there was
a melancholy, gusty sound in the trees.
RULE

v.

Adverb s modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs; a3, A
very good man will not always act very prudently.

131

The boy recites e;,ceedingly well, because he has
acquired very studious habits.
These two clauses are placed in the rebtion to each other of cause
and effect; the last clause assigning a reason for the fact assertcu in
the first.
'!'hey arc connected by the causal conjunction because; this conjunction generally follows the effect and precedes the cause, and con..
nedi; clauses only.
" Boy" is the subject of one clause, and " he," of the other.
"Recites " is the grammatical predicate of one, and" has acquired,''
of the other.
" Recites exceedingly well " is the modified predicate of the first,
and " has acquired very studious lrabits". is· the modified predicate
of the last.
" The " limits " boy" to a definite individual, and " the boy" ia
tho modified subject. "Very studious habits" is a phrase, directly
moJifying " acquired."
"Exceedingly" is an adverb, and modifies the adverb "well,"
increasing its force, showing how " well." Thus, if the question ho
·asked, how well did the boy recite? the answer would be " exceedingly well."
W ell is an adverb, irregularly compared; well, better, best; in the
positive form, but increased in degree by the adverb "exceedingly,"
which modifies it.
" Well " modifies the verb " recites," showing the manner in
which " the boy recites."
" Very " is an adverb, and modifies tl:e adjective " studious,"
iricreasing it in degree.
EXERCISES.
DIRECTION.

.Ll.nalyze clauses and phrases, and parse the adverbs.

Leaning back in his carriage, he was carried along, hardly
sensible that it was day. Arthur's mother was peculiarly dear
to him, in having a character so very much like his own. Almost

I•

t
l

;1
' ,· J

133

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAM1HR.

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

his first words showed his anxiety for his companions in misfortun e. Charles was quite unwilling to" try, but he has wriLLen li~
copy very well indeed. John's task was accompl ished the soo~
est, and the most successfully. The greatest forces of the ear\~
all act noi selessly and irresistibly. We are fearfully and wonderfully made. A tall Gothic church-spire shot up lightly frow
am ong th e yew-t rees, wit_h rooks and crows generally wheeling
about it. The court-yard was now totally empty, but ·waverley
still stood there, with his eyes fi xed upon the dark pass where
he had so lately seen th e last glimpse of his friend.

p ha8 the special form for the objective case, and indirectly modif!cs

132

RULE

one, as it must be of the same number as the noun for which it sta'[tds.

"sent ," with which it is connected by the preposition" by," showing the rcbtion between" mo," the modifying term, and the word
" soot.''

., "Him" is a pronoun, and represents" J ohn"; personal, because
it hns an appropriate form to represent the person of the noun for
J1'hich it stands; it has the fo rm of the thir<l person, singuhr
J1umber, and masculine gender, because "John," its antecedent,
.is masculine, singular, third; .the special form for the objective
case, and is connected with "shall deliver," which it indirectly
modifies, by the preposition" for," requiring the case-relation to be
objective.

VI.

Prepositions require the objective case after them;
as, John gave the book to me.
N oTE 1. Th e modi fying term of a r ebti on sh own by a preposition is in
the nbjcctivo case ; as, George went to J erusa lem. It was sent to him by nu.
2. A noun or pronoun connected with another word by a preposition indi
rcctly modifies it, constituting with the preposition a phrase.
MODEL.

J ohn sent the book by me, and I shall deliver it for
him soon.
" J ohn " and " I " are the subjects; "sent" and" shall deliver~~
.I
th e predi cates .
" Sent " is modified directly hy th e object "book," and indirectly
by the phrase " by me " ; tiO that "sent the book by me" is 'tlie
modified predi cate of the first clause.
&
"Shall deliver" is directly limited by" it " as the object of ill
nction ; also by" soon, " showing the nearness of the time of the
fu t ure action predicated of the subject " I. " It is indirectly limited
by the phrase " for him ."
" Mc " is a personal pronoun, having a peculiar form to e~qil'Clll
t he pason it represents. First person, as it stands for the spcakf:J.
I t is ncrnr rnri cd in form on acco unt of gender, us the first person JI
presmncd to be present, and the sex known. Singubr, denoting bu$

EXERCISES.

1

DmECTIO N. P ars e only the nouns and pronouns ihat indirectly mod1fy words by
pr epositional relations.

By the approval of evil, we become guilty of it. Faith
touches all things with the hues of heaven. They have gone
dow n amidst the ro ar of the tempest. From thicket to thicket
the angler glides. The storm-bird wheels in circles round th e
mast. They thronged around her magic cell. 'fhe plover with
':snowy wings skims over the deep. One of th e surest signs of
the regeneration of society will be the elevation of the art of
,teaching to the highest rank in the community. Of old hast
thou laid the foundations of the earth, and the heavens are the
')\:ork of thy hands. L eaning back in his carriage, with his hand
1
b·o.vcr his eyes, he was carried along, hardly sensible th at it was
day. She covered her eyes with her hand, and the tears trickled
odown between her pale, thin fingers.
RULE

VII.

The object of a transitive verb is m the obj ective
as, I found them. We saw him. Men worship
12

134

co m!ON-SC HOOL

GRA~BIAH .

MODEL.

F ather call ed us, and we obeyed him.
Here are two independent clauses, each containing a distinct proposition , connected by the conjunction" and."
" Father " and " we" are the subjects unmodified; " called" and
•· obeyed," the grammatical predicates .
" Culled " is directly limited by " us " as the object of its action,
restri cting the " call " to the persons represented by the pronoun
" us " ; and " called us" is the modified predi cate.
" Obeyed" is directly limited by" him" as the object of its action, thu s restricti ng our obedience to one person, represented by
" him " ; ctnd " obeyed him " is the modified predicate.
"Us" is a personal pronoun, representin g as a company the
speaker and th ose with him at the time of the call, and therefore of
the fi rst person; not var ied to represent sex,- the persons, denoted by
the wurd for wh ich it is substituted, may be males or females withou t aflecting its form; plural, more than one. It has the special
fo rm appropriated to the objectirn case , as the object directly limiting
the act ion of th e transitive verb " called."
" Him " is a personal pronoun, substituted for the noun "father,"
and representin g it in number, person, and gender, being in form,
third, singular , masr.uline. I t has the special fo rm appropriated to
t he objecti ve case, and directly limits the trnnsitive verb" obeyed ."
EXERCISES.
DrnE CTIO~ .

A.naly=e the se nt ences, and parse t he tt..'ords that directly limit transi·

tive verbs.

..

The calls of business, and the press of occupation, will not
suffer me to g ive much time to socia l enjoyments. If they bad
th e vices of savage life, they had the virtues also. If they forgave not injury, neither did they fo rget ki11dn ess. I have shown
him only as I saw him at first. Mahom et fo rced the K oran
u po n the eastern world, and the sons of Ishma el unfurled the
cresce nt, and wa ged an exterminating warfare aga inst th e discipl es of the cross. I held the fruit near my eyes ; I exam ined
i ts form and its colors. A delicious odor all ured me to bring
it near my lips, and I inhaled long draughts of its perfumes.

C0:\1l\!ON-SCHOOL

R ULE

GRAMM<A~.

135

VIII.

A noun vari ed to denote the owner or possessor,
directly limiting another, is in the possessive case ; as,
John's book. Our sled. Virtue has its r eward.
MODE L .

The bey's book was found , but its leaves had b een
sadly t orn.
'!.'his sentence contains two propositions, connected by the conjunction "but," expressing contrast between the present condition
of the book and its former appearance.
" Book" is the grammatical subject of the first clause, and
" leaves " of the other.
"Book" is directly limited by" boy's ,'' denoting the owner , and
"boy's" by " the," denoting a " definite" boy ; and " the boy's
book " is the modified subject.
" Leaves " is directly limited by "its," denoting the possessor ;
ns, t he "book's leaves" ; therefore "its leaves " is the modified
subject .
" \Vas found " is the predicate of the first clause, and is not
modified.
" Hncl been torn," the predicate of the second clause, is directly
mod ified by "sadly," describing the manner of the action; thus,
" had been sadly torn" is· t he modified predicate.
" Boy's" is a noun, because it is a name; common , because it applies to :rny one of a class ; masculine gender , denoting a male being ;
singular, denoting only one; third person, spoken of ; in the form
appropriated to the possessive case, denoting ownership, and directly
limiting the noun "book," the name of the object possessed.
"Its" is a personal pronoun, and has the .form appropriuted to
the thin! person, sing nhlr, masc ulin e, to agree in these respec ts
with "book ," tho noun for which it is substituted; it has the
special form assigned to th is pronoun in the possessive case, denotes possession, and directly limits " leaves ," the name of the object
possessed.

r

/
CO ~D!ON-SC HOOL

GRAMMAR.

EXERCISES.
Dm F.CTIO~.

Analyz e as usual, bnt pars e only words in the possessive cn.c:e.

'fhe sick earth groans with man's iniquities. Fait h '~ raised .. j
eye looks fa r beyond life's narrow bound. Time writes no
wr in kles on thine az ure brow. All the ends of thy aim should
be thy country's, thy God's, and truth's. Alas ! the lieutenant's
last day's march is over. My morning's rid e was to the site of
the Indian town Powhatan, the metropolis of the dominions of
Pocahontas' fath er.
0, lo veliest there the spring days come,
'With blossoms, and birds, and wild bees' hum .
Dryden's page is a natural field ; Pope's is a velvet lawn.
/
The so und of wheels and horses' feet was now heard in the ·.
court-yard of the castle.
RULE

IX.

Intram;itive and passive verbs have the same case
after as before them, when both words denote the
sa me object ; as, H e was named John . I am he. Thou
art the man. I know kirn to be an h onest man.
MODEL.

Washington is called thefather of his country.
This is a simple sentence. "·washjngton" is the subject ; " is
called," the grammatical predicate, and " is called the father of his
co un try," the modified predicate.
" Fath er" is li mited by " the," rmd indirectly by tho phraBe "of
his co un try"; and" country" is directly limited by" his."
" Is c:i.lled " is a passive verb, and " Washington," its subject,
is in the norninatiYe case; therefore, "father ,' ' denotin g the same .
person as" \\Tashin gton ," is in the nominative cuse after the verb.
" Father " is a common noun, upplied to uny one of a class ; masculine, a lllale bein,r;; third person, spoken of; singular , but one ; nom· ,

OOMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

137

inative case, becuuse it is a noun in the predicate denoting the
same person as the subject, und therefore must be in the same cuse ;
nominative after the passive verb "is culled" ; " ·w a~ h ing;ton"
being the subject-nominutive, und " father" the predica te-nominative.
EXERCI SES.
DmECTION.

P arse only words in the predicate having the same meaniny

~

the

1ubjcct.

Each day is a new life. Beauty is the flower, but virtue is
the fruit of life. Knowledge is the treusure of th e mind, and
discretion the key to it. · The city of Jericho was culled the
City of P alms. Which candidate was chosen governor? Cicero
was the most finished orator in Rome. He .was elected senator
on the first ballot. As the morning is the beginning of day, so
youth is the earlier part of life. One was creuted lord by act
of Parliament, another became earl by right of succession ; one
was made admiral of the fle et, and another was appointed commander of the army. It has become his master.
RULE

I~

l·

X.

A n oun used to explain another, denoting the same
object, is in th e same case, in apposition with it ; as ,
Webster, the statesrnan, is dead. J ames, come to me,
your teacher.

1·

MODEL.

There falls the avalanche, the thunderbolt of snow.
This is u simple sentence, with one subject and one finite verb.
"Avalanche," the grammatical subject, is modified by the article
"the,' ' and by " thunderbolt" with its mod ifications, denoting tho
same thing as " avalanche," and thus describing it.
" Thunderbolt" is limited by" the," and indirectly by the phrase
"of snow "; thus, " the uvalanche, the tlmn dcrbolt of snow" i~
the modified subject .
"Falls" is the grammutical predicate, and " falls there," the
modified predicate.
12*

.,.I

j \
l'
J·

"'j·I .
.~ .

;/
13 8

".Avalanche," a common noun, third, singular, nellter, i8 m the
n l)Jnina.tirn case, the suujeet of" falls." '!'he prodioate preeedes·the
sttl J.~ec t hy po.etica.1 a rrangement .
" Thunderb olt " is a common noun, a name applied to any one o~
a cb ss; third person, spoken of; singnl:.ir , denotes but one ; neuter,
an ob.;cct without sex; in tho nominative case, directly modifying
"arnla.nchc,'' and used to explain it, denoting the same objec t ;
therefore it is in apposition 'vith "avalanche, " and in the same cas'..
EXERCISES.
DrnE C TIO~ .

.Analyze as usual, and parse only the words i n app osition .

Hope, the charmer, lingered still behind.
I t was a people's loud acclaim,
The voice of anger and of shame,
A nation's funeral cry, Rome's wail above her only son,
H er patriot., - and her latest one.
vVe meet again, the children of the pilgrims, to r emember our
fat.h ers. A labyrinth of ruin s, Babylon spreads over the blasted
plain. Fire and water, once our gentle, patiently drud g ing handma ids, were quietly domesticated on our hearthstones less tbaa
half a century ago.
RULE

XI.

.A. n oun used independently is m the n ominative
case.

..

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

c omroN-SC HOOL GRAMMAR.

N OTB 1. B y address; as, John , come here. Dy pleonasm; as, The pilgrim
f at her;;! whe re arc th ey ? By excl a m a.lion; as, 0, the memor.lJ of other days !
2. A pron oun of the first person is sometimes used independently in
t ho objec ti ve ; a.s, Ali me ! Jlfe miserable!
MO D E L .

Fri'.ends, I come not here to talk.
This is a simple sentence, containing but one proposition, addrossed

139

to persons denoted by a word used independently of the rest of the
sentence, in grammatical construction .
" I " is tbc grammatical subject, unmodified ; " come" is the
pretlicate, and " come not here to talk " is the modified predicate.
· " Friends " denotes tho persons to whom tbe sentence is addressed.
" Come " is modified by the adverbs" not " and " here,'' and indirectly by the infinitive phrase "to talk," denoting a purpose ·or
object
" Friends " is a common noun, applying to any of a class ;
usually masculine or feminine gender, as denoting either sex or both;
here tlenoting men addr essed by Rienzi, th erefore masculine, and
plural; second person, denoting persona spoken to; nominative case,
used independently to r epresent the persons to whom the proposition, as such, is here addressed.

,,

EXERCISES.
DIR ECTIO N.

A nalyze a .i:, U8u al, and parse only the word.i:, that are u.sed independ-

ently , having no case -relation to other wo rds in tile untence.

Solomon thy son, he shall build my house an d my courts.
Strange r, the land is mine. Father, thy hand hath r eared these
· venerable columns. I cannot, my lords, I will not join in congratulation on misfortune and disgrace. 'Tis wonderful I and
yet, my boy, just sueh is life.
Then, if thou fall'st, 0 Cromwell,
Thou fa ll'st a blessed martyr .
Maternity, ecstatic sound; so twined round our hearts that
they must cease to throb ere we forget it.
The stately homes of England,
How beautiful they stand!
A sacred band , they take their sleep together.
New England's dead! N ew England's dead!
On every hill th ey lie.
P oo r Ind ians! wh ere are they now? Indians, friend s, broth.
ers ! 0, forgive my countrymen. No, land of liberty! thy
children have no cause to blush fo r thee. Beneath the sun,
beneath the moon, his teeth they chatter still.

'·
I,

·I..
1

1'

140

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

cm.rnoN-SCHOOL GRUiUAR.

141

0

RULE

feet passive participle" being involved , " which belongs to it, limiting it .

XII.

A noun, joined with a participle, and not connected
in constructi on with the rest of the senten ce, is usEl~
independently in the nominative case ; as, Shame being
lost, all virtue is lost.
')

MODEL.

No precious fate with mme involved, my heart is
fearle ss, iirm my step.
·a
I.

This is a compound scnt{mce, consisting of two distin ct in dependi
cnt cl•tu ocs, and one not in the form of an assertion, but rnthci
of an assumption, consisting of a noun and a, participle, each of wliich
is modified, and which might be the snbject und pred icate of a <le.
pendent cbuse if expanded.
" Heart " is the subject, and " my hcltrt" the modified subject, o(
the firs t independent clause; "is," the predic:itc, is mod ified
"fearless ," an adjective in the prcd icute; thus th e quality of
fearlessn ess is asserted as belonging to the subject ; and " is tearless " is t he modified predic:ite.
Of the other independent cbuse, "step" is the subject, and " my
step" the modified subject; "is," implied, is the pred icate, and·• i8 .
fi rm " th e mod ified predi cate, asserting firmnes~ of its subject.
I
The undeveloped clause, containing an assumed fact, eq uivalent to
"when no precious fato is in volved with min e," or " if no prcciu~:
fate," &c., when expanded into a full cbusc, would be depcnJcut. iii
connected with the others, having "fate" for its subject, and'"~
in rnlYcd" for its predi cate.
·.
'l'!1ii:; Jiffors from a clause , only in not conbining a grarnmatiCtU
predi ca te ; it is in meaning equivalent to a dependent clause, thoug~
not in g r,111111mt ic:1l structu re.
'"
"Fate" is a noun , name of an ohject; common , applying to any
one of the class ; tlurd person, spoken of; neuter gender, name of
neith er a mnJc nor a fema le heing; singular number, denoting only
one object; norn in:1tive case, and used independently with the irnpg

by

J' •.
1

DIRECTION.

EXERCISES.
After the uiual analysis, parse the

word.~

used independently

w i ./~

Partic iples.

;. The service done, the mourners stood apart, and the villagers
closed round to look into t he grave. That don e, t he child turned
to the old man with a lovely smile upon her fa ce, and clung wilh
' both her arms about his neck. The blue Mediterran ean washes
th e Plai n on the west, its silver waves sweeping round the
northern base of Mount Carmel, and forming the Bay of Acre.
North-east t he great H erm on shoots up beyond its brethren, its
head wrapp ed in perpetual clouds. P eace of mind being secured,
we may smile a t misfortunes.

RuLE XIII

The inte1jection is generally used without grammatical relation; as, Alas l I fear he is ruined.
MODEL.

.A.las ! the remedy came too late.
_. The full clause has for its subject "remedy " ; its gmmmatical
pred icate is " came," and its modified predicate, " came too bte. "
r. The word "alas," which is equivalent to a clause, is here used to
~xpress r egret ; " alas " = I am sorry that, or I regret that. H ere it
~ an ~!feet, of wh ich t he following clause supplies a cause. TliiH
ginnection, however, is only in meaning, not in construction.
"Alas" is an in terjection , here logically joined, as a n isu lt, wi t h
the fo llowing clause; but having no grammatical connection, except
!18 :in undeveloped clause, r equiring other words to be substituted
Cor it.
EXERCISES.
Parse only tltP. interjections in the following .ien tenccs.

t Alas! I fear for life. "Ah!" said the corporal, "the lieutenant's last day's march is over." "A-well-a-day !" said Trim,

..

I

142

COl\IMON-SCHOOL GRA.Ml\IAR.

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

maintaining his poi nt, "the poor soul will di e." Ah' now 1~!
umlerstand yo u. Hurrah! the foe is moving! Hush! hush!.:,
thou vain dreame r! Zounds ! sirrah, it shall be as I say. (,),."
thou Etern n-1 One ! 0, save me, Hubert, save me!
c~1 •

143

limited by an article " the " ; and having laid aside its power as a
taking an object, it has an indirect modification. It is in the
objective, after "in," and limits "proclaimed."
"Regulating" is the imperfect participle of the transitive verb
•regulate," used in the relation of an adjective, and modifying "order" ;
~ li it retains the power of the transitive verb to take a direct obj ec t, and
! ii is limited by " manner."
RuLE XIV.
"Relieving" is a participle, from the transitive verb "relieve," used
P articiples are used in the relations of adjectives · in the relation of a noun, objective after the preposition "of," conand nouns ; and, when derived from transitive verb.s,,. llCCting it with "manner." It r etains its power as a verb, and is
take a direc t object after th em; as, Their bones he• limited by "guard."

mouldering in the dust.

By doing nothing, we learnt.

to do ill.

mb, of

NoTll. A participle used in the relation of a noun, with or without a direct
sl>jectto limit it, is always third, singular, and is represented by the pronoun" it."

,.

MODEL.

In the hearing of the troops, the commander proclaimed an order regulating the manner of rel·ieving1
guard.
" Commander, " the subject of this simple sentence, is .
limited by" the," and" the com1rninde'.· " is ~he '.11odified sub~ect .
" Proclaimed " the o·rnmnmtical predi cate, is dll"ectly modified by,
'
0
•
"
&
d
" order " in the
objective phrase " an order regulatmg ,
·C. ' an .
indirectly by the phrase " in the hearing of the troops"; ~!ms, all
the words in the sentence , except" the eomnmnder ," constitute the
modified predicate.

"Hearing " is directly modified by " the,'.' .
..
phrase " of the troops"; and " troops" is directly modified by
" the."
~
"Order " is directly modified by" rin," and the participl~ '.'reg~;
fating" nsccl in the rebtion of an adjective, and still rctammg the
power of ri Yerh .
"Reg; nl::tting" is directly limited by the word "m::tnner" in the
phrase "m ann er of relieving guard."
" ~fann er " is directly liruited by "the" and the phrase
relicYin g gu::trd."
"Reli cY ing " is directly limi ted by "guard ."
"Hea rin g;" is the imperfect parti ciple of the
"hear." It is here used wholly in the relation of u.

EXERCISES.
1

DIRECTION.

Parse the participles in the following examples.

A thin mist, curling upward, reveals the white tents of I sra el,
eruning in the soft light of early dawn. By entertaining good
ughts, you will keep out evil ones. A word once utte red can
ver be r ecalled. T here was little sleep in :M:oss Side between
rising and setting of the stars. A mighty army, flush ed with
· !Ory, is approaching their walls. After all, disciplining and
ucating your mind must be your own work. Written on thy
rks, I r ead the lesson of thy own eternity. Round th e city
y.have marched, seeking a vulnerable point, but finding none.
e cannot peruse the fate of Chatterton without being moved.
- it lost is like a broken looking-glass.

e

".

RULE XV.

. verb without a subject-nominative, preceded by
tci," is in the infinitive mood.

j
(
j[
l

NoTE. A verb thus unlimited by number or person may be used in any rela•of tho noun except the possessive; or it may modify a verb, noun, adjccti,.c,
'i.verb, to denote a purpose, object, or result; as, To ezcel is his desire, He
'·eel to excel. A desire to excel_ Anxious to excel. He was well enough to

1-14

CO MMO N- SCHOOL GR Al\IllI AR.

COl\Il\lON-SCHOOL GR.A.MM.A.R.

145

R ULE XVI.

~!O DE L .

Conjunctions conn ect words, phrases , clauses, and sentences ; as, 'I'wo and three are five . A g reat and g ood
man has left u s. 'l' rue eloquence must exist in the man,
"in t!t e subject, and in the occasion . John walked and
Williarn rode.
'

Having a desire to learn, J ohn endeavored to study.

·.·!

" J ohn ," the subject of this simple sentence, is directly modified bJ
th e participial phrase "hav ing a desire to learn"; a~d " endeavo~ed;
the predica te, indirectly by the infinitive phrase "to study."
The phrase "to learn " limits "desire."
" Desire" directly limits " having," which, in the relation
j ccUre, refers to " John " ; so that "John having a de8ire to learn•
is the modified su/Jject ; and " endeavored to study," the modifi ,

I'

MO DE L,

The temperate man's pleasures are durable, for they are
' regular; and all his life is calm and serene, because it is

r.

prcd ica:c.
" L e'1 rn" is a verb as it can be used to assert.
past /c1mied, perfect participle learn ed . It can be transitive or in
si tiv c; he re used without a definite object, and in se nse intransit'
It has no subject-nominative, and is preceded by "to," in the ·
itiY c mood, present, and modifies "desire,"
" Study " is a verb, fo r it can be used to assert; r egular - s
studied , Blmlicd ; intransitive, though it is sometimes transitive;
th e infinitirn mood, present, and limits " endeavored," denoting,
purpose of his endeavors or efforts.
EXERCISES.
D mECTI OX.

.

~·

.

.llnalyzc as 1lSual, and parse only v erbs in t!Le infinitiv e mood .

'With honest warmth he turns to bless his Maker.
to shrive the dyin g, bless the dead. Hope comes with smiles'.
honr of pa in to cheer. L eaves have their time to fall. I did
co me to praise Cmsar, but to bury him. The simpler conies
h erbs of po wer on thy banks to look. Y ou have friends to. c
you on ; you h ave book s and teacher s to aid you. The young
fr iends to soothe, pleasures to beguile, a world to diver t and f
pate their griefa. This col umn will contribute to produce.in
m inds a fe eling of dependence and gratitude. She learn ed to ·
out of the Bible almost without any teachin g. How the
learn s to m od ulate its feeble voice, unable y et to articu '
W ebster str uggled to m ak e Bunker H ill Monument
from e very portion of the land.

·~

This sentence is divided into two members by the semicolon, and
are connected by the conjunction " and."
Each member contains two clauses, connected by the causal conjunc.tions " for " and " because."
· , The first clause in each member is independent, and contains the
propo sition for which a )>eason is given in the second clause.
"Pleasures " and " life " are the grammatical, and "the temperate
· man's pleasures " and "all his life " are the modified subj ects of the
two independent clauses ; " ar e durable " and " is calm and serene "
· are the modified predicates of the same.
In the two dependent clauses, " they," representing "pleasures,"
d " it," representing "life," are the subj ects unmodifie d; " are"
,and "is " are the grammatical predicates ; and " are regular" and " is
innocent," the modified predicat es.
. Fou is a conjunction, and connects the clause that assigns a r eason,
' with the independent clause that contains the assertion.
Ji •
•
•
•
d .
·•ND is a con.J unct10n, an umtes the two independent clauses .
1
.'. "Calm" an d " serene," adj ectives having a common dependence,
lire connected by " and."
1:: By supplying the ellipsis in this case, as in most cases, the conjunc·tion "and " may be made to connect clauses ; as, "All his life is calm,
id nil his life is serene." It is better to parse without supplying the
F./lipsis.
i· BECAUSE is a conjunction, connecting the clause that contains the
cause, with the independent clause that asserts the effect.
.~
~ th ey

13

'.

