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ECLECTIC EDUCA.TIONAL SERIES

ELEMENTS
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OF

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COMPOSITION· AND·(RHET@RIC

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COPIOUS EXERCISES IN BOTH CRITICISM AND
•

.. . . \\

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CONSTRUCTION

BY

VIRGINIA WADDY
Teacher of Rhetoric in the Richmond High School, Richmond, Va.

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ttbe .:£clectfc l)ress
VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG, AND COMPANY
CINCINNATI AND NEW YORK

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Copyright, 1889, by
VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG, AND COMPANY

·cd according to Act of Congress, in the year 1888, by
VIRGINIA WADDY,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress.

THE object aimed at in the preparation of this work has been
to furnish a practical treatise on Composition and Rhetoric,one sufficiently elementary for the lower grades ·of the high
school, and at the same time comprehensive enough to give a
fair knowledge of the principles and ,graces of Rhetoric.
While the discussion · of · simple, complex, and compo~nd
sentences is the province of Grammar,-a subject usually completed before that of Rhetoric is begun,-it has bet:'.n deemed
advisable to include these topics, · for the pupil selaom possesses
the maturity of mind to comprehend thoroughly the laws of
Grammar, even when he undertakes to master the elements of
Rhetoric; moreover, his attention has been directed almost exclusively to analytical processes, to the neglect of synthetical;
hence, he may be skillful in discovering the relations of words
in sentences formed by others, and be but a bungler in giving
expression to his own ideas. For a like reason, also, the subject of Concord, which perhaps belongs still more strictly to
Grammar, is included; not all of the syntactical arrangements
are noticed, only those wherein the grammatical principle receives a special signification from the rhetorical point of view.
The Reproduc tions furnish material for practice upon the
principles under discussion. As a means of securing ease of ex~
pression, they are of great value; the. material for the discourse
being furnished, the pupil is thus enabled to concentrate his attention upon .the form. A more advanced step towards original
writing is found in the Developments. These give play. _to the
imagination, and supply the details of a connected story; they
also furnish an excellent · test of style, because they give no

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assistance. In t~e first Developments, hints are given to guide
the pupil. This aid should be given with succeeding Developments only where the pupil may not fully understand the poem,
or where he might be discouraged without such assistance.
Although it may be said that the finer principles of literary
taste·, fancy, and ~Uusion, and the subtle music of rhythm, are
obtained only through a special sense developed by long and
minute discipline, and belong to the delicate and difficult science of criticism, there are included in this treatise extracts
from masters of style, to which attention is directed; for it
must be conceded that, since a true appreciation of what is
best in our literature . requires years o_f careful criticism, the
student's attention should be given to such criticism as soon as
his mind has attained sufficient maturity for the consideration
of the subject.
·
The "Exercises" with which the book abounds are given,
that the pupil may learn discourse by applying it. Some learners may, perhaps, need less of such practice than others; the
teacher can, therefore, omit what is deemed superfluous.
This work
in every respect the outgrowth of the classroom; much of the subject-matter and many of the exercises
have been given · oral instruction in the author's classes, and
it is hoped that in other hands it will stand the only true test
of a school-book,-the test of trial.
Most grateful acknowledgment is due to Prof. \V. F. Fox,
Principal of the Richmond High School, for assistance and encoura_gement during' the progress of the work.
Thanks are also due to several publishers for kindness in
allowing selections to be made from their publications,-to
Messrs~ · Houghton, Mifflin, & Co.; to the Century Company,
to Messrs. J. B. Lippincott Co., . to Messrs. Chas. Scribner's
Soni, to Messrs. Roberts Bros., to Mr. Parke Godwin and
'
to others whose names are mentioned in connection with the
selections copied.
RICHMOND, VA.,

January, 1890.

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CONTENTS.

CHAPTER

!.-THE SIMPLE SENTENCE

Elements of the Simple Sentence .
Position of Phrases
Synthesis of the Simple Sentence .
II.-THE COMPLEX SENTE!\CE •

,,,..

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Clauses of the Complex Sentence .
Synthesis of the Complex Sentence

UL-THE COMPOUND SENTENCE

Connectives
Contracted Compound Sentences
Synthesis of the · Compound Sentence
Exercises in Composition
IV.-TRANSFORMATIO N OF ELEME NTS

Contraction of Sentences
Expansion of Sentences .
Exercises in Com position
V.-CONCORD

•

Rules of Syntax
Exercises in Composition
Vl.-SYNTHF.SIS OF SENTENCES INTO A PARAGRAPH

Exercises in Conwosition
VIL-VARIETY OF EXPRESSION

•

Change of Structure
Change of .Phraseology .
Exercises in Composition

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__ _,

~velopments, hints are given to guide

d be given with succeeding Develop1 inay not fully understand the poem,
:ouraged without such assistance.
d that the finer principles of literary
and the subtle music of rhythm, are
;pecial sense developed by long and
ong to the delicate and difficult scire included in this treatise ~xt rac ts
which attention is directed; for it
;ince a true appreciation of what is
uires years of careful criticism, the
be given to such criticism as soon as
ficient maturity for the consideration

CONTENTS.
.

