.

)."_~ _ ·_ ~ ~~

--

GRAMMAR

{

FOR COMMON SCHOOLS

)

d
ii
BY

~/I

m~

TWEED, A.M.

LATE SU l'El!VJ s ou IN Tl!E BOSTON SCHOOLS
!

(I

.1e

ly,
ng
1pil
to

.I

'·

I\
(;

.ave

any
)een

uks,

BOSTON

LEE AND SHEPAR.D, PUBLlSHERS
10 MILK STREET

1886

)ressmen ts

., .
'

· .·,

.·I '

r r_1'

1

\

. '"?
'

I

I

PREFACE .

"k

I N preparing this ele mentary grammar, it is assumed that
pupils, before using it, have been trained in the· primary
sc hools and the lower classes of the grammar schools, to
11se language, both oral and written, in simple stories and
descriptions, with considerable facility, and with general
correctness.
Corv 1ur: ll'r, 1SS6,
Dv

B. F . T \VEE lJ.

In th e lessons that precede the study of grammar, the

attention of pupils has not been called, except incide1itally,
to the stru cture of sentences, but directed mainly to telling
as plainly as they can what they know about the subject.
The teacher's part in these exercises is to aid the pupil
in understanding what he is to talk or write about, and to
suggest by questions, or otherwise, a natural arrangement.
Of course, the most common. grammatical errors have
been corrected by appeals to the ear, rather than by any
rules of grammar.

A few general directions have also been

g i1·e n ;is to the proper use of capitals, punctuation-marks,
etc. This, however, is not the study of grammar.

In the study of grammar, language becomes the obj ect
o f study and investigation.
E LF.CTIW T\' l 'EU ANO l 'fnNT ED

llY RAND, A VE HY, AND COi\11' 1\ NY,
OOSTO N .

' 11
I" '~ •

We take th e sentence, - the only form of words ·expressing a compl ete thought, -and analyze it into its elements

/'NF.FA CF:.

PREFA CE.

acconll ng to the p::ut that each performs in expressing th e

state as simply as possible ; and I believe they are sufilcient

JV

th o11ght.

Th ese clements into whi ch a ll discourse m:1y he

,,

resolved, we call 1.he parts (If sj>t'cclt.
Th en th e relati on of th e elements in a sentence mllst be

tory o f th e l:111guage to explain, as well as diffi c 11 Jt and
d o11btful constru cti ons, a re referred to in the Append ix, to

In many cases, th e arra11ge111c11t furn ishes the onl y means
of d eterminin g th e n.:lat ion of words and other elem ents of

be 11sed a t th e discreti o n of th e teacher.

In othe rs, th e relati on is show n l>y inn cc-

th e genera l princ iples of grammar, before being introd uced
arrangeme nt, con-

to th e unusual and difficu lt applica ti on of th ese principles.

stru ction, inn ecti o n, and its substitutes arc proper s11hjects

A fo rm of analysis sufilcient to show th e relation of subj ect, predi cate, and modifi ers, in simple, compound, and

of g rammati cal stud y.

complex sentences, is g ive n, with out req11iring a stri ct ad her-

In 1xese nting th ese seve ral d epa rtm ents o f gramm::u, I

ence to it.
teach er.

hm·e take n advantage of th e pupils' kn owledge o f l:rngu:ige
acquired by m e ; in many cases simply formula ti ng :incl
naming princ iples practicall y learned in p rev ious cxer,. ises .

expla ining th e constru cti on o f sentences is by no means an
un p rofitable exercise.

by illllstrati on b efo re ass igning th e technical name; and to
n clu dc all tech nical na111 es not founde d on gram mati cal
distin cti ons.
Our language has b een call ed a " grammarless lan gua ge ."
Whil e thi s is no t trn e, as it would imply that it has no principl es of co nstrn cti o n, it will he admi tted, th at, in partin g
50

many o f th e innec ti ons of th e sy nth etic languages

on \\·hi c h our gra mmars have been mod elled, it has beco me
to a grea t ex te nt logical.
The ge neral grammati cal facts n:mai niu g, I have tri ed to

It may be modifi ed at the pleasure of th e

It is beli eved th at th e use o f oral and written langll age in

It has been m y endea\·or, also, to d evelo p th e p rinciple

\\'ith

It is believed

howeve r, th at th e pllpil should be th oroughl y gro 11 nded ii;

tions, au xiliaries , or connecti ves.
H ence, in addit ion to th e elements, -

to expla in th e construction o f language as used by our best
speakers a nd writers.
Idi omatic ex pressions, requiring a knowledge of th e his-

kn o\\'n in ord er to d etermin e th e mea ning.

the sentence .

v

I

.J, . ",

- - - - - - -- - - - -- ---- -- - -- - - ---- --

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PART

I.
P AGE .

T H E SENTENCE
KI NDS OF SENTENCES ( EXERC I SE )

6

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE
EXERCISES

.f

•

7, 8,

NOUNS, V 1mns ( EXERCISE )
S I MPLE AND EN LAllGE IJ SUDJ E CTS AND PHEDICATES ( EXERC ISE ),

II

P EitSON/\ T. P 1 !0~0UN~ (EXEH C J~E I. ) .

PERSONAL PnoNOUNS (EXERC I SE

12

I I. )

13

PERSON AL PRONOUNS (EXERCISE J] l.)

f

14

. i\llJEC TIVF S (EXER C ISES)

I5

i\ HT I C I.ES (EX FRC I S F)

16

AllVERHS (EXERCIS ES)

t

P JI RASES

9
JO

17

•

18

PH El'OS I T I ONS

19

EXEll C ISE ON P H RASES

20

CONJUNCTIONS

20, 2 1

C O J\H 'O UNn SENTENCES .

21

HELAT JVE PRONOUNS
CJ.A USES

22,

23, 24

C OMP L EX SENTENCES (EXER C I SE )
SUMMARY OF l'1\RTS OF SP EE C rt .

TH E

SA~ J E

23
24
25

\Ve n n PERFORMING THE OFF I CE O F DIFFEREN T P ARTS

OF S P EEC H
EXERC I SE .
Co-0 1w 1NATE, SunoRDINATE, A N JJ CORRESPONDING CONJ UNC TI ONS,

·i

26

CONTENTS.
PART II.

CONTENTS.
PAR T

PAGE.

27

CLASSES OF NOUNS ( EXERC I SE)

3

Ill.

SYNTAX.
PAG E.

28

f' ERSON

28, 29

NU'.\I HER

ExEH C I SE

29, 30

(; EN '' "" (r:x ER C IS E)

30,

L I S E (EXER C ISE )

31, 32

o

·'

E xEn C I S E ON PEH SONJ\ L PH ONOUNS

34

CO• ll 'UUN I> PER SONAL l 'IWNOU NS (EXEH C I SE )

3·1

1\Et.ATIVE PR ONOU NS {DECLENSI ON )

35

Ex ER C ISE

36

ON

RELAT I VE l'HONO U N S

C n '.\tl' tlU Nn REL AT IV E Pn. ONOUNS (EXER C IS E)

36

I NTEH HOGA TI VE PRONOUNS ( EXERC IS E)

37

\' ERll S, l\1 01JE

38

T llE l !'< FI NIT I VE.

39
39, 40

J-' 1\ HT I C IP LES

40, 41

E X ER C IS E ON M OD E

4 1, 42, 43

TE NSE (E XERC ISE}

43, 44

R EC.UL:\R AND I RREGULAR
TH ANS ITIVE AND ] NTRANS I T I VE

44

A C-rll'E AN D PA SS I VE V O ICE

44

ExEH C i sE

44

/\UXll.IARY VERBS

45

C O NJ UG ATJ ON O F THE VERB " L OVE" •

4 5, 4G, 4i , 48

4S

Tll E I NFINITIVE .
C ON J UGAT I O N OF THE VERB "13E,,

49,

so

TllE l'R OGHESS I VE I' ORM (EXER C ISE )

51

Tll E l ' ,\SS !VE VO I CE (EXERC IS E)

52

PEH SON ANT1 NUMHER AS CUM~ T ON LY APT'LIEO TO V ERBS

53

AN D i \ 11\.EHns

A u J EC TI VES l RREGULAH LY Cul\lt'ARED
PRONOMINA L ADJE C TIVES

I.

54

56

SYN TA X OF T H E SU DJECT

56, 57

R U LE

2.

S YNTAX OF TH E PREDICATE.

R FLE

3·

SYN TA X OF

H U LE

4·

SYN T AX O F ADVEHIJS

R ULE

APPOSITION

RULE

5·
G.

I NT RANS ITI VE AND PASSIVE VE RDS

RULE

7.

THE P OSS ESSIVE CASE

R U LE

s.

Tim 011JECTIVE ( ,\ S E AFTER TRAN S ITI VE VE RDS

RULE
R ULE

9·
10.

A llJ E C TIV ES

57

AND PARTI C ll"LES

58
58, 59
59
59
59
60

SYN.TAX OF AN I N FIN ITIV E PHR ASE

60

RU LE II.

NOUNS USED I NDEPENDENT LY

60

RULE 1 2.

AGREEMENT O F P 1iO NOUNS

Go

H U LE

13.

SYN TA X O F PR El' OSITIONS .

Gt

RULE

14.

S YNTAX O F CONJ UNC TIONS

Gr

I N TERJ EC TION S

61

RULE J 5·

PUNCTUATION.
DEFINITION. -

CllARACTERS USED •

T1rn

TH E I NTEHllOGA TION POINT.

PERI OD.

TH E EXC LAMATION

P O INT

62, 63

THE co~ IMA

63, 64

THE SEM I CO LON

64 , 65

TllE C O LON .

65

TllE DA S ll

65 , 6G

USE OF CAPITALS

66, 67, 68

PART

IV.

T.IRL E OF I RREGULAR PL URALS, FOR REFEREN CE
(;E1' l >Ell (TAllLE)

55
TATIL E O F I RREGUL AR VERDS, FOR REFERENCE,

55

57, 58

THE On J EC TI VE CAS E AFTE R PREPOSITIONS

43

CLA SS ES OF VE nus .

co~ 11 ·Ai.:.1soN nF A11JE<:T t vE s

]{ULE

J

33

DE C.: LEN.S I ON O F PER SONA L PR O NOUNS

CONSTRUCTION ANn AllRA N(;EMEN T

70, 71
72, 73, 74, 751 76, 771 ;8

--

- - - - '.

I!\°·'

.'

.,.

-

' '

CONTENTS.

4

P M;P,.

i9, So
So, 81

Ex1mc1 s Es ON M o nEs ANn TEN SES

l'R OPER UsE OF

RELAT I VE l'1t o NnUN S

(Ex1~ n.c 1 sE }.

S IM J'LE , COl\tl'OUN I>, AND COl\'ll' L EX SENTENCES •

Si, 83

EXl'ANlJJ!'-IC; \ \!Oil tJS I NTO P ll llA SES

83, S4

GH.AMMAR FOR COMMON SCHOOLS.

EXt'A Nl, JN<; \Vo1u>s ANIJ PJJR/\ SES INTO CLA USES

86, SG

C ON T ltACT JON 0 1' COMJ'LEX INT O SIMJ'LE SENTENCES
C o NTHA C TION O F Co MJ' OUND SENTE NC ES I NTO CoMrLEX
S E N rEN CES

S 1l\1 1· 1.E

UNJTEI> T O

PART I.

F nRl\ I Col\tt'OUN D SENTEN C ES

~; 91

J N\"ER S I ON

90, 9 1

9' ' 93
. 94, 95, 96, 97 , 98 , 99, TOO

C o~Il'OUND S unJE C T (EXEll C JSE ) •
~IET l lODS OF /\NAl.Y S IS

100 , l 0 1

SU GG ESTI VE QUES TI O NS (EXM1PLE)

APPENDI X.
REMAnK s

ON

M nT>ES

T llE

f ND IC/\T IVE ,

J10TENTlJ\L,

J\ND

•

SEQUENCE O F TE 'S ES

\1EIU1S lf..\ V l~ \. TW O OHJE C TS

10 5

" N EED" AN!> " l) AH E," "NEElJS " AS ,\~ J\ D\'EHB

10 6

10 6 , 1 0 7

"l\lETlll NKS," " ll AD AS LI E F,"" HA n R .-\T!IEn ," ET C.
INFINIT I VE .

TllE

D ATI VE,

Oil

GEHUND .i\ L
10i,

J'O IU\l

" TllE

l111l 1~ E

FIR S T " i\ ND "FI RST TW O "

"'T ll E'

f\l(Jl{E,' Tll E' BETTER"

108

1 0 .~

JS n u 11.DI N< ; ,'l OH. " 1:E J/':(-; n1 11 LT "?

"SU C ll " AN ll "MANY" A RELATIVE P RONOUN
"A s " AFTEH

Is
"Two

I

.
109,

I 10

•

\\" I T ll "

•
11 0,

TllE. C Oi\ 11'.\ R I SON O F TWO Tlll NC:S

\\"111l N

TO

US E

/\N

J\T>JE CTIVE, ,\NI> W!IEN

C EHT t\IN VERBS
H

AN

A DVER TI,

11 l

AFTER
111

.

11 2

S H A LL " ANll " \V11 . L "

112, ll J

E N D I NG J\ SEi\ TE NCE WI T H ,\ PREl'OS ITl ON

"

\ Ne can form ideas of material objects; as, a sto11e,
a flower, water.

'vVe can also form id eas of things which exist as
objects of thought, th oug h th ey cannot be perceived
by the senses; as, a11gcr, gooduess, love, j oy, ·uirtuc,

I 10

TI O

'' \\'II A T

1. \Ve express our th ought s in language, by using
words in such a way as to make sense.

A written or print ed word is a let t er or a combination of letters, suggesting an idea.

T ENSE

AN(;L O-SAXON

THE SENTENCE.

A spoke n word is a simple sound or a combination of sound s, suggestin g an id ea.

I MPERATIVE

TttE SUBJUN C TIVE MODll •

TllE

.:

'vVhen we have an idea of a thing, we commonly
think about it with reference to some other idea to
whi ch it is r elated. If we have an idea of birds,
and an id ea of flying, we may combine th e ideas in
a thought, a nd express it by the statement, "Birds
fl y. "

.....

'

·Ill .•

- - - - -- - - - - -

T!IE

6

Sf:NT!':NCE.

THE

Two or more word s arc req uired t o ex press a
thought ; a nd a thoug ht expressed in wo rd s is called
a sentence.
KINDS O F

SENT E NCES.

2. \ Vh en th e se nt ence t ells or llcclares somethin g,
1.7
lite
it is a decl a r a tive s e ntence; as, Birds J•Y·

dog nms. T!tc girl lm1gl1s.
.
\ Vhe n the se ntence comm ands or entreat s, it is

an imperative sente nce ; as, Com e !tcre.

ll fa/.:e

!taste. Let 111c go. Do study ) 'Ollr lesson.
\ Vh en th e se nte nce asks a questi on, it is a n
inte1-rogative sentence; as, Do birds

fly?

Are

lm11o·r11?
Cait J'Olt read?
..I
•
\ Vh en th e sent ence expresses emotion, or feelin g,

) 1ou

c.._")

it is a n excl a m a tory s e nte n ce ; as, l V!tat a f 1lcas-

a11 t day it is !

J!uw cold it is !

Tell wh ether each of th e following sentences is declarative,
imp erative, interrogative, or exclamatory.
]\fan is mort al.
] s m an morl:tl ?

( 5) Stud y, boys.

( 6)
( ) I ron is a metal.
( 7)
3
( ) l s iron a metal ?
(8)
4
( ) A p retty b luebird f1 cw
9

( 2)

7

SUBJECT AND PR E DICATE.

3. A sent ence may be divided into two parts. One
part na mes and freq uently desc ribes th e person or
thin g spoke n of, and is called th e subject.
Th e oth er part t ells or decla res somethin bcr about
th e subj ec t, a nd is called th e predicate.
In th e sentence, A rickety old w agon carried us to
lite camp , "A rickety old wagon " is the sul!fect,. a ncl
"ca rried us to the camp" is th e pred icate.
EXERCISE I.

Tell the subject and predicate in each of the following sentences.

( r ) T wo large black horses ran away wi th the coach.

( 2) The carriage moved slowly up the hill.
(3 ) Charles wrote a letter to me.
EXERCISE II.

What is the subject in the first of the following sentences ?
Why? What is the predicate? Why? In the second? The third?
The fourth ? The fifth ?

EXERCISE.

( 1)

SENT ENCE.

( 1) A clock stopped.
( 2) An old clock stopped.
( 3) An old clock stopped suddenly.

Run, F ido.
Do boys like to skate?

( 4) An old clock, tha t stood in a farm er's kitchen,
stopped suddenly.

How sweetly it sings!

(S) An old clock, tha t stood m a farm er's kitchen,
stopped suddenly one sum me r morning.

to the apple- tree .

i

I

-------t.

8

TIIE SENTENCE.

THE SENTENCE.

QUESTIONS.

( 2) children; sat; at the farmhouse; on the front doorsteps; a long time; in the evening.

( 1) 'Vhat is the word do ck used for in these sentences?
Ans. To name the thing spoken of.
( 2) What is the word slopped used for?
Ans. T o declare something aho11t the clock.
( 3) '\That is the word old used for?
Ans. To describe the clock with regard to age.
(4) What is th e word s1111dc11!y used for?
Ans. To tell !tow it stopped.
(5) What does in tl1 e f<rrmer's f.:itc!tm tell?
Ans . It tells w!tere it stood.
( G) What does one s11111111cr morning tell?
Ans. It tells w!ten it stopped.
EXERCISE Ill.

Tell the subject and predicate of ea ch of the follo wing sentences.

( 1) The cold winds blew fi ercely against the house, on
the hill.
( 2) The children at th e farm house sat on the front doorsteps a long time in th e evening.
(3) The beautiful snow falls gently from the sky.
(4) Men of sense act in a fr1oli sh manner sometimes.
QUESTIONS.

In the ·~entences given above, what are the following words a .1J

9

(3) snow; falls; beautiful; gently; from the sky.

(4) men; act; of sense ; in a foolish manner; sometimes.
EXERCISE IV.

Te ll the subject and predicate of each of the following sentences.

( 1) Old Christmas, with the snowy hair and ruddy face,
had done his duty that year in the noblest fashion.
( 2) The complaints of the old man excited the indignation of the bystanders.

( 3) Over the little shelf was a picture of Sarah's grandmoth er.
(4) A man with a bundle of straw for my bed led me
through a dark, narrow passage, into a small room.
(5) The gray-haired old man talked much about Latin
and Greek.
( 6) New races of animals rise into existence with each
succeeding month.
( 7) The man of virtue and honor will be trusted.
(8) . Jn every combination of circumstances, the man of
faith discovers some gracious purpose.
( 9) The man of long experience is a proper person to
consult.

groups of words used for?
( 1)

winds; blew; cold; fiercely; against the house ;

on the hill.

' '

~

... :

.

Note to Teachers. - "Ques tions" similar to those given in the preced in g exercises assis t in exp laining the ttsc of worcls, and leacl to their
di vision into the parts of speech.

L•
11
I

1
I '

.

- - - -'·_,_,. -

--

/'ART<:; OF SI'EECE-I.

IO

P ARTS OF SPEECH.

PARTS OF'

SPEECH.

SIMPLE AND ENLARGED SUBJECTS AND
PREDICATES.

NOUNS, VERBS.

5. In every sentence th ere is a noun, or something

4. 'Norcls arc divid ed, acconlin ~ to th eir use, into

that sta nd s for a noun, whi ch is callee! the simple
subject; a nd a verb, which is called th e simple
predicate: as, Lio11s roar. Birds sing.

cert ain classes, callc<l parts of speech.
\Vorcls used as nam es are call ed nouns; as, mm1,
c!tild, sto 11 e, tree, /wnsc, bird, village, good11css, wisdom,

Th e simple subject, with other words that describe
or limit it, is called the enlarged subject.

d11ty, pleasure.
\ Vords tha t assert some thin g of th e subject of a
se nte nce are called verbs. They may also be used

Th e simpl e predicate, with other words that desc rib e or limit it, is called the enlarged predicate.

to co mmand, to entreat, t o ask a question, or to
·
express emotion;
as, Il- e t1l l'' 1' ·s• The child walks.

In the sentence, Birds sing, neither the subject nor the
predi cate is enlarged.

Fishes swim. Trees grow. Do trees grow'! How
Do ~f!'i'ue me some.
· / 0ct11 1/•11
st rong t I1e 11011
zs.
:J ' boys •
thin g.

In the sentence, Tlte !teattlijitl little birds sing t!teir_merry
songs, "Lirds " is the simple subject, and " sing " is the simple p redicate.

EXERCISE.

( 2)

The ro bin f1 ew.
Birds build nests on trees.

Note. - First find the simpl e subject and predicate, and then the en larged
subject an d predicate.

( 3 ) John runs and jumps.
(4) The stream co mes from the mountain.

(s )
( 6)
( 7)
(8)

"The bea utiful little birds " is the enlarged

subj ect, and "sing their merry songs" is the enlarged predicate.