·' I
I

!,

146

COMMON-SCHOOL GRA.Ml\1AR.

COJ\fl\ION-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

EXERCISES.
DmECTION.

.llnalyze as heretofore, and parse only the conjunctions.

·--.a

Avoid slander as you would a scorpion. As the grandfather
approached, the church clock struck the hour of school, ~n d their!
fri cnr.1 withdrew. The hours of this day are rapidly flyin g, and
this occasion will soon be passed. Make them forget, too, if you
can, that in the midst of all this innocence, simplicity, and bliss,,
th e white man came. If I should leave the land of my fathers,
whither shall I fly? There is eternal war between me and thee,
Neither we nor our children can expect to behold its return.
Thou shalt build, and I will burn, till the white man or the India11
shall cease from the land. The r ain came down in torrents, but
I did not feel it. vV c wish that labor may look up here, and be
pro ud in the midst of its toil. \Vebster and Calhoun rarely suffered themsel vcs to forget that they were senators as well as
speakers. M ercy becomes the throned monarch better than his
crown. If called to shed thy joys as trees their leaves ; if the
affection s be driven back into the heart, as the life of fiowe~
1,
to their roots, be patient.
fj
RULE XVII.
•

... a

• •

;;1

A pre1)osition connects a hm1t111g noun or pronoun.ll
with the word which it limits; as , George went to Jer~
salem. It was sent to him by me.
·:a
.• ill

147

"Was engaged" is indirectly limited by the three phrases, "in the
service," "in the army," and "before the revolution"; "service " is
indirectly limited by the phrase " of his country," and "country" directly by " his " ; and " service," "army,'' and "revolution," each
by "the."
, "In" is a preposition, and connects " service" with "was engaged,''
which it indirectly limits.
· OF is a preposition, connecting the modifying term " country " with
"service," which it limits.
' IN is a preposition, connecting "army" with "was engaged,'' which
it limits.
· llEFOHE is a preposition, connecting "revolution," the consequent
term of the relation, with "was engaged,'' which it limits.

)'

I·

EXERCISES.
D rnECTlON.

Parse the prepositions only.

One of the surest signs of the regeneration of society will be
the elevation of the art of teaching to the highest rank in the
.community. The works of the age of Pericles lie at the foot of
the Acropolis in indiscriminate ruin. Tile idol of to-day pushes
.the hero of yesterday from our recollection; and will, in turn, be
supplanted by his successor of to-morrow. History fades into
f:,lble; fact becomes clouded with doubt and controversy ; the
Inscription moulders from the tablet; the statue falls from the
pedestal. The ivy, creeping over it, folded its green mantle
around .the shattered walls, and held its broken fragments together
in one long, last embrace.

MODEL.

Washin g ton was engaged in the service of his country .
in the army before the revolution.
'l'h"1s is
· a s1mp
· 1e sen t ence, liavmg
·
but one subiJ ect and one fini~
.
1
verb.
\1
"Washington," the subject, is unmodified.
" \Vas engaged" is the grammatical predicate, and the moclifie4
predicate is all the sentence except the subject " W asbington."
,;\V
1

RULE XVIII.

Pronouns must be of the same person, number, and
gender as the nouns which they represent ; as, Henry
recited to his teacher. Anna recited to her teacher.
Henry and Anna recited to their t eacher. Thou, William,
still art young. You and I will go and see the boy, for
we know him.

.1"
I

(j'

148

COl\Il\ION-SCHOOL GRAl\Il\IAR.

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

RULE XIX.

MODEL.

J olm does his work with a view to its effect on men
..i71
and their opinions.
~D

This is a simple sentence. "John" is the subject, and all the rest of
the sentence is the modified predicate.
" Does" is the grammatical predicate, directly limited by "work,"
and indirectly by the phrase, "with a view to its," &:c.; "view" is limited by the phrase "to its effect on," &c. ; " effect" is limited by "it.~"
and by the phrases "on men and their opinions " ; " opinions " is liniite.d hy "their," and "work" by "his."
" His" is a personal pronoun, substituted for the noun "J ohh";
<I
therefore it must be of the same gender, number, and perso~, 81
"John." It has the form of the masculine, singular, third, possessive,
:G
"
.
and directly modi fi es tl1e noun "work·.
.,
·
" Its" is a personal pronoun, representrng
t h e noun " worl'• ,, ,an
agreeing with it in person, number, and gender; therefore, it has ~e
form of the third, singular, neuter. It has the special form for ·
possessi,·e case, and directly limits the noun "effect."
.
THEIR is a personal pronoun, substituted for the noun "men,"
representino- it in number and person; therefore of the third, plutjil.
It has the f~rm of the possessive case, and limits the noun " opini~nS!•

'a

t

ana

EXERCISES.
DIRECTION.

149

A relative pronoun connects the adjective clause of
which it is a part, with another clause which it modifies;
as, I have seen the man who bought our horse.

J;

'r.
MODEL.

• The teacher who is qualified for his office, is a blessing
_to tile community.
, This is a compound sentence, consisting of two clauses; one indeJ>endent, the other relative.
, "Teacher," the subj ect of the independent clause, is limited by the
'article " the," and by the relative clause, which is here restrictive, and
tu.sed as an adjective to modify . " t eacher."
, "Is a blessing to the community" is the modified predicate of the
51
~\µdep endent clause, and "blessing," the noun in the predicate, is modified by the phrase "to the community."
Ii:. "Who " is the grammatical subject of the adjective clause ; "is
J9ualified," the grammatical predicate; and "is qualified for his office,"
.the modified predicate.
"' Wno is a relative pronoun, relating to " teacher" for its antecedent;
it must be of the same person and number as the noun which it represents; therefore it is third, singular. It is nominative in form, because it is the subject of the verb "is qualified." It connects the

Parse only the pronouns, and analyze as usual.

A s the poor widow was gathering some vegetables .
scanty repast, she heard the gate suddenly ~pene~. ~ncie1~t cl
days ! thou speakest from above. The n~e:, m it~ pow~,
was at hand. If the savages forgave not lDJUry, n e1the~
they forget kindness. The bobolink was a bird of music and:fli'Jt
and thus he was sacred from injury; the very schoolboy wpIJ}ll
not flinO' a stone at him, and the merest rustic would pau,~~~
0
l
.
listen to his strain. You and I, indeed, may rue this dee arf!P8Jl
we may not live to see it made good.
·i:ll

wa

EXERCISES.
.!lnalyze according to p1·evious models, and parse the relative pronouns.

iL. Blest are the feasts which simple plenty crowns. Heaven
~elp;; him who helps himself. All that tread the globe are but
ii handful, to the tribes that slumber in its bosom. There was no
\race by which the name of the ship could be ascertained. He
•ibat falls in love with himself, will have no rivals. D eath lifts
the veil that hides a brighter sphere. Do nothing .you would
wish to conceal. The noblest monuments of art that the world

13 *

l iiO

cmI!IION-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

has ever seen, are covered with the soil of twenty centuries.
Th e ma n who is without God in the world, has broken the ch:iin
that binds him to the throne of the univer6e.

j,
I

RULES OF SYNTAX,

R ULE XX.

Conn ectiYe adYerbs connect clauses, and show r elation
of time, place, manner, or cause; as, James will go when
William comes . I will go where John goes. I will see
how J olrn does it. I will know why John does it.

WITU

ILLUSTRATIONS AND EXCEPTIONS
TN ARRANGEMENT AND CONSTRUCTION.

M ODEL .

J oh n found the book where he left it.
This is a compound sentence, consisting of an independent and an
adv erbi al clause.
"John," the grammatical subj ect of the indepenclent clause, is not
modified .
"Found," the grammatical predicate, is directly modified by the
obj ect "book," and by the clause "where he left it," used here as an
adverb of place.
·'
"He," a substitute for "John," is the subject of th e adverbial
clause ; " left " is the predicate; and " left it " the modified predicat~
vVHERE is a connective adverb, an d connects the two clauses, show:
ing the relation of place between the two actions to be identical. . : ,
C oo

.. i

RULE I.

The subj ect of a finite verb is in the nominative case;
The boy studies. He will learn.

as,

NOTE L L ike the Latin construction of an accusative before the infinitive
· mood, an obj ective case is often u sed in E nglish before t he infinitive , in
ou c11 a relation, that it might be the subject qf a clause, if the infinitive were
·ch:mged into another mood, so as to become a predicate of _the sam e clause ;
as, I know him to be a good m an= I know that lie is a good man.
2. The objective case of a noun or pronoun thus placed before the i nfinitive
of an intransitive or passive verb, requires the noun or pronoun after it, hav ing
the same 1neaning, to be in the same case ; as, I know him, to be a good 1nan .

EXERCISES.
DmECTIOX.

.llnalyu. the sentences, and parse the connec ti ve adverbs.

A false fri end and a sh adow attend only while th e sun sh ine~
Catch the bear before you sell his ski n. H e looked a Romaii.
senator in the clays when R ome surv ived. Th ere is nothiug
humbl er than ambi ti on when it is abo ut to climll. \ Vhen men
speak ill of you, live so that nobody will believe th e m. H e went
to see how mon ey mi ght be made. If, th en, th a t fri end
why Brutus rose agai nst Cresar, this is my a nswer.

1. The subj ect may be a noun, pronoun, phrase, or clause.
Phrases : To see, or to see the sun, or for me to see the sun, is
pleasant.
f;, Clauses: That you understand me, or that you understand what I
•have said, is evident.
· 2. The subj ect of a verb in the imperative mood, being of the sec:ond per son, and thus sufficiently obvious, is generally omitted; as,
Wive me neither poverty nor riches. L et me be a sharer in thy
delight.
3. Sometimes the subject of the imperative is expressed; as, I will
R EMARK

(151)

162

COl\IMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

lay on for Tusculum, and lay thou on for Rome.
of another.

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

Be ye helpers one
. .~d
.d
ming ~
: ·ifrs

'

a

mind "; third, singu-

lar, neuter, possessive (why '.! ), and limits "vigor."
"Youth," "mind," and "vigor" are nouns, each third, singular, neu-

MODEL.

Give thy youth to study, since to discipline the
increases its vigor.

'·" Its " is a personal pronoun, substituted for

1fi3

This compo und sentence has two clauses, connected by the conjun~ti on " since." The first clause may be considered a command, exhor t~- ·
tion, or direction; and the reason or motive is assigned in the last. ,n
"Gi,·e," the predicate of the first, is in the imperative mood; its S\tb.j ect, thou, being of the second person, is understood. " Give" is direct.ly,iz
modified by "youth," and indirectly by the phrase "to study.'.'
" Youth" is modified by "thy," representing the person addressed;- ii
Thus, "GiYe thy youth to study" is the modified predicate.
. 11
" Increases," the predicate of the last clause, is modified by "vigor,;',iJ
its direct object, in the objective. "Vigor" is modified by "its," representing " mind." Thus, "increases its vigor " is the modified predicate.
Now, if the qu estion be asked, "What increases its vigor?" the answer \rill be, " To discipline the mind." Therefore the phrase " to dis.,
cipline the mind" is the subject of the clause.
v
'l'bc phrase is composed of "to discipline," a verb in the infini tjye.l't
mood, an d its direct object, "mind," which is limited by the d c finit~~
article " the."
" To discipline" is a verb, because it can be used
· · 1e are 1ormer
"
lby acl,.
Zar, because its past tense and perfect part1c1p
c1 mg'' 5
d to the simple form ; transitive, because it takes an object, "mine!,_~
to reccirn its action; simple active fonn, therefore the noun represen,,
ing th e object of its action is in the object-ive case; infinitive mood,
because it is used without a subject-nominative, and is precedeil
by " to."
' 1:
It constitutes with its object, "the mind," a phrase, and is here use4.
in the relation of a noun. Thus th e phrase, "to discipline the minµ,~
is the subject of the verb "increases."
1
A phrase used as a noun is always third, singular, and reprcscn\;~
by the pronoun "it."
.
"Thy" is a personal pronoun, r epresenting the person to whom thY
sentence is addressed; second, singular, possessive case, and
"youth."

ter, objective (why? ), and are the objects of the transitive verbs "give,"

"discipline," and "increases," respectively.
"Study" is a noun, third, singular, neuter (why'.!), objective case
after the preposition "to," thus indirectly limiting "give."
"The " is a definite article, and limits " mind." " To " is a preposition, showing a relation between "give" and "study," and thus connecting, in such modifying relation, "study" with "give."
"Give" is a verb ; irregular, transitive, imperative, second person,
1mg.ular (why'.!); it has for its subject "thou" implied.
"Increases " is a verb; regular, transitive, indicative, present (why ?);
it has the special form of the third, singular, as it is varied in this tense
on account of person and number; and has for its subject the substantive phrase.
EXERCISES.
G ENERAL DIRECTION.
In all the exercises under the Rules,
6tsides the clausal and phrasal analysis, let the pupil parse each
111ord in the several sentences, giving every parti cular respecting
i4"of form, property, or relation, o/c. The pupil should be reIJUired to write out the analysis and parsing in full, on slate or
paper ; also upon a blackboard. fVrite five sentences under each
;e'farlc, illustrating it.
D!RECTION.

The pupil may analyze tltefollowing sentences, and parse each word as in the

:She learned to read from the Bible.

Love thy neighbor as
To instruct the throne in the language of truth has now
~ome necessary. To die for one's country is sweet. Dying
ii~ · one's country is sweet. Hang out our banner3 on th e outw~rd walls. Th e wreck had evidently drifted about for some
a~nths, and the name of the ship could not be ascertained.
llgry then, thou snow, the hedgerows of trees. "Of" is a
.
and it connects words, showing their grammatical

thysel£

•,;

CO!lll\lON-SCHOOL GRAMl\IAR.

COM1\10N-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

That you have wronged me doth appear in this.
.· . "0:~9
" Dust thou art, to dust returnest," was not spoken of the so~k
iA
NOTE . It will be useful for the pupil to write out, on paper or his slate,%
analysis and parsing of all th e exercises given in this book.

. Jt!

ARRANG EMENT.

1. The subject naturally precedes the verb ; as, John runs. ~u~ it ~
placed after the simple verb, or some part of a compound verb, m 1~te~
ro o-ative sen tences; as, Lives there the man 'J. &c. H as he left the c1ty ·
E:cept when one of the principal parts is an interrogative pronoun; ast,
Who saw him do it?
2. A l ~o in subjunctive clauses, if the conjunction imp~ying a condition is not expressed ; as, W ere there no other ground, this alone would
be suffi cient. Should I conclude to go, I will call for you. If there

were. If I should.
;d
3. After the introductory adverb there, whether used as an expletive
or not . as There was scarcely a dry eye in the Senate. H e looked
behind' hi 1;1 , - there was the historic man; he looked before
there was the li\·ing man, &c.
4. After a few other adverbs when they begin a clause; as,
,Tf
rose the shout. Well may posterity be grateful to his memory.
5. Often too by the poets and other animated writers; as, B:ick
comes the chief in triumph. From the ground below comes up tl_le
laugh of children.

him,'-:i

:1

NoTE. The poet uses this arrangement chiefly for rhythm; the speakerfacl
rhetorical effect; many writers, often for strength.

,,
EXERCISES.
D mECTIO~ . Let the p 1Lp il parse each subject nominative in the followinf! sentences i ttlllafl
why, when it is placed befo-re its verb; and continue tltc exercise in, other books.
.~ '

' 0

Where is th e iron-bound prisoner? Wilt thou not come? Cou\r
we !1 aYc kept the head of th e mainmast an hour longer, we miq!it
have got an offing. Were John h ere, he would assent to it j_?l4
fully. Ther e i$ a pleasure in the pathless woods. There . 1>;
rapture on the lonely shore. Ther e was no labored swell of P

155

egyric. Look on the table; there lies your long-lost book. H ere
the congregation, and here too came the persecuted Christians.
And down fo ll many of the miserable wre tches on their knees.
Now came sti ll evening on. Cries B ernard, "Here am I, and
here's a swo rd," & c. Then on ro<le th ese strange horsemen .
Safe comes the ship to haven. Here is a cantin g Covenanter fo r
:i:ou, &c. How leaps for j oy the peasant in his home! H ere
' let me pause and breathe a while.

l.

.I

' sat

Co:'(STRUCTION. Let the pupil construct ten sentences . illustrating the rule or some of the
luiations under it . .!i.lso construct sentences under each of the following rules.

· I'

RULE II.

. A verb must agree with its subject nominative in number and person ; as, I arn, he was loved.
~

I

~ RE:UARK 1. When two or more singular no'minatives, denoting different obj ects, in forming a compound subj ect, are so connected, that
the as ertion is made of them jointly, the verb is generally plural, and
also the pronouns that represent them ; as, Village, hamlet, and metropolis alike resound with acclamations.

.
;,

' E xcEPTION. Sometimes, when the verb precedes, it is singular, being underitood before each other one of the series; as, There was silence, gladuess, and
eorrow, and but little sleep in Moss Side, between the rising and setting of
~ stars, &c.

2. If the nominatives denote the same obj ect, the verb is generally
lingular; so, too, the pronoun that represents them ; as, A great man
llld an eminent statesman has departed, and his loss will be widely felt.
3. ·when the singular nouns, connected by " and" have each, every,
Cif no limiting them, th e verb is singular, and the pronoun representing
diem is singular; as, Each man and boy was earn est for his share.
J'4. \Vhen the addition is made by "with" instead of" and," the verb
ii·~ingular; as, The ship, with her crew, was destroyed. If" and" be
'f.t in the place of" with," the verb must be made plural; as, The ship
ail her crew were destroyed.

'~

;/
1.SG

COMl\ION-SCHOOL GRAl\!l\IAR.

COl\Ii\lON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

157

f

~'

expresses a supposition or condition, in despite cf which th ~ ::lemade in the leading clause.
subject, are considered separately, so that the assertion is made of aYi~
objective clause "we are," meaning "we are in fault," is conone of them, but only of one, the verb is generally singular, and t\le
with the subjunctive clause by the conjunction "that" and in
pronoun must be singular ; as, The E gyptian mummies, which Ca~~
iJi~·relation of a direct ol:\ject, limits the transitive verb "do as~ert."'
byses or Time hath spared, avarice now consum eth.
"Am " ' is modified by the phrase "in the wrong." "You nor I" is
6. But when either of the nominatives is plural, the verb is gelllID"
ilie compound subj ect of the first clause, but the two parts are so conally placed nearest to it, and is plural; as, Neither the man nor ~
q}ected that they are considered separately, so that the denial is made
neighbors were present.
lJ
of each by itself, and not of the two jointly; while the correllative
-~neither " is used merely to strengthen the negation.
"Am in the
7. If the nominatives constituting a compound subject are of different persons, the verb agrees with the one .immediately preceding it, · , :wrong" is the modified predicate.
~.: "Jam es, William, and Henry,'' connected by "and,'' implied in one
which sho uld be the first in preference to the second or third, and the
ir,ase and expressed in the other, jointly considered, form the compound
second in preference to the tkird; as, You or I am mistaken. John
subj ect of the subjoined clause.
or thou art in fault.
"a
"Do assert," the predicate, iM directly limited by tho obj ect of it8 ac-~on, the objective clause, "that we are." "We " is the subj ect, and
NOTE. ·where euphony requires it, a verb may be expressed for each nom~
f,J ru:e" the predicate of the substantive clause.
tivc, when the compouud subject consists of different persons, or even of different
numbers ; or Lhe construction may be otherwise varied; as, You are mistaken
i;. u Am" is an irregular, intransitive verb, indicative, present (why ~ ),
or I am. J ohu is in fault or thou art.
.·,ft
first person singular, having the peculiar form appropriated to that
person and number to agree in those respects with " I," that part of
·q
8. w·hen the subject is a collective noun, the verb agreeing with1it
lihe compound subj ect placed nearest to it; as the first person is pre4erred to the second, where both are used, and the first should be nearand the pronoun representing it are singular or plural, as the nouh
te&t to the verb.
conveys unity or plurality of idea; as, But where, thought I, are the
l lfhe verb is singular, because it does not agree with the two parts
crew ~ Th ey have gone down amidst the roar of the tempest. The
of the compound subj ect taken together jointly, but separately, each
crew was lost with the ship.
·: o.
by itself.
9. The verb is fr equently omitted.
(d
.a:J.t'
Do assert" is a regular, transitive verb, emphatic form, indicative,
1st. In answer to a question; as, Who brought this book? John.
present, third person (why~), plural number, because the parts of its
That ie, J ohn brought it.
rni:
~J'.lpound subject, though each is singular, are connected by " and"
2d. After than or as; as, W e have had as many opportunities'il
.Jl!p.
ressed or implied, and therefore are usedjointly, requiring the pluthey, (have hacl.) J ohn is wiser than I , (am,) but I am more indusS
ral form of the verb.
ous than he, (is.)
.st
5. When two or more singular nominatives, forming a compomia.

5hmse
~i,al is
, }'he
nected

EXERCISES.

MODE L.

Neither you nor I am in the wrong; if James, W..il-'.
liam, and H enry do assert that we are.
.,;.i

'"

The first clause is independent, and contains a negative proposition..
The second clause is subordinate to the first, depending on it, 1 •
connected with it by the conjunction " if,'' so that the subjuncti

,.J i ~IRECTION. In all the exercises, always give a writtcn or oral analysis of each sentence,
Clausal, phrasal, and verbal, before parsing the words s eparately. Parse tho nominative¥,
ftiling the compound sub1ects , in tlte follo wing sentences , and whether they have a singular
•plural verb and pronoun, and why.

.I ~

,a0;The spaciousness and gloom of a vast edifice produce a pro!11und and mysterious awe. Honesty, industry, knowledge, and

14
f·

158

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

159

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

. ·i REMA~K 1. Adjectives and adjective pronouns implying unity bepiety grew up together in happy union. Here lies an empire,
long
to srngular nouns ; and, implying plurality, to plural nouns; as,
here a town, here a people, here a hero. A miserable pedant
~n e man, two men, many men, all men; this man, these men ; any man,
and bigot was then wielding the sceptre of Great Britain, and'il
any
,, men.
was looking with disdain on the little band of Pilgrims. This
prodi gy of learning, this scholar, critic, and antiquarian, \vas des.- No:E 1. "Pure air is the !if~ of a school room." Here the quality of purity
IS taken or assumed as belongmg to air.
But in the senten ce, "The air is
titu te of civility. Every bird and beast cowers before the wil<L
E•1rc," purity is asserted as belonging to th e air. In each case the adjective
blast. No tree, no flower, and no shrub grows in all that waste..
'{ pure'' r~ fcrs to." ai.r;" but in the latter case it is an adjective in the prediEach man, each woman, and each child knows the hour. An~ , cate, and its quality 1s asserted of the subject rather than assumed.
.,
smooth or rough, with them, is right or wrong. The boy's father
· 2. As participles, adjectives, verbs in the infinitive mood, phrases, clauses,
and mother deserve great praise. The boy's father or mother"
.ihd c~mpound sente'.1ces, may be used as nouns, all such may have adjecti,·es
refcrnng to them as m the following ; viz., to see is pleas ant; to see the sun is
deserv es great praise. Neither the boy's father nor mother de.<
, ~leas ant; for one to see the sun is pleasant ; that one shaitld see the sun is pleasserves great praise. The boy's mother, but not his father!
'f ~; that one should_ see the sun when he first rises is pleasant; seeing is pleasdeserves great praise. The boy's father, with the mother, deservei!'.
ant ; seeing the sun 1s pleasant; seeing the sun rise is pleasant; the benevolent
great praise. Even as the mists, or the gray morn before th&· • 110 happy; doing well is better than wishing to do well· running is deli<>htful ·
ryming f ast is tiresome.
'
rising sun, do pass away and perish. H e or you have done1
.·3.· In the sentence, "to be good is essential to h appiness," the adj ecti,·e
wrong. Who discovered America ? Columbus. I can under''. .essential " belongs to the phrase " to be good," here used as the subj ect of the
stand them better than he. They do their work as well as you~·
'f",'.en c~ ; and the adjective "good," a part of the phrase, limits the verb "to
H e can run faster than I. I srael's embattled host have returne~
tie. 1 he p~rase expresses an abstract quality indefinitely, and is equivalent
ID, Goodness is essential to happiness.
to th eir camps, without venturing an attack. If thou thinkest
twice before thou speakest once, thou wilt speak twice the better
i 4. So too in the sentences , "His being calm was essential to the success of
IJ<e surgical operation,'' and "His having been calm was worthy of praise," each
for it. There is no breeze upon the fern, no ripple on the lak".-'
~fthe two subject phrases has .an adjective in th e predicate referring to it. Tlie
A mighty army, flushed with victory, is approaching their walls:,,, 1
~dje c~ivc~ calm limit in .the one "being;" and in the other "h~ving been;"
a victorious chieftain is .leading them forward; an unknown amJ,
ronstitutmg respectively m each a part of the phrase. This is better than awkmysterious God is marching before them. Fath er, thy handr . wardly >Upplying an ellipsis, where th~ adj ective is Used indefinitely, without
i:i:r~rence to any noun.
hath r eared these venerable columns ; thou didst weave this'
verdant roof. The crime, not the scaffold, makes the shame.
.2. An adj ective used without a noun abstractly, with the infinitive
0
No state chi canery, no narrow system of vicious politics, no idle
~r participle of "be,'' "become," or a similar verb, may be parsed as
contest for ministerial victories, sinks Chatham to the vu!~
!iffiiting it.
level of the great.
3. Nouns used to express the quality of other nouns, especially the
:.'!
· rubstancc of which any thing is made, become adjectives, though someRULE III.
1i:
~m :s by an additional syllable ; as, an iron chain, a gold chain, a goldAdj ectives describe or limit nouns and their substitutes.;, arlmk, a wooden box, an oak chair, an oaken chest.
0

'

as, Good men, Seven men, They are happy.
NoTE. Adjective pronouns and participles also limit nouns and their substi)
tutes, when not themselves used as nouns.
·!!