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CHAPTER

PAGE

SENTENC~ .: . •·· .
Elements of the Simple Septence .
Position of Phrases ·-;• ·
.
Synthesis of the Simple Sentence .

!.-THE SIMPLE

which the book abounds are given,
iscourse by applying it. Some learn~ss of such practice than others; the
Lit what is deemed superfluous.
respect the outgrowth of the class:ct-matter and many of the exercises
istruction in the author's classes, and
hands it will stand the only true test
;t of trial.
edgment is due to Prof. \V. F . Fox,
d High School, for assistance and enrogress of the work.
:o several publishers for kindness in
! made from their publications,-to
n, & Co.,· to the Century Company,
:ott Co., . to Messrs. Chas. Scribner's
; Bros., to Mr. Parke Godwin, and
re mentioned m connection with the
1890. .

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9
II

14

16

IL-THE COMPLEX SENTEKCE •

Clauses of the Compl~x Sentence
Synthesis of the Complex Sentence

.

35
35

III.-THE COMPOUND SENTENCE

Connectives
Contracted Compound Sentences
Synthesis of the · Compound Sentence
Exercises in Composition

39
41
45

IV.-TRANSFORMATION OF ELEMENTS

52

Contraction of Sentences
Expansion of Sentences .
Exercises in Composition

54

64
66
76
76
88

V.-CONCORD

Rules of Syntax
Exercises in Composition

93

VL-SYNTHF.SIS OF SENTENCES INTO A PARAGRAPH

Exercises in

98

Co~position

1o6
1o6

VIL-VARIETY OF EXPRESSION

....

,

Change of Structure
Change of Phraseology
Exercises in Composition

21
21
29

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120
12.)

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CONTENTS.

VI

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PAGR

CHAPTER

\'II I.-STYLE
Diction
Purity of Diction
Propriety of Dictioi;
Precision of Diction
Syn onym s
Simpli city of Diction
Con struction of Sentences
Clearness of Construct ion
Uni ty of Construction
En ergy of Coostruction .
Harmony of Construction
IX.-FIGURES OF SPEECH

Sim ile
Metaphor
Person ific:i.tion
Allego~y.

Me tony y

Vision
Antithesis
Epi g ram .
Irony
Hy pe rbole
Litotes
Exerci ~e in Figures
Exercises in ·Composition

132
133

135
139
152
154
174
180
180
190
195
214
218
220
224
228
230
232
234
235
237
238
240
241
243
244
245
250

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X.-THE PARAGR APH
Construction of the Paragraph
Exercises in the Paragraph
XL-THE SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF STYLE
Wi t
Humo r .
Pathos
neauty and Sublimity
Ex tracts for the Critical Study of Style .

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. 26o
267
267
270
271

275
284

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CONTENTS.

PAGE
CHAPTER

132
133 f
1 35
139
152
1 54
174
180
180
190
195
214
218
220
224
228
230
232
234
2 35
2 37
238
240
241
243
244

245
250

)
256
256

26o

267
267
270
271
:15
:84

XII.-THE PARAPHRASE

Selections for Paraphrase

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XIII.-PROSE COMPOSITION

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Discourses
Letters .
Essays
Treatises.
Travels
' ;
History
Fiction
News
Exercise in Paraph_rase and Composition

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299

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309
309
312
318
318
319
319
322
323
325

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XIV.-PROSODY AND VERSIFICATION
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Meter
Rhyme
Stanza
Poetical Pauses

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XV.-POETRY

Lyric.
Elegiac
Pastoral .
Didac~ic

.
Satirical .
Epic
Dramatic

XVI.-CAPlTALS AND PUNCTUATION

·'!' ·

336
336
347
350
367
368
369
370
370
371
372
372
374

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COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
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CHAPTER I. ..
\.

'THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.