Select the nouns and verbs in the foffowing sentences.
( 1)

II

EXERCISE.
•1

I

A co kl winLl piled the snow in heaps.
Wisdom is better than wealth.

Analyze the following sentences .

I

I

Virtue is th e strength and beauty of the .soul.
The man had a good horse, a good bndle and sad-

dle, spurs, and a whip.

'

This is ca ll ed analyzing the sen tence.

I\

( r)
( 2)
(3)
( 4)
(5)

Th e boy strolled along the banks of the river.
A great fire raged in London in 1666.
The calm shade shall bring a kindred calm .
The sweet breeze shall waft a balm to her sick heart.
The tall ship glides grace fully over the blue water.

FARTS

12

OF SPEECH.

PRONOUNS.

6. \\Then a person speaks of him self, he docs not
use h is nam e, but one of th e following word s th at
st a nd fur hi s nam e, -1, 111y, 111i11t, 111c; as, 1 asked

my father to get a book for me. H e gave me mi11e.
vVhc n a spea ker join s himself with ot hers, he uses
one of these word s, - we, 011r, 011rs, 11s ,- as, 11 "c as keel
our mates t o play with us. The book s a rc 011rs.
vVh cn one speaks to anothe r person or t o oth er
perso ns, he docs not co mm onl y call th em hy nam e,
but uses yon, your, J 'Olll'S ,- as, I wi ll g ive J 'Olt ) !(Jl/Y
books.

Th es e books arc J 10 ltrs.

No te. - In poet ic style we use tkou, tk;', t!tinc, tkcc.
EXERCISE I.

Select the words that stand for nouns in the following sentences.
( 1)

PARTS OF SPEECH.

13

In speaking of a male, we may use he, his, /tim , in
place of th e noun ; as, The boy said ht· was studying
his lesson when th e t eacher spoke to him.
In speakin g of a female, we may use she, hC1-, hers,
in place of the n oun ; as, Sarah said site was studying
her lesson when the teacher spoke to her. The dolls
were hers.

In speaking of something neither male nor female,
we may use it or its in place of the noun ; as, The
house is large, and its sunny rooms mak e it pleasant.
EXERCISE II.

Select the words that stand for nouns in the following sentences.

( 1) J ohn asked his brother if he would lend him his sled.
( 2) The lady told her daughter that she might go
with her.

(3) The boy picked up his book, and put it in its place.

J ohn said, "The book mother gave me, I le nt to my

sist<.:r. "
( 2)

William said, "When :Mary and I wen t to school,

we took our dinner with us."
(3) Boys, ask your mother if you may go .
(4) My so n found yom book in the stree t.
(S) William gave the book to me, and I now give it
to you.
( 6) Thou art the man ; the fault is thine.

In speak ing of more than one male, female, or
thing with out sex, we may use they, tltcir, theirs,
them, in th e place of the noun; as,
Th e ge ntl emen said, as they left the room, they
would take their hat s with them.
Th e lad ies said they would take their children
with them.

• '

14

...

,.

1 .

'.

•

• I~

PARTS OF SPEECH.

l'A R 7'S OF SJ'J,fC/f.

Th e houses were pleasant, with t!teir large rooms
and ri ch furniture in !Item.
These words, I, 111)1, 111i11c,

11u, we, 011r,

ours, 11s,

J10lt, J'O ll r, yo11rs, ye, t!to11, t!ty, t!ti11r, t!tcc, !tt', !tis, !ti111,
site, lll'r, !tcrs, it, its, till)', t!tcir, t!t cirs, t/1c111, are

ca. li ed pronouns, because they perfo rm th e office

( 7) They asked me to help them.

( 8) When yo u arc ready to recite your lesson, you may
come to me, and I will hear you.
( 9) Your pencil is bette r than mine : please lend it to me.
( 10)
"Thy triumph ceased awhile,
And H ope, thy sister, ceased with thee to smile."
,j

of nou ns.
They ar e call ed personal pronouns, because
th ey have different form~ to re prese nt th e person
speaking, th e person spoken to, a.ncl th e person
or thin g spoken of.

A noun or pronoun represe ntin g the person spct7'.:i11g· is in th e first pers on; the frrso11 spolcc7t to, in
th e second person; and the p erson or t!ti11g spolcm
of, in th e third person.
EXERCISE Ill.

Select th e personal pro11ou11s in th e following sentences, and tell
wh eth er th ey are in th e firs t. second, or third person.

( 1) I saw th e boy, and called him to me.
( 2) f oseph has Some apples, and IYill give them to you.
(3) H enry's sisters were here with him.
( 4 ) Annie gave a ring to her sister, and she wore it
consta ntly.
( 5 ) George l.Jought th e Look, but has given it to his
brother.
( 6) This knife is mine, uut you may take it.

ADJECTIVES.
EXERCISE I.

7. Tell what the italicized words in the following sentences are
used for.
(I) He is an old man.
( 2)
(3)
(4)
(5)

H e li ves in a w!tite house.
The city is supplied with p ure water.
Ten men were elected to serve on the committee.
The ocean seems boundless.

A word used to describe or limit th e meaning of a
noun or pronoun is call ed an adjective.
Note. - To limit docs nnt necessarily s ig nify to narrow the meanin g, but
to determ in e its extent.

The adj ective old in the sentence, "He is an old

man," describes th e man with regard to age, or limits the man spoken of, to

a certain class.

So with wltitc, pure, ten, and boundless.
EXERCISE II.

Analyze these s entences, and select the nouns, verbs, pronouns,
and adjectives.

( r) Th e pupil d eserves great praise for his industry.
( 2) Diligent pupil s receive their reward.

:(

l.

16

!

"•:<:W.

PARTS OF SPEECH.

PAR TS OF SPEECH.

17

(3) The sweet breeze shakes th e green leaves.
ADVERBS.

( 4) Do yo u hear the merry bell s peal forth a joyous
welcome?
N ote. - Change interrogati ve sentences to dccb.rat ivc before a11 alyzing .

ARTICLES.

8. The wo rd s, a, mt, a nd tltc an: a kine! of adjec tives. Th ey arc callee! articles.

EXERCISE I.

9. Tell what the italicized words are used for in the following
sentences.

( 1) The man talked f (}o/ishly.
( 2) The clog ran !tere and tliere.

A or mt is call ed th e ind ef inite article.

(3) The judge decided carefully.

T ltc is called the definite article.

( 4) The clock strikes hourly.

A is used before words b egi nning with a co nsona nt
s oun d; as, a bird, a great
N ote. -

1lla11,

a

1t11it,

s11c!t a one.

[] nit begin s with the sou nd of y (con sonant).

(5 ) You must not look down.
(6) John is a ve1y good boy.
( 7) The girl behaves tolerably well.

One beg ins

wilh th e so und of w (consonant).

An is used b efore word s beg inning with a vowel

A· word us ed t o limit the m eani ng of a verb, an
adjective, or an adverb, is called a n adverb.

so und ; as, all ora11ge, mt apple, all inkstand.
EXERCISE.

In each of the following sentences, substitute the indefinite article
for the definite.

( 1) J ames read the lesson from the history.
( 2) After the hour of toil, we li ke the time for rest.

(3) William has learned the usefu l art.
(4 ) The umpire is chose n for th e game.
(5) The boy found the acorn under the oak.
( 6) The honest man will be trusted.
( 7) The yo ung man left, the hour before I did.
( 8) The pupil recited the lesson.

EXERCISE II.

Analyze the following sentences, and select the nouns, verbs,
pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs.

( 1)
( 2)
(3)
(-1-)

A wise man ac ts wisely.
A very wise man ac ts very wisely.
Beauty is less desirable than goodness.
How impatie ntly the proud ship tosses!

(5 ) Sometimes boys behave foolishly.
(6) The horse ran swiftly.
( 7) Ri ch men should give liberally.
( 8) :rvfother will soon be here.
(9) The boy behaves very well.

.•tt,

18

l'A RTS OF

Sl'~'t.' CJI.

PARTS OF SPEECH.

10. A prndent man is respec te<l.

an adjective phrase; m a proper manner is an
adverbial phrase; and to see is a noun phrase.

A man o.f prlfflencc is respec ted.

PREPOSITIONS.

PHRASES.

Th ese se nt ences express the s:i mc t houg-ht.
In tlte fir st se ntence, 11w11 is descr ibed or limit ed
by th e adject ive pmdc11t.
In the second sentence, th e word s of prwlotff,
taken toge th er, perform the office of the adj ecti vc
prudc11t.

11. The worcl that connects a phrase of which it is
a part, to th e word it limits, is called a preposition,
because it is commonly placed before a limiting word.
The following words are comm only prepos itions,
though many of them are som etimes adverbs, or
subordinate conj unctions.

Th e se nte nce was written properly.

about,

bes ide,

The se nte nce was written in a proper 111amzer.

over,

above,

bes ides,

round,

across,
after,

betw ee n,

since,

betwixt,

aga in s t,
am id,
amidst,
am ong,
an1ongst,
around,
at,

beyond,

through,
to,

during,
excep t,
for,

athwart,

from,

with,

before,
behind,

in,

within,

into,

without.

below,

of,
on,

Th ese se nt e nces express the s:rn1e thou g ht.
In the first sentence, was wriltm is limit ed by the
adverb properly.
In th e seco nd se nt ence, the word s in a proper 1!lall11cr perform th e office of the aclverb properly.
Th e sight o f th e sun is pl easant.

71,

Sff

the sun is plcasa n t.

Th ese se nt ences express the sa me thought.
Jn the fir st sentence, the nou n sig-/1t is the sim ple
s ubj ec t.
I 11 t he seco nd sentence, to sec is th e s i1~1plc subj ec t,
pe rf< irn1i 11g the offi ce o[ th e 11ou11 .rig/ti.
Such expressions as of jn-11do1ff, i11 a proper 111a11ncr, and to sec, arc called phrases. Of pr11donc is

by,
concerning,
down,

beneath,

towards,
under,
und erneat h,
unto,
up,
upon,

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES.

according to,

instead of,

out of.

20

PANTS OF SPEECH.

PARTS OF SPEECH.

The following words are sometimes used as prepo ~ i tions: past for by; cxcrf>ti11gfor c.:ccf't; regardi1(r;",
ropccting, to1tclti11g, for co/lccr11i11g or about; aloi(~'",
(~ff,

till, u11til.

21

words used to connect sentences are called conjunctions.

In uniting sentences by conjunctions, we need
not repeat what is alike in each.

EXERCISE.

Select the adjective, the adverbial, anrl the noun phrases,
following sentences.

111

the

( 1) JVI en of sense act with can ti on.

( z) The men acted with calmness and with wisdom.
( 3) To err is human.

To forgive is di vine.

( 4) To suffer wrong is better than to do wrong.
(5) L\ man of truth will ue believed.
( 6) The pupils lislened with attcnlion.
( 7) Days of happiness pass with rapidity.
( 8) A lecture on history will ue given.
( 9) I saw a boy in the street.
( r o) The man was in this room.

EXERCISE.

Unite the following sentences by and or but, and do not repeat
what is alike in each.

( 1) Washington was a great man.
good man.

( 2) A prudent man will commonly succeed.

z) At what lime did he leave?
CONJUNCTIONS.

12. George went away.

William remained at home.

These two sentences may be united so as to form
but one: thus, -

An indus-

trious man will commonly succeed.
(3) The young lady plays the piano.

The young bely

cannot sing.
( 4) I went to church. It was very cold.
(S) The cargo was lost. The sailors reached the shore.

( 11) I saw him at that time.
( 1

Washington was a

COMPOUND SENTENCES.

Sentences formed by combining independent statements, each of which makes sense when standing
alone, arc called compound sentences.
The conjunctions that connect such statements
are called co-ordinate conjunctions.
EXERCISE.

George went away, and William remained at home.
George went away, b11t William remained at home.

Form a compound sentence, by uniting each of the following
couplets, using one or more of these co-ordinate conjunctions: and,

George went away, t!t011g/1 William remained at home.

but, or, nor.

22

l'ARTS OF SI'FECH.

(I) J .'.lne abusec1 her books. Mary took gooc1 care o f hers.
(2) The ri ver 11·as wide.

The current was stro ng.

( 3) Yo u must go to wo rk. Your fa mil y will starve .
(4) I do not fear hi m. I do no t avoid him.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

13. I saw a man.

The m :rn was go ing to New Yo rk.

PARTS OF SPEECH.

23

These sentenc e ~ may be unit ed by w!tom ,- as, H e
is th e merchant of wlwm we bought goods.
Th ese word s, w!to, w!tose, w!tom, w !ticlt, that, when
used in thi s way, a re called relative pronouns.
Th e noun or pro noun th at a relative pronoul\
stand s for, or relat es to, is called its antecedent,
because it goes before the rela tive pronoun.

T hese se nt ences may be united t hu s : EXERCISE.

I saw a man w!to was go ing t o New Yo rk.

Unite each couplet by a relative pronoun, and tell Ifs antecedent.

In thi s sente nce, wlw pe r(orm s the offi ce of a pronoun a 11cl a co nju11 ct: ion. Jt m ea ns: I saw a ma n,
allti !tc was go in g t o N cw Yo r k.

( r) \Ve lived in a house. The house has been sold.
( z) You sent for a book.

I will lend you the Look.

( 3) The man is my fri end.
J a mes lost a knife.

J ohn fo 1111<1 the knife.

Th ese se nte nces may be united by w!tic!t; as ,
Jam es los t a kn ife, w!tic!t J oh n fo un d. It m ea ns :
] a mes los t a kni (c, mu! J ohn fo un d ii.
This is the man.

He came Lo our house.

\ Ve may unite th ese two se nt ences by t!tat ,- as,
This is th e ma n t!tat came to our house.
I saw the boy.

Hi s name was John.

Th ese se nt ences may be unit ed by w!tose ,- as, I
saw t he boy w!tose name was John.
H e is th e merchant.

\Ve Lought goods of him.

.K

( 4) \Ve came in a carriage.

Yo u saw him at my house.
The carriage went directly

back.
(S) H ere is a boy.

I borrowed his sled.
CLAUSES.

A man who tells the truth will be believed.

In this senten ce, w!to tells t!tc trut/1 performs th e
offi ce of the adj ective trutliful.
I saw him when he was here.

Hl!tcn !te was here performs the office of the adverb
t!tcn.
That you know better, is certain .

PAR TS OF Sl'EECH.

PARTS OF SPEECH.

That ; 1ou !.:now better performs the office of a noun,
lite fa ct.

SUMMARY OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.

A subordinat e state me nt th;i.t perform s th e offi ce
of an adjective, an adverb, or a noun, is c; dkd a
c la use.

A clause that perfo rm s th e offic e of an ad ject ive
is an adjective clause; one that p er fo rm s th e office

25

The parts of speech includ e all the words that
can be used in sente nces.

A
A
A
A

word used as a nam e is a 1wwi.
word used instead of a noun is a pronoun.
word used to assert is a verb.

of a n adverb is an adverbici I clause; and one that
p e rform s th e office of a n oun is a noun clause.

word used to describe or limit a noun or pronoun
is a n at(jccti·uc.

A cl a use may be co nn ected with th e word on

A word used to describe or limit a verb, an adjec-

whi ch it depe nd s, by a relati ve pronoun or a subordinate conjun ction; as, wlto, wltich, that, <ohc11, where,
if, unless, e t c.
COMPLEX SENTENCES.

A sentence that contains a clause is a complex
se ntence.
EXERCISE.

Select the clauses in the following sentences, and tell whether
th ey are adjective, adverbial. or noun clauses.

( r) Th e pupi l that studi es will learn.

( 2) The horse ran away whe n his owner left him.
(3) I kn ow that he told the truth.
(4) When I saw the man, I knew him
(5) That I should tell th e truth, l 1eam ed from my
moth er.
( 6) Every c hild kn ows when 1·acatiOI1 begi ns.

ti ve, or a n adverb, is an adverb.

A word placed before a limitin g word to co nnect
it with th e word it limits is a preposition.
A word used to connect sente nces is a co11j1tnctio11.
A word used to imply emotion, without asserting
it, is an intojcction ; as,
Alas ! the remedy came too late.
Oh for a lodge in some vast wilderness !
The same word may perform the office of different parts
of s peech.

( 1) It is a calm clay.
( 2) There was a great calm.
(3) Calm yourself.

In the first sentence, "calm" is an ac(/cctivc ; in
th e second, it is a 11oun; and in the third, it is a v erb.

!

I 'i
l.~

I

~Ii

J·

~·tl

•\ '

.!.J

l'

\\ J
•. 1

:U .

...

• <

2G

l'AN7S

CLASSES OF NOUNS.

OF Sl'l':FCf!

( i) Thou hast beset me l>rf"rc and behind .
( 2) The man was l>~'(orr the fire.

PART

( 3) I saw lhe man before he saw me.

27

II.

CLASSES OF NOUNS.

Jn th e first sc nt c n ce,"bcfo rc" is an rrd·u crfi ; in
th e scco ncl , apnfosi!ir!// ; and in th e third, a rr111j1mctio11 or a co11ju11ctivc adverb.

The name of an individual person or thing is a
proper noun ; as, C!tar!cs, .ll!fa1J1, Boston, Lo11tl01z.
Proper nouns, and words d erived from them, should begin

EXERCISE.

with a capital letter; as, E ngland, E11glis!t, E11glisl1111a11,

Ma ke sentences in which the following words are used as differ en t par ts of speech .

i ron, water, copper, s11mo, rain, work, brfure, after, 11p,
d ()l{ 1 /I.

America, American, Americans.

A name that may be applied to each individual of
a class is a common noun; as, boy, girl, city, tow11,
ri'iJcr, 11101mtai1t.

Co-ordin a t e Conjun c tion s,

and,
or,
nor,
but,
Note. - T o

Subordinat e Co njunction s.

yet,
howe ve r,
still ,
ne\·e rthe lcss.
g i v~

if,
unless,
th ough,
that,

les t,
th an,
s in ce,
because.

cmp hasi:-- , nc:-irly

Not.e. - Tli c ro ll o w i11 g m:-ty be

all tli 1·s t' arc so 1H cli 1n es prcn:dctl by

calkd s ubord in ate co 11junct iu11 s, or

.:nrrcs po nd i11 g co11j11n ct ions; as,

conj un cti\'c ad\'crbs.

both-and,
eith er -o r,
neilh er - nor,
th oug h - ye t,
\\' het hcr -or.

when,
where,
whil e,
befo re,
after,

No te . - An army consists of many soldiers; a senate, of senators; a
jury, of jurors; a school, of pupils.
EXERCISE.

Select the proper nouns, and words derived from them, the common nouns, and the collective nouns, in the following sentences.

how,
why,
until,
ere,
till.

Note.-Ii'ow, wlurc, when, Wh) w/1ilc, used interrogatively, arc adverbs.
1,

A common noun used to denote a single object
consisting of many individuals is called a collective
noun; as, a rmy, se11ate,jury, school

( 1) Boston is a large city.
( z ) The English na tion is powerful.
( 3 ) Americans are p ro ud of their country.
(4) The jury were d ivided.
(5) The senate was unanimous.

-----28

CLASSES OF NOUNS .

CLA SSES OF NOUNS.

PERSON.

/\. noun used as th e na me of the sf'cakcr is in th e
first person; wh en used as the nam e of th e pe rson

it is in th e second person; and whe n
used as the nam e o( th e person or thin g sfohll 1f,
it is in the third person.

sj>ok cn / (I,

Note . - Th ere is no change in the/vrm. of the nou:-i to show ils person;
IJ1:t differe nt pcrson::t l p ro noun s arc req uired to represent th e st l·n ~·cr, the

person sfol.:cn t o, and th e person or thing spof..·n1 (If: as, -

/ (th e s p-cakcr)
lc c;son.

\Va s

looking for my hat. 1\ nna, you may

V irtue is its own rcwar<l.

This is my hat.

r.~c i t c

T hat is yours.

y our

I g ave

t he books lo tlu:m.

Nouns ending in JI preceded by a consonant form
th eir plurals by chan g ing JI into ics ,· as, lady, ladies;
cif)1, cities ,- territory , territon"es.
Some nouns form their plural by changing th e
vo wel or vow els of th e singul ar; as, man, 111e1z; goose,
geese,- tooth, tcd!t; foot, f eet.
Some nouns are the same in both numbers; as,
deer, sltccp, swine, series, species.
Nouns that are di stinguished by quantity instead
of number have no plural ; as, iron, gold, silver, lazi11css, flour, a11ger.
Some nouns have no singular; as, riches, alms,
measles, bellows, scissors, pi11cers.

NUMBER.

A n oun JS commonly changed u1 fo rm when it is
used t o den ote more th an one obj ect: as, bo; boys;
.i;-ir!, girls; mau, mn1; !tottsc, !to1tscs.
/\.noun that denotes one obj ec t is in the singular
nu 111 ber; a noun that denotes more than one JS 111
th e plural numb e 1·.
The regul a r plural is formecl by adding s or cs to
th e sin g ular: as, ri·uer, rivers,- tree, trees ; box, boxes;
1,

EXERCISE.