4. All, denoting quantity, is used with a ·singular noun; denoting
l!!/Wber, with a plural one ; as, all hope has fled, all men should worship God.

160

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAJ\1111.A.R.

001\IMON~SCHOOL GRAJ\11\IAR.

5. "Jlfany ,'' followed by a or an, is used with a singular noun.;_ as,
Jllany a one, Jl1any a man, Full rnany a gem of purest ray serene, M~
an hour.
6. T!1is r elates t o the last mentioned of two objects, that to the first
men tio ned ; this to the nearest object, thttt to the one farthest oft
Their plurals, these and tho se, are also used in the same way ; as,
Nor be thy generous indignation checked ;
Nor checked the tentler tear to Misery given;
From Guilt's contagious power shall that protect,
This soften and refine the soul for heaven.

.U NoTE. The adjective should be placed so near the noun it limits, as to pre-

7. In comparing two objects, the comparative degree is ge1;erllnr.
prefe rretl, though good usage sanctions the superlative ; as, John ii"
wise1' than I, H e is larger than you, He is taller than either of us, He
is the stronger of the two, or He is the strongest of the two.
8. In other comparisons, the superlative is generally used; as, ~~
liam is the best boy in the school, He was the rnanliest of you all, Tlie
[JJ'Cetiest of these three is charity.
.if
NOTE . Care must be t aken that the latter term of comparison, in the useol
the comparotirn degree, should never include the former; nor exclude it,in _!hl
u se of th e superlative; as, Gold is more precious than any metal, should l.,
Gold is more precious than any other metal ; Gold is the most precious of Jail
other metals, should be, Gold is the most precious of all metals.
'

9. When from a verb compounded with a preposition, as "look fr:it,•
an adjective is form ed by prefixing the syllable unto the perfect p~
ciple, as "unlooked for," or "unlooked-for,'' it may be parsetl ~
compound adjective, whether written with a hyphen or not; as, ·
event so iinloolced for discouraged him.
10. Adj ectives are sometimes used as adverbs, especially by ,thl
poets ; as, Bold can h e speak, and fairly ride. Fierce he broke forthi
Of near two hundred and fifty authors, &c. Here, bold = boldly,
fierce= fi ercely, and near= nearly.
11. Double comparatives and superlatives should be avoitled.
.
are sometimes found in the old writers ; as, This was the rnost unk·"
est cut of all.
ARRANGEMENT.

1. The atljective is generally placed before the noWl ·~
it qualifies or limits; as, Good men.
REMARK

~'Vent

161

all ambiguity.

An adjective, indirectly modified by other words, may follow its
J;now1; as, A man diligent in business.

ji1 [; 2.

3. Also when the quality is asserted, as in the predicate; as, Honey
is sweet.
4. When the quality proceeds from the action of the verb ; as, Itlleness makes a man poor.
5. When the adjective belongs to a pronoun, it generally comes
it; as, We found him studious and attent'ive.

l~r

MODEL.

Pure air and free exercise are indispensable ; and
·lijfberever either of them is withheld, the consequence
~11 be fatal.
~ This compound sentence consists of two independent clauses con. ectetl by " and; " and one dependent, connected with them by the
1
c~nnective adverb "wherever."
<.
The first clause has a compound subject consisting of two nouns in
the singular, connected by "and." They are used jointly, and require
~,, plural predicate.
: -''Are " is the predicate, and "indispensable" is an adjective in the
predicate.
uJ.. ."Consequence" is the subject of the second independent clause;
"will be" is the predicate, modified by the adverbial clause as an ad1Yerb of place j and "fatal " is an auj ective in the predicate.
· / l'he atlverbial clause is connected with the second independent clause
, ~y the connective adverb "wherever."
· The distributive pronoun " either," used in the relation of a noun,
r;Withe subject, and is limited by the phrase "of them ; " "is with·
ll:ld " is the predicate.
"Pure" is an adjective limiting " air; " and "free" is an adjective
limi ting "exercise."
•, "Indispensable" is an adj ective in the predicate, compar ed by rnore
ihd rnost; here, in the simple form, expressing a quality asserted of
both "air" and "exercise," the joint subject of the clause.

14*

162

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

"Fatal," the adjective in the predicate of the additional independent
clause, expresses a quality as asserted of the subj ect "consequence." r
EXERCISES.
.l111alyr.e tltc followin~ sentences, and parse each word in i t.s several fOT."IAI,
properties, and relations , gu;i11 g r easo1ls therefor.
D mEOTION.

C01\U110N-SCHOOL GR.A.MJif.A.R.

REMARK 1. Before an abstract or a proper noun, and where the
meaning of a noun is in itself definite, and in its use unrestricted, the
arti cle is generally omitted; as, before gold, beauty, Thomas, Clcsar,
Yirtue, vice, good ness, anger, love, paiutiug, sculpture, chemistry, mct.aphysics, &c.

l

NoTE.

Pure air is essential to health. W e are like them, simple,
h ardy, bold. On old Bunker's lonely height the grass grows
green. The bugle's wild and warlike blast shall muster them no
more. Other countries may possess a richer soil and a gentler
sky. Other nations have gathered more laurels and twin ed more .
garlands. No wincl that blew was bitterer than he. It is a truth
fitted to awaken our most fervent gratitude. Of the more subtilo
m ovements, we take no available cogni;mnce.
pale. Y ou \\-ill make him mad. W e live in a most extraordinary age. A fai rer and better land yet shall be ours. How
beautiful is all this visible world! Many a sigh called forth by
thee has swelled my aching breast. The intluence of true religion is mild, and soft, and noiseless, and constant as the descent
of the evcnin rr dew on the tender herbage, nourishing and refrcshin 0rr all th e an~iable and social virtues; but enthusiasm is violc11~
sucldcn, rattling as a summer shower, rooting up the fairest flo wers, and washing away the richest mould in the pleasant garden
of society.
Some place the bliss in action, some in ease ;
Those call it pleasure, and contentment these.
The smooth stream in smoother numbers flows.
proudest in hi s strength, the manliest of you all.
RULE IV.

P AR'l' 1. The article a or an limits
gular nnmhcr only; as, a man, cin hour.
2. The article the limits nouns in either number;
the man, the men.

163

'Vh cn restricted, the article is used; as, The gratitude of the man

, was apparent.

' 2. Care must be taken, in the use or om1ss10n of the article, to
' amid ambiguity; as, a red and a white fl ag = two flags, each of only
~one color. But a red and white fiag =o nly one flag, and that of two
' Colors.
1' 3. Som etimes the noun may be put in the plural, and then the
tarticle need not be repeated; as, The Old and the New Testament=
t.The Old and New Testaments. The first and the second day = The
. first and second days. Sometimes, however, for emphasis chiefly, the
1article is repeated ; as, Cicero, th e orator and the patriot.
\ 4. The use or omission of a before few and little materially affects
.the sense ; as when we say, "Few men observed it," we mean to say
,it was almost entirely overlooked. But when we say - " A few men ob•served it," we assert positively that there were some who noticed it,
·~hough not many. "He had a little money "=he had some money.
' Ilut "He had little money," gives a negative meaning to the assertion.
• 5. So, too, after a comparison; as, "John is a better farmer than a
''preacher" = than a preacher is. H ere the comparison is between John
and some preacher, as to their skill in farming. But " John is a better
farm er than preacher" declares John's sup erior ability in the former
capacity. H ere the comparison is between two employments for the
same man.
l

6. -Vlhen an adjective is used as a n oun, the is generally used with
it; as, Tlie benevolent will be happy.
7. When a participle takes an article before it, it becomes a n oun;
ns, Love is the fulfilling of the law.

• 8. The force of the comparative or superlative degree is sometimes
increased by prefixing "the" ; as, 17ie longer you delay, the more you
will dread it. The soone1· you do it, the better.
9. In the phrases, a great many m~n, a hundred men, a thousand
men, a ?n'illion men, the words " many," " hundred," " thousand," and

<

164

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

COMJIION-SCHOOL GRAl\11\IAR.

;, million," may be regarded as collective nouns, in the
as haYing the article a (meaning one) belonging to them.
10. An is sometimes a conjunction, meaning if; and is chiefly .s~
used by the old ,i,riters ; a~, Nay, an thou'lt mouth, I'll rant as well
as thou.
AllRANGEl\IENT.

RE:lrARK 1. The article is generally placed immediately before th~
noun it limits ; as, The horse, a boy, an hour.
.
2. ·when an adj ective and an article limit the same noun, the articl~
generally precedes the adj ective ; as, A good man, the tall boy, a~
old horse.
3. In expressions like the following, the adjective precedes ; as1
Many an hour, all the boys, both the girls, such a tree, so large a book,
what an error, too long a time, as fine a plant, how bright a clay, full
many a gem, &c.
MODEL.

Beauty is an all-pervading presence ; and no man
r eceives the true culture of a man, in whoni sensibility
to the beautiful is not cherished.
The sentence contains two independent propositions, which constitute
its two members, connected by "and."
The last member contains an independ ent clause, limited by a rela:
tiv e cbuso used to restri ct the subject "man;" and therefor e, in the
r elation of an adjective limiting " man."
The relative "whom" con~ect~ these two clauses, relating to th~
subj ect "man," and represe ntmg 1t.
.
. ' I'
"B eauty," "man,'' and " sensibili ty " are the grammatical subjects
of the three clames respectively; and "is," "receives," and "is cher•
ishcd,'' the grammatical predicates.
· ii
P1msENCE is a noun in the predicate, denoting the same thing as t]J~
subj ect, and directly limited by the compound participial adjectiY,~
" all-pervading" and the article "an." So that the phrase "an al!r
pervading presence" is what is asserted of " beauty."
" Man" is limited by the adj ective " no " and by the
.1
clause restricting it.
" Culture" limits the transitive verb "receives" as its direct object,

165

and is indirectly limited by the phrase·" of a man,'' and. directly by
" the " an d " true."
" Man " is limited by the article " a." Thus both subj ect and predicate are modified.
c
In th e relative olause, "sensibility" is indirectly limited by the
phrase " to the beautiful," and "beautiful " is limited by " the."
Thus "the beautiful" is used in preference to the abstract noun
beauty.
The phrase " of a man" limits "culture,'' and the phrase "in
whom" limits "is cherished."
The negative adverb " not" limits "is cherished." Thus both subject and predicate of the adj ective clause are modified.
An is an indefinite article, used instead of a before the word " all"
because it begins with a vowel sound ; and it limits the word " presence."
T HE

is a definite article, and limits " culture."

A is an indefinite article, limiting "man" in number, but leaving

it indefinite " what man;" extending to any man.
THE is a definite article, limiting definitely the noun "sensibility."
T1rn is a definite article, prefixed to th e adjective "beautiful," which
is used here without a noun, to express abstract quality, and consequently parsed as a noun.
EXERCISES.
Let the pup·il analyze anrl parse the following sentences, on his sla te, or on
.l:llso let him, construct sentences illustrating th e several remarks
1t1tde r each rule .
Dm ECTION.

The horses wer e drawing a carriage. After a few days the
man 1rill r eturn. Alexander the Great died as the fool di eth.
'.l'he cow is a useful animal. The avenging of an injury degrades
Th e great and the good leave an influence that tells on
th e actions of man. H e counted a million, but the task was not
fini shed. The more he struggles, the smaller becomes his chance
for escape. The wisest and the best men sometimes err. Purity
bas its seat in the heart, but extends its inf! uence over so much
of the outward conduct, as to form a great and materi al part of
lhe character•

167

COl\11\ION-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

COM1110N-SCHOOL GRAMMAR. -

RULE V.

10. All, meaning wholly, is an adverb; as, All bloodless lay the untrodden snow.

Achcrbs directly modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs;
as, A vcr!J gooll man will not nlways act Dery pnulenll!J.

11. Two negatives in the same clause constitute an affirmative ; as,
Nor Llill he not know the way
He did know the way. So, too, He
was not unprepared
H e was prepared.

166

RE'1'1ARK 1. Adverbs also modify substitutes for adjectives and adverbs ; as, H e rowed the boat across the river. Here the adverbial
phrase "across the river" modifies the verb " ·rowed," and is equivalent
to " thbre "; but in the sentences, He rowed the boat ncai·ly across the ·
river, almost across the river, or not quite across the river, the adverbs ·
nwrly, almost, and the phrase not quite modify the phrase " across
the river," rather than the preposition across; as, H e sailed precisely
at the hour. The arrow hit just above the mark. Even to old age. 2. Adverbial phrases are parsed like adverbs; they are abbreviated;
expressions, sanctioned by usage; as, in vain, in particular, in general,
in fine, at once, from hence, by far, in short, some time ago, long time
ago, seYeral years before, &:c.
3. Where is improperly used for in which, when place is not referred
to ; as, A resolution was offered, where the transaction was condemned
1
•
in the strongest terms. Where should be in which.
4. No, used as an adv erb of degree, is joined to comparatives; as,
no nearer, no more, no higher, &c. Before a noun it is an adjective. 1.

5. After verbs of motion, hither for here, thither for there, and!
whither for where, were formerly used; but have given place to here,
there, and whCl'e.
6. The preposition from is unnecessary before hence, thence, and
whence ; as, From whence come wars and fightings among you?=
·whence come wars and fightings among you ?
·

7. Some adverbs are used independently, not modifying a particular
word, but a sentence; as, yes, yea, no, nay, ay, aye, am en, namely, to
wit, truly, veri ly, likewise, &c. ; as, ·will John come? Yes.
.
1
8. There, as an introductory adverb, is often expletive, used merely foi
euphony; as, There is no office higher than that of a teacher of youth!
!J. Ad verb s are sometimes used as nouns ; as, For fear the very
stones prate of my whereabout. Till then farewell.
'Vhen I was young? Ah, woful when!
Ah for the change 'twixt now and then!

=

=

12. vVhen an adverb connects clauses, the adverbial clause modifies
some word in the clause with which it is connected, showing the relation of time, place, rnanner, &c., between the clauses ; as, I will hold
the horse while you are getting into the carriage. Here the connective
adverb wkile connects the two clauses, and marks identity of time.
ARJ.l.A.NGEMENT.

REMARK 1. Adverbs should be placed, generally, before adjectives,
after verbs, and between the auxiliary and the verb ; as, John is very
studious; he recites correctly, and his conduct is highly approved.
EXCEPTIO:-<S.

E ve1-, never, sometimes, often, alwctys, and only, are com-

monly placed before the verb.
NOTE. The foregoing rule is general, but much disregarded. It is only
necessary so to place the adverb, that its reference should never be doubtful.
, 2. An adverb should never come between "to," the sign of the infinitive, and its verb ; as, He tried thoroughly to learn his lessons, or,
~e tried to learn thoroughly, not, He tried to thoroughly learn.

3. Enough is generally placed after the modified word; as, He did

it well enough. The horse is strong enough.
4. Interrogative adverbs begin a clause; as, Why did you do it ?
DillECTION.

Construct sentences using adverbs in each.
MODEL.

When she came oack to her seat again, the cricket and
the kettle were still keeping up the strnin ; and really
they went very well together.
· This sentence consists of two independent clauses, and an adYerbial
clause. The adverbial clause is connected with the fir st independent
clause by the connective "when," expressing the relation of tiine between the two actions to be the same; so that the adverbial clause,

168

COMl\lON-SCHOOL GR.A.lllM.A.R.

COJ\11\lON-SCHOOL GR.A.l\11\1.AR.

"\Vhen she came back to her seat again," modifi es "were keeping,"
the grammatical predicate of the clause with whi ch it is connecte~.
"She" is the grnmmatical subject of the adv erbial clause ; "cnck~t
and k ettle,'' of the first independent clauge ; und "they," of the ad~-: ii
tional clause.
,iJ
" Came," the predicate of the adverbial clause, is modified indirectly! .
8
by the phrase "to her seat," directly by " back,'' and "again"; ~.n.d_
" seat " is limited by " her." Thus all of the clause except "she, IS i[
16
the mo dified predicate.
· "'
" Cricket" :md "kettle,'' the compound subj ect, are each limited byiq
the article " the."
. .''a
"vVere keeping," the predicate of the first independent clause, .Is dtr1i1
rectly modified by the noun " strain,'' being the object o~ the act10n. 9to
that transitive verb; by" still,''" up," and hy the adverbial clause. , •·1iil
vVE'."T is the predicate of the last clause, and is directly limited b!
" together," and the phrase "very "·ell" ; an d. " w;ll" is modifie~ br:
the adrnrb "v~ry," increasing the force of It. fh us the modified
. a11 t lic c1ause exccp t "tiiey."
predicate 1s
.
. ,,11
vVHEN is a co nnective adv erb, used to connect the clauses, shawm~
the r ebtion of time to be simultaneous between the tw o action~.
,
B.·\ Ch: is an adYerb , showing the d-irection after a verb of mot10n; not
compared, and modifies " came."
.
.
AGA I:> is an ach erb, not compared, showmg that the action waa
repeated; it modifies "came."
· 1,
STILL is an ach crb, denoting tll ~ t tl1e ac·t ";01' '\'aS continued till her
r eilln1, and modifies "were k ee ping."
. ,,
i'.:
UP is an ad verb, modifying the verb " were k eepmg.
R EALLY is an ath crb, affirming th e action of the verb, and
0

"'vent."

0

EXERCISES.

H e n ever came a wink too soon. I will go at on ce, since lie
u1:ges it so strongly. Did ·you go soon enough? No. I hav e
twp hor;;cs, viz. : a black one and a white one. The boy has
alrearly behaved so well, that the teacher has openly commend ed
his· conduct. The pupil has hitherto recited r emarkably well,
and I am thus far well pleased with him. ·where did th e boys
pll!y? H e di ed long ago. I love not man the less, but Nat ure
more, from th ese ou r intervi e1vs. There is no n ecessity for
h~rrying so.
She learned to r ead out of the Bible, almost without any teaching. The page was most carefully writte n. ·while
there is life, the re is hope. The nearer you came to him, the
m9re you realized the vast capacity of his mind. Th e soldi ers
dashed clown a less precipitous part of th e ba nk s, a little below
the "crnig:;." H e went to see how money might be made. H e
roared upward and upward, and was lost to the eye, far beyond
the clouds.
RULE VI.

'Prepositions r equire th e objective case after them ; as,
John gave the book to me.

•

,,

is an adverb, increasing the force of the adverb " well, w
it modifies.
..,
vVELL is an adverb, showing the manner of the action. Pos1t1y,t
well, comparatirn better, superlative best. In the positive form, ~AA
onstitutino-1:> ''"ith "very,"
the adverbial phrase, "very well," w~,
C
•
mod ifies "'rnnt."
TOGETHER is an adverb, showing the manner of the
modifies " went."
V EllY

169

Norn.

A noun or pronoun indirectly modifying a word, and connected with

ii by a preposition, is in the obj ective case:
;

RDIARK 1. The antecedent term of a relation is sometimes implied ;
U:!All shall know him, fi·om the least to the greatest. That is, all induded in the class extending from, &c. 0 for a lodge in some vast
wi]derness ! 0 = I wish. "For" connects "lodge " with " I wish,"
olt"~e intensified expression " 0," which is here an inte1j ection, or an
mldeveloped clause.

~· Sometimes the limiting word is omitted, especially when it is obmus from the context; this is often the case when it is a pronoun ;
u, I saw the man I was working for = I saw the man.for whom I was
yorking. H e came to the river and sailed across (it). H e strolled
und ·in search of a hotel = around the place. But in such cases,

15

170 '

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

COl\IllfON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

in stead of sup plying the ellipsis, the preposition is generally parsed as
an adv e rh.

·,, a

3. So, al so, the phrases in vain, ·i n short, ·i n gen eral, in partiC'ldar,'
i n scad , ut Ji1st, al last, &c., arc parsed as adve rbs, though the ellip3iS
ma y he ~u p pli cd; us, In a vain 11wn11 er. Tn a short time. In a secret
zitucc. 111 a particular manner. At the first time, &c.

4. Som etimes the connecting word is omitted. It occurs
qucntly before nouns, signifying time, space, distance, direction, dim;;11sion, weigl1t, or measure; as, He was away from home one year. He
"·as idle several days last week. He walked two mites that day. The
wall is six f eet high, tluee feet thick, and four miles long. The man
went that way.

'

1. The ellipses may be supplied; as, During one year, during sever, ·
days in last week, on several clays of last week, through the spctce of two mil,Cj'
on t!H1t day, high to the extent of six feet, thick through the space of three fret,
and long th rough the 1l1stcmce of four miles, in that way. In parsiug, say
" o\Jjec tive of time ," &c., instead of supplying the ellipsis.
NOTE

2. Ti cforc " home " the preposition is somcti1nes omitted;
or he wc11 t to his home ; Go honic.

5. The prepositi on is also omitted after the words worth, like, w1;likr,, n ear, and n igh , and sometimes after worthy and imwoi'il1y; as,
The book is worth a dollar. A figure like your father. I was nigh ot
n ear him .

,

171

·8. "A sh out was heard from within the palace." Here th ]
.
" · h· I
.
e p Hase

1~·1t, 111 t 1c palace" is co m1 cctecl with " heard " by "from." Or the
el)ips1s may l>~ ~ upplied, as, "t!·om a place within the palace." The followmg prcpos1t10ns
are thus used to"'ether
.
o
,· as , Fron1 w1'th ou t , j 'ro1n
above, from ~ey,ond, from around, according to, round about, from
under, from w1th111, over ao-ainst
o
' &c· ·' as , It came J.r,',.0 1n· bey onu.," t 11e sea
= It came from a place beyond the sea ; from under the bridge =
~Ill a place under the bridge.
·

.9. ~'he ,l i:niting term used as the objective after a preposition may
participial noun, a phrase, or a clause ; as, Ho
~ about to go to the r escue. In giving an account of the battle ho
~de ~everal errors. His stay will depend entu:ely on how he is' rect1ved in this country
on his reception ' or the manner of I11s
· r eceplicln.

bl! an mfimtive mood, a

=

'

.

,10. The limiting noun is sometimes connected with two antecedent

~is, b~t by different preposit~ons . This has been condemned by
gramma1ians, but prevails, and 1s often necessary· as The rulino- uf
.
.
'
'
0
grammar 1~ .against, and the practice of writers in favor of, th is use of
lbe pr,eposit10n. In this example, by a different arrangement, this con1truct10n mny be, ~voided ; as, The ruling of grammar is against this
ue of the preposition; but the practice of writers, in favor of it.
~~TE. For definiteness and precision, much use is made of this form in Jaw

ll!Ungs, &c.

NoTE. The ellipses may be supplied; as, The bo0k is of the worth of a do'
Jar, efJual ;,,_worth to a dollar; not, The book is equal i:n price
dollar. This last is substitution, not supplying an ellipsis.

U. Th an is used as a prepos1t10n before whom and which ; as,
n, than whom none higher sat.

6. J\ ftcr like, n ear, and nigh, "to " or " unto " may generally be
supplied in parsing. By some these words are parsed as prepositions.

t

7, After some verbs, limited both directly and indirectly, the preposition is omitted, when the term of indirect limitation precedes the
cl i·1·ect; as, I gave 7dm the book. But if t he di rect obj ect comes firsl
then tl1c preposition should be expressed; as, I gave the book to hini!
(.

The wrbs after which the preposition is most frequently omi t~
arc as!, tench b1t1/ or sell, bring or cctrry, give or present, get, senrl, refi
sin;, tclf, slww: p1·~,,;ide, pay, toss, pass, th;·ow, pour, !Lancl, write, &c.
N OTF. 1.

1

2. The exclamatory sentence, Wo e is me ! =Woe is to me!

12. After a verb of motion, into is used; as, He went into the
sc, not in tho house. After a verb of r est, in is generally used; as,
remained in the house.
ARRANGEMENT.

~.

rrepositions precede the limiting nouns, nncl should be placed near
as, J ohn rode to Baltimore in a chaise w·d h his uncle.
ExCEPTIOXS. The relative" that" precedes the preposition; so also some:
"w~om" ~nd "_which", as, I saw the book tltat he sent for . This i!:i the

tol11ch he lived in. Here is the man whom you wrote to.
In the.two las t examples, the preposition could be placed before the pronoun;
This is the house in wliich he lived, H ere is the man to whom you wrote.

The arrangement with the relative "that" cannot be altered.

172

COil'IMON-SCHOOL GRAl\11\fAR.

001\Il\ION-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

MODEL.