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Composidon is the art of combining ideas, or thoughts,
and arranging them in order. As an art, it is 'regulated by
the principles of Rhetoric.
Rhetoric, derived from a Greek verb meaning to speak,
is the 'science that discusses the means whereby thoughts
may beforcibly presented. JAristoili, the oldest writer on
the subject, defines rhetoric as ''the· faculty of perceiving
all the possible means of persuasion on every subject." As
its etymology suggests, . it > was originally
limited to spoken
•
discourse; but since the principles .,which apply to spoken
discourse apply with equal forc.e to written di~course, the
meaning of the term has been so e:::ctended as to include
both written and spoken composition. ,, ·-r
Composition and Style.-The two important divisions
of Rhetoric are Composition and Style.
A Simple Sentence consists of one independent propos1t1on. It contains only one subject and one predicate;
but an indefinite number of words and phrases may be
brought into the sentence, and grouped about the subject
and the predicate as modifiers of these elements.
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~:·taui:·~1ii<lalli "~'f(Nay/for :pity s·salte
Don't v~x me about your crown~
But say if the ribs of a ship should break
·And the ship',s crew all go down
Of a night like this, how long it would take . ·
For a strong-limbed lad to drown!''
"But, grandam"-:-" Nay, have done," she said,
"\Vith your fairy and her crown!
Besides, your arm upon my he;:i.d
Is heavy.; get you down ! ''
"O ma'am, I'm so sorry to give you a pain!"
And the child kissed the wrinkled face time and again.
And then she told the story through
Of the fairy of the dell,
Who sold God's blessed gift of the dew
\Vhen it wasn't hers to sell~
And who shut the sweet light all away
With her thick black wings, and pined all day.
An , · how at last God struck her blind,
TH grandam wiped a tear,
And then she said," I shouldn't mind
If you read to me now, my dear!"
And the little girl, with a wondering look,
Slipped her golden hair from the leaves of the book.
And the grandam pulled her down to her knee,
And pressed her close in her arm,
And kissing her, said, "Run out and see
If there isn't a lull in the storm.
I think the moon, or at lea st some star,
Must shine, and the wind grows faint and far."

THE PREPARATION OF A TOPICAL 0UTLI~E •.

The pupil is now required to make his own topical outline. Such an outline should be made with every Reproduction before attempting to giye the .. story in other words.
Observe carefully the follo wing directions for making a~
outline:
I. Search your material for leading thoughts,-, these will
form the general topics.
.
2. Make as few topics as possible; raise nothing to the
rank of a topic which may properly stand under one already
.-found.
·-3. • Make each topic complete in itself; no· two topics
should cover the same ground; no one topic disguised in
different words should appear twice.
4. A general topic may consist of sub-topics arranged
under it.
5. Be careful to consider the order of th ~ topics; no point
to the clear understanding
of which some other point is
...
necessary, should precede that other.
6. The list of topics should give a clear conception of the
whole subject.
.
REPRODUCTION

f:

ON THE DEATH OF A FAVORITE CAT, DROWNED IN A TUB
OF GOLDFISHES.

Next day again the grandam spun,
And oh, how sweet were the hours!
For she sat at the window toward the sun •
And next the field of flowers,
And never looked at the long gray sea,
Nor sighed for her lad that was lost, "Ah, me!"

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'TWAS
on~a 0:tylv
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\Vhere China':_lgayest~ had[dyed
Th~ az ii re1flowe?'s that ~law, .
Demures"ioTth'e; tabb-ykind,
·
The Pens1ve/selfn\a, reclined,
Ga zed;; the)take b1o;-.

ALICE CARY.
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i-Ier conscious tale her joy declared;
The fair round face, the snowy beard,
T he -velvet of her paws,
H er coat that with the tortoise vies,
Her ears of jet, a nd emerald eyes,
She saw, and purred applause.
- Still h<!-d she gazed, but, m idst the tide,
Two anv-el forms were seen to g lide,
The Genii of the stream :
Their scaly armor's Tyrian hue,
Through richest purple, to the view
Betrayed a golden gleam.
jD

•

The hapless n ymph with wonder saw:
A whisk er first, and the n a claw,
\Vith m any an ardent wish,
She stretched in vain to reach the prize:
What female heart can gold despise?
What Cat's averse to fish?
Presumptuous maid! \vith looks intent,
Again sh e stretched, again she bent,
Nor knew the gulf between:
(Malignant Fate sat by and smiled)
The slippery verge her feet beguiled;
She_tumbled headlong in. Eight times em erging from the flood,
She mev:.-ed to every watery god
So me speedy aid to se n d .
1\ o do1 phi n ca me, no 1\ crci cl sti rrcd,

Nor cruei T om or Susan heard:
A favorite has no friend.
From hence, ye Beauties! undeceived,
Know one false step is ne'er retrieved,
And be with caution bold :
Not all that tempts your wandering eyes
And heedless hearts, is lawful pnze,
Nor all that gli~tens, gold.
THOMAS GRAY.