Substitute the plural for the singular, and the singular for the
plural, of each noun in the following sentences; and make such
other changes as the sense requires.

( r) The pupil lost hi s book . .
( 2) The star is shining upon the hill and valley.
(3) The musician played on a fife.
( 4) They wished to buy a loaf of bread.
(S) The bonnet suited the lady.

clwrcIt, clmrcltcs.
Some nouns form their plurals by chang in g for
J c into vcs ; as, wolf, woh1es; wife, wives; t!ticf,

(6) The man rode in a coach.

t/1ievcs.

(9) We were reading the story abou t the turkey.

( 7) The goose hissed at the children.
( 8) I read the motto of the hero.

11

,•, !

CLASS/'.'S OF NOUNS

CLASSES OF NOUNS.

( lO) Th e m en fo un d knives :rn tl fork s on the ta hl es.

( 1) The man was earnest in th e cause of temperance.
( 2) The lady was away fro m home.
(3) The judge appointee\ an administratrix upon th e

( .11 ) l wi ll g ive yo 11 a key to th <.: sto ry o f th e fairy.
( l 2) Th ey to ld th e g ri cfa a nd so rrows of th e ir li ves.
( 13) The towns we re ];urned lJy Tories.

3I

estate .
(4) Th e hoy came to th a nk his liost.

GENDER.

(5) The fl ock had bee n in the c harge o f a sl1epltenicss.

The di s ti nct ion of male ancl fem;i_le is c;i_Jlcd sex.

(6) Th e c hildren were fo nd o f th eir brot/1er.

Th e na me of a ma le is of t he masculine ge nd e r;

( 7) These a re nuptial gifts for the bridegroom .

as, 11Lan, bo)', jatl1er.
Th e na me of a female is of th e f e minin e ge nd e r;
a s, wo man, girl, 1/lotlt cr.
Th e na me of an object nei th er mal e nor female

( 8) Who was the lteroi11e of th e story?
(9) A lo nely widower sat by his fires ide .

( 10) Who is the ltciress to th e la rge estate?
CASE.

is o[ the n e ute r gende 1· ; as, table, boo!.', tree.

Case is a t erm used t o den ot e th e r elati on which a

The di sti nct ion of sex is expressed :

(1) Dy diffe ren t words; as, bo)', girl; husband,
1uijc; uncle, a1111t; 111a11, wom an.
(2) By words p re fi xed; as, 111m1-scr7!allt, maidSfPi'a11 t ,- 11talc cl11l d , jc111alc c!tild,- !tc-goat, site-goat.
(3) By dilk re nce of tc rn1in ;i_t ion ; a s, abbot, abbess ,·
c111fcror, c111prcss ,- ho·o, !1crowc ; widower, <.uidow ;

n oun or pronoun s ustains to some other word.
There a re three cases, -the nominative, the pos-

a1!mi11istrator, admi11ist ratri.r:.

t o show th e relati ons of subject, object, and ownership

Note. - The difference of lcnnin at ion is made in co mparativ ely few
noun s, and th ey are constantly becoming less.

sessive, and th e objective.
Th e noun has but one chan ge (the possessive) to
in d icate case.

and one of the relati ve pro nouns, have three f orms
or p ossession.
Note . - In lhe sente nce," William sees J ames," we know that William
is lhe stobject , simp ly by its position.

EXERCISE.

tlrns ,

In each of the following se11te11ces, change th e italicized noun from
th e masc uli11e

to

th e femi11in e form, or from femin ine to masculine,

with oth er cha11ges

to

Dut so me of th e personal pronouns,

correspo11d.

11

J~unes

secs

\~' illi a m ,"

B nt in th e sentence," Il e secs him,'' the case of the pronouns is shown

by thclr form.

If it were writt en, u llim he secs," we should k now that

"he'' is th e subj.ect, from its form.

'·'

If the same words were arranged

" James" would be the s ubject.

-----

-

PERSONAL

CLASSES OF NOUNS.

The possessive case s ingular is formed by acld i n~

33

PRONOUNS.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

an apostrop h e ands to the noun; as, JlfmJ 's, Jol11t's,
Jamcs's.
1

\ Vh en the plural end s
added; as, UOJIS'.

111

DECLENSION.

s, the apostroph e only is

FIRST PERSON.

Singular.

vVhcn the plural docs not end in

s, the possess ive is formed by add in g the apostrophe
and s, as in th e singular; as, me// 's.

I.

\ Ve.

l'os.«·ssivc.
Objective.

My or mine.
Me.

Our or ours.
Us.

POSSESSIVE CASE.

.Sinx11 lar.

Doy's,

Man 's,

l 'lural.

lJoys ',

Mc11's,

l'luml.

!\ "ominalive.

SECOND PERS ON •

Lad y's,
Ladi es',

H ero's,
I lcroes'.

No un s endi ng in ss or 11cc, ge nerally t ake the apostrophe on ly; as, "for co11scicJ1cc' sake," "for g-oodncss'

Common Style.

Si11gul111·.

l\'omi11ative.
P ossessive.
Objective.

Plum!.

You.
Your or yours,
You.

You.
Yo ur or yours.
You.

sake."
Poetic Style .

E XERC ISE.

Write the following sentences, puHing the italicized nouns in the
possessive case.

( r ) The story was t::ikc n from th e Fables o f ,£s1p.

l\'ominative.
Possessive.
Objective.

( 2) I-l e is freed fr u m the troubles of life.

THIRD PERSON

(3) This sle<l belongs to my brot!tcr.

Masculine .

(4 ) Pity th e sorrows of a poo r old

1111111.

( 5) The ways of wis1lom are pleasantness.
( 6) I borrowe<l a book belongi ng to A1111a .

l\ comillative.
Possessive.
Objective.

( 7) Th e poi nt o f an arro7(1 is sharp .
(8) The points o f the arrows were brok e n.
( 9) The shawl of the lady was hand some.

( 10) T he bonnets of the ladies were gay.

Objective.

(SI NGULAR ).

Fc111ini11e.

She.
Her or hers.
Her.

He.
His.
Him.
THIRD PERSON

l\ -ominative.
Possessive.

Ye.
Your or yo urs.
Yo u.

Thou.
Thy or thine.
Thee.

(rLuRAL) ALL Gr:NoEns.

They,
Their or thei rs.
Them.

Neuter.

Jt.

Its.
l t.

-34

I'E NSOl\rA L

PR ONOUNS.

35

PRON OUNS.

EXERCISE.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

Sub stitute a personal pronoun for each italicized word in the
following sentences.
( J)

A relative pro noun performs the office of a pronoun and a subordinate conj unction. It is used only
in clau ses of complex sentences. As a pron oun, it
represen ts a noun or pron oun, called its a11tcccdent.
A s a s ubordinate conju ncti on, it connect s the clause
in wh ich it stands, with its ant ecedent. It 1s n o t
vari ed in form on account of person and nurn bcr.
TV/to and w!tidt are thus declined : -

llfa ')' read in Affll)' 's Look.

( z ) .f/J/111 's sled is broke n.

(3) Th e man a cq uired his pro pe rty hones tly.
(.1) Boys a rc somet im es care less.
(5) I have no ti ced t a rdcss11css in

bt')'S ,

( 6) Th is i: th e man wh o m I saw.
( 7) I gave th e /.:itc to R obert.

( 8) Th e n th e /;ite was R obert's.
( 9) The afj>lrs we re rip e.

( 10) Th e

Si11g u/rii- aud Plural.

l'io111i11ative.
l'os.rcssi11e.
Ohjcctive.

/111J's w(·111 lo g:1thc r the 11fflrr.

COM POUND PERSONAL PRO NOUNS.

111j1sdf,

011rsch1cs, J'Oltrsclf, J'Oltrsclves, t!l)lseif, !timself, herself, i tself, t!tm1seh1es, arc called compound
personal pronouns, a nd arc used onl y in th e n om-

in at i\'e an d obj ec ti ve cases ; as, I 11tyscif did £t.
<.uro11g- ; 101trscif. 1/ 'c 0 111110! sec 011rscl ues.

Yo1t

EX ER CISE.

Supply the proper compound personal pronoun in each of the
following sentences.

(i) I

saw th e ma n -

-.

( z ) \Ve - - are to blam e.
( 3 ) T ho u - - mayst see .
( 4) I tell you that whic h you - - d o kno w.

S ing ular and Plum /.

who,

whi ch,

wh ose,

wh ose,

wh om.

which .

T!tat is incl eclina ble.
I-Vito is applied t o pe rsons; as, T!tis is t!te boy w lw
spok e to m e.
Hl /adt is appl ice! t o infe rior a nim als or to thin gs
without life; as, I p aid f or t!te goods w lticlt w ere sent
111e. T!te caniagc w !tie!t broug!tt us !tas rct11r11ed.
T!tat is applied both to pe rsons and thin g s ; as,
T!te man tlwt was !tere !tas g one. T!te ltouse t!tat was
burned w as insured .
EXERCISE.

Supply the proper relative pronoun in each of the following
sentences.

..
---------PR ONOUNS.

P RONOUNS.

( 1) T he carri age - - we came in has re turn ed.
(2 ) The rn an - - yo 11 saw wa s m y fri e nd.

( 3) The boo k - - I bo rrowed has bee n re t11rn cd .
( 4) I will g la dl y loan you the boo k - - you se n t for.

37

( 6) W e can have tltat w lu"clz we p re fer.
( 7) Th ey s to0< I m ournin g fo r t/i e tlti11gs 10!1ic/1 th ey had
lost.

( 8) T/1e man w lto injures another is his own fo e.

(S) The gc nll c mc n - - compa ny we e xpec ted , d id no t
INT ER RO G ATIV E

come.
( 6) The lady - - sp o ke to me is my sister.
COMPOUND RELATIV E

P R ONOUNS .

I V/w t, w ltatc1_1cr, w!ton icr, w/tic/1c<1cr, or w ltrr!soc·ucr,
w !tosocvcr, wltzdtsocvcr, connec t cla uses li ke relat ive

pro noun s, but a rc usecl only wh e n t he a nt ecedent is
omi tted ; as, I /.:now wltat is wanted. vV!tosocvcrwi!I,
mrrJ' com e.

T h ese word s may be r cg-an lc d as im pl y in g- bot h
th e antecede nt a nd the rela ti ve.
EXERCISE.

TV/to, whic!t, a nd wltat, wh en used in askin g qu esti ons, a re called interrogative pronouns; as, Hl/w
is tit is ? 1¥/ticlt is tlte !touse .9 l'V/mt do you wa1tt ?
TV!ticlt and w!tat are also used as interrogative
adj e ctives; as, ifl/udt way did !te go?
W!tat boo!.:
!tave you been reading ?
EXERCISE.

Supply the proper interrogative pronouns or adjectives in these
sentences.

( 1) - - spoke to yo u ?
( 2) - - did he say ?

(3) - - did you sp eak ?
Sub stitute a compound relati ve for th e italicized words in th e
following sentences.

(4) - - hat is th is ?
( S) - - way d id he go ?

( 1) You have d one that w/tic/z yo u should he sorry for.
( 2) Those t/1i11g s w llic/1 ca nn o t IJt: pre ve n ted llll !St be
born e pa tie ntly.
(3) Ile w/10 ac ts uprightl y will be res pecteLI.

( 4) T/1e tiling s w /1ic/1 I bro ug ht ho m e, I gave to m y
L> ro th e r.
(5 ) T his is e xac tly t/ze t/1ing t!tat was wan ted .

PRONOUNS.

( 6) -

- book will yo u take ?

VERBS.

VERBS.

vVhenever the condition refers to jJ1'Csent time, th e
prese nt indi cati ve fo rm should be used; as, "If
J ames is sick (n ow), we must send for a doct or. "

VERBS.
MODE.

Th e mann er in which a verb is us ed 1s called it s
111 o d e .
Th ere arc fo ur modes, - th e indicative, th e
potential, t he subjunctive, and the imperative.
Th e indicative mod e is used to declare th e act
expressed by th e ve rb ; as, I will go.

T!tc boy

n111s.

Th e pote nti a l mode is used to express poss ibility,
li be rty, power, wi ll, ob li gat ion, or necess ity, by th e
use of
:1s, l

111a_y, 0111, 111 11sl, 111 i~lt1,

1·01111!, wo11ld, or s!to11!J;

T!tc l1r')' 71117)' l ·ll<'C t!tc room . l le r1111
go. l ie 111ig ltt g·o.
H e co11ld g·o. lie slw11/d go. lie
would go. 1-/e m11st go.
mllJ'

/;·o.

The subjunctive mode 1s usecl

111

a clause (or

s ubj oin ed state ment), to express a condition; as, I
would go if I were 31011.
N ote . -

Dain says, " Th e ve rb fie h as a peculiar infl ection t o ex press

cn11t i11.!_!c ncy or co nd itionality; it is l h c Pnl y rea l co ndilion :i. I or ~ubjunct i \'C

Th e p rese nt subj un ct ive, if I hc1 if y ou bt·, if ! IC he, seems to be an c JJ ip ti ~

if I

sh ould be, etc.

So is rf !re love, rr nd th e li ke.

The imperative mode is us ed to express a comma nd or entreaty; as, Boys, stud)' your lessons.
us tltis da;1 our daif.y bread.

Gh1c

EXERCISE,

Tell the mode of the italicized verbs i(I the following sentences,
and supply what is omitted in the elliptical forms.

( r) Napoleo n I. died at St. Helena.

( z) Giz1e us thi s clay our daily bread.
(.1) If it bt fair to-morrow, I slwll go.
( 4)

(;o /

gi'I yo u gu ne.

(5) Thou shalt nu t steal.
( 6) L et us, then, be up and doing.
( 7) It is fair weath er now, but it may rain to-morrow.
(8) If it rain, I slwll not go.
(9) The humblest painter, let him be ever so poor,
tlti11ks he is a n art ist.

,, l·'i'

' I

( r o) \ Vhoever tl1i11ks a faultl ess piece to see,
( r r) Tl1i11ks what ne'er was, nor is, nor e 'er shall be.

n1udc [ fo rm] in E ng lish, and is in Hi e past tense."
c, \ form fo r

39

(See 13,; 11 •,

" lli gli cr E ng li sh G rammar," p. 98 .)

Th e ellipti cal for m (if ! br, if it rai11), alth oug h
f<l rm e rly in freq ue nt use, is now propcr/_;1 used only
in referen ce to fu ture tim e.

THE INFINITIVE.

An infiniti ve 1s a form of the verb that merely
11amcs it s action.
It pe rfo rms the office of a noun, and may be ca lled
a verbal noun.

··'
I

/, 'f~ RBS.

VERBS.

Every verb has two infinitives. On e is th e simple
form of the ve rb; as, spca!.:, .i::·o, hear.

There are two participles, -the imperfect and
the perfect. They have no tense, but simply express incomplete or complete action.
Th e imjmfcct participle always ends in i1lg, having
th e same form as th e infinitive in i11g.
Th e foji'CI participle commonly ends in d, t, or 1z.

The s impl e form is used after 11taJ1, shall, will, etc.,
in formin g the tenses of verbs.
Th e prepos ition to is often placed before t he simple
infinitiv e, makin g a plir:1se; as, (to) Sff, (/11) bdic·ue.
T he ot her form of th e infiniti ve is th e same as
tha t of th e im perfect pa rticiple; as, scci11g is bclic<Jwg. This is called th e infinitive in i11g.
Infiniti ves, th ough usccl as nouns, may be limit ed
lik e the ve rbs from which th ey are derived.
In th e se nte nce, I saw!ti11l Ko, " go " is a simp le
infini tive. I 11, I told him to go, "to go " is a n
infinitive phrase.
In, Goi11g is as easy as standillg, " go ing " an cl
" standin g " arc infinitives in i11g.

.lmpe1fed Participle.

41

Pe1:fect Pm·ticiple•

loving,

loved,

seeing ,

seen,

teachin g.

taught.

By pre fixin g havi11g to the perfect participlr::, we
for m a compound perfect participle; as, /1a vi11g
loved, havi11g seen, having taught.
l'art icipl es, though used as adjectives, may be limited like the verbs from which they are derived.
TENSE .

N ote. -Da in, in his " ll ighcr English Grammar,

1

'

p. 97, says tha t,

" \ \'he n tl1 c two fo rm s of th e in fin ili\' C h ave the s ense of purpnsc nr int en-

thry ;-ire ca l led ge runds ; as, I
t o Id ."
t io n,

01111c

lo 7'Til1 · : r cnd,.1• f or sailing: a

lto11sc

111 o ld Engli s h, the prepositi on for w;is s nm ctim cs placed before the

i11fi11 ili\·r ph rase (or ge rund) ; as, lVhn! 7.f'nll J'C out f or t o .rec "
Appe nd ix.)

(See

PARTICIPLES.

A participle is a fo rm of th e verb th at performs
th e office of an adjec tive, anti may be called a v erbal
ad jective.

The verb asserts a n action as pres ent, past, or
future; and also as complete or incom plet e. This
g ives ri se t o six t enses, - present, present perfect,
past, past perfect, future, future perfect.
Th e present tense indicates present time, and
incomplete action, as, I write; or habitual and still
cont inuing act io n, as, I am writing.
Th e past tense indicates past time, and m co mplete action ; as, I wrote, I was writi1lg.

42

VF RBS.
VERBS.

43

The present perfect tense indicates an action

completed at th e present time; as, I fta71e 7C'ritln1,
/1a11e been writi11g.

r

The past perfect tense indi cales an act ion com-

( 7) William 7(1//l ltm•e st1tdied before he recites.
( 8) Willia m will lwve been st1tdyi11g an hour before
recitation.

pleted at so me past time; as, I /wd writlm, I /wd
ba11 w rit£11g.
The future tense indicat es future time and incomplete action; as, I slia!/ 1J1ritc, I s!ta/l be writi11g.
The future perfect tense indi cates an action to
be completed at some future time; as, I s!tall !tave

w ritte11, I s/wll !tavc been writiNg.

EXERCISE I.

Tell the tense of the italicized verbs in these sentences.
( r) William slllrlics hi s lessons every <lay.

ing

He is st1tdy-

EXERCISE II.

Supply the r:roper tense of the verb read in each of the following
sentences.

( 1) The
( 2) The
(3) The
(4) The
saw him.

boy - - now.

He - - at the present time.

boy - - to-morrow.
boy - - yesterday.

He - - to-morrow.
He - - yesterday.

boy - - before I saw him.

He - - before I

( 5) The boy - - before this time.
prese nt time.

He - - till the

( 6) The boy - - before to-morrow morning.
before to-morrow morning.

He - -

11 0 \V.

( 2) Willia m st1tdicrl his lessons yesterday. H e was st1tr!y-

CLASSES OF VERBS.

i11g when I saw him.

(3) Willia m lws st1tdicrl his lessons to-d ay.

He ltas been

sl1t r~ri11g

all day.
(4) William !tad st11dierl his lessons before he came to

school.
(5) William !wrl been stlfllying his lessons before I met
him.
( 6) William will sl1trly to-morrow.
i11g to-morrow.

William will be st1tdy-

Verbs are divid ed with regard to form, into two
classes, - regular and irregular.
A regular verb forms its pas t t e nse of the indica-

tive mode, and its perfect participle, by adding ed to
the simple form; or d only, when the verb ends in e :
as,
Present.
Past.
Pe1fect Pm·ticip!e.
play,
love.

played,
loved.

played,
loved.

VERBS.

VERBS.

Verbs that clo not form the ir past t ense a nd perfe ct parti ciple by add in g cd, or d whe n the ve rb e nd s
rn c, a rc irreg ula r; as,

Th e passi'IJe 'i!Otce represents the subject as the
person or thin g acted upon; as, 1¥illiam is scc!l
by .fames.

44

45

EXERCISE.

P a.rt.

F rcscnl.

l'c1jt·rt f', ,,./irijlc.

see,

saw,

se en.

leach,

la11 .c:lit,
t'
fo1-.ro
.~

ta11glil.

forge t,

Change the active to the passive voice in these sentences.

( 1) l\1 y fat hn 1J11 ilt n house.
( 2) Th e Loy broke th e window.

forgotte n or forgot.

(3) The staLler lets horses.

A verb which ca n be used in but part of th e mndes
and ten ses is a d e f ectiv e verb; as, quotIt, Olt/.{ltt .

(4 ) The lady rang the bell.

( 7) My fath er told me the story.

A verb is call ed transitiv e whe n it requ ires a

( 8) I heard a loud no ise.

n oun or pron oun as th e direct object of its acti on;
as, .fames secs 1f 'illir~lll (or !tim.)
A verb is called in trans it iv e whe n it does not require a n oun or pronoun in th e obj ec ti ve case; as,
.fa l/lCS 1'It1l S .
man

SCl'S

t/1c /1oy (or /1i111) .

I !er e, sas is tra11 sili\'C,

"I

( 6) Lee and Shepard published the book.

TRANSITIVE AND INT R AN S I T IV E.

Note. - l\ los t ,· crbs m:t y he used tran s iti n •ly or intran sili\'cl y;

,

(5) Th e legislature makes laws.

a~,

AUXILIARY V E RBS.