173

,number; has "which" for its subject, representing "Bible," and therefyre third, s1:ng1ilar.
Jane was reading out of the Bible,
11
Her" is a personal pronoun, substituted for the word " Jane" and
. . .
'
giYcn her by the teacher.
.if
teprese1~t'.ng 1t m_ ge'.1der, number, and person; therefore, third, singu~J. fenumne '. objective case, after the preposition "to" implied, which
A compound sentence. "Jane," the subject of the
"nnects it with "had been given," in the relation of an iildirect modiclause, is not modified ; "was reading," the predicate, is limited by!ffii
... tion.
phrase "out of the Bible," restricting this reading to the "Bible"; :nna
ui' By" is a preposition connecting" teacher" with "had been ""iven"
"D ible" is limited by the clause "which had been given her b~'U.,
~ tlie relation of a modifying word.
"
teacher,' ' still further re stricting her reading in this instance to one part
11
The " is a definite article, limiting " teacher" to some particular
ticular Dible.
'·
_,, ,previously alluded to or known.
Thus all of the sentence, except the word "Jane," is the modififi
11
Teacher " is a noun, third, sin.qular, applicable to either sex, therepredicate.
~~ masculine or feminine, and objective case after the preposition
The adjective clause, "which had been given her by the teach ' ,
•by,''. e_xpi:essing the ~elation of " teacher" to "had been given," the
is connected with the main clause by "which," a relative pronoun. ;d
rtli it mdirectly modifies.
" ·which,'' representing 11 Bible,'' is the unmodified subject of the 's"
ordi nate clause; " had been given,'' the predicate, is limited by
EXERCISES.
ph rases" (to) her," and" by the teacher."
!~CTIOX.
f!ive the clausal a~ d phrasal analysis of these exercises, parsin:: each wortl,
As 11 teacher " is connected witli "had been given" by the prep.'' "
.tvcr1J particu~ar rcspc_ctmg it, and reasons fo r the same. \Vri tten analysis and parsing
liU insure the cnttrc exercises for each pupil.
tion 11 by," and " her" by the preposition "to" implied, these, lik~,
other modifications by means of prepositions, are called indirect.
The modified predicate of the relative clause, then, is "had ~eea 0 Special attention should be given by parents and teachers to
given her by the teacher."
-·
~physical development of the child.
No one can do this but
" Jane" is a proper noun, third, singular, feminine, nominati~e,' sJ1
-rirself. He did but float a little way, adown the stream of
j ect of" was reading" (why?). /
''
§w.e. If any, against a ll these proofs, should maintain that the
" ·was reading" is an irregular verb, progressive form, indic:iti'
, ce with the Indians will be stable without the posts, to them
past, has the form of the third, singular, to agree with its subject'·
will
urge another reply. The quiet room seems like a temple.
these respects (why?).
.:1f
y are changed in every thing save form alone. He rode ten
"Out of" is a compound preposition, connecting "Bible" ... '
es a day, six months in the year. The book was worth a
,,j'
"\\·as r eading,'' in the relation of d modifying word.
" The" is a definite article, limiting " Bible" to a particular!~
and
. iillar. I sold him a tract of land, two hundred rods lon"'
0
described in the adjective clause.
l,
·~, wide. From out of the depths have I called thee. The
"Dible" is a noun, third, singular, neuter, objective (why?), .·3
· · ; noiseless spirit of life was in and around the house. One
the preposition " out of," and indirectly modifies "was reading." "
. "~y is w.orth two to-morrows. The utmost we can hope for in
II vVhich" is a relative pronoun, representing "Bible,'' and th
'
. :world is contentment. In all, save form alone, how chano-ed
third, singular, neuter, agreeing in these respects with its anteced'
.
thou ! WheneYer words are contrasted with, contradis~innominative case, subject of "had been given," and connects th~ '
·
.~ed
from, or opposed to, other words, they are always em~~
tical. He has taken his garment from before the sun and
"Had been given" is an irregular, transitive verb, passive .i
indicative, past perfect (why?) ; not varied in this tense f()r pe,,.
ed it to shine with brightness upon us.
'

independ~

,)

w

15*

174

COMMON-SCHOOL- GRAMMAR.

RULE VII.

pay, t_oss, pass, throw, pour, write, &c., take two objects after them,
one direct, the other indirect; as, John gave me this book. But wh en
(~C direct objcc: ~omes between the verb and the indirect object, the
_llnpZ.ed prepos1t10n must be expressed; as, John "ave this book to
me. The direct obj ect may be a clause; as, I pron~sed him that 1
would do it.

Tit o direct oLj cct of a transitive verb is in the objective
case; as, I fo und tlte1n . We saw him. Men worship God.
· :f

K OTE .

175

COJIIMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

T his docs n ot apply t o the p assive form.

Ilo r.1 mc 1. P articiples of transitive verbs, except in the passi~e
voice, also take the objective case after them; as, We found him dr~
i11!J th e uxen. lluvin!J wrillen a letter and scaled it, he went to the polt
oHice. w·e should worship God, loving lciin and scrv·ing hiin with thl
whole heart.
It·
2. The object of a transitive verb may be a word, a phrase, a clau·if.,
or a sentence ; as, H e knows how to command. Some said, by tl\W
silence, " lJ etter stay at home." I heard that he was coming to scliO<l
ayain.
3. An intransitirn vcrh may t ake an obj ective case when the objee&
and Yerh arc kindred. in meaning; as, llun the race set before y "
Let me die th e death of the righteous. H e dreamed another dream.
1

Kc>'rn. Other in t ran siti,·c vcrbli..sornctimes take the objecti ve case after tl!Cllf
as in the fo llo"·i ng idioms : Th e very streams ran blood. H e walked the hor&,
llc trnltc<l t he horse. H e g«lloped his h orse. H e danced the child . They 111~
t he !tours away. They laughed h im to scorn. John could not wok him llitW
face . H e r an a coach to t he s teamboat .

4. In English, as in Latin, verbs that signify to name or call;: .
choose or elect, to appofr1t or constitute, to esteem or reclc~n, ~o thin~
cm1sicler , deem, make, create, &:c., t ak e after them two obJect1ves, w,
both denote the same person or thing; as, They chose him govmv:ir•.
N OT B 1. Th e Yerb " to be" is fr equently implied between the two objecti"'
when it is expressed, one worcl may be considered th e objective b~fore the·
ithe, and the other, a noun in the predicate, objective after "to be "l
T hey chose him to be gournor.
J;.
~- \\' hen su ch ver bs are u sed in the passive fom1, both objectives are p~I
i hc non1 in .:ti,·c case, on e before, and the other after the verb, while the fo
subj ect indirectly modifies .the verb; as, He was chosen governor by tlum'.· ,,,

5. Verbs that signify to ask, teach, buy or sell, bring or carry, ··
or present, get, send, offer, lend, re.fuse, sing, tell, show,provide,pr

~his is like the Latin construction, dative of the person and accu sa• . No·rn 1.
0
'tirc of the th mg. 'When the ellipsis is supplied, and the im plied preposition• is
·expressed, the order of arrangement must be chmwed; as "John <>ave this
. b
"
,
o
l bo oI< to me'. " is
cttcr than " John gave to me this book" ; better still, "John
taavc me tlus book."
W'h en s uch words become passive, the di?-ect obj ect is made the subject of
~c verb, and a ~reposition is sometimes expressed before the indirect object;
.,,ilso before _th e .former subject; as, This book was given to me by John, or This
'D<>Dk was g1 ven me by John.

6. Some verbs may be used either as transitive or intransitive ac1'
t th .
.
J
o eir meamng;
as, I returned to the city this morning.
l
.lflurned your book this morning.

J~ramg

7. When the obj ect of a verb is general or indefinite, it is often
omitted ; as, William studies. Charles reads. Anna recites.
ARRANGEMENT.

The object is generally placed after the verb ; but in interroo-afo·e
aentences, in verse, when emphatic, or wh en pronouns are u:cd, it
oftcu precedes; as, Whom did you call ? The bells he jino-led and
whistle blew. Short views we take, nor see the length: beliind.
whom thou lovest we shall see no more.
.,The location should be such as to prevent ambiguity.
MODEL,

day of your life a leaf in your history;
thereon no r ecord which you will ever wish to
connects the two clauses, and relates to "record" for its
The relative clause is restrictive used in the relation of
.;uljcctive limiting "record."
'

COi\UION-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

COl\11\ION-SCHOOL GRAllllllAR.

176

· Tho subject of the independent clause, r epresenting a person or per•
sons as spoken to, and therefore presumed to be present, is implied 'u
u sual '"hen th e predicate is in the imperati,·o mood.
J
"You," the implied subj ect, is modifie d by the participle "making•
in th e rcbtion of an adj ective ; and " making ," retaining its power
the participle of a transitive verb, is directly limited by the noun
"record," in tho objective; "making" is also modified by the adverb

u

" th ereon," used for " on it."
»
' As tho adj ective clause modifies "record," the modified subject of
the leading clause is, " You, making thereon no r ecord which you will
ever \Yish to erase."
·1
" Consider" is limited by "clay" and " leaf," as the direct objccta
of its action, both r epresenting the same thing.
(I
"Day" is limited by " each" and th e phrase " of your life"; "leaf•
is limi ted by " a" and the phrase " in your history." Thus, "Consider
each day of your li fe a leaf in your history " is the modified predica~
"Yon" is tho subject of the adj ective clause, and is not modified.
" ' Vil! wish," tho predicate, is modified by the adverb "ever" and
by the infinitive phrase "to erase."
'.!
"Erase" is limited by tho pronoun "which," being the direct object
of its actio n.
" Consider" - verb, r egular, tr;n sitive, active form, imperatifl
m ood, singular or plural, second person (why ?), has "you" implilll
for its subj ect.
"Each" - adj ective pronoun, distributive, applying to any day~6l
your life, th0rcforc singular ; limits "clay."
·
"Day" - noun, third, singular, neuter (why ?-}, direct object of'tlit
trarn;itiY e verb · " consider," therefore in the objective.
"Of " - a preposition connecting "life" with "clay."
" of your life" is cquirnlent to an adj ective limiting " day."
" Your" - a p ersonal pronoun, r epresenting the person or
sons addressed, therefore second person singular or plural ; used ·
th e r elation of possessor or owner, therefore possessive case; li .·
life."
" J,ifc" - noun, third, sin gular, neuter (why 'J }, objective case
th o preposition " of" in the relation of a modifying term to

177

··., "Leaf': :--- noun, third, singular, neuter (why?); objective after
ithe trans1t1vc verb "cousicler," which is one of the verbs that take
"tw~ wo.~·ds in _the ~l:jectiv e , whe ~ both r_epresent the same obj ect.
~ In - piepos1t1011, connectmg " lustory " with " leaf" , •hi' h ·
. d'
1 r .
' \ C lS
ilJl 1.rect y 11111ted by " history " ; the phrase " in your history" being
~eqmval e nt to an adjectiv e limiting " leaf."
d· "Your" - possessive case, limits "history." (See "your" before
"life.")
t, "Histor(' - uonn, third, singular, neuter (why 'J) ; objective after
L\he ~repos1t10n " in,'' being the modifying terin of the prepositional
relat10 n.
I.! "Making" - imperfect participle, from the tran sitive verb make
made, inal.:iug, made; used in the relation of an adjective and modifie~
'!,you" implied, the subject of "consider."
'
! "Thereon" - adverb of place, meaning " on the lea.f," modifies
makin g."
"No " - adjective, limits "record."
· ·: ".R ecord " - noun, third, singular, neuter (why 'J) ; objective and
linnts " making,'' which is deriv ed from a tran sitive verb.
'
" ." ' h':cl
I " - re1ativ
. e pronoun, substituted for " record," and repre&ent111g its antecedent in number and person; therefore third sino-ular.
o)ljective, the direct obj ect of the transitive verb "erase." '
"
'
., " Y~ u " - persona1 pronoun, second person, singular or plural, r epresent111g the person or persons addressed; nominative, and subject of
&he verb "will \Yish."
"Wi:l wish " - re~ ula~· verb, active form, indicative, futme, (why ?},
t rnnecl to agree with its subject in person and number.
"Ever" - adverb of time, indefinite ; modifies" will wish."
~·Erase" - verb, regular, transitive, active form, infinitive, present,
(r;hy 1) ; used to denote a purpose, and modifies " will wish."
EXERCISES.

'"

F.CTTON. .llnalyze tlte clauses and phrases, and parse the words in tltefollowin"
sentences
0
sording to the m11dcls, gi11ing 'r easons for each particular.

'i

\\' Ord "day."

"A " is an indefinite article, limiting
t o any lca.f.

qu ery of I saiah, the watchman r eplies, "That the
rning cometh, and also th e night." vVe loved them, and they
·pected us. You found him driving the oxen. The ser va nts
· ed him whom the master se nt. Having written the letter and

178

COl\IM:ON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

sealed it he carried it to the post office. I heard that he was
' school again. The ploughman hom eward plods hi~;'
corning to
weary way. Slow tolls the village clock the drowsy hour. He
went to see how money might be made. Weigh well thy words
befo re thou givest them breath. Even half a million gets him IlQ·
ot.her praise. How well thou r cusonest, time alone can iihOW•.
Gamin"' finds a man a dupe, and leaves him a knave. The·
plou<Yh:hare turns up the marble which the hand of Phidias had
chisclled into beauty. They made Solomon, the son of Davi~
kin g. I thank th ee, Jew, for teaching me that word. Thy gar~
be;; peaks th ee a keeper of the chase. H e spent his time an~
money in relieving distress and in befriending the orphan. The
Author of my being formed me man, and made me accountabl~
to him. They asked me to call them brethren. " Your hono~.
kn ows," said the cor poral, " I hacl no orders." I bring thee here
my fort ress keys. B etter to die ten thousand deaths. He t.~u~ht'
me penmanship. H e told me the story . It shows the Chust1am
his God, in all the mild majesty of his parental character. ~
the freshening sea made them a terror, it was a pleasing fear.

'
RULE VIII.

A noun, varied to denote the owner or possessor,
rectly limi ting another, is in the p9ssessive case;
John's book, onr sled, virtue has its reward.
RE~IARK 1. Possession, ownership, or source is generally expressed!
by the limiting noun or pronoun, and it is often equivalent to an indM
rect limitation by means of a preposition; as, The king's palace=~
palace of the king. But where possession or ownership is not impliiia;
the possessive cannot be substituted for the indirect limitation, orJ,'
substituted, not without change of meaning; as, An acre of grou ·
love of money, a rod of iron, cannot be changed into the posses&ite
form. " Our Father's love" means the love H e bears to his chilrlr
but " The love of our Father" may mean " The love He bears to
or "The love we bear to Him."

001\fl\ION-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.
i NOTE.

179

Where these forms are convertible, it gives variety oi expression and

~angement;

as, "John's wife's father's house; better, "The hou::;c belonging

to,the father of John's wife."
t-i

f' 2. !he noun limited by the possessive is often uriderstood,
where rt may be so readily inferred from the context that its omission
will not cuuse obscurity; as "He bought the book at Crosby's," the
word store being obviously implied.
J, 3. It is generally omitted, too, where its expression would be a mere
;:epetition, unnecessary, and often harsh; as, This book is John's (bo ok).
l saw Henry's boat, but not John's (boat). It is a painting of Ra~hael's =one of llaphael's paintings. Here the noun limited is under~tood, and when expressed is the objective after: "of."
9 4. It is omitted also after ours, yours, theirs, hers, generally after
111ine and thine, and sometimes after his; as, The sled is mine the ball
'
'
IS yours, the cap is his.

:1.
0

l NOTE. It will be observed, however, that, in such cases, the noun, it exl!l'essed, would not only be a useless repetition, but would generally require a
~nng c in the form of the pronoun; as no one of them, except his, mine, and
0.foc, can be followed by the noun it is intended to limit.

5. When joint ownership is expressed by two or more nouns, that

only immediately preceding the limited word takes the possessive termination; as, William, Henry, and John's boat. But when the nouns
denote separate owners of different things, each has the possessive
tennination ; as, William's, H enry's, and John's boats.
t"6. When the name of a person consists of several words, or a title
• prefixed to the name, the possessive termination is affixed only to
the last word of the name ; that is, they are considered together as
(name, and parsed as one word; as, George Washington's election.
fitneral Washington's house. General William Henry Harrison's
lllministration. The Queen of England's signature. Here th e phrase
~Queen of England's" is dealt with as a single word, limiting " sigiJture." It has the possessive sign annexed to "England," although
·· really the Queen's " signature."
5·,7, Words in apposition, when not separated by a comma, have the
essive termination annexed to the last; as, David the psalmist's
'tings. For David my servant's sake. For my servant David's
like. Paul the apostle's advice. The apostle Paul's advice. The

180

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAl\fl\IAR.
COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMM.AR.

b·11itist John's head. John the baptist's head. 'l'h:ise may be ,farsaded
. . r espe ct1vely "sake' " ;J•
as' phrases, in the possessive case, rim1tmg
vice," an<l. "head."
MODEL.

·vlillimn and Henry's kite was bought at Brown's ; but
··[
its strillg was once Edward's.
.J
The two clauses are independent, an d connect ed by "but' " denoting,.
contrast.
" r 1.te " the subject of the first clause, is modified by t':·o n?~
'- the
' possessive
. sign
.
e last ' clenotm"
haYiE"'
annexe d on1Y.. t 0 tl
. 1
".JOmt
.
. ~ 1 · . a1icl " ·william ancl Henry's kite" is the modified subJeC~ ll
•
•
•
· • d b
owners up,
the hrase
"IV as bought," the vredicate, is mdirec~ly .lu~ute
y
'~
"at Brown's (store)," and "store," implied, is lnmted by ~rm1n,s,,~:'
noting
the owner or storekeeper; thus, "was bought at rowns IS
the modified predicate.
. . . d b "•t " ub" String," the subject of the second clause.' i~ lmu~e ;, Y i s, .~
.
l ior
' . " k1'te," and denotin"
st1tutel
" the "lute s strmg ; thus, l

·,;i

1
"
d thA
strin"'" is the modi'fi ed sub'~ ect ·
" \Vas," the predicate, is limited by the a~ver~ "~n~e an , -:r
predicate-nominative "string," unclerstoocl~.which 18 limited b) E%l
ward's denoting the form er owner of the stnng.
. ,, b
· th~
'
f h
d 8 "store" and "strm"'
ecause "{.
There is an ellipsis o t e wor
"'
·
-:r
h
text and euphony reqmres their
f
are sufficiently obvious rom t e con
'
irJ

181

f:,

.: "Kite" is a common noun, third, singular, neuter (why '.'I) ; nomina. tive, subject of the verb "was bought."
"At" is a preposition connecting " store " implied, the modifying
term of the relation, with "was bought."
J "Was bought" is an irregulai· verb, in the passive form, indicative,
past (why'!); it has the special form of the third, singular, agreeing in
these respects with "kite."
"But" is a conjunction, expressing opposition, and connecting the
two clauses.
"String" is a noun, third, singular, neuter (why'!); nominative,
iubject of the verb "was."
l "Was" is an irregular, intransitive verb, indicative, past, third, singular (why'!) ; special form to agree with its subject "string."
&-., Once" is an adverb, and modifies "was."
EXERCISES.
1

DmECTION".

Fons.

.11.nalyzc and parse the following sentences, writing

01Lt

in full botli. facts a11d

Once she flung
~ her arches over Euphrates' conquered tide.
illiarn's and Henry's kites were destroyed. It was a people's
tud acclaim; a nation's funeral cry; - Rome's wail above her
ll!lly son, &c. The slanderer's mouth costs him something,
I''
t£iough he never opens it but at others' expense. The mounIain's glowing brow betokens the sun's approach. For thou art

omission.
now, and fame's. A mother's tenderness and a father's
"vVILLIA:M ancl HENRY'S" are proper nouns; each
. third, rnasculll'll8fm~·edorn's
,
sinO'ular possessive, though the sign of t h e possess!Ye is annexed onlJ ore are nature's gifts for man's advanta0"'e. I will not do, it for
" e last,
' it being a joint ownersh'tp.
thy father's sake. They bought the history at Crosby's,
to til
. d" "d 1 third rnascn.. David
11.r
l3 now;-;'s 1s
. a proper noun, n ame of an m iv1 ua ' . ' d l.imill.
--,ill
w~. bookseller. The extent of the kin 0 of En ,...land's prero ,...ative
0
0
line, singular, possessive, denoting a possessor or owner' an
, •• m'clearly defined. The pound of fl esh is mine, and I will ham
(J'

fi

"store," impliecl.
f
"kite,, ancl therefore i
ITS is a personal pronoun, r epresen mg . cl
'. ul . euter If
cl . ancl number; thir , smg m, n
·
the same person, gen ei, '.
cl r "ts "strin"'" the name ii
"'
has the form of the possessive case, an nm

The wide earth bears no nobler heart than thine. vVhat an
uentful life was h er s ! A fop is a ridieulous character in every
,
W)es view but his own.

the thing possessed.
.
.
me . third person.
.
noun a pa1't1cu1ar na
,
Enw ARD's is a proper
' '
.
1
. ossessive,
spoken of; masculine, male being.; s::1~ular.' on y one ' p
!
denoting foe owner, and limits "strmg, iinplied.

~1

RULE IX.
.

Intransitive and passive verbs have the same case after
before them, when both words denote the same object ;

16

.

182

as, He was named John. I am he.
I know him, to be an honest man.

Tlwii art the man.

This rule refers to construction, and not arrangement; as , Art thou
Dust thou art, to dust returnest. Is he a good man?

::\OTE .

he?

COl\lllfON-SCHOOL GRAl\1l\fAR.

C0111MON-SCHOOL GRAl\11\fAR.

RDIARK 1. A noun in the predicate may differ in number and person from the subj ect; as, My chief haunt is the banks of a small
stream. It was he. It was they. Thou art he.
2. The verbs that most frequently take a noun in the predicate,
' meaning the same thing as the subject, and agreeing with it in case,
are,

1st. The verbs be, become, appear, seem, look; those denoting life or
d eath, position or motion, &c.; as, By his uncle's death, he became
Harl of Rothsay. She seemed a child of unusual promise. H e died a ·
martyr to the cause. H e lived a hermit for many years. H e came a
conqueror. H e stood a hero in the strife.
2d. The passive of the verbs name, call, choose, elect, appoint, makt,
constitute, create, esteem, consider, judge, siippose, r eckon, &c. ; a , He
was named J ohn. He was called, chosen, elected, appointed, made,
constituted, created major. After some of these, as also after appear,
and seem, there is generally an ellipsis of the infinitive "to be"; as, He
was esteemed, considered, judged, supposed, reckoned (to be) a good
inan.

3. Sometimes as· precedes the noun in the predicate, and the ellipsil
may be supplied; as, H e was considered as umpire in the matter.
H e acted as umpire in the matter.
4. Either term or both ter ms may be nouns, pronouns, phrases,
clauses, or sentences ; as, To doubt is to rebel. To conceal art is t~e
perfection of art. The first and great object of education is to discipl·ine the rnind. To overcome evil with good, is noble. "Bear and
forbear," is good philosophy.
r
)!ODEL.

I know him to be an honest man.
"I" is the ' grammatical subj ect of the clause, and is not modified. ',
"Know," the grammatical predicate, is directly modifie d by "him,•

183

11nd "him" by the rest of the sentence ; so that " know him to be an
lionest man" is th e modified predicate.
"I," a personal pronoun r epresenting the speaker, has the form appropriated to the first person, singular, nominative, and is the subjectnominative of the verb " know."
"Know " is an irregular verb, know, knew, kiwwn ; transitive, having for its object "him" and the rest of the sentence ; as, "I kn ow
what"'! Answer - " him to be an honest man." That is, "I know that
7ze is an honest man." Indicative, present; is not varied to agree with
its subj ect in number and person.
' "Him" is a personal pronoun, third, singular, masculine, objective,
in form ; limits the transitive verb "know."
" To be " is an irregular, intransitive verb ; infinitive, present
"(why'! ); limits "him," which is objective case before it as its sitbject. "' "An" is an indefinite article, limiting " man ,; ; used instead of a be'fore a vowel sound.
L "Honest" is an adjective, limiting the noun "man."
"Man " is a noun in the predicate, meaning the same person as
;u him," and in the same case. I t is therefore predicate-objective after
'"to be," as "him" is subject-objective before it.
.~· "When the abbreviated expression assuming the fact, is expanded into
•afull clause asserting it, " man " becomes predicate-nominative after
:<•is," because " be " is subject-nominative before it.

1

..
'

EXERCISES.

1

DmF.CTroN. Write out in fnll the clausal and Phrasal analysis and tlic v erbal parsing of
tht following sentences, w ith reasons.

b

~, 1 Homer is called the prince of poets. I am he whom you seek.
.;who do men say that I am ? It must have been he, for be is the
!leader of the band. William was created duke of N ormandy.
Whom do you think him to be? He seemed the chief of the
party. They to me were a delight. Night bas, with gr eat
reason, been consider ed as the astronomer's day. If I recollect
rightly, this is called m etempsychosis. A gilded insect to the
world you seemed. Combat vice in its first attack, and you will
come off conqueror. Wha t seemed his head, the likeness of a
_'ingly crown had on. Then, if thou fallest, 0 Cromwell, thou

184

'

COl\Il\ION-SCHOOL GRAl\11\lAR.

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAl\11\IAR.

fallest a blessed martyr. In the destroyer's steps there spring uw
b1·ight creations that defy his power, and his dark path becomes>
a way of light to h eaven.

185

qµiet retirement, and the rest to their several pleasures. Two repre~ntatives wrre present, one from the nobles, the other from the comThe human species is composed of two distinct races, - the
rnen who borrow, and the men who lend.

RULE X.

A noun, used to explain another, denoting the samet
object, is in apposition with it in the
TtVebster, the great statesnw n, is dead.
me, your teacher.
NOTE. APPO SITION means added to, and the annexed word generally e;J
plains, identifies, or describes the other term as to character, official rank, cniD
• ploymcnt, &c.
R E )BRK 1. The added term is generally an abbreviated adjectiv~
clause, assumed, instead of being asserted by writing it with a rclatite
and verb; as, vVebster, who was the great statesman, is dead= 'Ve ·
ster, th e great statesman, is dead. In the fir st, statesmanship is•
1J
asserted ; in the second, it is assumed.