DEVELOPMENT I.

The exercise called Development is designed to give practice in original composition . In the follow ing selection
mu ch that t he imag ination can supply has been omi tted.
For example, we might tell wlw the little girl is ; we might
tell something of her home at this glad C hristmas time ;
wltose kind hands tu~ked her snugly in bed; w lto bade her
close her eyes in sleep; \vhat gifts she desired from Santa
Claus; th'e contents of tqe stocking, etc. It is not necessary to keep strictly to the statements ; th ey may be varied
to suit th ~- story as y ou prefe r to state it. Be ca reful to
supply all that is needed to make a connected story; avoid
introducing anything :iot consistent with every other part ;
and develop the·-parts proportionate!;
1•

CHRISTMAS.

THEY put me in t '°3.t spare bed, and there they bade me sleep:
I must not sti : must not wake; I must not even peep!
Right opposite that lonely bed, my Christmas stocking hung ;
While near it, waiting for the, morn, my Sunday Clothes were flun g.
I coun ted softl y, to m y self, to te n, an d te n times ten ,
A n cl w e nt thro ugh all the al phabet, and then began ag a in ;
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And tried a dozen other ways to fall into a doze-

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When suddenly the room grew light. I heard a soft, strong bound'T was Santa Claus, I felt quite sure, but dared not look around.
'Twas nice to know that he was there, and things were going rightly,
And so I took a little nap, and tried to smile. politely.
_,,_
.:

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"Ho! merry Christmas!" cried a voice; I felt the bed a-rocking;
'Twas daylight-Brother Bob was up! and oh, that splendid stoc:tcing !
BESSIE HILL, in St. Nicholas.

,_

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COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.

!j
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DEVELOPMENT If.

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NUITING-TIME.

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Octohe~.

frosts)~1~d

THE
h \was
the
come do;;1,
The \~?o'<l ands were kTurlet and %\\ow ani.1 bro\vn ; ·- ~·
Tfle ·harv sts were gat~er d, the n~ht~ had grow n ch1ll,
But warm yas the day~n the south pr\the hill. \

,I

'Twas there with our bags and our baskets we went,
And searching the dry leaves we busfly bent;
The chestnuts were. big and ~he beech-nl;ltS were small,
But both sorts are welcome to boys in the fall.
And when, in the ashes beneath the bright flam e,
On eves of November; with laughter and game,
The sweetmeat;; are roasted, we recollect still
How fine was the day on the south of the hill.
· ·
H. I., in St. Nicholas.

Tell how much the nut-gathering had been talked of, and
how long; wl~o formed the party; whose quick eyes were
first to spy the nuts ; whose nimble fingers helped to fill
each .basket; how the squirrels stared in startled wonder at
the merry party whose voices broke the
usual stillness of
.
the woods; how they regarded this invasion of their rights;
of the journey home-all' heavily laden ; what is the dear\

est recollection of that happy day?

DEVELOPMENT l!T.

AT THE SEASIDE.

HEAPING up

the .sbin.i ng pebbles,

· ~p~ding\i.n the ~l~st~~~~_.~_and;
Bmldmg , fierce but ·~mtrtuc .\f.arts
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CONCORD.
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. !~at fr~\f~s ;_hall ~uard the\ land,
Making\ love Yj landscaJk g:rfdens
Tnat are \w~~r~d ffi' the~r~,­
A~ ! tis \sure!~ ~le~ant, ·
On the \beach to/flay.

\
I

Ha11d in hand with merry playmates
Wading where the billows break,
Swift their feet the way retracing,
Lest the waves their steps o'ertake,
Merry childish laughter pealing .
Out from hearts_so wildly gay,:_
Ah! 'tis surely pleasant,
On the beach to play. · ·
1·

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of, and
~ s were
l to fill
nder at
1ess of
rights;
te dear-

Give the names of your playmates ;-''tell who is the merry,
daring leader in your play;· describe your gardens or the
forts you have constructed; tell how often tlie incoming
wave l~as kissed your retreating feet; the delightful sail
over the bright waters; give any other amusements in which
you might engage ; descrih'e the feelings awaK:ened on beholding the awful grandeur of the ocean.

DEVELOPMENT IV.. :•

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TRUST.
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S~RC~IN~ for~trawberr!~s' r~dy ~o' ea~}

Fin~ng tnem·Jcnmson and harge and .sweet,
\Vhat do lyou thii11J I fotITict\at my feet.
D~p i~ the 'g ;cd hill-side?
.