Th e different modes and t enses arc formed (with
on e excepti on) by th e help of one of th ese words:
do, docs , did, ltrwc, lias, !tad, s!tall, will, may, can,
1lll!St, mz:g-!tt, co1tld, would, sltould.
They are ca lled auxiliary verbs.

The

But i11 th e se nte nce,

' :1;
._,
:

I

•'

T l1t.: man secs clc{1rly (meanin g he is not bli11c1 ), secs is intransiti ,·c.

CONJUGATION.
ACTIV E AND P A SS IV E VOICE.

J\ co nn ected \·iew of a. verb in its scvcra.l mocks

Tra11siti<Je ve rbs may be used in two ways, to

ancl te nses is ca ll ccl its conjugation.
Conju gati on of th e ve rb / 0 71e in the active voice: -

ex press th e same th oug ht, call ed th e active a nd
passi ve voi ce .
T he acti<•e ·uoicc rep res ents th e s ubject as th e
actor; as, .faJ11cs Set's IVilliam.

'

1~~...... ~-·--~ ... ~~ ·1\1·~"'..-""~.~

PRINCIPAL PART S.

love.

--

"''

p". ' , -·

~

I ',, st.

Fe-feet Participle.

loved.

loved.

.t'

'

------VER HS.

Present pe1:fc d, may, can, must ltave
}
.
~R~
l'ast pe1:fect, mig h t, could, would, s hould have

INDICATIVE MODE.

,.,."'"'

{

love, or do 101·e.
loves, or does love, wh en the s ubject is third
pe rso n s ingular.

l'r1st, love d , or d id 101·e.
N otc. - / )o

l i>Ft,

docs lvz·c , and did l(n:c, arc used for emphasis, and in

i 11 lC' 1Tog-at ivc sr 11 I cnccs .

have lon:d .

l 'mml P•rfad { has lo ved, wh en th e subject is third pc r~o n s in .~ular.

In poetic st_ylc, the auxiliaries of the verb are varied
in fo rm , with a subject 111 t he second person singular.
P resen t, mayst, canst,
}
love.
l'ast, mi g ht st, coulcl s t, wou ld s t, s hould st
l'rcsent p c1:fi:ct, mays t, can s t, have
}
loved .
Past p e1:fect, mi g h tst, coulcl s t, would s t, shoulds t, liave

By reference to the con jugation of the verb lo7Jc, it
will be see n th at the simple form of th e present in di cative is the same as the infinitive without the sign

l'ast l'ofcct , had love d.
Future, s hall or will lo ve.
Future p erfi:ct , s hall or wi ll hal'e loved.

to,- as, I /011e. I write.
J11 poc!ir sl)'lr, lh c \·c rb or ils aux ili a ry

IS

vari ed

in for m, wh e n lh e subject 1s in the second perso n
sing- ular; as,
Present, loves t, or d ost lo ve .
l '11st, love cl s l, or did st love.
l'rcse11 t pofect, ha s l lu1·cll.
l '11st pofl:d, had s t love d.
I-11t11r1", s hall or will love .

In declarat ive senten ces the auxiliaries do (does,
did), s!tall, will, may, ca11, must, mig!tt, could, would,
s!tould, arc only used imm ediately before the simple
fo rm of the verb ; as, I do go. You s!ta!! stay. H e
m11st write, etc.

Futnre pe1fl:cl, s hall or wil t have 101·c cl.
POTENTIAL MOOE.

Present , ma y, ca n, mu st
~
· lov e.
J',rst,' mi g ht, co uld , \\" Ollld , sh ou ld _\
1

This is

11 ~ 11 ;i ll y

call ed 1hc fast

l t.: ll 'c,

a1c inO t.:ction s o f m ay, can, '<l•il!, and slw/I .
(i, ~; 1 ti o 11, anJ arc usc<l

fultm.: time .

bcc:11 1"c

1111:~111 ,

In th e third person singular,

prese nt indicative, s is add ed to the simple form.
In declarative sente nces the past indicative 1s
form ed by infl ec ting or chang ing th e simpl e form;
as, P resent, I Jove. P ast, I loved. Present, I writ e.
Past, I wrote.

rould, ... ,.,,u/d, s/11111/d,

Dul th ey h:i.vc 11nw ln•a the ir }usl sig11i-

with the ~ im p l c fo rm of 1hc vcrL , in ex pressing prese nt o r

In declarati ve sente nces the auxilary have (!tas,
had) is only used imm ed iately before the perfect
parti ciple; as, I !tave w ritte?t. H e has goue. You
111ay !tave recited.

VEN/JS.
I•

C onjug ation of the ve rb be : -

The auxiliary do (docs, did\ is freque ntly used in

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

interrogativ e, negat ive, a nd emphat ic se nt e nces; as,
J ),, )'Ult <uis/1 to so· 111e? I do 110! wislt l o sn · J 'i! ll. !
do ;:uislt to sec J'Olt.
N ote. -

Present.

Past.

Per.feet Part.

am.

was.

l.i ce n.

It will be not iced , th:i.t in int.erro _
(!ativc sentences t he su bj ect

se p:tr:ltcs th e auxiliary fru1 11 the ,·~ rb.

INDICATIVE M O DE .

In n c:;at ive se nt ences th e ach-c rb n ut

Present Tense.

s eparates them.

r

Present
N o t e. -

'l

A 111, with a subjec t first person singular.
Is, wi th a subj ect third pers on s in gular.
Are, with any o th er subject.

SU BJUNCTIVE MO DE (Old Form ).

If I write.
If thou or yo n wri le.
If he write.

F ormerl y th e prese nt suhjrmcli \·c was used in ex pressi ng pres·

Sing ular.

Plural.

I am.

we
you ~ are.
th ey

l

<· id linw; !111l at 1m · ~ c1il ii is p r11 p l' 1l y 11..., 1·rl on ly w li l' ll rd c' IT ll et' i:> h:ul !o

You arc .

f 11 t 11n,_. ti1111:.

I le is.

E Vl' ll ilu: 11 1 il is rc:.!~ ard c d l 1y tlw mos t lc;trn cd g-r:u11111arians as

a11 «lli ptica l f o rm of t he putcnlia l.

J

(Sec no te, p. 3~. )
Past Tense.

IMPERATIVE MODE .

I was.

The iJ1ji.11itit1c, thoug h it lias n o t e nse, h as the
d enot e unfini s hed a ncl fini shed action ; as, (to) l11<·c,
(!t1) lta'iJC loved.
PARTICIPL ES.

!!!lfa(c·d.

j',.;;;·d.

C11111f'1 11111J /'1 ·1/cY I .

loving.

loved.

ha ving lo ved.

I
' .1 ;1

..

/Vere, with any other subject.

INFINITIV ES.

furllls of th e indi ca ti ve j>uso1!, :u1d jJrcsn1t fnj( ·(/, to

·i
t•

T¥a s, with a subjec t first or third person singular.

Thi s m od e is usecl only in th e pre sent t e n se, with
; 1 su bj ec t in th e seco nd persrn1, a nd has th e fo rm of
t he indi cat ive prese nt ; as, /o-; •c, or do love.

•'·

we

You we re.

)OU

He was.

th ey

}

were.

Present Perfect Tense.

I

/fas been, with a s ubje ct third person s ingu lar.
/-lave been, with any other subject.

'

. ~-'

."·:~

'',l!i-1·
.. I-r
.!.·,:1
.1.
t·~

I have bee n.
You have bee n.

we }
have been.
you

He has been.

they

r
t

~

r1
~l
tlI',

; ' 1)

'ii'!:J
I
I".:

I'

1

4j

r,

li

.Jl!

I·
;I

50

51

VERBS.

l'ast perfect, had bee n.

IMPERATIVE MODE.

Flfl1ffc, s ha ll or wil l be.

Present, be or d o be.

Fu ture p e1:fi:ct , s ha ll or will ha l'e lie e n.

INFINITIVES.

Poe ti c Sty le.

]'resent, art.

(To) be.

(To) have bee n.

J '11sl, was t.
l'rcscnt j1e1j"ccl, has t bee n.

PARTICIPLES.

l'ast jJe1j"ecl, hads t bee n.

l111pcrfect.

.l'o:fect.

Compound P erfect.

F11t 11rc, s ha lt or wil t lie.

being.

bee n.

having been.

F11t11re pc1Ji-•ct s ha lt or wilt have bee n.
THE PROGRESSIVE
POTE NTIAL MODE.

Present, ma y, ca n, mu s t
}
,
.
be .
I a s!, m 1g 1it, co ul d, wo uld , shou ld
l ' rc.>'1'/l/ j>t•r/al, may, can, 11111 ~ t /1t1<1e
}
.
bee n.
l 'ast j>crJi-·ct, 1111;,; ht, co uld, " ·o nld, s hou ld have

J n poetic s lyl " wit h a s ubjec t in th e seconcl pe rso n sin g ul a r, st is add ed to each a uxiliary, except
1/lltSt ; as, 11lf7)'SI, CllllS !, et c.
SU BJUNCTIVE MODE .

T he subju ncti ve mode is th e s:11n e 111 form as the
in d icat ive a nd pote ntial, exce pt in the past te nse of
th e ve rb be.

Th ere is a not her form of the act ive voice peculi a r
t o th e English la ng uage, called the progressive
f or m. It rep rese nt s an actio n prog ressing; beg un,
but not fini shed.
It is form ed by p refi xin g th e verb be

all its
modes and te nses to the impc1:fcct participle of a
11c rb ; as,
111

I am
}
Yo u are
walking.

\ Ve a rc }
You are
walking.

He is

T hey are
EXERCISE.

(Sec note, p. 38.)
S i11g11/t1r.

FORM .

Put the fo//o wing sentences in th e progressive form, in all the

I'luml.

modes and tenses.

If IYe

Jf I
}
If you were .

If you

lf h e

If t hey
l'udic st)'!t:, i ( tli uu wcrt.

}

\\' ere.

Th e girls gather flowers.
T he man tells the truth.
Docs the man tell the truth?

,

'

52

VER/JS.

53

VERBS.

To '.reachers.-It has been common to include person and number as

PASSIVE VOICE.

Th e passive voice is form ed l>y pre fi xing th e
Ye rb be, in all its modes and te nses, t o th e pnfcct
f'arli<"7jlc of a tra11sitz"uc vcrl1 ; as,

properties of the verb.

But the verb has no person and number, in the same

sense thal nouns and pronouns have.
Jn man y lang uages ihe verb is varied in form to show the person and
n umber of the subject.
Thus , the Latin verb nmiirc (to love) is conjugated in the indica ti,·e mode
prese nt tense, as foll ows: -

\ Ve a1e }
You a1c
loved.

I am
}
You arc lo\·ecl.

He is

Plural.

amo (I love).

amtimus (w e love).

Second P erson Singular.

nmas (you love).

INFINITIVE PASSIVE .

}',•1ft'Ct.

(To) be loved.

I
I

1!I
':1

First Person S ing ular.

Th ey arc

,.

Plural.

amiitis (you love).

Tltird P erson S i ngular.

Plural.

n mat (he loves).

amnnt (they love).

(To) have been loved.
Th e other modes and t enses have simi Jar chan ges.

PASSIVE PARTICIPLES.

Jl erc it will be noticed that the Latin verb has a special form for each
person a nd number ; while in Eng lish, we use t he sa me form five times out of

1111j>e1fect.

I'l'lf ect.

Compound I'nfi·rt.

being lo ved.

loved.

ha vin g been lo\·ed.

six, - it being vari ed only by adding s in th e indicati ve present when the
subj ect is third person singular.
This, and changing have to lu 1s in the present perfect indicative (w hen

Note. -The imperfect :-t ct ivc participle is somet imes t1 scd in a pass ive

the s ubject is third person s ing uiar), are the onl y changes for person and

srnsc; as, Tile h ouse is buildi11.:: : and th r perfec t pa rt icirl c i:-; :i. lw;i ys pass i \'C i

n umber, in common styl e, in all the modes a nd t enses.

a:-;, Th,; man tal.:cn (or being tn!.:c11 ) i11 l/1 i: a rt, n•as punished .

th e ,·crb love .)

(See conjugatio n 0£

Th e irregular verb be has a special form for th e firs t and third person
EXERCISE.

Put the followi11g se11fe11ces in the passive voice, i11 all th e modes
a11d tenses.

s in gular, of the present and pas t tenses of the indicative.

(See con jugation

ot t he ve rb be.)
\Vith this ex planation, it is recomm end ed that in parsin g or giving the
construction of verbs, pupils be required to state what changes have been

James sees " ' illi am.

Does J ames see Willia m?

made, an d omi t a ny reference to person a nd number when the form is not
chan ged.
/\ kn owledge of th ese chan ges is of practical value in writing correc tl y,
whi le th e rule co mmonly giv en is not.

If, however, teachers prefer to have the rule given, pupils should under·
sta nd what, a nd h ow little, it means.

.

i "·l

·'

54

A JJJ U ; TJ 1"1:-'S A /\'D AU l 'ERBS.

ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS.

I''
COM PA RISON

soo11, sooner, soonest; often, oftener, ofte11est; pleasantly,
m ore (or less) plcasant!;1, most (or least) pleaoant!;1.

OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS.

J\cljcctivcs arc varied in fo rm to express differe nt
deg rees of the sa me quality; a;,, great, greater, gnatcs/; i11d11strio11s, more i11d11slrious, most i11d1tstric111s ;
ltaf/'J', less /{(lj>/')', least l11r/'fJ'·

N ote . -These arc general rules, but not always strictly ad hered to.

I\

i·

Ii

mort and most; as, f t is m ost true.

So me adject ives a re irreg ularly compared; as,
l 'osilivc.

good ,
bad, ill, or evil ,
little,

better,
worse,
less,
btcr,

much or rn;u1 y,

111u rc,

J\cljlTLi\·es of more than l 11·0 sy llab ics a rc us u;illy
co mpa red hy prefixing 111on · and 1110.r/ t o th e pos itiv e.

I

S11perllllive.

best.
wors t.
leas t.
latest or last.
mos t,

inn e r,

inmost or innermost.

net her,

nethermost.
uppermost or upmost.

upp er,

Adjectives of one sy llabi c, a ncl many adj cc ti,·cs
of two sy ll ab ics, ex press a hi g her and the hi g he s t
deg ree by the addition o[ r ur f f, st or cs!, Lo th e
pus ili ,·e.

l\h ny aclve1-bs a rc co mpa red lik e adjectives; as,

Compamti;e.

hte,

The s1tfcrlati<ic expresses the hig hest or I01r cs t
deg ree of th e qu ality.

lowest deg ree of lh c quality by prefix in g less and
leas/ lll the posit ive.

I-le p ossesses the most am.fie mcn11s.

One boy is more i11.d11slri1111s thn1i anutlwr.

There arc three deg rees of compariso n, - the
posit iv e, the compara tive, a nd the super la tive.
The j>ositi<:e simpl y exp resses th e qnality.
Th e 0 1111/>1rrrrli-;11· ex presses a hi g her or lower ckgTec
o[ ll1 e qmliLy.

All adjectives th a t admit of differe nt degrees of
the qu a lity, arc made to express a lower and the

,\II

adj ect ives that admit of the degrees of compariso n may be compared by

The chan ge in form to de note differe nt deg rees ,1 f
quality is ca lled compar iso n.
' ''

55

T!tis, tlwt, tl1ese, t!tose, f ormer, latter, eac!t, every,
ril!ter, so11ll', 011e, mt)', all, s11c!t, a rc more properl y
cb sscd with th e adjective than with the pronoun,
si nce they will always admit a noun after th em, like
other adjectives used as nouns; as, T!tis (man) is
t!te person. Eac!t (110/er) has a ballot. S ome (persons)
t!ti11/..: so. Tlte former (statem e11t) is true, t!te latter
(slatrme11t) is 1wt.
Note . -

The usual div is ion into d cmonslrrrth e, dislributh1c, and indi:Ji·
1

nilc , is nut a g rammatical disti nction, but one dependent on the mc;i.ning.

S YNTA X .

SYNTA X.

57

there or here, th e su bj ect is placed after the ve rb, or between the a uxi liary
a ncl th e verb ; :is, Are y ou w ell?

PART III.

days in a week .

Note 5 . -

SYNTAX.

ftVill y ou g o w ith me ?

T lu:re are sez:en

/-/ere is t /ic book.
In the s ubjun ct ive m ode, a condi t ion may be expressed by

in ve rt ing t he subject a nd p red icate; as, vVcre it n ot so, I would t ell yott ,

CONSTRUCTION AND ARRANGEMENT.

By construction 1s meant th e gramm ati ca l r elation o f th e words in a se nt ence. Arra n ge ment has
refe re nce s impl y t o th e ir pos iti on as,

Rule 2.-A verb must ag ree wit h its subj ec t in
numb er an d person; as, I tcaclt. H e tcacltcs. I /1a< ·c
ta11gltt. lie !tas taugltt.

The ac q11i s ition o f kn owled ge is one o f tb e m os t pleasing
e mpl oy m e n ts o f th e hum a n mind in eve ry p e ri od o f life .

In eve ry p eri od o f li fe, th e ac:<juis iti o n o f kn o wl ed ge 1s
o n e o ft he m ost pleas ing c nq il oy111 rn ts nf th e hum a n mind.

In thes e se nt e nces th e a rrange men t is diffe re nt,
but th e co nstru cti on is th e same.

H E M ARK. -

It is recom mended, th at p 11 p il s be required to t ell when and

wha t ch:-in ges are made in th e verb, until th ey become familiar wit h them.
,i'

They wil l t hen be able to a ppl y the rul e ad va ntageously.
N o te I. -

"
,.,
''·
I

;\ compound subj ect cons is ting of two or more sin gular nouns

d enot ing differen t persons or t hings, an d conn ect ed by n nrl, requires the
p lura l for m o f t he verb ; as, " Vir tu e a nd vice /i n 1•c t heir re ward."
Note 2 . -

If th e nouns de note t he sa me or similar things, the \'erb has,

comm onl y, th e sin g ul ar form ; as," This good ma n and exemplary Christ ian

Rule l . Th e subj ec t of a sent e nce is
in a tive case.

111

th e n om-

is no 1nore."

"/\. bust le, and the sound of horses' feet w as now heard."

Note 3 . -A com pound subj ect, cons istin g of two or more singula r n ouns

...

conn ected by or or 11 or, req uires th e s ingula r form of the verb ; as , "The
N o te 1. - Th e s ubject m;i,y be a noun ,

;1 S,

"_lolnt stu d ies ;" or a pro-

boy:s fa t her or moth er d eserves g reat praise."

n mill , as: ' 1 II.: lc:lr ns ; " or a ph rase, as," T o see t h e s un is p leasan t; " or a
cbu sc, as, " Tl111 t hr told the t r uth is c\·idc nt. )'
N o te 2. - T wo or
and rn c:m in g d ill crc·11!

n irw1· ~ i1 1 .~ ttbr 111 Jt111 "

thi 11 ,~s,

th e~·

Note 4. -

'

N e it h e r S:-i r;ih n nr h er sisters 1c•e1·c th ere."

N o t e 5 . - .If lhe n01 1n s or pronoun s cons titutin g a compound subj ect are

th ey a rc con nected by or

of d iff erent persons i th f! Ycrb mus t agree with th e on e which imm ed iately

_If

\ \'h en th e ve rb is i11 th e imperat ive mod e, th e subj ect is not

commonl y ex pressed

predi cate.

1

arc cqn i\·:t lc· n l in co n s lrncti un lo a p l11 r:i l no un ;

r c111ai11 si ng11 br ; as, Ja111 cs or j ,J/111 /111s lost /1is f1f10!.-s.

N o te 3 . -

'

'l

t he verb is com nlfl nl y pl ural ; as , "\Villiam and his bro thers were present."

or pnrn mm s co11n cctcd hy a n d,

as, Jn m r s rr 11 d J 11/n1 (tl:cJ') /tn ;·c lost tl1tir /!11ol·s.
o r 11(1r,

Note 4 . - If one of the noun s consti tuting a compound subj ect is plural,

111 arr;l ngemcn t, th e subj ect is generall y pbced before th e

Dut in in tc rrog;it ive sen tences, and in senten ces in trod uced by

1 •

precedes it ; as, " You or I a m in error.:'

Rule 3. A dj ec ti ves ancl participl es directly limit
noun s, and substitut es for n ouns; as, The kind king,
cxtm di11g· !tis lza11d, m i"scd t!tis s1tjipliant.

. _..J

53

SVNT.- I X.
J\. E'.\IARK.-

SYNTAX.

\\Th en a wnrd limit s anoth er w ilhout the use of a prepos ition.

N ote 1.-The parts taken separately, are often in apposition with the

th e limitation is dircd ,· wh en the words :1rc connect ed b y a pre pos itio n, it i"

wlwlc ; as, The men str11cl.: caclt other.

i ndin·d.

111 c 11,

Note 1. - ;\ n adjectiv e m:i y be a word, a phr:1sc, or a clau se.

tlto1 · 1111'11: /0 1

Note 2. -1'1rts connected by a conjunction may be collectively in appo-

No te 4. -

mn11.