2. \Vh en words arc in apposition, either of the terms
noun, a pronoun, a phrase, a clause, or a sentence.
1st. A pronoun ; as, We, his fellow dt'izens, have elected him. P
D arius, king of Persia, have decreed it. H e add ressed the letter to ·
ine, his earliest friend . I brought it, a present from my brother.
2d. A phrase ; as, H e did it for this purpose, to bring the enemy to
terms. The promise, to be quiet, was soon forgotten.
3cL A clause ; as, H e overlooked the cause of his discomfiture, tlialt
his outposts were not sir!Jicientl!J guarded.
4th . A sentence ; as, "Do unto others as you. would that they shouJd
do unto yon" : a coinmancl that is too seldom obeyed. "K1ww tli~
thyself" : a species of knmrledge too little regarded.
·
3. A word in the plural, us ed in summing up for perspicuity oil
emphasis, may be in appos ition with the sev ernl parts collectiYely;
Anger, hatred, r evenge, - feelings never indulged with impunity,
hurried him on to his fa.tc. Anger, hatred, revenge, all contributed to
his downfall.
·
ii

4. Vi' onls u sed distributively may be in apposition with a word
denoting the whole ; as, The great mass will soon be scattered, son"
to their merchandise, others to their worskshops; a few, it may be, .to

NoTE. The added term, whether distributive or modified by a distributive, is
in apposition with a plural noun; as, The men depnrted, oaoh to hi• own home.
~~ C1J worked well, each in his own way. Flee ye, every man, to his own city.

" 5. When r eciprocal pronouns are in apposition with a word, the first
one only is so us ed; the other has a different regimen, obvious from
t)ie construction ; as, Boys should help one another in doing right =
O!le should help another. They got in each other's way = each in the
other's way. The men struck each other= each struck the other. vVe
~ve one another = one loves another.
5 fl; When nouns in apposition are in the possessive case, the sign
~f the possessive is added to the last only; as, His brother J ohn's
qook. I bought the book at my friend Crosby's store. The parcel
tas left at his cousin William's house.

"7. Sometimes, when a pronoun is in the possessive case, a noun in
apposition with it may be without the possessive sign; as, A view of
t\ie Falls of Niagara is his best work, as an artist. Such was his
~cntecl encl, the scholar, the poet, the philanthropist.
8. When a noun is repeated for emphasis, the repeated word may

be parsed in apposition with the form er ; as, The people, the people, if
are true to them, will carry us, and will carry themselves, gloriously
throug'1 this struggle. I saw his corse, his mangled corse; and then I
cried for vengeance.
Te

t 9. When the common and proper names of an object are used
together, they are generally in apposition; as, Ledee Geoi:ge, King
Jplm, the steamer Waba sh, the river Jordan. Sometimes the preposition of is usecl; as, the bay of Biscay, the cit!! of London, the town
of Cohasset, the state of New York.
(NOTE . Proper names, consisting of more than one word, are parsed conjointly as a whole; as, D aniel TFebster, 1'Villiam Henry Harrison. In parsin g ,
it is as needless to separate the words composing a name, as it would be to
~aratc the syllables composing each "·ord.

Verbs of naming, &c., are generally followed by two words in

16*

186

187

COMJ\ION-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

COl\Il\ION-SCHOOL GRAl\Il\IAR.

the obj ective; antl, as they denote the same object, the latter is oftep
pursed in apposition with the first ; as, They called his name Jo/q;.
They named the child John.
11. Sometimes, when words are in apposition, the added term is
pi'.ecedcd by as, especially when such term denotes occupation, employment, &c. ; as, W ashingtou was unsurpassed as a patriot = in the
character of a patriot.

!plain or limit "David," meaning the same person, therefore in the
·objective case, and in apposition with "David."

MODEL.

Solomon, the builder of the temple ·of Jerusalem, - th
son of David the psalmist, was the richest monarch th~t
reigned over the Jewish people.
~

1

One independent clause and one dependent clause, connected by th&
r elative pronoun " that,'' used here after a superlative, "richest," in
preference to "who."
'. t
"Solomon,'' the subj ect of the first clause, is directly limited bJ
"builder," and by " son,'' nouns used to explain it, all three denoting
the same person.
Ji
"Builder" is limited by the phrase " of the temple," "temple" bJ
9
the phrase " of J erusalem," - and " sou " by the phrase " of David.
" DaYid" is limited by "psalmist," us ed to explain, denoting the
same person as "David."
'.)
""\Vas," the predicate, is limited by "monarch," a noun in thP. predicate, denoting the same person as the subject; and "monarch" ia
limited by "richest," an adjective in the superlative degree.
"That," a r elative pronoun representing "monarch,'' is the subject
of the adj ective clause; "reigned," the predicate of it, is indirectly
modified by the phrase "over the J ewish people,'' and "people" ia
limited by the adjective "Jewish." Thus "reigned over the Jewish
people" is th e modified predicate.
·
BUILDER and SON, common nouns, each applying to any one of ill
class ; third person, spoken of; masculine, male beings ; singular,
each denoting only one ; nominative case, because " Solomon,'' which
each is used to explain, is nominative ; meaning the same person al
" Solomon," therefore in apposition with it.
P sALllIIST is a common noun, any one of a class ; third persoo,
spoken of; masculine, a male being ; singular, only one; used to e!t.

EXERCISES.
·i
~L·

DIRECTION.

.llnalyzc the sentences, and parse the words as heretofore.

Hope, the charmer, lingered still behind. Deem every day of
your life a leaf in your history. Thou callest its children a
happy ba nd. As a poet, Dr. Johnson cannot claim a station in
J/le first rank. Sleep, image of thy fath er, sleep, my boy. A
f\Cred band, they take their sleep together. The reputation of
1
Johnson as a philologer, appears to be on the decline. Time,
the subtle thief of youth, is stealing away our years. And th ey
:ff!ade Solomon, the son of David, king. The crumbling tombtone and the gorgeous mausoleum, the sculptured marble and
the venerated cathedral, all bear witness to our desi1:e to be
1emembered. The strong encourage the weak, and all ex hort
~ch other to be valiant, and quit themselves like men.
H ere,
~ a lon ely shealing, by the death-bed of a poor old man, are
landing three ministers of God - each of a different persuasion
,- a Catholic, an Episcopal, and a Presbyter. Content, the
offspring of virtue, dw ells both in retirement and in th e active
:§CCnes of life. "Honor thy father and thy mother," the first
,commandment with promise.
RULE XI.

used independently is in the nominative case.
' No~E . A pronoun of the first person is sometimes used independently in the
objective; as, Ah me 1 - Me miserable !
I

1. A noun may be used independently t , 1st. By dii;ect address; as, Thou, William, still art young. Soldiers,
l)",OUr homes are invaded.
2d. By exclamation ; as, 0, the grave! the grave! It buries every
~or. Poor Indians! The light of hope hath ceased to shine on
.j!ieir path. 0, the memory of other days !
,1, REMARK

COllIM:ON-SCHOOL GRA MMAR.

188

1
3c1. Ry recluncl::mcy or pleonasm ; as, A ssyria, Greece, Borne, Cqr;
thage - '"hat are they 1 Are they here - the dead of other days?
Now H arry, he had long suspected this trespass of old Goody Blak~
2. A noun in the nominative by direct address is of the second
p erson, and, thougl\ grammatically independent as to case-relation in
the cu11struction of the sentence, it may be modified in other n:spects;
as, 0 days of ancient grandeur, are ye gone?
3. A noun in the nominative by exclamation is generally of the tljird
p erso n, and, though modified, is independent in construction ; as, T~
then - 0 , disgrace upon manho od! - even then, you should falter. d
4. A noun is in the nominative independent by redundancy or pit;
011 asm wh en rep eated, or when introduced abru ptly, while a pronoun

r C'prese nting it, is the subject of the verb ; as, The pilgrim fathers ~­
wh ere arc th ey? The p eople, the people, if we are true to them, will
carry us, and will carry themselves, gloriously through this contest. ,.,r{

:l
MODEL .

Soldiers, a powerful army has invaded the country.

i t)

ilt

·:!

"Army," the subject of this sentence, is limited by "powerful" ari~
"a"; and "a powerful army" is the modified subject.
_)~
"Ha. inndcd" is directly modified by "country," specifying thel
object invaded; and "country " is limited, by the definite article " the,'' ol
to a particular co untry.
This sente nce, complete in itself, asserts a fact.
" Soldiers" represents the persons to whom the thought contain~
in the sentence is addressed ; it has no case-rebtion to any word '
th e sentence, and is therefore used independently of it in constn.i~
tion ; hence it is in the nomin atiYe case.
·
Th e ind efin ite article "a" limits "army" ; and the definite article
"the "

189

COl\IMON-SCHOOL GRAMlll:AR.

limit~;

"country.ii

'· l'mrl'rful" is an adjective, simple form, compared by inure and .
clescribcs "army."
0
"Army" is a coilective noun, singular, third person, neuter, noininatiYc, and subj ect of the i·erb "has invaded."
.!'
"Ha s inva dccl" is a Ycrb, regular in the formation of its princi~
part s ; takes a direct obj ect, therefore transitive; indicative mode, a
sim pie declaration ; perfect tense, a finished action ; has the special

mos/, ~1 ml

form assigned to be used in this tense with a subj ect of the third,
singu lar.
c " Soldiers " is a noun ; plural, masculine, and second person, syolcen
to; used indep endently in th e nominative case.
j,

EXERCISES.
DIRP.CTIO:'i.

.llnaly:e cmd parse as herctoforo, writing out the analysis and parsing.

L 0 sleep ! 0 gentle sleep ! Nature's soft nurse, how have I
frighted thee '. Columns, arches, pyramids, what are they but
heaps of sand ? A re they here - the dead of other clays?
Come, bright improvement, on the car of time. To arms ! they
' ~ome ! th e Greek, the Greek! Y e dreadless flowers, that frin ge
..\he eternal frost. Rise, fathers, rise ! It is Rome demands your
help. How marked the contrast ! how wide the differen ce !
Arm, warriors, arm for fight ! Good sir, have patience. Father
of earth and heaven, I call thy name. Cromwell, I charge thee,
fting away ambition. Y et they went very well together, th e
kettle and the cricket. The boy ! 0, where was be? I pledge
thee 1fait.h, my liege, my lord. At first a small body, they were
regarded with indifference and contempt. ·white man, there is
~e rnal war between me and thee. New England's dead! Ne w
'England's dead ! On every hill they lie. A healthful old man,
to whom sleep was sweet, the first sound slumbers of the night
held him in their soft but strong embrace. 0 the mistletoe
bough ! that hangs in the hall. Roll on, thou deep and darkblue ocean - roll! Your fathers, where are they ? and the
prophets, do they live forever?
RULE XII.

~ A noun j oined with a participle, and . not connected in
construction with the rest of the sentence, is med indei)end ently in the nominative case; as, Shame being lost,
~ virtue is lost.

190

COl\IMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

COM MON-SCHOOL GRAl\Il\IAR.

191

"At" is a preposition, connecting "misfortunes " with " smile."

JlDL\RIC. A noun and participle thus used, constitute an abbreviated
clause, wherein the fact is assimicd, or taken fo r granted, but not asserted ; as, John being sitlc, a physician was called = As John was
sick, a physician was called. Shaine being lost, all virtue is lost =
When, as, becaiise, or if shame is lost, &c.

"Misfortun~s" is a common noun, third, plu ral, neuter, objectirn;

obj ect of the relation after the preposition "at."
EXERCISES.
Dm ECTJON.
Give clausal and phrasal analysis of the sentences, and parse each word,
[itfog kind, form, property, and relation , and reasons for tho eama.

MODEL.

P eace of mt!1d being secured, we may smile at misfort u11 cs .
1

The abbreviated or contracted clause, "Peace of mind being securctl" = if, when, as, because, since, &c., " peace of mind is securedJ
The clause, "vVe may smile at misfortunes," is complete in itself, in'
construction and sense. Therefore the words of the abbreviated clause·
~
are used indep endently.
·when the contracted clause is fully expressed, "peace" is the suJ;.1
j ect, and "is secured" is the predicate.
r
" 'N e " is the subject of the complete clause ; " may smile,'' the.
1
predicate, is limited by the phrase " at misfortunes "; making " may
1
smile at misfor tunes" the modified predicate.
·
·
PEA CE is a common noun, third, neuter, singular, nominative; usedl
independently with the participle "being secured " ; it is not con-i
nectcd with the rest of th e sentence.
"13 eing secured" is a participle, imperfect, passive, from the verb
"secure"; used in the relation of an adj ective, modifying the noun
"peace."
"Of" is a preposition, and connects "mind" with "peace," in th&;
relation of a modi fying term.
"Mind" is a noun, common, third, singular, neuter (why?); objective, after th e preposition " of," which connects the two terms of thei
relation.
/·.
" 'IV c" is a personal pronoun, first person, plural, nominative; sub:\,
jcct of the verb " may smile."
" ~fay smile " is a regular verb , intransitive, as it cannot take a
direct object to limit it; potential mood, declares possibility or penni.isi:on by the use of the auxiliary "may"; present tense ; verbs in the
potential mood are not varied on account of.the person and number of
the subject.

The judges having seated themselves, the prisoner was arrai gned before them. The general having b een slain, th e army
. was soon rou ted. The storm having passed, the sun slione out
brigh t again. The oration b eing finished, the p~ople dispened.
The man being dead, th e estat e was divided amon g his hei rs.
Their lessons h aving been learned, the boys went out to play.
Whose gray top sh all tremble, he descendinrr.
The horses bcirw
0
,.,
sufficiently r ested, we sta rted again on our j ourney. No pr ecious
fate with mine involved, my heart is fearless, firm my step.
William having been deprived of the h elp of tutors, his st udi es
11ecarne totally n egler.ted. Virtue abandoned and conscience
reproacl1ing us, we become terrified with imaginary evils. H is
fath er dying, he succeeded to the estate. At length, th eir ministry performed, and race well run, they left the world in p eace.
RULE XIII.

The inteijection is generally used without grammatical
relation ; as, Alas ! I fear he is ruined.
- REMARK. The pronoun me is sometimes used independently after an
interjection ; as, Ah me! Though the ellipsis may be supplied; as,
Ah, pity me! Ah, have mercy on me! Ah, what is to become of me!
Ah, what is to happen to me ! &c.
MODEL.

· Ah! gentlemen, that was a dreadful mistake.
1 The subject of this sentence is "that," a demonstrative pronoun,
poiuting out a fact before stated, to which the pleader alludes, and

----------192

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

\rhich "that" i·epresents. " That" is here used in the relation of a
noun in the nominative.
'' \\' as," the predicate, is modified by "mistake," a noun in the predicate in ti;\, '"'ml' case as the subject, and meaning the same thing;
tlwreiorc "mistake" is the predicate-nominative, as "that" is the
sul :j cct··nominati\'e. "Mistake" is limited by the adjective" dreadful."
"Gentlemen" is used to denote the persons to whom the propositio:t i,; tLclL!rcsscd, ancl is here in the nominative independent by
ad1i1 ·cs:s.
'fh c word "Ah" is not connected grammatically with the other
wonls of the sentence, and is used merely to express strong emotion. '
AH is an inte1jection, used independently of other words as to gram- '
matical relation's.
EXERCISES.
Dr r.ECTIOX.

193

COl\Il.VION-SCHOOL GRAl\li\IAR.

REMAllK 1. When the participle is limited by an article or an adjectiYe, it cannot take an object, and is followed by a preposition, gener·. ally" of"; as, Love is thefnijilling of the law.
; - 2. A participle, in the relation of a noun, may be a subject-nomina;,· tive, a predicate-nominative, the object of a transitive verb, or of a
:relation by means of a preposition, and yet take a direct object; as,
" Striking a man is doing injury to him. In p raising a man, avoid in' . Juring him.

3. ·when a participle has no obvious dependence on other words in
the sentence, being an abbreviated or contracted expression, it is used
.. independently. If the ellipsis be supplied to find the word it limits,
·the clause is often awkward; as, Generally speaking, he attended to
his duty. Supplying the ellipsis, I, generally speaking
speaking in
general terrns, say that he, &c.

=

4. A participle used in the relation of an adjective may limit a noun
or its substitute, and yet take a direct object; as, I stood still, watching their motions.

.llnaly:c and parse the following sentences, writing them in full.

Hu sh! hu sh! t.hou vain dreamer! this hour is her last. .' · 5. "Unknowing," "unknown," &c., were formerly participles ; but
Hark! hark ! a deep sound strikes like a ri sing kn ell. Alas! '. since the verbs from which they were derived have become obsolete,
not one m emento may eve r r eturn for love to cherish. ·what! ,: they are considered as adjectives.
~hl'ar a wolf ! " Pooh ! " said the m an, "this is altogether too (,
a!Jwrd." Eh! what noise is that in the b all? Zounds! fe llow, , NoTE. In the expression, "unlooked-for circmnstances," the compound
11word "unlooked-for" may be parsed as an adjective.
don't wet my r oom in that manner! Ha! here comes Mr. Pa~!
Prv. "Alas ! " she cri ed, - "alas! my boy, thy gentle gra> p is
~IODEL .
on 'me_ how shall I h ence depart?" The hunt's up; we'll be all li '
in at the death ; halloo ! my boys, halloo ! 0, save me, 1-fobert, ; , The gentleman, seeing me, spoke of having settled his
rnve m e ! Alas! what ne~d you b e so boisterous rough? Hail~!
affairs.
holy Light, offspring of heaven first born!
RULE XIV.

·
[

Participles are used in the relation of adjectives and
and when derived from transitive verbs, take &
direct 'objcc~; as, By doing nothing, we learn to do ill:
Their bones lie mouldering in the dust.
",

11011115 •

"Gentleman," the subject, is limited by the article "the," and the
participle " seeing" used in the relation of an adjective.
The participle "seeing" is directly limited by the personal pronoun
lf,me," which represents the person speaking, therefore of the first per.!<Jn; objective case after the transitive participle. Thus, "the gentle. !!:an, seeing me," is the modified subject.
' "Spoke," the predicate, is indirectly limited by the objective phrase,
•of having settled his affairs."

17

194

COi'.lrnlON-SCHOOL GRAl\11\1.AR.

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAl\11\fAR.

" Having settled" takes for its direct object the noun "affairs" in
the objective, and " affairs" is limited by " his." Thus, " spoke of
haying settlerl his affairs " is the modified predicate, composed of a
verb ancl a limiting phrase.
SEEI::\G is an imperfect participle, active; from the irregular, transitive ,-erb " see" ; here usecl in the relation of an adj ective, ancl limit-

NOTE. A . verb thus unlimited. by number or ers
.
.
the usual relations of the noun except th
p . on m.1y be used m most of
d' . . .
e possess11·e; or modify a verb
a JCCt1ve, or alherb, to denote a. purpose ol>"ect
. I
~
, noun,
desi re . He desires to excel A d . . , .l . , or iesu t ; as, To ex cel is his
well enough to ex cel.
.
.
osu e to excel. A nxious to excel. H e was

195

RE:liARK 1. After the active form of the verbs bid d .
make see z t
l ·h
, ai e, hear fieel
·
' · ",
, c , neec , wit t 1ietr llarticiriles ' 'ancl .a iew
" ot h ers of ·' ·1 ,
nnp_ort, the infinitive sio·n
"to"
·s
c
l
.
HAVING SETTLED is a compound perfect participle, active; from the '
1
b dar
o
ommon y onntted . a H srmi
uiacle, saw, or let me do it See'i'g the su
. . l , s, e a e,
regular transitive verb "settle"; '}secl here in the relation of a noun,
.
·
''
n rise is p easa t B 'dd'
n·
i
mg
in the objectirn after the preposition "of." Both "seeing" and "hav- ' him go with speed.
ing settled" retain the power of a verb in taking the objective case

ing " gentle1nan."

NoTE 1. Some of the verbs of similar im or
have, know, lteip, &c. Euphon
1
p t are behold, observe, percefre,
of "to."
y a one must determme the use or omission

after them.
EXERCISES.
G i·ve the clausal anrl phrasal analysis of the fallowing sentences, and para•
each word , giving the particulars and the r easo1ts , as in. t/Le preceding models.
D mECTIOX.

2. "To" is sometimes ex ressed f
as, And dar'st thou then to ·b~ard theal::: ~~eh~~~:: ~erbs, especially in poetry;

2. The infinitive mood may modify or depend on a
Leaning back in his carriage, h e was carried along, lrnrdly
Verb f _as, He tried to run. H e was told to try to run.
knowing it was day. Thus di~guised, I traverse my native hills,
P articiple ; as~ Trying to run, he fell.
.1\Toun ; as, He hacl a desire to run.
viewing the st rength and features of the land, and searching
Pronoun; as, They desired him to run.
p atriot spirits out. You will find his virtues trimly set forth in
Adjective ; as, He was ready to run.
lapidary lines, a nd little Cupids droppin g upon his urn their
Adverb ; as, He was strong enough to run.
marble tears. H is de ath costs not the soiling of one white hand- , .
Conjunction ; as, He was so foolish as to run.
k erch ief. After all, disciplining a nd educating your mind must .
P reposition ; as, For no purpose except to run.
b e yo ur own work. If we h ad disputes about our hunting ground,
modifies a noun or pronoun in the ob" f
in th Thel infinitive
·
f .
·
~ e c 1ve case,
th ey wer e generally settled wi thout the sheddin g of much blood.
. e re at10n o its subject, when together they mio·ht form th
b
j"
f
b
e SU Human affairs are in co ntinual motion and fluctu ation, alt.erini' jeCt a d
n pr~r icate o a clause : as, H e commanded the book to be
their app earance every moment, a nd passing into some n ew for~
~'.ought to_111111 • H e commanded that the boolc should be brought to
This fallacious art, instead of length ening life, debars us from · ~im. I tlunk lnm to be just =I think that he is just or I think l ·
~ust.
' ,
ie is
enjoying it. The r eason of his having acted in th e manner hq
;;
di<l, was not folly explained. The savages were employed
NOTP.' 1 · It .IS,,evi'd ent that he did
· not command the book ; so that the object
of"
hunting wikl animals.
_commanded must be the phrase "the book to be broun-ht to h1"m " In
RULE XV.

A verb without a subject-nominative, preceded by "to,}
is in the infinitive mood.

parsmrr "b 0 ol ,,
b
o
·
broua n',, .
may. e called the objective before the infinitive "to be
.'
oht • bemg used lll the relation of a subject before th e infinitive.
t 2. That "book" · · t1
in . ·1
1 .
is Ill 1e ob'~ ect1· ve case may be seen by puttinoa pronoun
0
a s1m1 ar re ation · or it may be
·
ased. a I ti . k 1. .'
'.
seen m an example where the pronoun is
• s,
im mn to be honest.

, 3. As such forms of expression may be represented by the conjunction

196

COMl\fON-SCHOOL GR AMMAR.

COMM ON-SCHOOL GRA.Ml\IAR.

or ~itelt, and too before an adJective or adverb, the limited wortl beinoom1tted;
as, He• weut so
far. as to dis1mte any one. H e went to sucn';'
l . o·
.
eti 0 ths as to aliena te hrn fn ends. H e knew better than to submit it to
the people. H e was too young to begin the study.

" that " with the indicative or potential mood, it may be well to consider such
ii!finitit e phra8es as abbreviated claus es, containing a"8umed instead of aS8erlea
propo s itions .

4. T he ob_fetirn case, in the relation of a subject of the infinitive, is generally
p ut after Yer bs and participles denoting the exercise of the intetlectualjaculiies
or tho oxtornal senses, or the coniniunication of thought to otlwrs ; as , after saying, thinki11g , knowing , co1nm,anding , p erceit-ing, and the like.

4. The infinitive often expresses an action or state abstractly a3 'rell
as indefinitely; as, To live is to act = Life is action. To be good is
to be wise = Goodness is wisdom.
5. From such examples it is clear that the infinitive, used abstractly,
m ay be either a
as, To obey is proper= Obeying is proper=
Ob edience is proper ; - or a
PREDICATE- NOl\H NATIVE ; as, To obey is to enjoy = To obey is enjoying = To obey is enj oyment; .
Or noTH ; as, 1'o obey is to enjoy = Obeying is enjoying = ObediS UBJECT- NOMINATI VE ;

NoTE I. Th e m
· fi m·t·i ve may l'imit the phrase " too youn"' " whi ch . t " 11
or th e infinitive subj ect-obj ective may be sup I' d .
i o ow., ,
ftim to Lcg in the study.
p ie ' as, twas too youngfor

1J:' .

'· 2. "To go is better than to stay " (is ); h ere, b su l · "
.
· · · ·
'tpparcnt that the infinitive is used in the relatio:
ym,, th~ clltps1_s, it rs
,, is n implied.
a noun, t ie subj ect of

of'P

' 9. The infinitive is sometimes used independently, without the lim·
_,ted term ; as, T o confess the truth, I was in fault - I (
·u·
· J; ·
anxious
, w1 i'.ig, _wis nng, determin_ed, in order ), to confess the truth, say that
_was 111 fault. But supplymg such ellipses is, sometimes very awkward.

I

.· Nom. ·wh en the infinitive is thus used it is an abb

N DTE. The infini tive modifies a verb without reference to the kind of action
expressed by it, as transitive or intransitive; as, Boys love to play. Boys cea~
to play. Boys seem to play. Boys are to play h ere in future.

Norn. 'When an infinitive with its subject is used as subject of the Ycrb,
the preposition "for" often precedes the objective subject. I n such cases, by
transposition of the obj ective subject, the infinitive is often seen to be useil
abstrac tly; as, For her to die was gain= To die was gain for her= D eath was
gai n for h er. F or him to stucly is desirable = To study is desirable for him =
·f
S tudy is desirable for him.
7. vVhen the infinitive is used as a subj ect, and h as no antecedent
t erm of relation, it is generally used abstractly. By supplying an ellipsis, the modified term may r estrict what b efore was indefinite or general ; as, Goodness is h appiness = To be good is to be happy = For
any one to be good is to be happy= For me, you, him, her, us, thei--,
or anybody t o be good is to be happy.
8. The infinitive often follows than after a comparison, as after IO

. t d
.
o- d .
' .
.'
revia e exprcss10n for a.
anoe into a predicate, in the potential mood, after
; as, T hat I may confess the truth, (I say,) I was in fault.

cl ause, :ind it may be ch

"

ence is enjoyment.

6. The infinitiv e, either with or without an objective subject, may be
the subject of a verb; as, F or us to obey is proper = That we should
obey is proper = To obey is proper for us = Obedience is proper fo r us.