'

I

Folir brownl sparrows,/the cunning things,
Fether~d on bac~\~nd b~easti\and. '~ngs,
Proud w1t~\t.~e digr1ty _Elum'rge bn~gs,
opemng\the1r four 1mouths wide.

-

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FIGURES OF SPEECH.

No mower was there to startle the birds
With the noisy whet of his reeking scythe;
The quail, like a cow-boy calling his herds,
Whistled to tell that his heart was blithe.

I'

Now all was bequeathed with pious careThe groves and fields fenced round with briers~
To the birds that sing in the cloisters of ai~, ' .
And the squirrels, those merry woodland fri~rs.

T. :BUCHANAN

READ.

SUBJECTS FOR COMPOSITION. · 1.
I.

T.

2.

3.
4.
5.

6.

7.
8.
9.
IO.

3·
14.
I

I

5.

16.

17.
8.
19.

I

20.

Holiday: '· . ~
Little Barefoot.
Will-o'-the-wis ps.
Planting the Tree.
A Sheaf of Wheat.
Pictures in the Fire.
The Old Arm-Chair.
The Apple-Woman.
The Uses of Pencils.
A Lost Child's Story.
A Day in the .Country.
My First"Day ,at , School.
The Life of a Lazy Marr. ~
The Day-Dreams' of ~ · Cat.
An Old Mill and the Miller.
A Council of Rats and Mice.
The Story of a Faded Shawl.
The Boy Who Always Forgot.
How the Soldier Lost his Arm.
The Trials of a Street-Car Conductor.

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CHAPTER X.

7

THE PARAGRAPH.

A COMPOSITION of any length-unless the very briefest
note-requires a division into par~graphs in order to please
. the eye and to render the relation of its parts readily intelligible.
The art of constructing paragraphs is not acquired without labor and patience. One may be skillful in framing
sentences, and not succeed in combining them into connected paragraphs. It is well, therefore, to analyze carefully those of writers on different subjects, so as to learn
their method of forming them.
There are three qualities to be aimed at in the construction of paragraphs: (1) Unity; (2) Continuity; (3) Variety.
Unity.-In order that a paragraph' shall possess the
quality of unity, it is requisite that the ,:~.<!n,ter;ice.~ composing it shall relate, each and all, to the one definite division
of .the subject which they illustrate and explain. A paragraph should have but a single theme,-one central
t/wug!tt,-and all digressions from this principal thought
should be excluded. No sentence has any right to a positi~:>n in connection with others, unless it is closely related
to the preceding sentence or to the one following.
Continuity. -In order that a paragraph shall possess
the quality of continuity, it is requisite that the sentences
be so constructed and so placed as to carry the line of
thought naturally and suggestively from one to the other.
( •56)

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THE PARAGRAPH.

~

efest
lease
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withmmg
concarclearn
~ truc­

riety.
s th e
n posv1s1on
\. par,.,1tral
oug ht
a pocbted

·ossess
tenccs
inc of
other.

~

I

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...

.'

257

It is vitally important that the sentences be. so con-riected,
that their relations will be clearly seen. The highest art is ··
required to cause the stream of thought to flow smoothly,
bearing t.h e reader along without . doubts or interruptions.
Accurate thinking and considerable practi~e . in writing
will, however, give facility in s_e izing .the tr:ue relation of .
thoughts and expressing them with clearneSs and exactness.
..
Sentences are connected by co - ordinate conjunctions,
and by conjunctional plirases; ~s, a~ tlze same time, o'n tire
contrary, in like manner, in slzort, ~ to conclude, so far, etc.
The ·expression of continuous thought, accordingly, requires skill i_n the management of such particles; it is by
the proper use of these connectives that threads of thought
are woven into a beautiful fabric; .yet it requires as much
judgment to avoid the excessive use of co~junctions as to
use them correctly. . A lavish use of conj.Unctions renders
the style dragging and stiff; 'on th~·. othe~11'iand, to dispense with the use of them has a tendency to break up
the paragra ' into short, independent sentences, among .
which n
onnection can· be found, and which it is. impossible to retain in the memO""ry. Cqnj.unctions may frequently be avoided by the structur~ '. of the sentence, the
_ relation of a ·sentence to the precec:Iing,.J;>eing distinctly in- ·
dicated by means of inversion, , contrast, o~rd..~ referring
to somethmg that has gone before. By this means we ,may form a series of sentences in which the , succe~ding
will appear to be suggested .by some expression or tum
of thought in the one preceding. This method, when
skillfully employ ed, imparts a high degree of beauty to
the style.
_,.
The following sentences will illustrate the nature of this
mode of referenc e. The words
reference are ifl italics:
Rhct .~n .