Fu/l

way.

ll!i'lt .

No te 3 . - 111a11y is used with a si ngular
ind efinite artic le; as, 11/any a

11 0 1111,

111 a11)'

R ule 6. Intran s itive and passive verbs have the
same case after as before them, when both words
denote the same person or thing; as, I am lte. It
is !. I know it t o be !tim. He was call ed J ohn.

when fol lowed hy th e

n gem.

An ad_i rc ti\'C limiting the prccli r:itc refers to the subject, and

is call ed th e prcdicaic :ulj cct i,·c; as, The boy i ~ kind.
Note 5.-J\n

~djec ti,·e

is common ly ph ccd before the

1101111

it limits:

but whc11 it is its e lf limi ted by a phrase, it follows the noun; as, T/1 c 111astcr

Rule 7 . A noun or pronoun de noting possession,
ancl directly limitin g another noun, is in the possessive
case; as, I Vi!liam' s book has been badly used.

.f111 11d tlicfujil adcq 11nlc to Ilic / ask.

Rule 4.

Adverbs direct ly moili[y verbs, adjectives, ·

ancl other adverbs; as, II e w:is a
The boy acted 'i.'l'7J' [ooli shly.

'i'C7J'

wise man.

No te 1. - This is th C only case-inflection or th e noun.
Note 2.-Tv,:o or more nouns denoting joint owners have the possessh·e form affixed only to the last; as, "Harper and Sanford's pianofortes."

N ote I. -An adv erb may be a word, a phrase, or a clause; as, T/1t lioy
i s here.

ff,; is in this room .

N ot.c 2. -

Ile ra m c b1fvrc 5chool l cgan.

\\.h:-tt arc c1 llcd "ad ,·c rhs

or arr! rm ation

Note 3. - If the n ouns d enote the several ow ners, the possessive for m

l ~cs ,

-

th;i.t is, I w ill .r;o.

N ote 3.- 7'/J ,.,.r, whr 11 nnt an a1kr rh o f place, adcls no thing to the
sense, hut s imply in ver ts the order of Lil e s nhj cct and pred icate.

It is an

t.,jlcth1c, and docs nut limit ; as, Th ere is a f'/"'7surc in Ili c fal/J/,;ss 1roods.

A n oun or pronoun di rectly limitin g anoth e r, ancl denoting the s:imc person or thing, is in
th L'. same case, by apposition; :is, llo111 cr t/1e poet
<c•as blind.
Ile s}'ol.-c of lfomml t!te p!ti!a11t!tropist.
l.Vc t!tc s11bscribcrs agree, de.
Rule 5.

mu st be given to each ; as," \\' illiam's, John 's, and l\'lary's books."

and ncgat inn " (re-

s pons i,·cs ), yes, 1w, :J'l' a, nay, perform the offi ce of a sentence ; as, I Viii y ou
( .t,?

JI ere encll is in apposition wit h

d eno tin g th ~m :-;cpa ral cly, and other is the object o f slrud~·.

s ition wit h the whole ; as," Th e people dispersed some th is way, others th at

Nol.c 2. - J\djccli vrs inq 1lyi11g 1111ity c1 r pluralil y mu st ag ree in n11111hrr
with 11 1111 11 s; as, This man;

59

I

Note 4. - J\ phrase in the possessive has the case sign at the end; as,

"The queen of E ngland's hea lth." "Anybody else's mistake."
N ote 5 . -In such

expr e~s i ons

as," It came from Brown 's the grocer,"

or "from Bruw n the grocer's," the sign of the posscssi\'C may be appended
to either nou n, but not to both.

Rule 8 . The direct object of an active transitive
verb is in the objective case; as, I saw !tim. \Ve
h ear cl tit cm.
Note 1. - Part icip les and infiniti ves derived from transitive verbs take
the objectiv e case after them; as," St.:eiug ltim p leased me."

"The boy, see-

,.

ing m e, ran to me."

•'

•'1

,. '11
.

"I

-- ~·

60

Note 2 . -A noun personifi ed requires the pronoun to agree with it in

:Rule 9. Prepos itions take the objective case ::tfter

ge nder, in the figurative sense: as, "Give to R epose the sole1nn hour she

them ; as, I spo ke to !tz"lll, ::incl he replied to 11ll'.

ii

J\n infinitive phrase m::ty limit a verb,
noun, adjective, or adverb: as, A desire to excel ;
11scd lo p lay with; rmd)' to phy: too rap idly t o stop.

cl aim s."

Rule 10.

Note 1. - After bid, dr1rt, horr, /1.:d, mal.·c, He , let, need , ;-tnd a few
others in the active voicr 1 t he simple irllinitive (\Yithout the sign to) is used.
Note 2. -

61

SYNTAX.

SYNTAX.

Note 3.-A phrase or a clause used as a noun is in the thiraperson,

t

singula r number, neuter ge nder.

A prepos ition connects a limiting worcl
with the word limit ed; as, He spoke to me. H e is
a man of sense.
Rule 13.

\\'li en th e infinitiv e plir:-tsc is used as a s ubject, it has no ante-

cedent t erm of r elat ion; as, To sec the sun is _f/cn sant.

Uut when the se n-

t ence is invcrtccl, t o connects; as, It is /lcasanl lo sec tl1c sun.

Note 1.-Thc prepos ition is common ly pbced before th e nouns or pro·

.,

A noun or pron oun h:win g no gra mmatical:J' relation to other wo rd s is used incl epe nclc11tl y in

Conjunctions connect words, phrases,
clauses, and sentences; as, F our and five are nine.

the nominative case.

I saw the ma n in the street and at his home. He
came hcforc I left. James abused his books, hut
Sarah carefully preserved hers.

Rule 11.

Note I. 2.

1.

Hy direct add ress; :-is,

H

C/11nks 1 cnmc to me."

By exclamat ion ; as, " Poor In dians ! \vli crc arc they nmv?"

3. Hy rccl11nrb1~cy; a ~," Th e l 'il.~ ri m F;i.tli e r~ 1 whf'fc ;i.rc t lwy?"

.,
1

"

;J-,

{i

Note 1.- Co-ordinate conjunctions connect th e same or similar parts of
speech, p hrases an cl clauses in the same construction ; as, "James and \Villian1

N o t e 2. -

we nt h ome."

in dcpcnclc n tly in the nl'}ath·c ct~c; as, Jl/c miHrab/e .' All m e .'

~

Rule 14.

4. \\"i th a p:.i.rtic1plc; as, "The sh ip having ::trr i\'ed, th e sailors left."
Th e first person of the pcrsn11;d p ronoun is sometimes used

I

nou ns they govern, except in interrogat ive sentences.

dis tinctl y."

u [ saw the boy and the girl."

,\

' .,

''The man s poke slowly and

"\Ve arc r equ ired to deal justly and t o lo ve mercy."

I

;o

Rule 12. Pronouns mu st agree in perso n, number,
and ge nd er, with th e noun s they rep rese nt ; as, Jan e
saw !tcr moth er. vVil li am tak es care of !tis brother.

N ote 2. -

con st r11 ct in n arc

(sec p . 2 1).

J
)1

In alm ost a ll cases in which words and phrases in the same
conncc~cd,

they may be regarded as contracted sentences

i

Th ere arc a few exceptiona l cases in \vhich no s uch contraction

it

exists; :ts , Fol!r an d Ji<•c arc nine. Jolin and Jane are a handsome co11pk.

I

{.

..

'

r1,

I

I' ' I

Note 3. - St1borclin ate conjunctions a nd relative pronouns

ExCEI'TION. - / t is sometimes used w ith lH1t reference to the gender or
num ber 11[ the rn i1111 it rc·pn:sr· nts; as, ' 1\\.hen I took the child, it cr ied ." "//.

clauses with t h e sbtr111Pnfs limi ted by them; as, "J shall go

is our fassio11s which we ought most t 0 fear. "

saw the man tltat ca l1 ecl."

Note 1. - 'J'his ru le req uires 110 change of f0rm in the r cbtive pronouns;
a nd the form in personal pronouns is not changed for ge n der, exce pt in the

thi rd person s ingular.

if

connect

J can."

' I

"l

11

.l

~1 l!'1

"He was here while you were absent."

'"l'

Rule 15. Int erj ections have no grammatical relation to other words.

!·i
I

",,

·11

'

I

,.
I

I

~! I'.

11'
I
t':'I

i ,·111
::11
Ii !1l

· ~1

1

I

~·' ·~ -'"""'"

.

]!. Ii1:
I

--- -~-

I

/'U1\ -CJ'UA T/O,\T.

PU.NC T UA TION.

PUNCTUATION.

Rule 2 . An exclamation point is used after words
or ph rases expressing passion or emotion; as,

l'unctuation treats of the m cl lwd of dividin g- writt e n language int o se nten ces and part s of sentences.
CHARACTERS

USED IN

PU NCTUATION.

J' e ri od,

Com ma,

Jnl e rrog ati o n,

D as h,

E xc lamati on,

l'are nt heses,

Colon,

Qul\lation,

Se mi colo n,

1\ p< )st ro phe,

( )

,, ,,

'i!'

l 'oor Indians ! where a rc they now?
THE COMMA.

Rule 1. A simple se nten ce requires no comma,
when the arrangement and construction coincide ;
as,

This d estru ct ion raged from Mau ras to Tanjore for eighteen months wi thout intermission.

vVhcn the arrange ment and construction
do not coincide, the inversion may be marked by a
comma; as,
Rule 2.

THE PERIOD.

A period should be placed at the end of a
d cclarati ,-e se n te n cc ; as,
Life is short.
Rule l.

A peri od should be used after ini tials and
abbrevi ations; as,
Rule 2.

I >. \\' el.1sler, U.S./\., R. l ., J\ Liss., C ov.
THE

INTER ROG AT IO N

POINT.

Rule. A n interrogati on puin t should be placed at
the e nd of a n int e rrogat ive-se nt enc e ; as,

Where did you sec him?
THE EXCLAMATION POINT.

An exclamation poin t sh ould be placed at
th e end of a n exclamatory se nt e nce ; as,
Rule 1.

I [urry, hurry to th e field !

For eighteen months, this d es truction raged, without mtermission, from Madras to T anjore.
Rule 3. E xplanat ory clauses are separated from
th e state ment s or clauses on which they depe nd, by
a comma ; as,

..•I· '.

We sec the emblem of our fate in fl owers, which bloom
and di e.
Rule 4 . Restrictive clauses are n ot commonly separat ed from th e stat e ments or clauses on which they
depe nd ; as,

,j
'

A man that steals d eserves punishment.
Rule 5. A ser ies of ·words or phrases 111 th e same
construction req uires a comma to indicate the omis-

·1'
1

'I

_,.;j

'

I'UNCTUA TION

PUNC TUA TION.

s ion of t he conjun cti on, - and between th e last t wo
o[ the se ri es, th oug h the co njun ct ion is ex pressed; as ,
Strl"CS

Rule 2. Cla uses a nd phrases, havin g a common
depe nd ence, may be separated by a semicolon when
one of them is divisible by a co mma ; as,

T o li ve so be rl y, lo speak lrt1Lh r1 ill y, :ind (() a<'L lll> l> es tly,

mc:111s o f all ev iatin g pa in ; who has sugges t.eel a new meth od

l l::tppy is the man who honors, obeys, loves, and

Ii is Creato r.

He who, in the study of sc ience , has discoverell a new

is th e duty o f e very man.

of re medying disease, -

Rule 6 . Co nlra slcd words
ra ted by a co m ma; as,

to be fo rgotten.

a 1HI

phrases an: sepa-

Rule 3.

H e was a g reat poe t, b11t a liad man.

No uns in appo s ition arc scpa rate<l by a
comma when the word used lo expla in is lim ited by
oth e r words; as,
Rule 7.

l'aul , th e ap ostle to th e Gentiles, was e min ent fo r hi s zeal.

A com ma sho uld be placed before th e
conj un cti on or when what follows it, explain s, or is
111 appos iti on with wh<lt preced es it; as ,
Rule s.

I hea rd the vo ice o r the sk ipper, or ca pl:1 in o f th e boat.
THE

Rule 1 .

m<l y b e se pa rat ed hy

<1

<1

co mpoun d sentence

se micolon; as,

Every g ift o f I [eavcn is S() lll cl in1c:; ab used ; but good
se nse and fin e talent s, by a natura l law, g ra\·itate to1rnrd ·
\·irlue .
Note. -

If th e se ntence is short, and neith er of th e membe rs is sub-

di ,·idcd, th ey may Uc !:icparatcd by a co mma.

11ame!y, int rod ucin g an example, is

:o

...I

preceded by a se micolon, and followed by a comma; as,

'i'

.:

W e should speak th e truth.
THE

Rul e.

COLON.

i;
I

The colon is so met im es used to separate

pa rt s of a sentence, o ne of whic h is subdivided by a
semicolon ; as,
The sentence was d ivided into two parts: in the first was

..

shown the n ecessity of exercise ; in the second, the advantage th at results from it.
THE

SEMICOLON.

The membe rs o[

As, or

has left a memorial of himse lf never

Rule 1.

DASH, ETC.

The clash is us ed to denote that a sen-

tence is in com plctc ; as,
Once, upon a time, som e m en dressed all alike -

To denote an abrupt turn in th e form of
th e se ntence, or in the sentime nt ; as,
Rule 2.

Was there ever I said -

Dut I scorn to b oast.

I know not what.

.
•t
'

'

I

GG

J 'UNCJ'U.-1 T J(l :\ '.

Rule 3.

Tu

en close

a parenth e tical

P UNCTUATION.

phrase

or

Proper nouns,

Rule 2.

clau se ; as,

and words derived from

them, should b egin with capitals ; as,

J.;:now, lh e n, thi s truth, -

enough for man to know, -

Spa in, Spanish, Spaniard.

Virtu e al o ne is ha ppiness below.
Rule 3 .

Goel.

st ru cti o n of t h e se nt e nce, or detracting ma t e rially

The Almighty.

Rule 4.

from the se nse; as,
Kn ow, the n, thi s lrnth (enou gh ror man lo kn ow) ,

1n ark i11 .~w h at

The Supreme Being.

The nam es of the months, and of the clays

of the week, should b egin with capitals ; as,
] anuary, F ebruary: Tuesday, Friday.

Virtue a lone is hapJlin ess hclo\\'.
Eith er mctl 111d of

·1

g in wit h capit als ; as,

clos ed m ay be omi t t ed with out injurin g th e con-

No te . -

All names applied to the Deity should beI

l\ Ltrk s l•[ p;1rrnlh cs is <i e 1111l1' lh a t th e wo rd s e n-

i-.; 11arcnth cli cal is allowahl c, the

Rule 5.

cl as hes hci11b co 11111 u11il y used wh ere the p arc11t!1 c..,is is s ho rt.

Th e names of public bodies should b eg in

with capitals; as,

Qu olali o11 -111 a rks de note l hal t li e passage e nclosed

.:.

.'

The Legislature; Roston T emperance Society.

is t aken in th e words of th e a ut hor; as, The poet

Rule 6.

says,

The words I and 0 are written with capi-

t als.
"Th e prope r study or ma nk ind is man."

The nam es of r elig ious denomination s and
politi cal p;-irties shou ld b eg in with capitals; as,
Rul e 7.

/\ 11 ;1pos l roph e <le notes th e om iss io11 of ;1 lette r or
kt lL'rs, and is Ll1 c s1g 11 of Ll1 L' po ss ess iv e case of

Uaplists, l\lcthodists, R epuulicans, Democrats.

n o un s; a s,

All titl es should begin with capitals ; as,

] 'rn sm c of it, )'II/I'll ne 'er forge t.

Rule 8.

J\ fri e nd should l.Jcar a fricnt!'s i11r1rmi ties.

Mr., Col., Esq., R ev., Dr.

USE

Rule l.

OF

Rule 9.

CAPITALS.

capital ; as, Th ey said,

Th e fl rst wo rd of a se nten ce sh oulll b eg in

"Never man spake like this man."

with a Gtpit a l; as,
The boy studies.

A direct quota tion should begin with a

•

Rule lO.

The principal words in the titles or divis-

... 1J
'•.

l'

:;.T

)·i

~i, ...
·!·
:J

·j!·l
I

.I

I

.1·

_Jl

I

GS

l'UNCTUA TiON.

ions o f ::i. book or di sco urse should begin wit h capitals ;
as .

PART

.Rul es fo r /\ na lys is a nd Consl rncti o n.

IV.

ERENCE.

Th e fi rst word in every lin e of poetry
should beg in with a cap iL::i.l; as,
"The curfew to ll s th e kn ell o r parting cb y;
11· inds

I"

TABLE OF IRR E GULAR PLURALS, FOR REF-

Rul e 11.

T he 1011-ing herd

t

IRREGULAR PLURALS.

slowly o'er th e lea;

Plural.

1n an,

m en.

ox,

\\·on1an,

wo men.

tooth,

child,

children.

mouse,

The ploug '1111an ho me11·a rd plods h is 11-ca ry way,
penny

And lea1·es the wo rld to darkness and lo me ."

Sing ular.

Si11._1;ular.

Plum!.

oxe n.
tee th.
mi ce.

pence.
{ pennies (p ieces of coin).

bro th ers (of th e same family).
brother {
bre thren (of the same associa tion).
die
ge nius

5di es (used

to sta mp co in).

l dice (used

in games).

gc n'.~1 scs (~pp li ed t~ l.n11nan ~e in gs).
{ ge1111 (app li ed to spmtual bemgs).

\ Vorcls composed of a noun and the adjective
/11/l, have th e reg ular plural : as, ilmtdfu!, !ta1tdfuls;
spoonful, spoonf uls; moutliful, m outlifu!s ; pailful,
paiifnls.
\ Vords composed of a noun and an adjecti ve
have com monly the plural t ermina tion added t o the
noun: as, court-martial, courts-martial; /.:mg!tt-crra11 t,

,.
...

'I

.'l

l
!·

I

•

/.: 111:r;-11 ts-crra11 t.
\Vords composed of two nouns have the regul a r
plural: as, nig !tt-steed, mg!tt-steeds; tide-waiter, tidewaitcrs.

-;

,J

i'

tl

•I

H
l
r

•

'·

;

_..dl:

70

I RA'F{;U/.//R l'L URAlS.

I RREGULAR PL UR ALS.

vV o rcl s co mposed of tw o n o un s co n nected by a
prepos it io n h a ve t h e plural t e rm i na l in n aclclcd to the

fl r s t wo rd :

.fat/u·r-i11-l11 ·;u, fi1tltcrs-i11-/a7u; so11-i11-

;i s ,

! aw , S(ll/S-lll-ltl'ZCI.

J\ letter o r fi g ure 1s m ade plural by add in g an
a p ostrop h e and s : as, .ffvc11 a's; ji111r

9's.

l\lany w o rds fr o m foreig n Lrn ~ uages reta in, for a
lo n g-e r o r s h o rt e r time,
f'lin/07/ll'llOl l ,

etc.

thei r o ri g i11:i.]

plural;

j>IL01m11c11r1; radi11s, l'lldii ,· {'1'/SZS, C/'ISl'S,

(See di ctiona ry.)
GENDER.

The di st in ct ion o ( sex is exp r essed: 1.

Dy

diff ere nt word s : as,

;J!,rsr11/i11e.

I I

. I
·~----

as,

Fcnzi11i11c.

1l f.rsmli11c.

F;'"11zini11c .

bachelor,
beau,

maid.

hus band,

\\·if e.

be lle.

kin g;,

boy,
brot he r,
buck,
bull,

girl.

lad,

qu ee n.
Liss.

s is ter.

landlorcl,
lord,

2.

71

By diffe r e n ce of t er min a ti o n: as,

/lf. 1.r:r11/i11t.

J·;·mi11i11e.

ab hot,

abbess.
actor,
actress.
admini s trator, ad min istrat ri x.
amba ssador,
am bas sac\ re ss.
auth or,
authoress.
baron,
baro ness.
ben efac tor,
bridegroo m,

ben e fa ctress.
bri de .

count,
czar,

1lfa.rru/i11l'.

hero,
host,

Feminine.

heroine.
hostess.

hunter,

huntress.

Jcw,

J e wess.
landgravi ne.
li oness.

land g rave,
li on,
m;irqni s,

marchioness.

n1 arg rave,

1nargra vin e.

cou ntess.

negro,

czarin a.

patron,

n egress.
patron ess.

dauphin ,

<fauph iness.

pee r,

peeress.

de acon,

deaco ness.

d on,

donna.
duchess.

priest,
prince,

priestess.
princess.

empress.
e nchant ress.
exec utr ix.
g iantess.
governess.

proph et,
s hepherd,
songster,
so rce rer,
sul tan,
tes tator,

prophetess.
shep herd ess.
so ngstress.
sorce ress.
sult;ina.

heiress.

widower,

widow.

d uke,
empe ror,
enchan ter,
executor,
giant,

man,

landlacly.
lady.
woman .

cl rake,

du ck.

m:i ste r,

mi st res s.

ea rl ,

co untess.

nep hew,

ni ece.

fa ther,
friar,

moth er.
n un.

papa,

_[!'an cl e r,

goose .

so n,

.!.:en tlcman,
hart,

lac\ y.

t11ll'l c,
wi zard,

mamma.
C\\'e.
d:tuc; hte r.
aunt.

less fr eq uent, and in several of the words here g iven, the feminine form is

witch.

se ldom usc<l.

doe .
cow.

roe.

r:1111 ,

gove rnor,
heir,

tes tatrix.