197

t 1rat

"

' }O. In ex pressing a purpose, object, &c., formerly the pre11osition
"ior ' " o r th. e Ph ra se "m
· order," was used ; now n either
·
is used ; as,
T
hey ~arn e in order to learn = They came for to learn = They came
_to learn - They came that they might learn.

: I I_- T~e infini tive "to be " is sometimes properly omitted ; as, I
consider i_t (to be) good. I think him (to be) an honest man = I think
(that ) he 1s an honest man.
-.',. NoT;;. _ Here''. him" i_s th_e subj ect-obj ective before the infinitive implied, and
j

man

the predrcate-obJective after it.

,' 12. The infinitive fr equently follows the conn ectives how, wlien,
u:here, &c. ; as, I know how to do it. He was told when to go, and
where to go.
J.

·( No·rn. As is the case after than, as, &c., this is caused by ellipsis.

., I3: The verb is sometimes improperly omitted after "to" . as "H
·.sturl!cd, or at least tri ed to." Stiicly should be expr essed af;er ;, to"~
·,as, "or at least tried to study."
'
14. No word should intervene between th e parts of the infinitive
fl!IOOd; as the verb should not be separated from 1"ts ;11::t•ni
,-r: ·t ive
· sign,
·

17

*

•

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

COl\11\ION-SCHOOL GRAMMAR •.

198

·l1 e11 ex11r·essed . as "He determined to faithfully study his lesson,"
..
''
"Jf
·7 lcl "•
" H e determ
ined to study his lesson fmt
1 ull y. "
S lOU
u o,
• ~ 11
d
i · \Vh cn the pronoun "it," as the subject of a sentence, is_ o owe
· th vav of explanat10n, such
u.
e ' .
. ·
..
.· h
by an
infinitive phrase or a c1ause, 111
ihrase
or
clause
is
use~ in the relation of a noun, i'.1 apposi'.10n "it'.
l
. m
. man t o ai .1·c·,,r
·;g1,' the doings
"it"; as, It is presumpt10n
· . oif ll'ls Mal,e1.
. .. .
It is impossible that man should go through the worlcl without exe1cts-

"

ing influence.
~!ODEL.

I know him to be a good boy, and you may l et him go
home.
Two independent clauses connecte d b Y " an d"
:
" I" is the subj ect of the first clause, unmodified.
·
" Know " is the grammatical predicate,
an d " k·no w him to be a
o-ood boy" the modified predi cate.
b The objective phrase "him to be a good boy"= that he is a good
boy.
.
· h b · t'
beincr
In parsing the phrase, we regard "him" as 111 t : o ~ ec ivc.
o
the direct object of "know." It may, also, be cons1dere:l as th_c s~b. fi 1'.1t1ve
· · " to b e," - "boy " bem"'
objective
j cct-objective before the m
b
after it as a noun in the predicate.
"
.
,,
"You" is the subject of the second clause; and ID~) let, the
11rcclicate, is limited by its direct obj ect " him"; and "lum,'' by the
verb ""'0" in the infinitive mood.
,
" 11ows " let ' " and " ':'"0 '
" To "" is omitted befo re " go, " b ecause i"t 10
·l S l'll111·te d I1y " hoine•" " Home " sometimes follows a verb of mot1011,
without the pi·eposition.
.
..
and
"To be" is an irregular, intransitive verb, mfimtive, present,
has "him " for its subj ect in the obj ective case.
"Go" is an irregular, intransitive verb ; go, went , gon e '• it is in the
infinitive mood, and limits " him."
EXEHCISES .
D1r:.i-:crrn:s-. .llnalyzc and parse thcfullo10i11g exercises according to m.orlcls.

w·e r-hould not talk to amuse ourselves, but to please tho~e
who hear us. To read numerous volumes in the morning, and to

199

observe various characters at noon, will leave but little time,
except the night, to digest the one or speculate upon the other.
To enjoy present pleasure, he sacrificed his future ease and reputation. The man taught me to write. We told him to go. To
say the least, they acted imprudently. He came for no other
purpose than to weep. To err is human ; to forgive, divine.
" Sleep is so like death,'' says Sir Thomas Browne, "that I dare
not trust myself to it without prayer." Strive to do faithfull y
. every duty that comes in your way. If thine enemy hunger,
give him bread to eat; if he thirst, g ive him water to drink. To
deserve, to acquire, and to enjoy the confidence of mankind, are
the great objects of ambition and desire. Education, to accomplish the ends of good government, should be universally diffused.
To advise the ignorant, to r elieve the weary, and to comfort the afflicted, are duties directly pressing on us. In its hollow tones are
heard the thanks of millions yet to be. To prevent a long debate,
he yielded to the demand. He bids thee come with speed to
help our central ba ttle, for sore is there our need. By learning
to obey, you will know how to command. Be slow to promise,
and quick to perform. Disputing should always be so managed
as to remind us that the only end of it is truth.

RULE XVI.

Conjunctions connect words, phrases, clauses, and sentences ; a s, Two a nd three are five. A great a nd {!.'ood
man has left us. True eloquence must exist in the man,
in the subject, a nd in the occasion. John walked and

Williain rode.
REMARK 1. Conjunctions connect words of the same class in the
same relation ; as,
1st. Two or more subjects, when the same is asserted of all, or anything of only one of them ; as, John, William, and Charles are coming.
}ohn, William, or Chai·les is coming.
'~J 2d. Two or more predicates, when all apply to the same subj ect, or

200

201

CO.l\Il\ION-SCHOOL GRAl\IMAR.

COi'OWN-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

some one of them applies t o the subj ect ; as, Charles reads, spells, an~
11
writes . Charles reads, spells, or w1"ites.
0d. Two or more uouns limiting the same word ; as, A man of wealth,
lean iiny, and lwuesty.
.J
'! th. 'l'wo or more adj ectives qualifying the same noun ; as, A wealthy,,
leamed, and honest man.
5th. Two or more adv erbs modifying the same word; as, He act.cdf
justly, wisely, and hoiwmbly.
6th. T wo or more verbs without a subj ect limiting t he same word;,
as, H e was eager to go an d try.
7th. Two or mor e prepositions conl1ecting the same limiting noun
with a word ; as, H e was \rnlking up and down the street, to ~nd fro1n
his house.
'
r
8th. Two or mor e p articiples belonging t o the same word; as, I saw
John Zaiighing and talking with g reat glee.

lj!l.Ses it may often be omitted for euphony; as , I knew that he would
do it, or I knew he would do it.

2. Conjunctions connect phrases in the same construction ; ~l
He was constantly employed in lmnting itp cases of S1f!Jering, i11
re?ie;;ing present want, :md 1:n providing against future distress. To ,
.ferret out s1(lj'eriny, to relieve want, and to p rovide against disires:r
were to hir:.1 imperatirn duties.

3. Conjunctions connect clauses, sometim es expressing their rela-0
tion; as, John came because he was sent for . H ere the relation is
that of cause and <;f/'cct.
4. Conjunctions connect nouns and pronoun s in the same case ; us, (
You " ·ill see hiin and me. I met John and W illiam.
ii. Conj unctions commonly connect verbs in the same mode aud
tense ; as, They icent and saw th e man.
6. Conjunctions Rometimcs connect verbs in different modes and
a~, \ Vords are like arro,vs, antl shoulcl not be shot at random. '

tenses;

7. Conj unctions connect words of the same or a similar class in
the same relation ; as, Tho great and good man labored steadily
f ai!li.f1tlly. A hoy, diligent and trying to improve, will succeed.

and

KoTR. An apparent exception sometimes occurs ; as, The boy was not lu:rt,
hut «t school. But connects with the adverb here, t he phrase at school, whi .'
is cqui,·alcnt to the <Hherb there, as, Th e boy was not here , bnt there . Ort
ellipsis may be supplied ; as, The boy was n ot h ere, but he was at school.

8. Th at is sometimes u sed before a subj ective clause or an ohjectiv-;,
when it mer ely expresses the f act ass e1ted in th~ clause ; and in sucll

,,:, 9. Prepositions connect wor ds in different relations ; i.e. , the consequent term of r elation always limits the antecedent ; as, H e is a man
Qf wealth.
But conjunctions, wh en they connect words, unite similar elements
Jlaving a common dependence ; as , A gi·eat and good man.
10. Those connectives which unite dependent clauses to the clauses

ori which t hey depend, n ever connect words.
G.

MODEL.

j

· A. temperate man's life passes on calmly and serenely,
it is innocent.

Q~canse

-"A temperate man's life " is the m odified subj ect, and " passes on
citlmly and serenely" is the in odified predicate of the firs t clause.
1
· Here "life,'' the subj ect, is limited by " man's," and " man's " by
il temperate,'' r estricting the word " life " not only t o " man's life " but
'
,
lb the " life " of a " temp erate man."
" Passes," the predicate, is modified by the adverbs" on,'' "calmly,
and serenely," showing the manner of the action.
1
·" It " is the subj ect, and " is" the predicate of the second clause ;
"inn?cent," modifying the verb, is an adj ective in the predicate, and
ia·here asserted of the subj ect.
The two clauses are connected by " because," the latter showing the
reason.
A ND is a conj unction, connecting th e adverb " serenely " wi th
~calmly. "
By supplying the ellipsis, " und" would here conn ect
d:iuses.
!!BECA USE is a conjunction, connecting the two clauses, and showing
~e relation of cause and qjfect.
"Temperate " is an adj ective ; temperate, more temperate, most tem·ate ; simple for m, or positive degree, and limits the noun "man's."
·" Man's " is a name applicable t o any one of a class ; a male being,
inoting one obj ect, spok en of ; ther efor e a common noun , third, sinp lar, masculine ; denoting the possesso 1., and therefore ha Ying the
iirm of the possessive case. It limits " life."
"Life" is a common noun, third, si ngu lar, neuter (why?) ; subj ect
, .the ver b "passes," and ther efore in the nominative.

202

COMMON-SCHO OL GRAMMAR .

"Passes " is a regular, intransitive verb, si mple active form, inclica- I
fy c IHescnt (why'.!) ; and has the peculiar termination of the tlmd 1
I
'
.
.
perso
n singular of tlus
tense, because its
su b.~ ect " l'1f e " is tliird •
si11g11/ar.
.
. .
"On" o·cncrally a preposition, is here used without a mochfyrng
"
term to' limit
"pa ses," and is an ad ver b. If t I1e nou'.i . " way, " 01·
" co urse,'' is supplied, its regular function as a prepos1t1011 will be
res tored; as, "on its course."
'/
" Calmlv" and " serenely" are adverbs, compared by more and ,
most ; in ~he simple form, and modify the verb " passes," showing the '
inanuer of the action.
"It" is a personal pronoun, representing " life "; lrnnce, third, sin·~
· · case, sub'~ ec t of " is."
f
gulrcr, neuter ; anc1 nomm.at1ve
.
.
" Is," an irregular, intransitive verb, indicative, present, third, smgular, to agree in these respects with its su?ject, having the peculiar form l
app ropriated to this p erson and nuinber m ~he present.
.
. .
" Innocent " is an adj ective, in the predi cate, whereby its quality JS
asserted of the subj ect, instead of being assumed.
;

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

. 203

his eager pnrsuers were two days in r eaching. In thi s place,
there was no Lon ly security, bu t a n abundance of provisions.

RULE XVII.

A. preposition connects a limiting noun with the word
which it limits ; as, George went to Jerusalem. It was
sent to kim by me.
NOTE. The preposition shows grammatical, not logical, relation between
lhe conn ected terms, and requires the case-relation of the modifying term to
be the obj ective.

REMAUK 1. Prepositions connect words of the same or different
dasses in different relations ; as,
l st. A noun limited by a noun; as, A inan of wealth = A wealthy
man= A man who is wealthy. The phrase "of wealth" is equi valent
to an adjective, and so is the relative clause "who is wealthy."
2d. A verb limited by a noun; as, H e studiecl with cliligence = He
EXERCISES.
1tuclied diligently. The phrase "with diligence" is equirnlcnt to an
~. adverb .
D IRECTION. .finalyze and parse as in preceding exercises.
3d. An adj ective limited by a noun; as, Eager fer play.
4th. An adv erb limited by a noun; as, J ohn studies diligently
n ctwcc n fame and true honor there is a distin ction to b e made.
A,- C msar lovc<l m e, I weep for him ; as he was fortunate, P rnough for success.
5th. A participle limited by a noun; as, I saw J ohn running for
l'l'J. oice at it· as he was valiant, I hon or him; but as h e was am.
'
. } aercise.
bitious, I slew him. · Ther e is no bea uty, or g race, or lovelmcss,
; 6th. In supplying an ellipsis of the limited word or antecedent term
that continueth in man; fo r this is the end of all his glory and 1
of a relation in poetry, the context is often merely suggestive, instead
perfection. Ponder again a nd again on the di vine law; for aq> of being definitive ; as in the following from Byron: thin gs are contained th erein. If called to sh ed thy joys, as trees
But with the breath that fills
their leaves ; if the affections be driven back into th e heart, :is
Their mountain-pipe, so fill the mountaineers
th e li fe of flowen to thei r roots; be patient. In founding th eir
With the fierce native daring which instils
colony, the pilgrim fathers sought n either wealth nor conquest,
The stirring memory of a thousand years;
bu t only peace and fr eedom. Nay, a n thou'lt mouthe, I'll rant
And Evan's, Donald's fame rings in each clansman's ears !
a s well a s thou. Our heavenly B enefactor claims not th e hom ag~[
of our lips, but of our h earts. W ords of encou ragement pa.ss Here supply "But as their ears fill with the breath,'' (air,) &c. S ee
1 ' st line.
:i l on~ from rank to r ank, and from lip to lip.
H e continued his
f 7th. The great distinction between the preposition and the coiu'unction
spee.~l so us to run, by about midnight of the same day, as far~ ii, that the preposition connects words of the same or different classes

-204

COMMON-SCHOOL. GRAMMAR.

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

in cl-ifferent i·elations ; while the conjunction connects words of tbq
same class in the same rela tion. Dcsiclcs, conjunctions conn ect sim ilari
phrases, also clauses untl sentences , and this is their peculiar function.
Th us prepositions con nect words, and show th e relation between them;
conjunctions co nnect clauses, and show r elation between them.

205

modifies " sciences," pointing out particular sciences previously mentioned.
" "Sciences" is a noun; third, plural, neuter (why 'J ); objective after
the preposition " to."
"Is," an irregular, intransitive verb, indicative, present, has the
particular form of the third, singular, as it is varied to agree with its
K oTE . Prepositions are sometim es used idiomatically. without any ob,;ous
subj ect-nominative "history."
antccc<lent term of r elation till transposed; as, For him to deny it is folly. By
· "History" is a common noun, third, singular, nominative, subject
transposition, It is folly for him to deny it.
of "is" (why '.!) .
"Which" is a relative pronoun, substituted for "history," and rep} !ODEL.
resenting it in person and number ; therefore third, singular ; nominative case, and subject of the ~erb "is."
Subservient to all these sciences is history, which is a. ·· "Is," parsed as the preceding "is," agrees with its subj ect-nominative
record of facts in every department of knowledge .
"which."
. "A" is an indefinite article, limiting "record."
The two clauses of this compound sentence are connected by the
' "Record" is a common noun, third, singular, neuter (why'.!) ; predrcb ti vc pronoun "which," representing "history.;' The relative clans~
icate-nominative after the verb "is," meaning the same thing as
is not here resfrictice, but rather explanator!J, of " history," the ante~
"which," the subject-nominative before it.
ccdcnt of "\rhich."
, "Of '' is u prepositi.on, connecting " foots," the limiting t erm, with
" Ili ~tory" is the subj ect of the leading clause, and " subsenient,"
"record," the word limited.
an arlj ectiYc in the predicate, is modified by the phrase "to all these
' "Facts" is a noun, third, plural, neuter, objective after the preposiscic1:ccs."
tion" of" (why 'J).
" ·which " is the subj ect of th e adjective clause; " is" is the predi· " In " is a preposition, connecting " department " with " facts " in
cate, mid " record " is a noun in the predicate, meaning the same thiner
the relation of a limiting word.
as "which," referring to "history."
, "Every" is an adj ective pronoun; distributive, because it r efers to
" llccord " is limited by the phrase " of facts " ; " facts " by the objects taken separately ; it limits "department."
ph rase " in cYcry department" ; and "department " by the phrase "of
' "Department" is a noun, common, third, singular, neuter (why 'J );
k:1owlcdge."
, objective case, the consequent term of the r elation, after the preposiIn the arrangement of the independent clause, the verb "is" pr~ ~on "in."
ced es its subject, for the purpose of placing "hi~tory," the a~te~edc1'.t, •· "Of" is a preposition, connecting " knowledge" with "department,"
as near the relatiYe "which" as possible ; - an important prmc1ple 1it lhe noun that it limits.
construction.
"Knowledge" is a noun, third, singular, neuter, objective after the
"Subservi ent" is an adj ective in the predicate, compar:d .~Y mor1 reposition" of" (why 'J) .
aml most, expressing a quality asserted of " history," and lim1tmg the
procli cate "is."
. .
.
EXERCISES.
" To" is a preposition, showing that a mod1fymg relation exists
hctll"ccn " sciences " and " sub servient," and connecting " sciences : t· DIRECTION. Write cmt in full, with reasons , the clausal and phrasal analysis, and the
terbal parsing of the follow ing srntC11c cs.
with the word it modifies.
H e has no reason to complain of fortune; and his country has
"All" is an adj ective pronoun, plural, and modifies " sciences."
"These" is a demonstrative adj ective pronoun, plural number, ax4. PJaced him on a level with the highest in respect to honors. In

18

--- -206

C0~11110N-SCHOOL

GRA111111AR.

the pauses of the gale, the mariner hears the voices of his children at their sports in his distant home. God has drawn the
li11es of beauty and grand eur, with a pencil that never e1To, 011
t lw framework of the hills and valleys, on cliff and stream, on
sky and earth. In youtl1 the habits of industry are mo;;t easily
acquired. Grncefol in youth arc the tea rs of sympathy, and the
beart that melts at the talc of woe. Tli e path of piety and virtue,
pursued with a firm and constant spirit, will assuredly lead to
happiness. Philip found difficulty in managing the Athenians,
from the nature of the ir dispositions; but the eloquence of Demosthenes \Yas the greatest obstacle to his designs. All finery is
a sign of littleness. Manhood is disgraced by the consequences
of neglected youth. Instead of our being critics on others, let
us employ our criticism on ourselves.
RULE XVIII.

Pronouns must be of the same person, number, and
gender as the nouns which they represent ; as, Henry
recited to his teacher. Anna recited to her t eacher.
H enry and Anna recited to their teacher. Thou, William,
still art young. You and I will go and see the boy, for
we know him.
RE:\L-\RK 1. Two OT more singular nouns, so connected as to be used
j ointly, are r epresented by a plural pronoun; as, Virtue and vice have
t71 cir reward.
2. If the singular nouns so connected denote the same object, the
pronoun must be singular; as, This great statesman and patriot has
passed to his final rest.
1
3. vVhen the singular nouns are so connected that each is takert
Sl"]l:lrately, or one to the exclusion of others, the pronoun is singular ;
as, J ohn or vVilliam will bring his hook. Neither John nor William
will bring his book. John, not -William, will bring his book.
4-. \Vh en one of the nouns is plural, the pronoun must be plurali
as, neither John nor his playmates could recite their lessons.
5. When either of the words is of the first person, the pronoun rep-

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

207

Jesenting it must be of the first person; but when the first person is
.not usecl, and one of the words is of the second person, the pronoun
must be of the second person; as, You and I have recited our lessons.
You and John have recited your lessons.
:, . 6. Whe_n the singular nouns are preceded by a distributive, each, everz;,
.either, neither, or no, the pronoun must be singular; as, Each man
and each boy dicl h-is duty.
NOTE 1. In general, whenever two or more words are so connected as sub'jects, that. they_ require a plural verb, they should be represented by ~plural
pronoun ; 1f a singular verb, by a singular pronoun.

. 2. _ The _same rule is to be observed with a collective noun, according as it
_implies unity or plurality.

7. Relative pronouns, though not varied in form to represent their
_antecedents, yet require verbs and pronouns agreeing with them to be
so varied as to correspond and agree with these antecedents; as, You
and I, who were present with our sleds, began to coast.
. 8. A no~n used figuratively r equires the pronoun to agree with it
m gender, m the figurative sense ; as, Next Anger rushed, his eyes on
fire, &c.
\. 9. Though the relative follows the person and number of its antecedent, yet it is independent of it in construction.
. 10. "It" is often used indefinitely, to introduce a sentence or clause
having no antecedent expressed ; sometim es it represents the topic of
discourse, and is really redundant, having in apposi.tion with it a clause
or infinitive phrase, as the real subject of the verb; as, It is pleasant to
see the sun =To see the sun is pleasant. H ere "to see the sun" is
really the subject, though "it" stands in that relation, having the infinitive phrase in apposition with it. It was evident that he understood
the subj ect = That he understood the subject, was evident. Here,
. again, the clause may he parsed as in apposition with the introductory
pronoun "it." By omission of "it,'' and transposition, the clause becomes the grammatical subject of the verb "was."
' MODEL.

Mary must call on the boy who was injured, as she
him.

~nows

'!'his sentence consists of three clauses ; the two first connected by
lhe relative "who." The relative clause is here restrictive, and is used

----208

COJ\Il\ION-SCHOOL GR.A.l\Il\U.R.

in the relation of an adj ective, limiting the noun "boy,'' which the relative "who" represents.
"As" connects the causal clause with the independent.
" Mary " is the subject ; "must call,'' the predicate, is indirectly
limi ted by "boy," con nected with "call " by th e preposition "on."
Thus, "must call on the boy" is the modified predicate.
"Vlho" is the subj ect of the relative clause, and "was inj ured " is
the predicate.
" She " is the subject of th e causal clause, "knows" is the predicate,
and "knows him " is the modified predicate.
vVno is a relative pronoun, and represents "boy," its antecedent, in
person and number; therefore third, singular; nominative case, subject
of " was injured."
Sr-IE is a personal pronoun r epresenting "Mary," and of the same
person, gender, and number ; the refore third, singular, fe minine ;
nominatiYe case, subj ect of the Yerb "knows."
HIM is a personal pronou n, and represents "boy,'' its antecedent, in
person, number, and gender ; therefor e third, singular, masculine ; obj cc ti ve case, and limits the transitive verb " knows."
EXERCISES.
Drr:.ECTION.

.!lnalyzc ai1d pm·sc as heretofore.

The pupil had studied his lesson, and the teacher was ready to ,
h ear him recite it. · Our Father, who a rt in heaven, hallowed be
thy name. The boy was a nxious that his parents should declare
th e ir approval of his conduct. Hope smiled, and waved her
golden hair. Sport leaped up and seized his beechen spear.
F atl1er and I stopped on account of th e shower, but when it was
over, we started again on our journey . John and Jam es took
th eir skates with them, a nd on their way to the pond they called
fo r me. Either H em y or William will call for Mary, and he
can brin g her the .book. Each of these two authors has his merit.
H a t.red or r eYenge dese r ves censure, wh erever it is found to exist
Christ applauded the liberality of the poor widow, whom h e saw .
cast ing her two mites into the treasury. Thou, Lord, who hast
p ermitted affiiction to come upon us, wilt deliver us from it in
due time.

COMJ\ION-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

209

RULE XIX.

A relative pronoun connects the adjective clause, of
it is a part, with another clause, which it modifies;
as, I have seen the man who bought our horse.

~which

'· RE~fARK

1. The relative clause may be i·estrictive; as, Every teacher
must love a boy who is attentive and docile.
' Or it may be explanatory; as, Behold the emblem of thy state in
flowers, which bloom and die.
·
'. Or it may express an additional circumstance respecting the antece'dent; as, They made the long journey in covered carts, which served
,~so for lodgings by night. ,
1. Instead of which, we may substitute, in the last example, "and
they," or "and the carts " served, &c.

; NOTE

:: 2. In each of these instances, the relative clause is an adjective.

2. What, and the compound r elative pronouns, generally represent
two cases, as they contain in themselves both antecedent and relative,
Leing equivalent to two words, and thus formin g a part of tw9 clauses ;
as, I know what he sent= I know that (the thing, or things), which he
sent.
' 3. These pronouns are chiefly used when the antecedent is general
,or indefinite, and they thus perform the office of two nouns : I saw
~hat which he brought.
: 4. When an antecedent is expressed, these pronouns perform the
,office of an adjective pronoun in the antecedent clause, and of a noun
jn the adj ective clause: He sent whatever books he had.
MODEL .

Whoever wishes to excel must study diligently.
,' The two clauses of this s_entence are connected by the compound
.relative pronoun "whoever," equivalent to "he who" in this case, as
.~ indicated by the singular form of the verb "wishes"; as, " He must
itudy diligently who wishes to excel."
I· The relative clause "who wishes to excel" is used in the relation of
an adjective, limiting the pronoun "he,'' and restricting it to a particular class of persons.

18 *

210

COMMON-SCHOOL' 'GRAMMAR. )

COM!\'ION-SCHOOL GRAl\U\IA'R.

" vVhoever," in its antecedent capacity, is the subject of th e indepentlent clause "must study diligently" i in its office as a relative, it is
the subject of the dependent clause "wishes to excel.''
)
"YVhoever" is a compound relative pronoun, including both antepl!ro
dent and relative; third, singular, nominative, subject of" must stud(fr
~
in the one clause, and " wishes " in the other.
" 'Wishes " is a regular verb ; simple active ; indicative, presertC
(why :I); it is third, singular, to ·agree with its subj ect "whoever." .•.
"Excel" is a regular verb; simple active; infinitive, present (why .Jj ;·
used to denote a purpose, and limits "wishes.''
.;1.
" "Yiust study" is a regular verb ; potential mood, used with the au~,
iliary must to declare necessity; present tense; not varied by the person
and number of its subject.
-.
"Diligently" is an adverb of manner, co&ipared by more and most (1>
simple fo rm, and modifies "must study."