of

'

I

-~

.,

:;_s S

-;I

CO~lPOSITION

·l-"
·~··'

AND RHE,TORIC.

addressed him in some lines from the Ili:1d, considering that, of
such languages as I possessed, Grc:ek, in point of longitude, came
geographically nearest to an Oriental one. He worshiped me in a
dernut manner, and replied in what I suppose was Malay. In this
1i1ay I saved my reputation with my neighbors; for the .Jfalay had
no means of betraying the secret. He lay down upon the floor for
abo ut an_ hour, and then pursued his journey. On his departure I
presented him with a piece of opium. To iim, as an Orientalist, I
concluded that opium must be familiar.-De Quincey.

Variety.-In order "that a paragraph possess the quality
of variety, it is requisite that the constifuer,i.t .senten,ces shall
· differ both in length and in structure.
·
·
·
A continued uniformity of length or structure exhausts
the attention and becomes intolerably irksome. Even to
begin or end sentenc.es too often in the same manner is
objectionable. Writers differ greatly as to the length of
sentences; some prefer long, others short. Short sentences are generally more lively and familiar, and better
_a?apted to light and informal writing, to works of entertainment and popular instruction. Long sentences require
a greater effort of attention, which . is sometimes an advantage, sometimes a disadvantage-they may, by presenting
the thought as a whole, assist the memory; but, even if
periodic, they may be difficult to follow, and, if loose, they
may provoke impatience. Long sentences ate adapted to
elaborate, exact, and dignified composition .
The most effective writing requires ~L: ~ombination of
long and short sentences-the one for clearness and force,)
the other for dignity and impressiveness.
The first sentence of a paragraph should be as short as
the sense will permit. The attention of the reader is thus
arrested at the outset, without being subjected to any unnecessary strain. \Vh en interest and feeling have been
aroused, longer senten ces arc more appropriate. A long
1

... .

. St

j
I

THE PARAGRAPH.

iat, of
came
e in a
Tn this
~y had
)Or for
-ture I
alist, I

uality
' shall
ilausts
1en to
ner is
rth of
>
t senbetter
entereq uire
ad van.en ting
:ven if
~ , they
)ted to
.ion of
l force,)
hort as
is thus
.my un·e been
A long

259

J.entence, g~thering up the various threads of thought,, has
its appropnate place at·the close. To follow a very long
sentence with a very short one is objectionable.
The qualities of a well constructed paragraph · are exemplifie<:i in the following:
(The tlwne): Death is at all times solemn, but never so much
so as at sea. (First illustration): A man dies on . shore: his body
remains with his friends, and "the mourners go ab 'ut_the streets";
but when a man falls overboard at sea and is lost, .there is a suddenness in the event, and a difficulty in ·realizing ..it, which gives tod t an
air of awful mystery. (Second illustration, partly repetilionary): A
man dies on shore: you follow his body, to J he grave, and a stone
marks the spot. You are prepared for · the event. There is always
something which helps you to .realize it w~hen it happens; and 'to recall
it when it has passed. ( Tltird illustration): A man is shot .down by
your,side in battle, and the mangled body remains an object, and a
real ~vidence; but, at sea, the man is near you-at your side-you
hear his voice, and in an instant he is gone, and nothing but vacancy
shows his loss.-Dana.
In rural occupation there is nothing mean and debasing. It leads
a man forth among scenes of natural grandeur and beauty; it leaves
him to the workings of his own mind, operated upon by the purest
and most eleva "ng of external influences. Such a man may be
simple and
gh, but he can not be ,vulgar. The man of refine- ·
ment, tr;f/ore, finds nothing rev,olting· in an . intercourse· with the
lower orders of rural life, as he does when .he casually mingles with
the lower orders of cities. He lays :aside"' his distance ani:l reserve,
and is 'glad to. waive the distinctions 'a( r~~k ; ;n·d ~o enter into the '
honest, heartfelt enjoyments of com moil" iifif:+'' fndeed, the very amuse. men ts of the country bring men more and more together, a;d · the ,
sound of hound and horn blend all feelings into harmony. I believe
this is one great reason why the nobility and gentry are more popular
among the inferior orders in England than they are in any other
country; and why the latter have endured so many excessive press-·
ures and extremities, without repining more generally at the unequal
distribution of fortune and privilcge.- /.-V. Jrv1i1l(.
The style of I3unyan is delightful to every reader, and invaluable as a study to every person who wishes to obtain a wide com-

')

), 200
)

.

f

COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.