3. By diffe r e nt words p r e fixed: as,
Jlfasculine.

Fn11ini11e.

man-s er vant,

ma id-se rvant.

male-c hild,

female-child.

N ote . - Thi s method of di sting ui shing th e gender is beco min g Jess and

..P

72

IRR EGULA R

v1::1u;s.

P resent.

am or be,
ar ise,

J J,1st .

I'er/at l'.r rtio f/,•.

P nfcct Pa rticiple.

P ast.

l'rest11l.

TABLE OF IRREGULA R VER B S, FOR REFE RENCE.

73

VERBS.

IRREGULAR

ge t,
g ive,

got,
gave,

gotten, go t.
g iven.

'"as,

he en.

go,

've nt,

go ne.

arose,

arise n.

gro\vt

g rew,

grown.

ho rn.

hid e,

hi d,

/1idden, hi cl .

held,

held, lt oldm.

I
I

hea r (to bri ng fo rth ), bore or b1zrr,
bea r (lo uph old ),
I.Jore , bare,
b ea t,
beat,

borne .

hold ,

bcalcn or beat.

kn ew,

beg in,

begun.

kn ow,
lade (to load ), r

laclecl,

known .
lade n.

li e (to recline),
rid e,

lay,
rode,

lain, lien.
ridden.

rin g,

rung.

ri se,

ra ng, rung,
rose,

cl1iddt." 11, chid.

run,

ran, run,

chose n.

see,

saw,

c!ovm , cleft.

shake,

s hook,

co me.
clone.
draw n.

sing,

S\Ve ar,

sang, sung,
sank, s unk,
slew,
smote,
spoke, spake,
sprang , spru ng ,
stole,
strode,
strove,
swore,

sw i1n ,

s 1tHz111,

tak e,
tear,

took,
tore,

b icl,
bite,

beg:ln ,

bid , bad e,

f!iddm, Girl.

blow,

bit,
bl ew,

bitten, b it.
blow n.

b rea k,

broke, bral.:c,

broke n.

chid e,
choose,
cleave (to split),

ch id,
chose,
cltJ'iH,

cleft,

co me,
cl o,
dra w,
dr ink,
dri,· e,

drew,
d ra nk,
d ro,·e,

e;i t,

at e, e;it,

ca me,
d id,

dra nk, drunk.
driven.

fa ll ,

fell,

ra te11 or cat.
falle n.

fly,

flew,

flmYn .

for bear,

fo rbo re,

forborn e.

forge t,
fo rs;i kc,
fr eeze,

forgo t,
fors oo k,
fro ze,

Note. - Old forms in l bl ic•.

forgo tlc11, fo rgo t.
fo rsa ke n.
froze n.

s ink,
slay,
s mite,
spea k,
spring,

steal,
strid e,
st ri,·e,

1

swun1,

Lade , lo dip , is regular.

ri sen.
nm .
see n.
shake n.
sung .
sunk.
s lain.
s mitten, smit.
spoken.
sprun g.
stolen.
stridden.
s triven.
sworn .
swum.
taken.
torn .

I

!1

i
i.

'.

I!

I'I
I

I

'!
!·

·l

~1:
'!
\

.I

i•

..

- 74

JRN!::C Ul AR
I'n·.r~11t.

l,asl.

IRREGULAR

VJ: NJJS.

fl ee,

P11st.
fled,

trodd ,•11 or trod.

flin g,

flun g,

flung.

worn.

g rind,

grou nd,

T oj.·d j',,,./in} !e.

throw,

threw,

throw n.

treacl,

trod ,
wore,

\Hite,

wrote,

\\Titt en.

weave,

wove,

100711.·11,

wear,

wove.

IRREGULAR VERBS WHOSE P A S T TENS E AND PERFECT
PARTICIPLES ARE ALIKE.

l'rcsc11t.

J J11st.

abide,

abo de,

I

l'n:/.:ct /'.rrlicifle.

abode.

I '1·cst11t..

Poject P articiple.
fled.

have,

hacl,

grou nd.
h ad.

hear,

h eard,

lie a rd.

hit,

hit,

hit.

hurt,

hurt,

hurt.

keep,

k ept,

k ept.

lay,
lead,

la id,

laicL

led,

led.
l eft.

b e nd,

bent·,

b en t.

leave,

beseec h,

1Jc snught,

besought.

len d,

left,
lent,

l ent.

bind,

buund,

bo nncl .

let,

let,

l e t.
l os t.

bleed,

bled,

bl ed.

lose,

los t,

breed,

b red,

bred.

make,

m ade,

made.

b ri no-,

broug ht,

b rought.

tn ean,

m ean t,

1neant.

burs t,

burst,

burs t.

meet,

m et,

m et.

boug ht.

pa y,
pu t,

paid,

paid.
put.
r ead .•
r c~ t.

buy,

I

75

VERBS.

boug ht,

cas t,

cas t,

cas t.

catch,

ca ug ht,

cau g ht.

read,

put,
1·ead,>

clin g,

c l1111 .~.

rend,

rent,

cos t,

t.:l11 ng,
cos t,

cos t.

rid,

rid,

ricl.

creep,

crept,

cre pt.

say,

said,

said.

cut,

cut,

cut.

see k,

sought,

sought.

dig,

dug,

d ug.

se ll,

s old,

s old.

fe ed,

feel,

feel.

send,

sent,

sent.

feel,

felt,
fou ,,,., ht '

felt.

s et,

s et,

se t.

fi g ht,

sh ed,

s he cl.

find,

found,

fo ug ht.
found.

s hed,
shoe,

shod,

shod.

2

I

' fI

I

I

i
,l~

.:!

if

Pronounced red.

.

76

IRNl"GULA R
l 'n'.rl'Jt/.

s hoot,
s hrink,
s hul,
s it ,

l,11 sl.

f '/:Rh'S.

REGULAR AND IRREGULA R

r,·1f· d P artinflc.

shot,
s hrank,
s hul,

shot.
s hrunk.
s hut.

VERBS.

77

Th e following verbs are somet im es r egular, and
so met imes irreg ular, in the formation of th eir principal parts: -

sat,

sal.

sleep,
s lid e,

slep t,
s lid ,

slcpl.
sli d.

s ling,
s link ,
s lit,

slung,

sl un,g.

slunk,

s lunk.

slit,

s lit, slitted.
sped.

spend,
spin ,

sped,
spe nt,
sp un ,

spen t.
s pun.

cleave (to adhere),
clothe,
crow,

spit,

sp il,

s pit.

split,

spli t,

sp read,

} 'resort.

J',rst.

awake,
bereave,
b lend,

awoke, awaked,
bereft, berea vecl,
bl ended ,

build,
burn,

bu ilt, builded,

P o/at Participle.

I

'i

.i
.,

burned, burnt,
cleaved, clave,
clothed , clad,
crowed , crew,

burned, burnt.
cleaved.
cloth ed, clad.

dare (to ven ture),

da red, durst,

dared.

split.

deal,

dealt, d ealed,

dealt, dealed .

sp read,

sp read.

dream,

drea med, drea mt,

dreamed, dreamt.

stand,

s tood,

stood.

dll' ell,

dwe lt, d we lled,

stick,
sti ng·,
strike,

stu ck.

stuck.

gild,

stun,g,

s lung.

gilded, gil t,
g ird ed, g irt,

stru ck,

s tru ck.

g ird,
g rave,

d we lt, dwelled.
gi lded, gilt.
g irded, g irt.

st rin g,

stru11 g,

slr un .~ .

S\\' ecp,
sw in g ,

S\\'Cjlt,

S\\'Cjl t.

hew,

graved,
hun g, ha 1iged, 1
hewed,

g rave n, graved .
hung, hanged.
l1ew11, hewed.

swu ng,

swung.

kneel,

kn elt, kneeled,

kn elt, kn eeled.

teach,
tell ,

tau g ht,
told,

tanght.
tole!.

knit,

knit, knitted,

knit, knitted.

think,
thrust,

th ought,
thru st,

th ought.
thrust.

light,
mow,

lig hted, lit,
mowed,

li ghted, lit.
mown, mowed.

" ·eep,
win,

wept,

wept.

WO il ,

won.

pen (to encl ose),
quit,
rive,

pent, pe nned,
quit, q uitted,
ri ved,

pent, pe nned.
qui t, quitted.
riven, ri ved.

wind,

wound,

\\'Otmd.

\\Tin g,

wrung,

'vrung.

speed,

1·

a waked .
bereft, bereaved.
b lend ed, ble nt.
built, builded.

hang,

I

i

''

crowed.

,.

I

•

I!"
f

!'.

J~

i•
11

Regular when it Uc no tes the taking o f life.

'?,

- ~._, . . 1;:

R E G ULAR A ND I R R EGULA1"

VE R !JS
l'~ r(at

l'n:sc11 t.

!l!OD ES A N D

ro tt e n, rotted.

saw,

saw ed,

s a wn, s:iwccl.

shap e,

shaped ,

s hap e n, s haped.

s ha ve,

shaved,

s ha ve n, s have d.

sh ear,

s h ea re d ,

sltor 11,

show,

s hf)lr ccl ,

s li n w11. s ho we d.

so w,

SO \\' ecJ ,

s ow11 , so11·ed.

spell,

spe lt, s pell ed,

s pelt, s pe ll ed .

s 1•ill ,

spilt , s pilled,

s pilt , s pill ed .

s tr ew,

stn.: wi; cl,

strewn, s tre wed.

s h e ~r e d.

s t ro w,

stroll'ed,

s 11·ell,

Sll'elJ ccl ,

swo!!c·ll , s1Y ell ed.

t hri ve ,

th ri 1·ecl, t lt.ro7Je,

tin-ii-e n, thri1·cd.

\\';n ecl ,

11·a xe n , 1·.- a xc d .

wh e t,

wh e t, ll'h e ttccl ,

whe t, wh e tt ed .

wo rk ,

w roug h t, ll' o rk ecl ,

wro u ~ h t,

s l ro w n , s tr owecl.

irr c .~u l a r ,

;1n.: n ow rq.:11lar ; a s ,

n ow regul ar; r ca d1, r rr u.r;l ll, r augl tl, -

;1 0::, SO<f ' , S(l1crd 1

sou ·cd or smr·n .

111 o t hers , t h ere is a s tr on b ten d en cy to lll:l kc t he p ac; t t ens e an d th e pe rfe c t p~tr t i c ipl c ali k e, b y re ta ining IJ11t o ne fonn ; as, sinL~··) sun,_~.., su n ..~··; d rink ,

tfra11 l , d ranl.:; /wld , held, hd d ;

.~l:I, .~·ol,

.r;ot.

The robin returns with th e spring.

;

;

'I

Stale or write this sentence, putting the verb into all the tenses
of the indicative mode, declarative form; and then change the sentences to the interrogative form.

·1

EXERCISE II.

The pupils are studious.
Put the verb in this sentence into all the tenses of the potential
mode, declarative form; and then change the sentences to the interrogative form.
EXERCISE Ill.

In place of the nouns italicized, substitute an infinitive, using
bvth forms , - the infinitive phrase, and the infinitive in ing.

; f•orl.·,

n o w r egul a r ;

/•,·Jc ,·l , bol!:;·lll , Oc,IJ:!,_;-ht, - no w rcgu b r.
Th ere ;i.rc al so o thers parti all y 1111 u.k r11i 1: ccl;

EXERCISE I.

11·o rk ed.

Note to T e achers. - All th e irreg ular verbs (so call ed ) arc of A n .~ l o ­
l\ hn y Yc rl is, f1J r111 c rl y

79

EXERCISES ON THE MODES AND TENSES OF
VERBS .

rotted,

7i'n1 11_:,·-flt , u• r <J lfJ;/11 , -

OF VERBS.

P.rrtiojlc.

rot,

~ :t :-.:n n ori .~ ill.

TE N S E S

1.

The sigllt of the sun is pleasant.

2.

The rlefcncc of our ri ghts is lawful.

3. I-h1111ilit_y is be comin g to the young.
4. R elief of the poor is in the power of wealth.
I

5. The scrz1it"C of Goel should be the great obj ect of life.
6. The kind trcatmc11t of enemies makes them friends.
7. His obj ect was the acquisition of money.
8. Th e

i11rl11~i;c 11 cc

of our appetites is often injurious.

9. D cat!t for o ne's country is sweet.
10 .

A loz1e for wistlom makes us wise.

I

l.

I'

"'

I •

:[~
·!f

80

R l::LA TIVE
Substitute each of the form s in th e example for the italicized

verbs i11 these se11tences, and make such other cha11ges as the sense
r equ ires.
/11di(t1fi?1e.

C harles e.1/m·s.rcs hi s opinio11 modes tl y.

l 'ol c11!ir1/.

Charles mils/ c.1frc.'s his opinion mod es tly.

f

l

. . . .

/ /11

111/! 111 // Vt ".

/ / fmrl i.-iplo·.

If Charles oprcss hi s opinion nm tkst ly, he wi ll
be li s te ned to.

r Charl es is requ es ted to exp ress hi s opini on mod-

il

cst ly.

f Charle s,

l

(H e re th e assertion is not made of

a ll boys, but is r es tricted to the boys tlwt I saw. )
I st, A ft er the wo rd same.
2d, After an adj ective in the superlative degree.

yl, Aft e r the interrogative pronoun w!to .
4th, \ Vhe n th e a ntecedent consists of both persons

Charle s, opress yo ur op ini o n mod es tly.

!111pcrativc.

81

That is a lso preferable to who or whiclt, -

EXAMPLE.

. ~·11bjw1 cl h ie.

younger days.

I'JWNO UNS.

expressing his opini o n modes tl y, was

eage rly liste ned to.

a n cl things.

1'Vlto or wlticlt is prefer able to that when
u sed in explan at ion; as, We see the emblem of 01t1'
fat e in flowers, w!tic!t bloom a11d die. (Herc wladt
does not restrict flowers to a certain class, but adds
so m e thin g that is co mmon to all flowers.)

EXERCISE IV.

( r) Pupi ls o/;q their teachers, and meet their approval.
( 2) \Ve g11i11 wisdom Ly experience, and Lecome truly
wi se.
(3) Th e poor man is frn gal in his habits, anLl he will be
respected.
( .f) Th e p11pil s 111rrle gn:a.t effo rt s, and they will succeed.
(5) Th e me n ,ire imh1stri o11 s, and t!1ey will thri ve .
N otc . -

This e x ercis e ma y be <':'-.:t e nd ed at the cli scrrt io n o f th e teache r,

by H'q 11irin;; the :;cnlenccs to Le put in to any or all uf tli c tenses of the
sc\·cral modes .

PROPER USE OF

]/wt

l ~ ELJ\TIVE

PRONOUNS.

is prdc r:thlc lo , ,•/io or ,,,/1id1 i11 a. rest ri ctive

c lau se ; as, lite b11ys !Ital I sa<v rc111i11dcd m e of 111)'

EXERCISE.

Supply the blanks with the proper relative pronouns.

( 1) This is the same man - - we met yesterday.
( 2) The warrior - - is success ful, is idolized by the
thong h tless.
( 3 ) Washington was perhaps the most respected presi dent - - has fill ed th e executive chair.
( 4 ) Who, - - has any sense of justice, would act differently?
(5) I saw a boy and sled - - reminded me of old times.
(G) J oh n H oward, - - was a true philanthropist, died
greatly lamented .
( 7) Wisdom is the best possession - - a man can have.

SF: NTJ:;NCES.

EXPANSION.

SENTENCES.

t!tat would be respected, must live so as to deserve
respect.

/\ sentence may b e si111flc, cm11fou11d, or ro111f>lrx.

Th e esse nti a l part s of a se nte nce arc th e si111flc
s11/Jjcct a nd th e si111jik Jircdir11 /t·.

A co mple x sent e nce may have compound cl a uses;
as, 1-Vc all /mow t!tat evil comm1micatio11s corrupt
J;"t1od 111rrn11f'r.r,

/\ simple sentence co nt a in s but one s ubj ect and

83

t!tat t !tc c11111panio11s!tip 1!f t!te

a11d

·uirt1to11s is clcvati11g.

o ne pred icat e; as, A man 's /1afjii11css d rfe11d:; p ri-

manly 11po11 !tis dispositio11.

PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN

B oth the s ubj ect and th e predicate may be limit ed
by phrases a nd word s ; as, E'i.'CIJ'

art 11taJ'

CONSTRUCTION,

ARRANGEMENT, AND EXPRESSION.

pron· da11EXPANS ION OF WORDS TO PHRASES.

gcro11s iu the lm11ds <!f bad mc11.

Th e s ubj ec t may be co mpound, and t h e prcdi c:il e

EXAMPLE.

simple; or, th e p redi cal e may b e co mpo und , :ind

F11ogrlic men arc co111mo11!y successful.

th e s ubj ect si mple; as, Virt11c 011d <1icc arc oj>f'Ost·d

Expanded : -

to cac!t o//1cr.
!tilll.

l\[cn of e nergy arc, in most cases, successful.

A

Steam ser1•cs

11w11,

a11d also d1·s/rt1J'S

compound sentence conta in s two or more

i11 <kj>L' l llk 11l st alc 111 L· 1lf s ; ;1s,

!/1, ·

.rr ~ !:·m · i~ J'

1:( j\',·7uto11

led /1i111 tu !tis gro1! di.1·1·07 •ny, a11d !tc 11ow st1rnds 11!

t!tc /1cad of fl11losof'!tcrs.
A

complex sentence co nt ain s one ind ep e nd e nt

state me n t, a nd o ne or more s uborcl in:itc state me nt s
call ed cla uses; a s, ft was Ca:sar w!to wo11 t/w battle.
Eith e r o r both o ( th e membe rs of a co mpoun d
se nt e nce may be co mpl ex; as, l fr 1l1J' /Jo_y that nj>ff/s
S!ICCCSS

in life 111/tSt be i11d11strio1tS;

fl7/(i {''[l('I ]'

11/ (//l

EXERCISE I.

Expand the italicized words info phrases.

( 1) The husbandman's treasures are re newed yea rly.
( 2) Cro mwell acted sternly and decidedly on impor!twt
matters.
(3) I111port011t acts were passed by the se nate.
(4) J\ si11cere man is a very 'N1illab!e fri end .
( 5) Tra11q111l scenes soothe th e wounded spirit.
( 6) Lillge ani rnals are com111011lj• strong.

I''

'

CONTRACTION.

EXl'A 1\ ·s10 ,v :

CONTRACTION OF COMPLEX INTO SIMPLE SENTENCES.

( 7) Valiant men taste or death h11t once.
( 8 ) IVml!/1y men sl101ild g ive

This may be done by chang in g a clause to a

lil1rn r/~1·.

(9) The sun was t/1 cn su ppose<.! to revolve round the
earth .

phrase.

EXAMPLE.

\ \'h en fath er returned, the boys received presents.

(10) The man boldly discharged his d11t y.
Co ntract e d : O n father's return, the boys received presents.

EXAMPLE.

Th ej11st man ac ts acco rdin g lo the dictates of conscirnce.

Expanded : -

EXERCISE I.

The man tha t is just ac ts ris his conscience d ictates.

( 1) One man, who had a good trade, lost his luck in
fi shing.
( 2) Th e ge ntleman will be pleased if his son improves.
( 3) When the gentleman left town, he probably re-

EXERCISE II.

Expand the italicized words and phrases into clauses.

( r) Q11arrclsom c persons arc despised.

( 2) T he man ner of Iii.< r·sraj>r is a proro11nd mys tery.
( 3 ) So me persons hcli cvt: th e pbn cls l o /1r inhaLited.
(4) Tr11/y wise phil oso ph ers art: rc wer th an

7'Cl)I /ca rncrl

sc holars.
( 5 ) llis g11ilt or

i11 1111tc 11cr

is still unce rtain.

( 6) TVi/It p atience he might ha1·c suceecclccl.
( 7) Th t: battl e /1avi11g been ji111gl1 !, the ge neral began
to cs timate his loss .
( S) No one doubts !li e rr11111rl11css t:/ !l1e earflt .
( 9) T he barri cade being jin·c('(/, the crowd ru shed out.
( 1 o)

H e Lelieved !1is /1ca ltl1 to be improving.

tn rnell to his fam il y.
(4) Th e man who is often changing his fri endships, can
ne1·er have a tru e fri end.
(5) While we cling to our fri ends, the unseen hand of
l'rov idcnce tears th em from our embrace .
( 6) Th e sweet breeze, that makes the green leaves
dance, shall cool thy reve red brow.
( 7) H e Jeanell bac k in his carriage while he was carried
along.
(8) When th e boy saw hi s father, he ran to embrace him.
(9) When the teacher found his pupils id le, he reproved th em.
( 10) After the gentleman had settled his affai rs, he left
the country.