211':

RULE XX.
Z:

· Connective adverbs connect clauses, and show relation
of'time, place, manner, or cause; as, James will go when
William comes. I will go where John goes'·. I will see
ifrw John does it. I will know why John does it.
R EMARK 1. The adverbial clause in which the connective stands,
liinits some word in the clause on which it depends; as, He saw me
~hen he was here. In this sentence the adverbial clause limits "saw,''
tlie predicate of the independent clause.
. •2. When the clause in which a connective adverb stands, is the
djrect object of a transitive verb in the independent clause, it is
rJijective ; as, I know not why he dirjl it. I sent him to learn how you

did it.

3. When the clause in which a connective adverb stands is the sub. t of the independent clause, or in apposition with the subject, it is
D! :tECTION. .llnalyzc and parse as in tlteforcgoing models .
asubjective clause; as, Where he went is obvious. It is obvious where
le went. Why he did so is a mystery.
.
The shepherd, who had given the alarm, had lain down again on · ll
4. Generally, a clause connected with another by a connective adthe s ummit of the precipice. Our proper bliss depends on what w~f
,i~b is an adverbial clause, limiting some word in the clause with
blame. Adversity is the mint in which God s.tamps upon us h~ rhich it is connected.
image an d sup erscription. Riches bless that h eart, indeed, whose
f:5. Adverbial phrases, especially correlatives or corresponding
almoner is benevolence. Of all that eager a nd bustling crow,q
hrases, connect clauses ; as, The longer he stays away, the better it
which we behold on earth, how few ever discover the path of trll,~ . · ·be for us.
1
happiness ! The forms of those he loves rise before the mariner iµ
6. So is often used to connect clauses, in the sense of provided,
the calm moonlight. To impart the secret of what is called goo<\
'ovided that, or if; as, So he does it well, there will be little fault
und.
ancl bad luck, is not a difficult task. The court, which giv
currency to manners, ought to be exemplary. Commend me .to
f.11. The following are some of .the adverbs most commonly used to
, nect clauses : an arO'ument like a .flail, acrainst which there is no fence. The
are n~w enO'~rrecl in a stnd;, the usefulness of which they bitve ff)f manner; as, how, however. Of time; after, as, before, ere,
long wished t~ know. H e who formed the h eart, certainly kno • " i:.e, till, until, when, whenever, while, whilst, and the phrases as soon .
,,as long as, &c. Of place; whence, where,.. whenever, whither,
what passes within it. How happy are the virtnous, who cl!1(
hthersoever, and the phrases as long as, as far as, &c. Of cause; as,
rest und er the protection of that powerful arm which made thk
·"ce,
,_ whereas, why, wherefore, &c.
earth ancl the heavens. There are principles in man which ev~r
have inclined, and which ever will incline, him to offend.
Wli ~tever we do secretly, shall be displayed in the clea rest light.
1
EXERCISES.

212

COMMON~SCHOOL

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

MODEL.

I know not where y0u will find authority to
J olm went away when he was most needed.
This sentence contains four clauses - one independent,
dependent.
"I" is the subject of the leading clause ; "know," its predicate, is
modified by the adverb "not," and has for its object the objectiVI!
clause "where you will find authority to ask."
The transitive verb "ask" takes for its object the objective clause ;
".why John went away."
'"Went,'' the predicate, is limited by the adverbial clause "when;' he
was most needed."
r.,,
"I" is a personal pronoun, first, singular, nominative, the subject
of" know."
.r
"Know" is an irregular, transitive verb; indicative, present; ' ri~t
varied to agree in number and person with its subject.
"Not" is an adverb, modifying "know,'' and thus making the whoi'
proposition negative.
" ·where" is a connective adverb, connecting the objective cla~
with "know,'' which it limits.
;oa
" You " is a personal pronoun, second person, singular or plllf!\l,
nominative, subject of" will find."
. !'Ir
"Will find" is a verb ; irregular, transitive ; simple active; indica~ye,
future; not varied in this tense by person and number.
'.
"Authority" is a common noun, third, singular, neuter, objectiv~
and limits the transitive verb "will find," as its direct object.
·I "
"To ask" is a regular, transitive verb, having for its direct object tbiJ
obj ective clause "why John, &c."; infinitive, present, and depends .Qll
"authority," the noun that it limits.
.:id
"Why" is a connective adverb, connecting the clause in which-·
stands with that whicJi it limits.
" John" is a proper noun; third, singular, masculine,
(why~); subject of" went."
.
" \Vent" is an irregular, intransitive verb ; indicative, past; n
varied in this tense on account of the person and number of ita
subject.
"Away" is an adverb, modifying" went."

'. GR.A.MM.AR.

213

· adverb, connecting the adverbial clause
."WIien ,,.
. is . a connective
the objective clause that precedes it, and showing the relation of
~jlle between them to be identical. ·
,
.
"He" is a personal pronoun, third, singular, masculine and represents
"J ohn " ; nommat1ve,
. .
'
sub'~ect of "was needed."
0 ,'' Was needed" is a regular, passive verb· indicative past thi.rd
.
1ar, to .agree with
. its
. subject.
'
'
'
'
smgu
,ii " !'1ost" is an adverb ; much, more, most; superlative degree, ~nd
Y\odifies "was needed."
~1th

EXERCISES.
.11.-nalyze and parse the following sentences as in the models.

orrWhen tho~ goest forth by day, rriy bullet shall whistle by thee;
~he~ thou h est down at night, my knife is at thy throat. The
pil~rim fathers asked but for a region where they could make
Jll~ir own laws, and worship God according to the dictates of

their own consciences. While there is life there is hope. While
lb.e .earth remaineth, seed time and harvest, ·cold and heat, summer
and winter, and day and night shall not cease. Whenever he
lees me, he inquires concerning his friends. The good man is
~ot overcome by disappointment when that which is mortal dies,
when that which is mutable begins to change, and when that
~~ich he knew to. be transient passes away. The refreshment
came in seasonably, before they had lain down to rest. Whether
~itue promotes our ~nterest or not, we must adhere to her dic'!!ltes. I will inform you as soon as I hear of his arrival. He
1"8 about fifty years old, as nearly as I can judge. ·Hatred or
povenge deserves censure, wherever it is found to exist. Mayest
. o~, as well as I, be patient and forgiving. Conscience remonates while we are doing wrong. Conscience reproaches us
!;e: we have done wrong. Wherever hope went, he diffused
around him gladness and joy. While Hope .remains there can
,p~ full and positive misery.

•

I

214

COMl\lQN:-:SCHOOL _: GR.A:l\11\fAR.

COMMON-S CHOOL . GRAMMAR.

CLAS SIFICATION OF WORDS.

In the preceding pages, the various r elations of words, phrases,
and clauses have been treated of, and exemplified by models.
W e have seen that one word may be substituted for auother1
and may thus represent it; and that the same word niay be used
in the relations of different classes ; as, a pronoun for a noun, a
participle fo1· ' a noun or an adjective, and yet perform the office
of a verb in taking a direct object. All this r equires no change
of meaning in the words thus used.
It now remains to r emark, that, as words are classed chiefly by
their grammatical office, the same word may be found in several
classes ; as, The calm shade shall bring a kindred calm. Galm
yourself. That man sings. The same man that sings, plays on
the organ. I told him that he must go. William not only
insulted, he even struck the boy. . Even William, who usually re.:
cites well, failed in bis lesson.

215

are true to them, will carl'y us and will carry themselves gloriously through this contest.
It is also used sometimes to render the style more familiar.
Now ~Harry, he had long suspected
This trespass of old Goody Blake, fr_ I-IYPERBATON is an inversion of the natural arrangement of
lwords in a sentence; as, Great is Diana of the Ephesians!
s It is most frequent in poetry ; as,
Bright in her father's ball .
Shields gleamed upon the wall;
Loud sang the minstrels all. -

D

RHETORICAL FIGURES OF MOST COMMON OCCURRENCE IN DISCOURSE.

·~

An authorized departure from the use of words is called a trope.
A simple trope is founded ou a similarity of properties.
Simple tropes are divided into the synecdoche and metonymy.
FIGURES OF SYNTAX.
SYNECDOCHE is the use of a pa.rt for the whole, or the whole for a
;Part ; as sail for ships.
Three deviations from regular construction or arrangement
·· METONYMY is a change of name. It gives one object the name of
are of frequent occurrence in discourse.
another from some real or fancied relation : An address to the crown =
ELLIPSIS is the omission of some part of a sentence, necessary \ he king. Gray hairs for old age.
·
to complete the grammatical construction; as, I bought the book
~ _. PERSONIFICATION is imputing life or intellect to inanimate objects :
at Crosby's (store). H e is older than John (is).
-,
~ext Anger rushed, his eyes ou fire, &c. We say of the sun, he shines
Most compound sentences afford examples of the use of ellipsis 'L of the moon, she shines.
·
for precision and euphony; it frees language from useless _and . L SnIILE or comparison is founded on the resemblance of things coll1un pleasant r epetition.
pared ; introduced by like, so, as : Life is like a sea ; as fathomless, as
Ellipsis should not be used where it will cause obscurity Qr "Wide, as terrible.
weaken the force of expression.
METAPHOR recognizes the same resemblance, without the introductory
PLEONASM, meaning a r edunda ncy of words, is often found in nwords :
animated discourse, to introduce a subj ect, to call attention .to o· Unkind feeling, if it exist, alienation and distrust, are the growth,
a coming remark, or to increase emphatic force; as, The Pilgripl 'tunnatura.l to such soils, of fals.e principles since sown. They are weeds,
F athers - where are they ? The people, the people, sir, if we othe seeds of which that same great arm never scattered.

216

COil!l\ION-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

is the contrasting of expressions, for strength.
Though black, yet comely; though rash, benign.
Vision is that figure by which scenes absent in time or space
regarded as present. I see it now, that one adventurous vessel,
Mayflower of a forlorn hope, &c.
ANTITHESIS

.·
1•0

!lI'6

the
·
)

PUNCTUATION.
Punctuation is the art of dividing discourse by certain&
marks, to show, primarily, th e grammatical construction ; and~
secondarily, to indicate pauses, or modulations of the voice .in
re~in~
4
The principal punctuation marks are the following, viz. : Comma .......
Semicolon ...•.
Colon ..... .. .

Period . . . . . . . . . ..••
Interrogation mark .•. ?
Exclamation mark • • . !

u" -Ex. William went to Boston, and John remained at home.
:• 5. Clauses, having a common dependence, are separated from each
~ther by the semicolon.
6. Dependent clauses are separated from the clauses on which they
depend, by the comma.

Ex. I knew, that he told the truth. When the farmer came
down to breakfast, he decla r ed, that his watch had gained half
J'
an hour, in the night.
,1

r. ·ExcEPTION. An adjective clause, when u sed restrictively, is not separ ated
from the clause on which it depends.

Ex. N ever be ungrateful to one who loads you with b enefits.

. Ex. The people, if we are true to them, will carry us gloriJusly through this struggle.

I

SEPARATION OF CLAUSES.

8. Conelative clauses are separated by the comma.

RULE 1. A complete declarative or imperative sentence, whether
simple or compound, takes a period after it.
William, come h ere.

REMARK. If the clauses are short and not subdivided, a comma is
often used.

7. A dependent clause, incorporated in the clause on which it depends, commonly takes a comma before as well as after it.
:o

Ex. Man is mortal.

217

COMMON-SCHOOL GR.Al\fM.rn.

.ft

, Ex. Though he slay m e, yet will I trust in him.
EXCEPTION. H the correlative clauses are connected by "than" or" as,"
the comma is omitted.

2. An interrogative sentence takes a mark of interrogation aft er it.
Ex. Who discovered America ?
I.l

Ex. He ask ed more than it was worth.
are never prosper.

3. An exclamatory sentence takes a mark of exclamation after it. - ~

9. The omission of the predicate in one or more of the clauses of a
compound sentence is marked by a comma.

Ex. What sighs have been wafted after that ship!

-12

Such men as they

Ex. R eadin g m akes a full man ; writing, a correct man ; and
speaking, a read1 man.

SEPARATION OF CLAUSES.
4. The independent clauses of a compound sentence are separated
by the semicolon.
·
Ex. 'IVake from your false security; your cruel dangers,d
your more cruel apprehensions, ar e soon to be renewed; the
wounds, yet unhealed, are to be torn open again.
.J

SEPARATION OF PHRASES.
10. Phrases, having a common dependence, and not subdivided, are
by a comma.
: Ex. He is a man of learning, of profound thought, and of

i~parated

19

218

COMMON~SCHOOL

COMMON-SCHOOL G:JAMM.A.R.

RE~IARK . If either of the phrases is subdivided by a comma, they
are separated by a semicolon.
.. ', :
Ex. Let him draw, rather, a decorou s, smooth-faced, bloodless demon; a picture in r epose, rather than in action.

11. Phrases, used in apposition with words, are separated from the
rest of the sentence by commas.
, ,
)
Ex. vVashington, the first president of the United States, Wl\3
called the father of his country.
'

'

PHRASES .
12. Phrases used absolutely are separated from the rest of the sentence by the comma.
Ex. To confess the truth, I was in fault.
13. A phrase, consisting of an adjective or participle indirectly liRited, is separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma.
·
14. I nverted and intermediate phrases require the use of the contma, when its omission would leave their dependence doubtful.
In eYery period of life, the acquisition of knowledge is one of
the most pleasing employments of the human mind.
Th e acquisition of knowledge, in every period of life, is one
of the most pleasing employments of the human mind.
SEPARATION OF WORDS.
15. Two words of the same class, in the same construction, are separated by a comma when the connecting word is omitted.
Ex. A bold, bad man.

;-

16. Three or more \vords of the same class, in the same construction, require a comma between each particular.
Ex. Our purpose is higher, purer, nobler.
and Thomas were present.

-GRAMMAlf

.speak of the importance of obedience. · The boy recites very well,
indeed .
•]-,

,,

'~ .\

.

,, "

" "

er .

"

N OTE. This rule applies to such words as "yea,
nay,
further,
aoarn,
~c. , and to such inseparable adverbial phrases as "in vain," "in general," &c.

OTHER MARKS USED IN WRITTEN L.ANGUA..GE.
The Apostrophe (' ) is used as a sign of the possessive case;
as, J oh n's horse.
Also to note the elision of letters or syllables from. some part
of a word, chiefly in poetry; as, ·I
1st. From the beginning of a word, when it is called aplueresis; as, 'neath for beneath, and 'gan for began.
2d. From. the middle of a word, where it is called syncope
"{syn'co-pe) ; as, ne'er for never, e'en for even.
3d. From the end of a word, where it is called apocope
"(apoc'o-p e); as, tho' for though.
If the word elided is joined to another, making but one syl1Jable out of two, it is called synceresis; as, 'twere for it were,
th' old for the old.
i• Direresis ( ·· ) separates, in spoken language, two vowels joined
in written ; as, cooperate.
The Hyphen ( - ) connects compound words, as after-growth;
denotes a long vowel, as name; and is used at the end of a line
when part of the word begins the next line ; as, run-ning.
· The Dash ( - ) marks a sudden turn in sentiment, an abrupt
breaking off unfinished, a sign for a lengthened pause, and an
addition to a comm.on pause.
A P arenthesis ( ) encloses a r emark, useful to the sense, but
not necessary to the grammatical construction ; as, -

William, John,

17. ·wards, used independently, 01 modifying whole clauses, are
separated from the rest of the sentence by the comma.
E x . Sir, there is no longer any room for hope. First, I shall

Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,)
Virtue alone is happiness below.
Brack ets [ J enclose words used in explanation, or correction
;of a mistake, bnt not entering into the construction ; as, Punc-

220

221

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMM.AR.

COM1110N-SCHOOL GRAMM.AR.

tua~ion [it is the adjustment of points] ought'to be regarded::as
an important part of grammar.
'
'
The Brace ( ,-...'-.-.,) connects a number of words with on~
common term ; it also marks a triplet in poetry; as,_

3d. Names applied to the Deity; as, God, Jehovah, The Almighty.
4th. Names of the months, and the days of the week; as, August,
Sunday.
' ·5th'. Names of public bodies : The Senate. The Peace Society.
6th. Names of religious denominations: Presbyterians 1 Methodists.
7th. Names of political parties : Republicans; Democrats.
8th. Names of corporations and companies ; as, Merchants' Bank;
Atlantic Telegraph Company.
9th. All titles ; as, Gen., Esq., Mr., Rev.
10th. A direct quotation ; as, " They said, 'Never man spake like
this man.'"
11th. The principal words in the titles or divisions of discourse or of
books; as, Tower's Elements of Grammar ; Examples for Analysis.

I is the first person,
~·
Thou, the second person,
Singular.
He, she, it, the third person,

0, wretched impotence of human mind!
\Ve, errin~, still excuse for error find,
(
And darkling grope, not knowing we are blind.

S

·tl

The Ellipsis ( - - ) indicates the omission of letters or words;
as, Th e k-g for the king. They were attacked by _ _
. The Inverted Commas (" ") mark a quotation; as, Note this
hue of Pope, "The proper study of mankind is man."
The Caret ( /\ ) is used where omitted letters or words are
•
d
m
rnserte over the line in writing ; as, comand.
A

The A sterisk ( * ), Obelisk ( t ), Parallels (II ), sundry other1
figur~s, also the digits and letters of the alphabet, are used as
margmal references, or refer to the bot.tom of the page.
·.
. The Breve (
is placed over a short vowel to note its quan-.
t1ty ; as, not.
·.J
v

)

The Acute Accent ( 1 ) marks syllabic emphasis; as, Im:.·
prop' er.

USE OF C.APIT .ALS.
Begin with a capital, 1st. The first word of a sentence; as, Life is short.
2d. Proper names and words derived from them · as, England, Eng-.
lish; Spain, Spanish, Spaniard.
'
·
.;•J!

f

,,

PROSODY .
Prosody treats of quantity, accent, and versification.
VERS I F I CATION is the arrangement in verse of a number and
variety of syllables, according to the laws of rhythm.
A VERSE is composed of feet, arranged according to measure
or metre.
Rhyme is the correspondence of the final sound or sounds of
one verse with that or those of another.
A line of poetry is called a verse.
A hemistich is a broken line.
A stanza is a number of verses so arranged as to make one
correspondent whole. It commonly has four, six, eight, or nine
lines.
A foot is two or three syllables, forming the essential part of
verse, arranged by accent and the want of it, answering to long
and short quantity.
A pause or ccesura is a suspension of voice at the end of a line,
to im!icate its termination, or in some part of it for harmony.
Scanning is separating verse into poet.ic feet.
Of the eight kinds of poetic feet, four have two syllables, and
four three syllables ; as, 19 *

2:2.2

TWO SYLLABLES.

. 223

COMMON-SCHOOL .GRAMMAR. ·

COi\lMON-SCHOOL GRAllIMAR.
~- ~-i •

r

Verse consisting of four Iambuses is called Iambic T etrameter ;

Iambus, - unaccented - accented, - despise' .
Trochee, - accented - ·unaccented, - trai'tor.
Spondee, - accented - accented, - pale' cheek'.
Pyrrhic, - imaccented - unaccented, - on the.

A Gre' \ cian youth', \ of tal' \ ents rare',
Whom ·P la' I to's phil' \ osoph1 \ ic care'
H ad formed' I for Vir' I tue's no' \ bler view1,
By pre' \ cepts and' \ ·exam1 \ ple too',
Would oft1 \ en boast1 \ his match' \ less skill'
To curb1 \ the steed1 \ and guide1 I the wheel'.

THREE SYLLABLES.

Anapest, - two unaccented - accented, - intervene,.
r!l.G
Dactyl, - accented - two unaccented, - pos'sible.
Amphibrach, - unaccented - accented - unaccented, - delight'ful.
Tribrach, - three unaccented, - nu' I merable.
Of these the Iambus, Trochee, Anapest, and Dactyl are the
most in use ; the others serve to vary the measure.
Iambic verse has th e accent on the second, the fourth, &c. ;
that is, on th e even syllables.
Verse consisting of one Iambus is called Iambic Monometer;
it is seldom used alone ; as, H e flies';
He dies'.
And bright'
The light'.

V er se consisting of five Iambic feet ,is called Iambic
Pen.
meter, or H eroic.
Achil' j les' wrath', I to Greece' I the dire' I ful spring'
Of woes' \ unnum' I bered, heaven' j ly god 1 \ dess, sing'!
The seas 1 \ shall waste', \ the skies1 I in smoke'
" Rocks fall' I to dust', I and moun1 I tains melt'

I decay 1,
I away1.

Verse of six feet is called Hexameter ; as; ' To scourge' I the reb 1 I el world', I and march' I it round'

I about!.

; Verse consisting of seven Iambic feet is called Iambic H ep meter; as, hile shep' I herds watched' I their fl.ocl>.s' I by night', I all seat1 I ed
or! \ the ground',
1
1
he an' I gel of 1 \ the Lord1 \ came down,1 I and glo I ry shone I
around'.

But each of these lines is generally printed as two, and the
Verse consisting of two Iambuses is called Iambic D imetel'. ;r our lines thus formed constitute a stanza, or verse of a hymn ;
as, • !his is called Common Metre.
What place' \ is here1 !
What scenes' I appea1J !
To me' J the rose1
No lon1 I ger glows'.

With. rav' \ ished ears'
The mon' \ arch hears'
Assumes' J the god',
Affects' I to nod'.

While shep 1herds watched' their flocks' by.night',
All seat'ed on' the gi·ound',
The an'gel of' the Lord' came down',
And glo'ry shone' around'.

Verse consisting of three Iambuses is called Iambic Trimeter ;
~-

Aloft' I in aw' \ ful state',
The god' J like he' \ ro sate'.
The song' j began' \ from Jove',
Who left' \ his seats' \ above'.

~

: The Trochaic verse has the accent on the first, the third, &c. ;
at. is, on the odd syllables.
V erse consisting of one T rochee is called Trochaic MonomFly'ing,
Cry1ing.

,,.
'i

224

COM1110N-SCHOOIJ GR.Al\LllfAR.

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAl\IMAR.

This monometer, and all other measures of Trochaic vers
may take an accented semipede or half-foot, and this is tll
shortest Trochaic verse used in English ; as, Tu'mult I cea'se1,
Sink' to I pea'oe1•
Can' our I eyes'
R each' thy I size' ?
May' my I lays'
Swell' with I praise'
vVor 1thy I thee',
Wor 1thy I me' !

225

,.. Verse consisting of five Trochees is called Trochaic Pentame...
\!!r; as, All' who I dwell' in 1 pal' a I ces or I gar'reta. ·

Verse consisting of six Trochees. is called Trochaic Hexameter.
It
is the longest Trochaic measm:e found in English; as, 1
On' a I moun'tain

I stretched' be I neath' a j hoar'y I wil'low.

NoTE. The tetrameter and the pentameter are uncommon and unpleasing,
.d

lacking harmony.

The Anapestic verse is composed ~f Anapests, with sometimes

Verse consisting of two Trochees is called Trochaic D1meter'; 1\11 additional unaccented syllable.

Verse consisting of one Anapest is called Anapestic Manom-

as,On' the I moun tain,
By' a I foun 1tain.
1

·with the accented half-foot, -

In' the I days' of I old',
Fa'bles I plain'ly I told'.
Verse consisting of three Trochees is called Trochaic Trimeter;
as, When' our I hearts' are I mourn'ing.

eter; as, But in vain'
They complain'.
Verse consisting of two Anapests is called Anapestic Dimeler; as,But his cour' I age 'gan fail',
For no arts' I could avail'.
With the unaccented half-foot.
But his cour' I age 'gan fail' \ him,
For no arts' I could avail' I him.

With the accented half-foot.
Rest'less I m01Jtals I toil' for I nought' ;
Bliss' in I vain' from I earth' is I sought' ;
Bliss', a I na'tive I of' the I sky',
Nev1er I wan1ders: I mor'tals, I try'!
There' you I can1not I seek' in I vain',
F OlJ to I seek' her I is' to I gain'.
V erse consisting of four Trochees is called Trochaic Tetrameter; as, There' he I sang' of I Hi'a I wa 1tha,
Sang' the I song' of I Hi'a I wa1tha.

Verse consisting of three Anapests is called Anapestic Trime~
ter; as, 0 ye woods', I spread your branch' I es apace' ;
To your deep1 I est recess' I es I fly' ;
I would hide' I me with beasts' I of the chase' ;
I would van' I ish from ev1 I ery eye'.
With the unaccented half-foot.
And Sir Trus1 I ty shall be'

I my Add I nis.

\II,I
I'

226

Verse consisting of four Anapests is .called .A napestic 'l'e.tl'ai:n·
eter; as, -

.1 u

May I gov' I em my pas' I sions with ab' I solute sway',
And grow wis' I er and bet' I ter as life' I wears away'.

I cheek of death' I smiles and ro' I ses are blend' [ ing.

Of Dacty lie verse, the following are specimens: Dactylic Monometer; as, -

.,r

The Dactylic Tetrameter : -

I so blest! on I the throne' is.

II
. :!
.Jd

The Mixed Heroic verse is composed of Spondees, Pyrrhics,
Dactyls, and Tribrachs, mixed chiefly with Iambuses; to which
the Trochee and the Anapest may be added. Thus_ mixed,
Heroic verse may embrace all the eight feet, except the Amphibrach, at the will of the poet. There should be at least one Iambus in the line.

.fl:

In the following line of Mixed Heroic measure, the first foot is
Dactyl, the other feet are Iambic. .,

.a

Cold' is thy I heart', and as I fro'zen as I char'ity.
Trimeter, with part of a foot more : Hail' to the I chief' who in I tri'umph ad I vances;
Hon'ored and I blessed' be the I ev'er green I pine!
AMPHIBRAIC VERSE.
Amphibraic verse is composed of Amphibrachs, and is of three
kinds.
Verse consisting of one Amphibrach is called Amphibciic?
111:onometer.
Disdain'ing,
Consent1ing,
Complain'ing,
Repent'ing.