mand O\'er the English language. The vocabulary is the vocabulary
of the common people. There is not an expression, if we except a
few technical terms of theology, which would puzzle the rudest pe.asant. \Ve have obser\'ed several pages which do not contain a single
word of more than two syllables. Yet no writer has said more exactly what he meant to say. For magnificence, for pathos,.for vehement exhortation, for subtle disquisition, for every purpose of the poet,
the orator, and the divine, this homely dialect, the dialect of working
men, is perfectly sufficient. · There is no book in. our literature on
which we would so readily stake the fame of the unpolluted English
language, no book which shows so well how rich that language is in
its own proper wealth, and how little it has been improved by all that
it has borrowed.-Macaulay.
There is one mind common to all individual men. Every man
is .an inlet to the same, and to all of the same. He that is once admittecl to the right of. reason is made a freeman of the whole estate.
What Plato has thought he may think ;,, ;vhat a saint has felt he may
feel; what at any time has befallen any man, he can understand.
Who hath access to this universal mind is a party to all that is or can
be done, for this is the only and sovereign agent.-Emerson.

EXERCISE LXXI.
DIRECTION.- Combine the following statements or facts in each paragraph
into a paragraph of your own , supplying what .is needed, and write on the first
line. of each paragraph the topic it develops:
'

',.

1,

1

r. Now a class in Latin is called to recift ' ,r For'i h ''sfeps a row of
· queer-looking little fellows. They wear square-skirted coats. They
wear small-clothes, with buttons at the knee. They look like so
many grandfathers. Like grandfathers in their second childhood.
These lads are to be sent to Cambridge. They are to be educated
for "the learned professions. Old Master Cheever has lived so long. :
Seen so many generations. He can almost prophesy. The sort of
man each boy will be. One urchin a doctor. Will administer pills.
Potions. Stalk gravely through life. Perfumed with asafretida.
Another will wr::rngle at the bar. Fight his way to wealth. Honors.
In his declining age. A worshipful member of his majesty's council.
old
A third shall be a worthy successor. The master's favorite.

The

f'

i

\

1·

I

.· .

··,·

~Gr

THE PARAGRA P H.

ry
a
t S-

;le
:x1e-

et,
ng
on
ish
, Jn

l1at
lan

ad~1te.

nay
lnd.
can

iuritan ministers. In their graves. He shall preach. Great unction. Effect. Leave volumes. Sermons. Print and m~nustript.
Benefit of future generations.
2. Certain. At the time. His conduct excited disapprobation.·.
Great and general. While Elizabeth lived. Disapprobation was not
expressed. Loudly. Deeply felt. Great change at hand. Health
of the Queen long decaying. .Operation of age. . Disease ~ Assisted
r. by acute mental suffering. Pitiable melancholy' of last days: Generally ascribed. Fond regret for Essex. Disposed
attribute. Dejection. Physical causes. Partly. Conduct of catirlte rs. Ministers.
Did all in their power. Conceal intrigues. Court o( Scotland. Keen
sagacity. Not deceived. Did not know' the whole. Knew. , Surrounded by men. Impatient~ New world. At her death. Never
been attached. Affection. Now slightly attache d. Interest. Prostration and flattery. Conceal the cruel ·truth. Whom she had
trusted. Promoted. Never loved her. . Fast cea~ing to . fear her.
Unable to avenge herself. Too proud. Complain. Suffered. Sorrow and resentment. Prey. Heart. After a long career. Power,
prosperity, and glory. Died. Sick and weary of the world.

f

to

EXERCISE LXXII.

;raph
~

first

DIRECTION.-Study the general groups of facts carefully, sec what ones of
each group are r~ed in meaning and can -be united, form as many paragraphs
out of each gro~as you think there should be, and writ.e on the first line of each
paragraph e to.pie developed: ·
.~.
~

'

of
They
;:e so
hood.
catccl
lon g. ·
)rt of
· pills.
tl!tida.
on ors.
.lUne.il.
'he old
•W

'

\ 1. The personal character as well as histc>rY' df in ~ bold outlaw is
,stamped on. every verse. -Against 1¢-curious bishops and tyrannic she~.
i'trs Robin Hood's bow was ever bent" and his arrow in the string. \The
). will was kept secret during the short remainder of his life. Or{ .the
third of November, 1700, he expired. j And I sank do\\•n where I ,
. stood, and hid my face against the ground. All M:-idrid crowded to
the palace. The gates were thronged. I by still a while; the night
wind swept over the hill and over me, and died moaning in the dis- .
tance. The antechamber was filled with embassadors and· grandees,
.-..-cager to learn what dispositions the deceased sovereign had made.
He attacked and robbed, and sometimes slew, the la~ter without either
compunction or remorse. The rain fell f~st, wetting me afresh to the

I.

l

'·

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/
!/
,,

I ' .