: I

I'
11

I

86

CONTRAC TION.

CONTN, / CT/01V.

EXERCISE.

EXERCISE II.

( r) J\s he walked toward s th e Lrid ge, he m et hi s

( i ) The premises we re adm itted, and the conclusio n

fri e nd.

fo llowed .

(2) Whe n he had spoken tw o h ours, th e me mber resum ed his sca t.

( z) The officers were c 110sen,

ai1 d

then th e m eetin g

:u ljo u rn e< !.

.
.
(3) Na tun.: is full o f unknown thmgs, :rnd th e oppo1-

(3) The gro1111d is never frozen in l'alcstin e, as th e cold
is not seve re.

tunities for discovery arc still great.
(4) The su n rose, a nd the gray mist evaporated.
· st.ice ' and I have no
(5) " ' he n dar kn ess Lrokc away, th e town wo re a s trange •
l
(S) My co untry has cone
me JUaspect.
reaso n to complain.
( 6) Afte r he had s11ppressed th e co nsp iracy, he led his
( 6) The sta rs went out, and the wind came roaring
troo ps in to Ital y.
d ow n the mo unt ain.

(4) Soc rates cl cclarcd th at virtue is its ow n rcw:m l.

( 7) There a rc ma ny ills that we cann ot avoid.
( S) J\ s th e do:Jr 11·as open, th e Loy en tered th e house.

(7) It was su mm e r, aml the heat w;>..s inte nse.
(8) The c h:trms of spring were past, a nd th e glow of

( 9) 1\ fte r he me t hi s fri end, he return ed 1rith him tu
h is ho 11se .

summer succeed ed.
. e ivas
( 9 ) ·1·11ecn111
.. g1·eat
. , a nd th e {)t!l1ishment should be

(10) S ince I saw you, I have hea rd from my fo th er.
C ONTRACTION

sc1·e re.
ny colo rs upon the
( ' o) Nature ha(1 put a coat o f m a _

OF COMPOUND SE NTENCES INTO COMPLEX .

Thi s m ::i.y he do n e by u s ing a subo rdin ::i.t e conj un c-

ti o n or a re lati ve pro no un t o co nn ect two of it s
rn e 111 be rs.
EXAMPLE.

Th e sea sp e nt its fury, and th en it became calm.

Co ntracted : Whe n th e sea had spent its fury, it became calm.

I

.
.
wood l::incls, a nd th ey we re gay and b eautiful.
( r I) Expert l!len ca n cxccu t e,, antl 1·ucl ""c o f 1xut1c ulars,
out the ge ne ral counsels co me b es t fr o m th e learn ed.
.
.
. , ·e th. e gootl-w1!1 of his
( 1 2 ) Th e Loy wishcl 1 to seem
teacher and h e performed his duties fait hfull y.
· J ·5 general nature,
(I 3)' Dryden kn ew more o f ma n m
11
·e
of
him
in
his
local
manne
rs.
J.Jl\t Pope k ne w mm

INVERS/01\-~

88

COJ ! P OUNIJ SENTENCES.

f L ab or strength ens th e body.
SIMPLE SENTENC E S

UNITED TO FORM COMPOUND
SENTENCES .

r.abor

pro motes health.

Lai.Ja r gives a relish to foo d.
Labor helps us overcome obstacles.

EXAMPLE.

( 3)

lVlan is a ra ti onal being .

Idl eness weakens th e Lody.

l\ lan is e nd owed ll'ith th e hi ghest r apar. it y fur h.1 ppin ·ss.

l

Idl eness destroys th e appetite.

l\ lan o fre n mi stakes his I.Jes t in teres ts.

I d leness brings on disease.

l\ fo n ofte n pursues trilles with ;Ill his energ ies.

W ealth may g'. ve us th e. resp ect o f th e i gn~rant.

M a n considers trifles as th e ch ie f objec t o f d es ire.

Wealth m ay give us th e res pect o f th e conupt.

U nit cd a ncl co n trac tctl : -

( 4)

l\Ja n is a rati onal hein ", endowed \V ith th e highest capac ity fo r happ in ess

j

Labor is rewarcle<l. b y success.

\

bu t he o rtcn 111i stakc<; h is hcs l inlet'l:oi l>;,

\ Vealth will not reco mm end us to th e good.
Th e soldi ers fl ed in confusio n.

an d pursues tr ifl es with a ll his energics, consid n ing th e111
th e c hie f o i.Jj ec t o f d esire.

Wealth will not recommend us to th e wise .

The soldiers were pursued h y th e e nemy.
( S)

T he sold iers escaped \Yi th diffi c ulty.
The soldi ers e ntered th e c ity.

EXERCISE.

r .Men

The soldiers shut down th e gates.

o f co urage d o not fear cla nge r.
INVERSION.

They d o not needl essly run in to d a nge r.
They avoid clange r except in the p er fo rm ance uf

1

Ju ty.

N ew races o f animals rise into existence wi tl1 each suc-

W e acqu ire kn owledge by readin g.

r \\'e acq uire kn owledge

by study.

I Wc acquire kn owled ge i>y conve rsation .
( 2)

EXAMPLE.

\ Ve acqu ire know ledge i.Jy obscn-.1.ti o11.

1We p re pare ou rse lves fu r use fu lness and hap piness.

I K no\\' led ge g ives us po\\'er.

l P ower adds to our self-respect.

ceedin g month.

In vert ed:\\'ith each succeccling month, n ew races of animals rise
into ex istence.
New races o f animals, with each succeedin g month, rise
into existen ce .

JNVE R S/01\ T.

JNVERSJON.

EXERCISE I.

EXERCISE II.

/11v ert the fo/lowi11g se11te11ces i11 as ma11y ways as possible, and
punctuate the i11verted sentences.

/11vert as above, and punctuate.
( 1)

( 1) Sc ie nce is co n11ue ri11 g th e g re:it ohst:wlcs of 11:11ure
11!· its a ppli catio n lo the :trts of lifc.
no posili1-c

m isery.

s11cceedin g m o nth.

The m an of lo ng ex p erience, who seldom errs m

judg me nt, is a suitable p erson to be consulted.
th ei r excellcn ce.

(-1.) But whateve r m ay be our fate , be assured that this

(-!) Thi s d es tru ct io n raged fro m the gates o f J\ f; 1dras to
t he g:ites of T a nj o re for e ig htee n m o nths without inte n11i -;s io 11.

(5) I lu ll!Hl the fo llowing rr;1g me11t in loo ki11g 01·n the
pape rs o f a n acc111ai nta nc e.

d ecbratio n will stand.

( 5) Co nsc ien ce re m onstrates wh ile we a re doing wro ng.
( G) Co nsc ience reproach es us after we

have

clone

wrong .

( G) The end of all gove rnm ent is th e hap piness o f th e
gO\·e rn ecl .

( 7) In the prese nt exercise, emphasis is the subject to
\Yhi c h th e pupil's attenti o n is call ed.

( 7) .l 11 th e midst o f perpl e:-. iti es it 1s wro11 g lo he
cl i~c·o n r:1ged.
h o ur

A str:i.w will furnish the occasion whe n people are

(3) I shall not contradict you if you praise them for

(3) New races o f a nim :ils ri se into e:-; islence wilh e;w h

(S) I l uw bea utiful tu th e eye or 1:1.ith

(See Rules.)

cletern1inell to qu a rre l.
( 2)

(2) While hop e re mains th ere can b e

91

(::; ) Whereve r H ope we nt he diffused around him gladness a nd joy.

IS

th e

Sllll SL' l

1

( 'J) I knew very we lI that he could d o it.
( 10) W e acquire knowl edge by patie nt study.

( 9) Acco rding to th e p op ula r notio n, a ge niu s le;:irns
EXERCISE Ill.

ll'itho ut stud y, a ml knows with o ut lc:trning.
(r o) \\'h e n th e farme r cam e d own to hreakf;1st th e nex t
m orn ing, h e d ecl:J.red th a t his watc h h ad g;:iincd ha ir a n ho11r
in th e ni ght.

Invert and punctuate as above.

( r) In rural occupations there is nothin g IlJea n and
d eb ;:is in g .

( 2) With such pomp as this is M erry C hristm as now
N ote to T eac hers. - These scnlcnccs may be used fo r a11 ;il y ... i,, :rnd
th e pupil \\'ill sec that the a rrangcmc11t onl y i:; changed, and 11 ol !h e l:H ll ·

str uctiun .

ush e red in, though only a single star h eralded the first
Christmas.

92

.!NV~RS.!ON.

.!NVFNSION.

(3) Am ong th e Ind ians it is reckon ed un,. i1·il. in t r:i1·e lli ng, for >lrange rs to <:ntcr a vi ll age alirn p tly, 11·itho111 g i1 i11.t!

Assert that great praise is due to one of them, without specifying which .

Either th e boy's father or mothe r deserves great p raise.

not ice of th e ir a pp ro:i.c h.

(4) W e ought no t lo th ink , whi le

93

d a n ~e rs

:ire :1f:ll' CllT,

t h at we a rc sec ure, u nless we try to g11:in l :1ga inst tlw 111.

( 5) 1 had lo ng b e fo re re pe nt e el of m y rm·i11;.; 1·11111'S!: 11f

Deny that g reat praise is du e to either of them.

N e ithe r th e boy's fa th er n o r moth er

deserves grea t

praise.

li fe, l>11 L I cou ld not free m y lll ind fr o m th e love of tr:11Tl.

(6) Ea rl y in th e mo rnin g, before th e fami ly was - 1irri11g.
th e o ld cloc k, t hat h ad stood fu r fifty years in th e f.1rn1L"r"'
k itch e n , wi t ho ut givi ng its ow n er an y cause of !'rn1q.J :1i11t.

State that great praise is due to one of them, and not to the
oth er.

T h e boy's mo the r, bu t no t the fath er, deserves great
praise.

sudden ly stopped.
( 7) l letwec n pass io n and lying th e re is litt le d iff<'l'<' l\l'l'.
( S) So fa r a s I ca n jndge, th e book is we ll wrill ,. 11.
(9) I o l1ta inc d und er hi s inst rn c l io n, a kno ll'lcd t:" Clf h i ~

EXERCISE I.

Write the following sentences in the several ways pointed out in
th e model, uniting th e two se ntences in each exercise.

art.
(JO) Th e q11 ict 1·alc o f Chamouni b y l 1<:hincl us rl 11tl<'rl
" ·ith romanti c halll lc ts.
CO M PO U ND SUBJ EC T.

U11ite these se11fe11 ccs so as to assort tha t areal praise is due to
both.

Th e ho y' s f:1the r d ese rves g reat p ra ise .
T he boy's m o the r desc rv<:s ucat pra ise.
U11ited : -

The ]i,1y's fat h e r a nd m o th e r d ese 1Yc g re:i.t pr:1isl' .
De11y tha t areat pmise is due to both of th em.

T he !Joy's father and m o th e r d o no t b o th dc se n'<.: g rea t
pra ise .

( r) J o h n recites the lesson well.
Jam es rec ites th e lesso n we ll.

( 2) C harles h as go ne to t h e count ry.
W ill iam h as go ne to th e co11 ntry.
(3) Exercise promotes health.
T e mpe ra n ce promotes he:i.lth .

(-t) J\ ge ntl e ma n was a cco mm odated with board .
A larly w:i.s a cco m modated with b oard .
(5) /\n o ld man attempts to c ross t h e ri ver.
/\ boy att e mpts to cross th e rive r.
( G) C harles ha s go ne to sch ool.
A nn a h as gone to sch ool.

A NAL J"S!S.

94

A NA LYSIS.

95

A.

ANALYSIS.

Simple, declarative, containing one statement.

In Analys is, it will be found co nve ni enl tn have a
ge ne ral form (not to be t oo st ri ctly adh ered lo), hut
suffi cie nt to sec ure a well-a rran ged s tate ment o( the
co nstru ct ion o( the se nt ences analyzed .
\ Vith thi s view, the fo ll ow in g models, used, with
slight moclifi cations, in ma ny of om bes t sc hoo ls,
arc suggested.
METHOD.

A.

Kind of se ntence.

B.

A ~unbe am / played through a hole in the roof of a barn.

c.
Not any.

D.
"through - hole," adv., mod. played.
"in - roof," adj., mod. !10/e.
"of -

barn," adj., mod. roef.
E.

"sunbeam," noun, snbj ect of plaJ•ed.

B.
\ Vr ite se nt ence in 11rrt11 ml order; separate e nlarged s ubj ect (ro rn enlarged predicate ; und erline

si mple subject and s impk predicate.

c.
Clauses: kind, and what they modify.
D.

"played," verb, predicate of s1t11bea11t.
"through,'' prep., connects p laJ•eri and lt0/e.
"hole," noun, objec t of tl1ro11g/1 .
"in," prep., conn ects /10/e and roo.f.
"roof," noun, object of in.
"of," prep., connects roof and barn.
"barn," noun, object of o.f.

Phrases: kind, and what they rn oclify.
E.

l'art of speech, and construct ion o( word s (p;nsing).

II.

"Your father will go to the exhibition to-morrow, out he
will not take you with him."

MODELS.
I.

"A sunbeam played throug b a hole in the roof of a barn."

A.

Compound declarative, containing two independent statements.

...
-

..

ANA/, VSIS.

ANALYSIS.

97

B.

Your father

I ~ill go to the exhibition lo-morro\\",

ANALYSIS.

( 1) Kind of sentence.

but
he

I will not take you with

( 2) Entire subjec t o f senten ce.

him.

( 3) Entire pre di cate o f sente nce.

c.

(4) Si mple suhj cc t and its modifi e rs.

Not any.

D.
"to -

( 5) Simpl e pred icate and its m odifi e rs.

ex hibitio n," adv., m o d. will go .

( 6) Kind o f c lauses, and what th ey m odify.

"with him," adv., m o d. w ill tal.:e.

( 7) E ntire subjec t of c lause.
( 8 ) Entire predi cate of clause.

III.

"Th e la ndscape that fill s th e tra\·e ll cr \1·ith r:1ptmc i-;
rcga nkcl with indiffe rence liy him who secs it cn.: ry d:1y

( 9) Kind o f phrases, an d what th ey modify.

( 10) c ·onnectives.

from hi s window."

MODELS.

A.
Complex, d eclarat ive, con ta ining one indepe nd e nt ~ tat c ­
m e nt and two c lauses.

B.
The land scape that fi lls th e trave lle r with ra pture

I i'i

regard ed with indiffe rence by him who sees it eve ry d ay fro m
hi ~

\r indo11·.

I.

"J\ sunbeam playe <l through a hole m the roof of the
barn."

( 1) This is a simple declarative se ntence, co ntaining
one state me nt.

(2) Th e ent ire s11lij ec t is a s7t11beam .

c.

" th a t j fill s the trave lle r with ra ptmc, " adj., mod. l1111ilsr11f «.

( 3) The e ntire predi cate is plaJ•ed tltrol!§[lt a liole in t/1e
n •of r?f t!lC /Jarn.

"1\"110 j secs it eve ry d ay from his window," adj ., mud . !ii111 .

( -l) Th e s imple subj ec t is s1111bea111, mod ifi ed by a.

D.
"\Yith ra pture," adv., m o d . fills .

(5) Th e simple p redicate is pla,red, modifi ed by th e
a ch·e rbi al phrase.

"\,·ith indiffe re nce," adv., mo d. is l"CJ;<ll "<kd .

( 6) The re a re no clauses.

" b y him," adv., mod. is rr;;·ankd.

(7)

"from window," adv., mod. secs.

( 8)

ANALYSIS.
ANALYS IS.

( 9 ) Th c phrasesare, -

t/u'()/tg/1 a !t ole, adv., m od. flayed.

(5) Simple predi cate is will take, made negative by not,

in tltc 1·01if, adj ., m o d. ltoJe.
of lit e ;,,, m, adj., mod . ro1if

and mod ifi ed by the object )'Ott and the adverbial phrase.
( 6) The re are no clauses.

( 10) Conn ectives a re tl1ri111i li, in, a nd rif

( 7)
( 8)

II.

( 9) The phrase is w it/1 !zim, adv., m od. wzll take.
(TO) The connectives in entire sentence a re, to, but, and

"Your fath e r ll'ill go to the exhiLition to-mo rrow, but he
will no l take you with him."
( 1)

wit/1.

This is a co111po1tnd dec!araliz'e sente nce, cu nt :1ini11g

III.

t wo slcl t1·111t11ts.
( z ) Th e e ntire subj ec t of first sl:1tc1 11 cnt is

99

( 4) Simple subjec t is lie.

J'"'"' f

"The landscape whi c h fills th e traveller with rapture is

1!lto·.

rega rd ed with indiffe re nce Ly him who secs it every d ay,
from his wind o w."

( 3 ) The e ntire predicate of first state ment is, 1i'1'/l ,~1 1 /,i

t/1 e exhibition to-morrow.
( 4 ) Simpl e subj ect is fath er, m od ifi ed by y our.

( r) This is a complex declarative sentence; it contains
one principal a nd two subordinate sta te ments.

( 5 ) S iinpl c predi cate is will,,·f1, modified by th e ::u h-crL-

la! phrase, and th e ach-c rli /o-11111rrow.

( 2) Entire subj ect of se nte nce is t/1e landscape wlud1
fills the trrmdlcr with rapt11re.

( (,) Th ere a rc nv cl a11scs.

(7)
( S)

(3) Entire pred icate is is ugardcrl, a nd the res t of th e

( 9 ) Th e phrase is to t!te cxlii/;i/i(l11, adv., m od. 11,ill
(ro) Th e co nn ec ti ve is lo.
( 1)

g1 1 •

Th e seco nd s ta tem ent is, lie wi!/ 11(1t take yo11 <i'ilh

lti111.

(z) Ent ire subj ect is lte.
( 3 ) E ntire predicate is will 11(Jt tal'.e y ou witli !1i111 .

l

sente nce.

(4) Simple subj ect is la 11dscrrpe, m odifi ed by t/1e and
the adj ectiv e clause.

(5) Simpl e pred icate is is regarded, modified by th e
two ad ve rbial phrases.
( 6) Th e c lauses are, whz'clt fills tltc traveller wit/1 mpt11re, adj., m od. landscape ; a nd, who secs zi evC?y day .from
!tis window, adj ., mod. him.

A N//L J-SJS.

100

ANALYSIS.

IOI

(7) Entire subj ect o f lirsl clause is 1i'/11d1.
EXAMPLE.

Enlire predi ca te o f first clause is fills the IN;'t-/lrr

"Th e tall oaks which grow in the fo rest wave th eir
branches g race fully in the cold Jviarch winds."

wit!t r11pt1trc.
(8 ) Entire sul1j cct o f seco nd claw;c is wlu1 •
Enlirc predi cate of sccol1( I c lause ·is sus 1'!

bove : tall, oaks, 7fllud1, grow, wave, branc/1es, grrlt"t/111(1•,
cold, Jl farc/1, winds.
;i

day .from his wi11rlow.

( ')) Th e phrases arc,-

( 2) T e ll the use o f the clause, wlud1 g row in the .forest.
( 3) T e ll the use of the phrases, in tl1e.forest, and i11 the

wi//1 r11pt11rc, ad v., mod. fills.
7L•it/1 i11rli/fcre11ff, ad v. , mod . is

n:~arilol.

rolrl Jl.farc/1 winds.

/Jy /1im , adv., mod. is rt;r;11nlol.

( 4) Write all the forms of the word tall, and tell when
each should I.Jc used .

cTc1y day, adv., mod . secs.

( 10 )

( 1) T ell the use o f the fo ll ow ing wo rds in the sentence

c'l't'r. 1·

.fru111 his wi11rlu1i•, ad v., mod.

SffS .

Th e connec tives are, w/11d1,

7i 1ilh, 7i 11//1, I~'" 1,·•/10,

and .from.

(5) Write all the fo rms of oaks, and tell when each
should be used.
( 6) Wha t time is expressed by th e word grow ?

or

\ \'h e n pupil s h ave beco m e fa mi li;i r wit h th e ru les

( 7) 'What tim e would be ex pressed if it were grew?

sy ntax, a 11cl th e ir ap pli cat io n in co nst ru ct ions n ot

( g) If the word have should be used before it, what
fo rm o f th e verb would it take ?

b eyo nd their capac ity, it s e e m s

;t

w;iste o f t i111v. t"

g-o t li roug 1i w1"t i1 t l1 e t1 s·t1.-il Cor ms of
SC>O n beco m es a form a l
a\Yak c nin g little th o ug h t.
th e fo ll o win g

;111d

j•r1rsi11.~·,

monotono us

ll' h1 l· h

L' Xl.TC I SL'.