Amphibrai~

MIXED HEROIC VERSE.

·dl

The Dactylic Trimeter: Sum'mer is I come', and the I trees' on the-

Verse consisting of three Amphibrachs is called
Trimeter ; as,
And mahiage

Vis'ible,
Ris'ible,
The Dactylic Dimeter; as, Once', as I I told' in glee
Tales' of the I storm'y sea,
Soft! eyes did I gaze' on me.

" Verse consisting of two Amphibrachs is called · Amphibraic
Dimeter ; as, Consid'er, I fond shep'herd,
How fieet!ing's I the pleas'ure ;
The joys' which I attend' it
By mo'ments I we meas'ure.

·with the unaccented half-foot.
On the cold'

227

COM1110N~SCHOOi:; . GRAMM'.r n:

C0111MON-SCHOOL GRAMM.AR;

MuiJmuring I and with'

I him fled' I the shades' I of night'.

In the following line, the second foot is a Tribrach; the other
eet are Iambic.
Innu1 I merable I before'

I th'

Almigh1 I" ty's throne'.

In the following line, the first foot is a Trochee, the other
(et are Iambic.
See' the I bold youth'

I strain up' I the threat' I 'ning steep'.

The following line is pur.e Iambic.
Which on' I weak wings.' I from far'

I pursues' I her

flight'.

I

1\

;,

228

COl\IMON-SCHOOL GRA1'Il\UR,.

I but pas' I sion is' I the gale!.
Fa' vors I to none', I to all' I she smiles' I extends' ;
Oft' she I rejects', I but nev' I er once' I offends'.

l·

Rea'son I the card',

MIXED ALEXANDRINE VERSE.

I

In the following line, the first foot is a Spondee, the fourth a
Trochee, the r est Iambic.
.;
All' these'

I our no' I tions vain' I sees', and I derides'.

In the following line, two Anapests are between two Iambuses.
His axe'

, I ambic H exameter is called Alexandrine measure, from the
fact, that the early romances upon the exploits of Alexander of
1
Macedon, were written in this measure. It is sometimes mixed,
like the Heroic.
And, in' I the low1 / er grove', I as on' / the ris' I ing knoll',
Upon' I the high' / est spray' / of ev' / 'ry mount' I ing pole',
".. Those quir' / isters1 I are perched' I with man'y I a speck' j led breast.I
Alack' I I that so' 1-to change'

I and his <lag' I ger with blood' I imbrued'.

In the following line, the first foot is a Trochee, the second an
Iambus, the third and fourth Iambuses, the fifth an Amphibrach
The verse has eleven syllables.
Gods' might I behold'

I her,

and'

229

COl\Il\ION-SCHOOL GRA1'Il\IAR.

In each of the three following lines, the first foot 1s a Trochee;·
the rest are Iambic.

I forget' I their wis'dom.

In the two following lines, accented and unaccented syllables
are skilfully blended. The first foot is a Trochee, the second
third, fourth, and fifth Iambuses. The first foot of the second
line is a Spondee, the second a Trochee, the last three Iambuses.

ri

I thee win' I ter had' I no powe1J !

•

The following line has fourteen syllables, with five accented.
And man1y an am1orous, man'y a hu'morous lay'.

This line is on~ of the longest in English versification. By
the ,most natural division of its feet, it contains an Iambus and
four Anapests. By a different division, it has four Amphibrachs
<
and an Iambus.
I

,.

And man' / y an am' I orous, man' I ya hu' ./ morous lay'.
And man'y I an am'o I rous, man'y I a hu1mor I ous lay'.

In the following line, the first, third, and fourth are Iambic;
the second and fifth are Anapests.

On' the I green bank', I to look' I into' I the clear'
Smooth' lake', I which' to I me seemed' I an oth' I er sky'".

In the following lines, the first verse contains five Iambic
feet; the second, two Iambuses, a Pyrrhic, a Spondee, an Iambus ; the third, five Iambuses ; the fourth, a Trochee, an Iambus,
an Anapest, and two Iambuses.
How charm' I i11g is' I divine' I philos I ophy' !
Not harsh', / and crab' I bed, as / dull' fools' I suppose', '

Which man' / y a bard' I had chant!

I ed man' I y a day'.

., The following verse has a Spondee, an Anapest, an Iambus,
,oand two Anapests.
O'er' mun'

I ya fro' I zen, man'

/y a fi'

I ery Alp'.

1

But mu'

I sical1 I as

is'

I Apol' I Io's

And a I perpet! / ual feast'

lute',

t of nee' I tared sweets'.

·'

\.J

The following verse has an Iambus, three Anapests,. and an
unaccented half-foot.
·
For Bath'

I will I

speak', J and I'll make' I an oral I tion.
20

230

231

COMMON-SCHOOL GRAMMAR.

In the following verse there are five Iambic feet, and a
Pyrrhic.
That they'

I would fit' I ly fail' I in 01J I dercd chaiJ I acters. _

The two following lines have each an Iambus, three Anapests,
and an unaccented half~foot.
That when' I the worn thread' I of my life' I is untwist!
He still' I may remem1 I ber that l' I have exist! I ed.

The following has two Anapests : And the night!

I raven

sings'.

Or by a different division it has. a Pyrrhic, a Spondee, and an
Iambus ; as, And the I night' ra'

I ven sings'.

I ed,
POETICAL PAUSES.

H eroic verse is ever of ten or eleven syllables, except in
H emistichs; but it occasionally admits an AlexancL:ine line of
twelve, or even of thirteen syllables
In the following lines there is a mixture of Heroic and Alexandrine verse, with single and double rhyme. The first is Heroic,
of eleven syllables; its feet are Trochee, Iambus, two Anapests,
and an unaccented half-foot. The second is mixed verse ; it has
one Iambus and three Anapests. The third is mixed verse, of
thirteen syllables ; it is an Anapestic, with an unacce11t ed halt~
foot. The fourth is mixed verse, and contains an Iambus and
three Anapests.
Know' ye I the land' I where the cy' I press and myr' I tie
Are em' I blems of deeds' I which are done' I in their clime',
W"here the rage' I of the vnl' I ture, the love' I of the tur' I tie,
Now melt! I into sor' I row, now mad' I den to crime'?

There are two pauses, the final, and cresural. The final pause,
at the close of the verse, marks the measure.
The cresural pause divides the verse into portions, equal or un, equal, which may be two or more.
The final pause preserves the structure and melody of the
verse without marring the sense. It distinguishes poetry from
pr6>e, especially in blank verse.
· The cresural pause is commonly us~d after the fourth, fifth, or
sixth syllable in heroic verse. In Alexandrine it is _chiefly used
after the sixth. Verses of less than ten syllables have not necessarily any full cresural pause, but may have one after any syllable.
After the fourth; as,
The silver eel'' in shining volumes rolled.
After the fifth; as,
Round broken columns" clasping ivy twined;
O'er heaps of ruin" stalked the stately hind.

MIXED MINOR VERSE.
Minor verse is neither Heroic nor Alexandrine, having less
than ten syllables.
In the following verses, the first foot is a Trochee, the rest
Iambic.
Come' to I the school' - I room, come' I away' !
vVar'ble I his na'

I tive wood'- I notes wild'.

The following verse has an Anapest, and two Iambuses;
And the moun'

I tain blast' I blew chill'.

as;-

After the sixth ; as,
Thus we the winged hours" in harmless mirth
And joys unsullied pass", till humid night, A benevolent deed' is the essence of beauty.
The semi-cresuta forms a semi-pause ' with the full cresura.
- When a verse takes the sem,i-cresura at all, it takes two, marked
here by single accents ;, as~

I

232

COMilION-SC HOOL GRAl\Il\IAR.

Glows' while he reads" , but trembles' as he writes.
Reason' the card", but passion' is_the gale.
vVho heaves' old ocean", and who :wings' the storm.
H eroic a nd Alexandrine verse may have the two semi-ciesuras,
without a full c::esura; as,

mecommenbations ano Notires
OF

TOWER'S INTELLECTUAL ALGEBRA.

And place' on good secui·ity' his g old.,.,
Your own' resistless eloquence' employ.
That Philosophy' , drawing from heaven' her birth,
I s the science' of healing the woes' upon earth.
EXAMPLES OF C.iESURAL PAUSES.
See the bold youth" strain up the threat'ning steep,
Rush through the thickets", down the valleys sweep !
Not half' so swift" the trembling doves can fly
·when the fierce eagle" cleaves the liquid sky;
Not half so swiftly" the fierc e eagle moves
·when through the clouds" he drives the trembling doves.
IVarms' in the sun" ; r efreshes' in the breeze ;
Glows' in the stars", and blossoms' in the trees;
Lives' through all life" ; extends' through all extent;
Spreads' undivided"; operates' unspent.

The full cIBsura and

semi-c~-esura

in minor verse; as,

In peace", Love tunes' the shepherd's reed ;
In war", he mounts' the warrior's steed;
In halls", in gay attire' is seen ;
In hamlets", dances on the green.
Softly sweet" in Lydian measures,
Soon' he soothed his soul' to pleasures.
Soft i$ the strain" when Zephyr gently blows,
And the smooth verse'' in smoother numqer!! flows.
Round' a holy calm' diffusing,
Love of peace", and lonely musing,

The subscribers, Principals in the Department of Mathematica
in the Public Schools of Boston, have examined D. B. Tower's
"Intellectual .JJ.lgebra," and are well pleased · with the Work. Th.ey
believe that the careful and minute analysis of questions in it is
calculated to train the mind of the pupil to correct habits of inves·
ligation, and they cordially recommend it to the consideration of
.nose interested in education.
PETER MACKINTOSH, JR.
LEVI CO NAN T,
JOSIAH FAIRBANK,
REUBEN SWAN,JR.
LORING LATHROP,
JOSEPH HALE,
JONATHAN BATTLES, JR.

JAMES ROBINSON,
AARON D. CAPEN,
NATHAN ME RR ILL,
JoHN A. HARR1s,
CIIARLES KIMllALL,
WILLIAM A. SHEPHARD
BENJAMIN DREW, JR.

June 28th, 1845.
BOSTON, JUNE 30th, 1845.
We have examined the "lritellectual .JJ.lgebra," by D. B. Tower, and
we are glad to find that the hitherto perplexing science of Algebra
is so simplified and so clearly illustrated, as to render it easily at
U-inable by the younger classes of children.
Mr. Tower has the merit of originality in his conception of an
"Intellectual .JJ.lgcbra." The value of this work is much enhanced,
not merely from the fact that the author ranks high as a Mathema·
tician; but in an especial manner, since he has been a successful
Teacher in this department, and is thoroughly versed in th.e best
modes of presenting the subject to the minds of his pupils in the
·various forms of practical instruction.
The work is systematic in its arrangement; it contains all that
w!ll be useful in Common Schools, and is iust what is wanted to
make a thinking pupil. We can, therefore, commend it to the notic~
and patronage of Teachers, Parent;, and Schoi;>l Comm;ttees; believing that where it 1s used the pupils will acquire not only a competent knowledge of Algebra, but, at the same time, they will oe
making as m11ch progress in AJithmetic, as they could, if required
to give their exclusive attention to the best text-books now used io
Oral .A;rithmetic.
ConNELIUS WALKER 1
SAMt:I!:L BARR~TT,
AnN ER FoRnltS,

RICHARD G. PARIS&,
W. J . ADAMS, .
FREDKRlCK CRAFTS,

C11ARu.:s B. SHERMAN,

ALBERT llowK~R.

TH OMA~ BAKER,

JOSIAH A. STEARNS,
lsA.A.c F. Sn.1C1'A no.
Grammar

JostHIA BATl!:H , Jn..,
(;1'0Rf11' ll. liYDX, _

Mast~r•

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CHARLRSTOWN, JULY 11, 1845.
Dear Sir,- I ).ave the pl easure to inform you tha~ after a careful
t>:nmin ation on the part of our Board of Trustees, of your "- Intel·
lec~ual .lllgebra," it was unanimou sly voted to intrc,duce it into our
Grammar Schools. Some of our Teachers have thoroughly exam·
ined the hook, and speakir.. high terms of its m erits.
He spectfully yours,
JONATHAN BROWN, JR.,
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Secretary
To D. ll. TO WER, E sq.

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Mr. PrnrrcE, the experienced Principal of the Normal School.
\Vest Newton, June 2Gth, writes, "I am so we ll pleased with ii
(t be Algebra), that I propose to introduce it into the Model Schoo
next T erm."
CHELSEA, JULY 9, 1845.
Mi·. Tower,-Dear Sir: I have examined your " Intellectual .11/gebra,"

and [ should be much gratified at its introduction into the School
under ::ny charge. I find the mental exercises in the Arithmetic we
use altoge ther inadequate, and am confident that the introduction of
your wo rk, at this stage of the scholar's progress, will enable him
to understand the science of Arithmetic much better and more easily
than he can now do.
QUINCY ADAMS;
Respectfully,

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CH ARLESTOWN, JULY 8, 1845.

CHARLESTOW N, JULY 19, 18!5.
We have examined, carefully and with m11ch satisfaction, Tower's
"lntcllectnal .11./«ebra," which bears the sa.m e relation to the Algebraic
text-books in °common use, as that sustained by" Colburn's First
Lessons" to previous treatises upon Arithmetic-and we think that
every one, who has !Dade use of that ~xcellent work, _cannot fai_l to
regard this as the highest commendat10n. We are highly gratified;

under our care.

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BENJAMIN F. TWEED,
Ptincipal of Bwnker Hill Schooi.
JOSEPH T. SWAN,
.
Principal of Mathematical Department of Warren &lwd. ·
STACY BAXTER,
Principal of Mathematical Department of Wintl;rop ScJit:ol.

From Professor Forbes, Civil Ji)ngi.neer, formerly Pri11cipal of the High
School in L oweli.
LOWELL, JULY 21, 1845.
Dear Sir-I h ave examined your "Intellectual .11/gebra" with in
terest; and I believe it will be found highly useful in giving to the
young habits of thinking attentively, and of reasoning with pre·
cision-two of the most desirable results of education. Your book
is the best of its kind that I have seen .
FRANKLIN FORBES.
Very respectfully Yours,
DAVID B. TowEa, Esq.
S AT.E:.t, JULY 12, 184~.
D . B. Tower, Esq.-Dear Sir: I have examined with much alter,.
tion your " Intellectwil .11/gebra." I think the plan of the work is
excellent; and so far as I have.examined, the tilling up is eq uatly
good. I suspect you have done for Algebra a sen•ice not very unlike
what Colburn did for Arithmetic, when he plrblishecr his " First
Lessons." I have requested our School Committee fo allow me to
put it into the hands of my Junior Class, as a preparatory study.
Yours, very respectfully,
RUFUS PUTNAM,
P1incipal of the Bowditch English High School, Salem, Mau.

Mi·. Tower,-Dear Sir: Your work on "Intellectual .!llgebra," we

have examined with much interest, and a high degree of pleasure
The idea of the work is excellent, and the arrangement, we think..
is good .
l t is the first book of the kind that we have seen, a nd it appears
to be well calculated to supply a deficiency in the class of books for
the int~llectual training of the youthful mind. A more interesting,
u seful , a:id important work could hardly have been devised, and it
can not fail, we think, to meet the approbation of Teachers and.
frie11ds of education.
Very respectfully,
P.H. SWEETSER,
Pri11cipal of Grammar Dcpartme11.t of Harnard School.
DANIEL H. FORBES,
Principal of Grammar Departmmt of }Varren School
A. WALKER,
Pri11cipal of Grammar Dcpartmem of W'inthrop School.

to !'!am that the T1 ustees have introduced the work into the Schoo!1

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Boston Daily Journal.
The plan of this work is altogether new-it contemplates the
improvement in the mode of teaching Algebra, that Colburn introduced into Arithmetic some twenty years ago, viz.-by oral exe rcises, in which all th e operations are limited to such small numbers
as not to embarrass the reasoning powers, but on the inductive plan,
to lead the pupil, understandingly, step by step, to higher mental
efforts.
•
We think its merits will be found
10 entitle it to admission into our schools as a va lu able aid to the
l'eachers iu giving instruction in Algebra to our youthful readers.

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Mass. Temperance Standard, ./J.ug. 1, 1845.
We h ave looked over
this work with much interest. To most
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persons, the idea of the study of Algebra, is that of a hard, dry,
useless task; and formerly this idea was in the main correct. Some
of the early treatises on this subject seem to have been intended
lo convey,the little information they contained, in as blind a method
ls possible. But Warren Colburn, by his excellent treatise, made
the translation from the study of Arithmetic to tltat of Algebra, easy '

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and delightful. Not content with this advance, Mr. Tower

has J.~

prepared a treatise, which is designed to hold the same pcisili'on!'id
reference to Algebra that Mr. Colburn 's "Intellectual .11.rithmetic" does
~o Arithmetic-tl1at iA, to make it one of the most elementa,r:Y'stu~i.!!-~
m common schools. The idea seems to us a good one. · There·js
notlung m the na_ture of Algebra t~ render it a difficult studf ' . >,11
any one doubts this statement, let him read over Mr. Tower's bQq'!f;
an d he will be sceptical no longu. But what is of still higher
1mporta~1ce, the_child by these steps, which seem so pleasant and
simple, 1s learnmg the greatest of all arts-that of reasonino-. In
this age of loose reasoners, every man who does anything to?dii~ct .
the mmds of the young to habit' of closer in vesti!!ation a11d analysis
does '.l- service t~ the community which cannot e';i.sily be over-rated'.
In this respect 1t gives us great pleasure to recommend the little
treatise of Mr. Tower.
Boston Messenger, July 3 1, 1845.
"F11tellectua.l .JJ/gcbra ; or, Oral Exerci ses in Al"ebra for Common
Schools-in which all th.e operations are limited to such small
numbers as not to embarrass the reasoning powers but on the in:
~l11cti ve plan, to lead the pupil understandingly, step by ·step, to
nigher mental e~orts 1 adap'.ed to prepare the pupil for the study ot
!f!ental Anthmetic, and designed to be introductory to higher treat:.
·J
ises on Algeb ra."
T here is no class of Works in which the public are mtlre
aeeply in terested than in School Books, and when good ones are
published, the author should be encourao-ed and receive the com
mendation that his labors deserve . It is\vi'th this feelino- that we
al W•a ys_ not~ce school books, and in the present instanc"e we are
happy m being able to spe>tk favorably of a valuable addition to our
stock of books,_on a m_o st interesti_ng and important study, ·which,
by means llf this treatise, may be introduced with the greatest advantage into our public schools. We will only add that the plan ot
the author is admirably executed.
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The able Editor of the Christian Rcjlector, who was selected from
the Boston Schoo l Co111mittee to examine the Mathematical Depart·
ment of their Schools, and who has just completed that arduous
task, says of Tower's " Intellectual .11.lgcbra", .:
"This is a new text-book, on a new plan, which we greatly admire.
It is to the Algebraic science very much such a work as was Colburn's 'Fir;;t .!lrithmetic' to the science of common numbers. We
observe that it is commended by experienced teachers. We shall
tertainly favor its adoption in the Mathematical department of the
Schools of Boston, and recommend it to the attention of School
Committees throujj1hout the countr;r.'

• The following is from the Principal <'f the celebrated Private
~chool in Roxbury, one of the best in this country.
~ ·'David B . Tower, Esq.,-Dear Sir : I have examined .JCOUr " Intel
kctit.al .11.lgcbra" with some care and attention, and am much
pleased with the plan and execution of the work. I think it
admirably adapted for tlie early training of youthfu l minds in
il.Jathematics. I shall introduce it forthwith into my school.
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Very truly and sincerely yours,
DANIEL LEACH.
'''.Roxbury, August, 6, 1845.

" From E. G . Starke, Esq., County Super.ntendent of Cayuga Cownt~

AUBURN, S~PT. 20, 1845.
Messrs Paine ~ Biwgess,-The examination of" Towers' Intellet:
lual Algebra" led me to remark that it was a work which I couh
ch eerfully a nd heartily recommend, for its intrinsic value and e>..
,cell e nce; a nd I a vail myself of the first opportunity of doin o- so.
, I regard it as the legitimate succ essor of Colbnrn's Fir-t L~sson~,
·and it will, in my opinion, prove as valuable to the student of
,Algebra as that has been to the student of Arithmetic. It divests
·the science of its mystery aud repulsiveness. a nd brings its principlca
.clearly before the mental vision, so simplified and illusuated, that
they can be readily comprehended by most pupils of from ten to
twelve years of age.
.
I therefore hail with pleasure, this new ana valuable incentive to
menial exercise in our Schools, and am satisfied that the work has but
to be examined to be approved and adopted. It is peculiarly adapt·
ed to the use of Common Schools, and to facilitate its introduction, we shall give the members of ouc Teachei-o' Institute which
is sovn to convene, daily and thorough exercises in it.
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Respectfully and truly Yours,
E. G. STORKE.
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Bos-roN , SEPT. 23, 1845 .

.DtAr Sir,-Having been absent from the city several months 1 I did
not ieceive, so soon as I Otherwise should, the copy of your book
, the " Intellectual Algebra~" whir.h you did. m~ the honor to send t~
.my house. I have examrned the book w1tltin a few days and in
my humble opinion, it is admirably adapted to the purp~se s fo1
which it is intended.
It seems to me, you have ve ry happily applied the ''charms of
' logic" to that beautiful and much neglected study of Alo-ebr• and
; if such a book could be freely introduced into our Com mo~ Sch'llols
) ,doubt not it would do more than almos;. anyth ing else to invig<1
rate and conc entrate the intellectual powers of the youncr.
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With much respect, yo!U' obliged servant, "
JOH N T. SARGENT
DA vrn B. TowER, Es11.

SALEM, JULY 26, 184:!.
ltfr. Da1;id B. 1uwer,-JJcar Sir: It is thought by most Teaclten
ttt presen t, that children have not commenced the st11dy of Arith·
metic aright and· radically, unless '.hey have begun with" Colburn's
First Lessons," or some other book of oral exercises. It appears to
us that it is equally importart! that .11.lgebra should be thus com·
menced. \Ve rejoice to see a work of this kind from your hands i
and the wonder is, that it has not entered the brain of some one
b~fore, to put one forth. Your " Intellectual .11.lgebra," in our humble
opii~ion, is a happy conception, and a design well executed,-leading
the mind on by very easy and gradual steps, and by clear illustra·
lions. We regard Algebra as an interesting and important study
for children, and "·ell calculated to aid their progress in common
Ari thmetic. We think, that if the merits of the study, and ofyoui
little book, are du ly appreciated, it will be widely introduced intc
the Schools of our land.

Yours with esteem,

EDWIN JOCELYN,
Principal of F. H igh School
CHARLES NORTHEND,
Principal of Epes School
D. P. GALLOUP,
Principal ~f Hacker School
A C. SMITH,
Principal of Philip's School
J . B. FAIRFIELD,
Principal of Browm School

From Boston Recorder, July 31, 1845.
This work was prepared, the author informs us, for the use o{
th e blind under his charge, and is now printed in hope that it may
pro ve useful to the seeing. It is on the" inductive plan ," and is
beli eved to supply a deficiency in the books provided for young
pupil s. The operations are limited to small numbers, and lead thP
pupil on step by step towards higher mental efforts. The plan,
and the execution of it, cannot fai l to meet the approbation ('{
Teachers.
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Bos-roN ,.Sv.rT., 15, 1845.
D. B. Tower, E.<q.,-Dear Sir :-I have examined your "Intellectual .11.l[irbr(l," and cheerfully concur in th e opinion expressed in
the recommentlalion of the Pri·ncipals of the Public Schools in
B<>Eton.
Very respectfully yo.urs,
R. W. WRIGHT,
Pnncipa· of the department of Mathemat-ic• in1 the ..ddams School

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SALEM, JULY

26, ·184:!. . }

Mr. David B. 1uwer,-Dcar Sir: It is thought by most Teachera ·
P.t present, that childre n have not commenced the study of Arith·
metic aright and· radically, unle$S :hey have begun with" Colburn's
:First Lesson s," or some other book of oral exercises. It appears to
us that it is equally importa rtf that .11.lgebra should be thus commenced. We rejoice to liee a work of thili kind from your hands;
and the wonder is, that it has not . entered the brain of some one
before, to put one forth. Your " Intellectual .11.lgebi-a," in our humble
opir.ion, is a happy conception, and a design well executed,-leading
the mind on by very easy and ,gradual steps, and by clear illustrations. We regard Algebra as an · interesting and important study
for children, and well calculated to aid their progress in common
Arithmetic. We think, that if the merits of the study, and ofyou1
little book, are duly appreciated, it will be widely introduced intc
the Schools of our land.
Yours with esteem,

.\

EDWIN JOCELYN,
Principal of F. High School
CHARLES NORTHEND,
Principal of Epes &lwol
D. P. GALLOUP,
P rincipal of Hacker &hool
A . C. SMITH,
Principal of Philip's &hool
J. B. :F AIR:FIE~LD,
Principal of Browm &hoof

From Boston Recorder, July 31, 1845.
This work was prepared, the author informs us, for the ' use of
the bli>ul under his charge, and is now printed in hope that it may
pro ve useful to the seeing. It is on the" inductive pla n," and is
believed to supply a deficiency in the books provided for young
pupils. The operati ons are limited to small numbers,· and lead the
pupil on step by step. towards higher mental efforts. The plan,
and the execution of it, cannot fail to meet the approbation ~! ·.
Teachers.
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BosToN,.SEPT., 15, 1845.

D. B. Tower, Eu;.,-Dear Sir :-I have examined your "lntdlect11al .11./rrebm," and cheerfully concur in the opinion expressed in
the reco~mendation of the Principals of the Public Schools in
B<>Eton.
Very respec tfully yo.urs,
R. W. WRIGHT,
Pnncipa· of the department of Mathematic• m the .Lldams School

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