Q uestions lik e thos e in

exa mp le wil l, it is be li eve d , ncall'

an int e r es t, a nd fami li ari ze pupi ls w ith g r;u11 111 :1 lil ·;il
pri n c i pi es.
" n s a1·e ~f! ·1 \·e11, 110t t o h e foll owed
1 ·11cse ques t·1o
. ns
im pli c itly, but as s u ggcs t io

di sc r etio n o f t eac hers.

t(J

1.c
u se d at th e
u

( 9) What o ther words besides have woukl require th e
same fo rm ?
( r o) Write all the forms of wave, and g ive an exampl e
o f each fo rm in a se ntence.

( 11) How could th e word wave be mad e to express
future tim e ?
( 12) What is the use of the words s/1all and will when
th ey are prefixed to verbs ?
( 13) What are a11.nlia ries J

I

l

,.

APPENDIX.

MODE.

THE potential mode might, perhaps, be more properly
call ed another form of the indicative.
JJoth modes are used to declare, and to ask a question.
Both may be used either in an independent statement,
or in a clause.
Doth may be used subjunctively, to express a condition.
In fact, they are necessarily used for this purpose in all
but the past tense.
There seems, then, to be no way of defining either the
indicative or the potential mode, so as to exclude the other,
excep t by the form.
J can rlo it, and Jam able to do it, mean the same thing.
if ltc 7u1:r1tcs, and lie will go if lte can. These
expressions show that both modes may be used in declarati1·e statements and in expressing conditions.
J k orn go

On the other hand, the imperative has the f orm of the
indicative, but is used for a different purpose.
1 03

104

A l 'l'EN/JJX.

Al'PEND/X.

SUBJUNCTIVE .

SEQ UENCE OF TEN S ES.

Grimm says, th:i.t "whil e I 11111 m ea ns l am, /!1·11 nw:ins

I slwll /1c. Th e J\nglo-Saxon
a future se nse .
fo rm

Jl!ay, shall, will, are regular ly used in clauses, after th e

(be) has n11t a p n.:s1·111, 1011 1

prese nt and future tenses in th e indepe ndent s ta te m e nt ;

ln the o ld e r la 11g11:1;.;cs, it is only whn<' lh L·

is not fo und , th a t ;,,. has the I )()\\"C r

I/ II/

form."

/!cu

or

;t

a :1d 11n~rht, co11ftl, wo11/d, s/101tl1I, after the past tenses; as,

prl''iC ll!

:~:::i:c

(See Fo11"ier's Eng. Gram., p. 2GS.)

It sel' ms hy this, th at th e 1•rcsc 11t practi ce o f cn11fi11ing
th e fo rm s J.f J /le, a nd lj it nri11, to th eir use o nl y 11·hl' n

I came

usage .
Although we d e fine te nse as d e noting di stin c ti o ns oft im e,
is expressed by th e verb.

It is mo re co mm o nl y CX ]'rt:ssed

by :i. phrase o r an adve rb.

In facr, th e prese nt a nd the fu tme of th e
11(.1·/

Sat11rday wed:.

sl/1111 or 7eill go

J slwll

1>r

7i•ill

.~'o 110;;·.

I

/ (1 -1/l Orrow .

Th e l'ulL' nti :d p rese nt a ncl past tenses m:i y lie used in
c~qlrc ':sing

prese n t nr fut11 re Lime; :is, J / 1·

] !1· 11111_1'

gr>/(1-/110/"row.

(fJ!l/t! .~'"<'

IO-ll/ tJIT<'1i.'

I!t- a>ttltl ,t;o

if it 'i('t'r(' 1101./or

llr>7U

Ve rbs of ask ing, teaching, a nd a few others, ha1· e two
direc t objec ts, - one o f th e p erson, th e o th er of th e 1/1i11g;
:ts, f /r11<i:l1! him grammar.
That th e re a rc two direct objec ts, is shown by the fact
tha t th ey ad mit o f two regular passives; as, H e was ta11g/1t

gram 111ar by m e ; a nd , Grammar was ta11g/1t him by me. J
a shed him this r;11eslio11 . This r;11estion was ashed him by
me. lie 1oas asl.·ctl !!tis 111estio11 bj• 111e.

may .~·11 111>ii', <Jr

if !tr'

1c•i..-/1t·t!.

111·

a11 r1~~"t7Art'IJl(I/ /.

The p::ist form of th e potenti:i l is used in cxp ressin.c: pa st

} that I mig ht see for myself.

l

i11cli c:1lil"l~ 111:1y

be used in exp ress ing prese nt or future time; as, J;t,,· ;,, ~1 '.r

go /lad:

I had come

j'

it is only in a ve ry ge neral se nse th at th e tim e o f an act ion

that I may sec fo r my·self.

I will co me

re fe rence is had to future tim e, is co nsistent with ori .~ i11 : d
TENSE.

co me 1 }

l s h:tll co me

The co nstru c ti o n is th e same a ft er ce rtai n verbs, wh e n
o ne o f th e obj ec ts is a n infinitive, or verbal noun; as, .I

hrnrt! l1im st,-p.

l saw ltim run.

Two passives may be

form ed thus : .!.!is s!cppi11g was lteard by me.

H e was l1card

tim e. o nl y in c lauses wh e n it fu ll o11· a p:1sl tense o f the
0
;

1·erl.> in th e pr incipa l statement; ::is, J /Larctl tlu1t llf' 7•'1 111/rl ·

ozicr/11 /.:c me.

1

'f'hc pas t fi1rm is F-11 111ctimcs used nftcr the present perfec t, s in ce it represe nt s a

p:-ist actio n, complete at th e presen t lim e; as, I may have tcJ/d yo11 , t 11at you migh t

be on

)'1'11 r

g·,.1a rd.

106

A l'FEND/X.
APPENDIX.

ta skf 1')' 111r.

Ile was srcn lo

1'11/l

hy mr.

107

]/is r11 1111 i11r:

was seen l') 1 me.
l\ -C('(I. a n(I Ill'r1·c, uefore 'another verb in ::t ncg::tli\'C .sente nce,f
()
l ll1
. n e-·ct io n s in th e third pe rso n s1ngll
do n ot la l;:c tie
I l:i r 111
.
,.
~tl.\'C.
::ts
ft
/I
CCt!
S
(
cl?'(
i'il'
lie
Sl7/I
.
.Ii
th e ]'rese nt Ill ( 1c.. ' ' ' · '
tlw l 7/ f' (.'t/ !•r said. - NEWM ,\N. l:llt if It> is exp ressed \\'il lt
th e SL'Cond \·erh, th e s is added j as, I t uads tu lie sai d ·

"Some things th e s tate !tad better leave alone ; others it !tad
better not." - M . A RNOLD.
"But if I like the gay equipage so well as to go out of my
road, I lwd better have go ne afoo t." - R. w. EMF.nsoN.
" Js it tru e that Johns on had better have go ne on producing
more lrencs, in s tead of \\'riting Li ves of th e Poets?"
M. Armow.

H e tier rrs to te ll th e truth.

l\'ct'lls is so met imes ::tn adverb (mean ing necrssari(r); as,
Ile 11111s/ nffds go !ltrr111g!t

~')a1111uicr .

Jn Anglo-Saxon the simple infinitive was not preceded by
th e prepos itio n lo.
I t ll'as o nl y th e dati ve case that was preceded by to.

1lfc!lti11!.·s is 1•ro 1·111e'c I I>)' th e im11e rso nal ve rb t!ti11!.", m can_ve 1111': an d is lit era ll y re nd e red, ti
ing Sf'l'llt, aml til e 'bti
c
SCClllS

lo

1 fad

71/C.

tlS

Some tim e in th e latter pa rt o f th e twe lft h century, lo
l':tm c in to 11 sc be fore lit e si111plc infiniti ve; and th e two
infinitives- th e dative, o r geru ndia l, a nd th e simple form beca me confo unded.

lief, !tad better, !tad best, !.w1 I {!.·
t .r, !tn ' I ' n. ·'•'<J1NI'

Dut the ge run d may now be d istingu ished from th e snn-

. . .sc1 I j IJllt tlt L• '\'
::i.ml lt cul ra lltc;·, a rc so ml:tim es c ritw1

,'ll'C

ple infiniti ve, by th e fact that it genera ll y ex presses purpose

idioms "·hi c h h:we bee n in use from ear ly. tim es, ~1111 1

ap;

or intentio n.

aln1nc Lrnt ly Sllpporte d l>y th e lics t a utlt '1 rit1 cs:

/ir:I and

II ,11r/cl els

. . ..1 1s.0 used
li)' o"uod \ITt lc rs.
I UO llld ral!.tcr a te
·

" l !tad rather be a dog, and bay the moo n."- s""'" rr.1r.e.
" I had rnt/1er be ::t l 1oor k ecpe r ' " etc · -

"I fiad 1111tclt ratlter be mysei( th e slave,
· "J\ nd \1·car th e bonds, tha n fasten th em on I um.
" 1 !tad as lief not be, as li ve lo be
.
In awe of suc h a t I11ng
as 1 1n )·s··c lf • "_ .S 11A i.::s. 11t:.A1H!.

as, A ho use to let= .for letting; Ready lo sail= .for salling;
he is th e 111a n to rlo it = .f() r r/()i11g it.
Earle says, "That whi c h we call th e E ng lish infini tive
verb, suc h as

l's· · lxxxiv.
to .
··

It is cq11 iva lent to for with an infiniti ve in i11g:

ff)

li1,c, (() die, is quite a m ode rn thing, a nd is

c haracteri.-tic of E ng li sh as opposed to Saxon.
. .

C m \TF I\

It first ex-

isted as a phrasal adve rb, a nd was a me th od of a ttaching
o ne ve rb to another in a n aclverbi::tl manner.

In process

o f time it d e tac hed itself, a nd assumed an independent
pos itio n."

!08

A!'.!'J:; NI) IX.

APPEND.IX.

Bain s:tys in h is "Higher Engli sh Cr:unrn ar" (p. 15 6) .
" Th e infinitive acts the part of a no1 1n-phrase wh en preced ed, as it usuall y is, hy th e pre positi o n
fc11J/ /(1

tl1nnu

a way

s11d1

a

//I;

as, //1·

c 111nst:111c :e o r cx pl :rn :i.tion of his lic in).!; s11 is, _(,1,. //11·

away rif s11r/1 a c/1a11cc."

1.> ,,

d11111cc ; :1 11d th e man1HT or c-irt lin11(•/11,·

Thi s phr:lSl'. lik e llthns f11rn1 cil

i>y a noun :i.ml prepositi rm, may pe1fo rn1 th t.: o fli r·t.: 11f a

nou n, a n adj ec tive, o r :i.n :u h-e rh.
~n

This justifi es wh at has 1Jee 11 treated as

a11o n1 :il"11 s

11 ~ t.:

It is common to call as a relative pronoun in the expressions, s11cl1 as, as mall)' as .
Th e re see ms, however, to Le merely an ellipsis of the
relative and its antecedent; as, I gave !tim such art/des as
Th;it is, I g m;e /i i m suc/1 articles
11s [ tlwse arc whic/1 J were in my possession. As 111 a 11y as
[ t/1ose were who J received !1im, etc.
1,vre in my jJossrssir111 .

Wh en the ellipsis is supplied, we see that
j1111ction.

of the infinitive (o r \"C rl1al !l lllln) in s111: h s1·11te1wt·s as, //,.
'i\.-·tt .; rrtl 1 ~1'

lo J.:<1; ] ft·

it"' fl .r

71 /.1r , · 11 1 · 1~:..Jt lo
1

Th e 1·c1 11 slriwli " n t.lll'n ·li 1n·

.r//,·11 /.

rr 1111 1i 11

is a con-

Th e same ellipsis ex ists afte r than in the following se ntence: I p:iicl him more money titan was clue.

111>1 :111n111:1J.111 -;, s1111 T a

h

as

That is I

'

pa id him more money than [th e money that] was clue.

l •hr:1se co nsisting ll i° a 1• rc 1Hisiti"11 :111 d a 11 <>1 111 111:1y pcrf\ m11
th t.: office uf a nou n, an adjei:ti1 e, or

:111

:11 h·n li.

Such ex pressions as tic 10 first, tlzrce last, are often critic ised, but arc fi1lly sanc ti oned by good usage ; as,

The Eng lish \"C rb h:i.s no i111pc rfcl'l p:1ss i1·c i•:irti.-iple.

T o suppl y this want, th e i111p nfe<"l adi\"t.: i-> often ll "cil i11 a
p:1;;s i1·c se nse : :is, Till· /w 11.><" i.r /111ilili11.:;·; ./'/!( ild ! i.1 1>ii 'tJ:.( ;
1

7'/1 c t!r11111s

are

'

] 'lie two fi rst Ji nes ." -

" 1\ t

B1 .,\IR.

lit e tw o las t sc hoo ls." - Jo11NsoN.

"Th e llm.:e first of his longe r poe ms ." -

/lcatin_i:.

The ev il o f e mploying the s:1111 e ftJrill 111 !ll"O mea nings h:t'
g i1·c n ri se to th e n q1rcss io 11';, '/'/"·

1'0·1~ ,:

l•11ill.

SournEv.

Arnold says, "Persons write first three to prevent the

'/'/1 1"

seeming a hs11rrlity o f implying that more than one thin g can

Th t.:sc forms see 111 c:111 11 !1 r1111 s :1 11<1 sti ff, l111t th t·y a rc 11011·

lie lirst ; li11t il is e')11ally al>sunl to talk abou t the first tli nc
wh e n, as o fte n h:ip pe ns, th ere is no second three ."

a'n1111 s a rl'

/11·i11g

/J, 111.1"1"

II"

/11·a kn.

used by many guo tl write 1·s.

(~ c c

IL1i11. p. 11 r. .)

/\cti vt.: for ms 11·i th p ~1ss i 1-c si:-;11 iii c:1ti <> 11 s :m~ fllll l1ii in i11!111i t i1-cs: :1 s, A !1 011.rc /11 k l ; _,;,,11i/ /,1 ,., ,/: /,,,,.J.·s /11 sdl; Iii" is
/11

" l\ Iy two la s t lett ers." -Aoo"oN.
1

N t1 111 c .

Tht.: infi11iti1·e is hcrt.: a ;;e rnncl.

Besides, if the criticism is just, firs t and last, and indeed
all superla ti ves c:i.n be used onl y with singular nouns; a nd it
is equally imprope r to speak o f th e first years of a lawyer's
practice, th e first CSSITJ'S of a writer, the two w isest men ur

'

AJ'I'h'NLJ/X.

11 0

th e t1e" f1t!kst men.

F o r, if

\ \T

insi' t t ha t th e re c a n lie bit

usin g the same form o f compariso n for two, o r for more

o ne fi1·st, it is cl ear th e re can h e hut o ne wi sest 111 a 11 , u 111..:

th a n two ."

t al les t ma n, e tc.

o ld est an d you nges t c hild.

1:111 \\' c do n n l co mm o nl y s p ea k of th e \Yi -;es t

I I I

O ne havin g but two children speaks o f hi s

m e n,

Campbe ll, in " The Philosophy o f Rhetoric," says, in

T he ge ne ral rnlc see ms to lie . th :1l th e wo rd lo \1·hi c: h we

" () nl y in such, the co mpara ti ve has th e definite articl e tl1r.·

111·0

re fncnc e to th e ex press io n, J lc is tlte taller 111an (If tl1c f7c1,,,

th e t:illcs l l\\' U 111 e 11 .

pre fixed to it, a nd it is c onstru ed precisely as the supe rla-

\\·ish lo <":tll s p ec ia l altc 11li o 11 is placed first.
nuth furlllS arc proper, and :\re l\SCd Ji)' th e bes t \\Til ers.

ti ve ; nay, both degre es are in such cases used indisc rimi \Ve say rightly, This is th e w eal<er of the two , o r

nate ly.
"Th e o cc mre nce o f fft,· with a co 111pa ra ti l'e 111 o1"C,

t/1r /Jetter- is

11011·

as, tlt c

th e weakest o f the two. "

sho 1\·11 liy gra 111111a ri a11 s no t to a ffo rd

a n e:-;:11 nplc o f th e d c l111il e a rli l"lc .

'l /11· in stt <" h <" 0 11il1i11a-

ti u 11s, alth u 11 g h s pe ll lik e th L· :1rl i1 ·k , is i11

rl' alit y :111 oth c r

\i·o rd; [m e: 111i11g ] /~ 1 · /1ow !lllldt , the 111u re, /~1 · so !llt1d1, lhe

There is so m e tim es a q11 es tion wheth e r to u se an adjec t ive or a n adve rb afte r ce rl :i in ve rbs.
Th e prin c ipl e see m s to be, th at wh e n th e limi t in g word
ex presses a q1ra/ity" or slate of the subj ec t

or th e

o bjec t,

rath e r than the manner of th e a c tion, an adjec tive is proper.

/V/111! 1Pitlt , in s11ch se 11 t•.·1 1<Ts :i s, ll "/111! 1uitlt tlt t 01/il

7,y1rtltcr 11111! }·c/1/c /t, ·11/t/1, I lw1·c

/1<"1' 11

<'r111ji111·d /1 1 !hr· /f(i tt ff ,

i,; :rn idi o m , n ot lo b e ana lyzed , u11l lbc·d :1s an equi 1·:ile 11l o f
the :u lve ru par tly .

This co nstrnction ta kes p la ce wit h th e ve rbs, be, look,

f eel, taste, s!lld!, seem, aj',(Jcar, e tc . : as, The berry tas tes
S(lttr.

The fl o we r smell s swat.

abo ut it.

Dain says, " The rnlc (l h:1l lh e c 1.1 111 p:1r:1ti1·e 11111 sl h e 11 sed

V cive t feels smoot/1.

se nte n ce so11nds awkward and lwrs/1 .
The boy felt l/le<lll.

p c r~ rn1 s rank ed

The le tte r came safe.

h1:i;11 among the nouility.

1•ari11g two thin gs : as, t/11· k11.it rtf i/11·
l i<'O.

/ ;1 •11 ;

/ft ,· 11<>1 •tf tlt c

.I .ik e ot h e r d11 a l fu rn1 s, th e comp:tr:1l i\'C d eg ree is

wo rl; as gay as a lark.

su 1ierfl11 ous, and perspi c 11it y 1rnul d l; e C:• [ll:dly \\'e ll sc 1Yed by

" Th e blow fell lt ea7Jy on the fami ly." - M"c"' uLAY.
" Th e s tream ra n deep and st rong ."
" T he lads ca me bac k sa/c."
" \ \i h ilc he li ve d, his power stood fi rm. ''

These

Ile went lo hi s

\i·h e 11 li\·u thin gs :ire <"o nq1a red ) is 11 11 l stri Ll ly adh e re d to .
\\' ri le rs :rn d s peak e rs co 11ti1111:ill y ~1 s e th e s11pc rla tin· in c·u rn -

The

The man felt bad

112

AI'PEND/X.
11

API'END/X.

113

that time, there has been a tendency to restore the English

SHALL" AND "WlLL."

id iom, as less cumbersome and more spirited.

Bain, in his

S!t11ll originall y meant obligati on, - a sense still retained
in its past te nse sl1011ld.

" Higher English Gram mar," gives the prefere nce to such

C hau ce r l! ses the ex pression, "The faith I shall to Goe 1 "

expressions as, tltat I was w itness of, to of wludt I was a

1uit11r·ss.

(m eaning mc1c lo C"d).

/\. long list or quotations from E lizabethan writer;;,
Tlwt jlcslt

1Viii, o n th e o th er hand , means i11/r11!ion.

g iven !Jy Dain , will show the usage at the time.

In th e lirst perso n, exce pt in makin g a promise, we use

is !teir lo, would hardl y be improved by th e expression tu
w/11d1 }l<·s/1 is lteir.

slwll, admittin g o m d eterminati on lo lie a d11t y.
In th e second a nd third persons, we use will as a pre-

S/lall llsed in th e second and third persons ex presses th e
d ete rmina ti on o f th e speaker, and is e<1uivalent to a comIt is th e fo rm o f im posing legal oLligations; as,

Tlt o1r shalt

1toJ

I s it proper to encl a sen tence with a preposition?

Dr. Campbell, in the "Philoso phy of Rhetori c," says, " In
Engli sh th e prepositi on i,; o ft en placed not onl y after the
no un , bllt at a co nsid erable distan ce from it, as in th e fo llO\\·ing e xample : Tl1c i11Jir111a1y w as, indeed, 11c7·cr so /11/l

as c•11 this rlay, wl1icl1 I was at some loss lo acc01111tf11r."
Th e prac ti ce o f th rowi ng th e prepositi on to the end o f th e
senten ce (especiall y wh en used with the restricti ve relatiYe

t!ta t ) is o f T euto nic o ri gin, and, as might be expected , a n
oh! Engli sh idio m.
Jn the latt er part o f th e seventeenth and th e first part or
Sin ce

"A force

MATT11.:w ARNoLo.

This is much more vivid and idiomatic than to wludt lie can

appeal.
T his construction is especially adap ted to colloquial discourse, and an idiomatic style.

steal.

th e e ig!1tecnth century, it was regarded as in elegant.

PnEscorr.

o f culti vated opinion for him to appeal to." -

sumpti o n t!1 at th e act is voluntary.

mand.

"Wre tched vagabonds, eager only to

fin d some obscure retreat to die in." -