CHAPTER XIII.

(

l

1f

!

~

PROSE COMPOSITION.
' \

Prose.-The term Prose is\ applied to all composition
which is not in verse. ·' ;.Jt riielns the ordinary, straightforward manner of discourse, in distinction from the inverted
order so common in poetry.
Although no exact classi~cation has be'e n made of the
varieties of prose composition, the . principal . forms· are Discourses, Letters, Essays, Treatises~ Travels, History, Fiction, Biography, News.
DISCOURSES.

A Discourse differs from other kinds of composition in
the fact _tn t it is intended .to be read or spoken to the
perso 'addressed, instead ' of being 'r ead by them:
The . principal kinds of discourses are Orations, Addresses, Sermons, Lectures, and Spee'2h~·s :· . Conversation is
discourse between two or more people; its value as a preparation to written discourse is beyond estimate . . It widens
one's view of his subject, puts him in better possess.ion of
his thought, teaches him how to communicate it, and gives
him the art of putting it so as to make it most effective.
;RYANT.

An Oration is a discourse of the most formal and elaborate kind. It is generally in commemoration of some
great tlvent, or in eulogy of some 'distinguished person, or
on an occasion justifying the most careful preparation. It
( 30<))

,\

3 IO

COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.

is, therefore, never familiar and colloquial, but graceful,
polished, and dignified, disclosing rare scholarship, and
abounding, often, in classic allusion. Everett's oration on
"\Nashirigton" is a fine example.
· An Address is nearly akin to an oration, but somewhat
less formal in character, and much less restricted in regard
to the occasion and the subject.
.
The occasions demanding an address ~n; many and various. The Governor of a State, the Pr~sident of a College,
or the President of an Association, on entering upon the
duties of his office, usually delivers an address. ·
A Sermon is a formal discourse delivered by a clergyman before a religious body. It is founded usually on some
passage of Scripture, and is intended for religious instruction. No other species of ·oral discourse ranks with the
sermon in variety and dignity of topics, and in the importance of the motives arrayed and of the ends presented.
A Lecture is a discourse on any subject, secular or religious. Lectures are usually formal or methodical discourses, intended for instruction, though not a few are
meant to am~~me to persuade. Those whose
sole object is to create amusement, and that not of the
most elevated kind, have no legit. i~~te,,,cl,~im fo the title
of lecture.
A Speech is always intended to be spoken, and it is
limited to no particular subject or occasion.
'The most common places for making speeches are legislative assemblies, courts of justice, and various kinds of
popular conventions, political, educational, and religious.
The subject-matter of these speeches is usually thoroughly
prepared, but commonly the speeches are not written outthe wording of the thought being left to the occasion;

I

"

..
PROSE COMPOSITION.

e
e
e
IS

s.

ly
11 ;

3 I~

..

sometimes, however, thought and expression are inspired
by the occasion, and the speech is delivered extemporaneously,-composed at the time and in the act of deiivery~
In the construction of all the more ·formal kinds
, .ot discourse certain principles are to be observed. First, the .
discourse must maintain a certain unity . of subjc~t,- the
topics introduced must have some common. bond of union,
connecting and subordinating them all jo one leading
thought or purpose. Secondly, it should be~ adapted to tile
!tearers, both in the subject selected and in ·:,the manner of
treating it. Thirdly, it should be symmetrical,-the parts
should be related each to each in due order knd proportion.
The parts of a discourse are: (I) The introduction; (2) The
statement of the subject; (3) The main aiscourse; (4) The
conclusion.
1. Tlte Introduction, or E.xordium, is one of the most import~n t and one of the most difficult parts of a .discourse.
I ts object is to render the hearers well disposed, attentive,
and open to persuasion. It should be easy and natural,
accurate, calm, and modest; further, it should not anticipate any of the main points of the discourse. -".2. Tlte Statement shoul<l be made in few and simple
words; and with the utmost possible dearness.
3. Tiu " ain Discourse must be left much to the judg-·
ment · - invention of the writer ·or speaker.· ,.No two subjects ordinarily are to be handled pr:e,cisely alike ; no two
writers handle the same topic exactly in the same way .
under differ~nt circumstances; but whatever be the method
of treatment, the discussion should be honest and thorough . .
4. Tlte Conclusion, or Peroration, lil7the Introouctlon,
,
req uires special care. The object in the conclusion is to
leave as strong an impression as possible upon the minds
of the audience.

·~)

31 2

C 0~1 P O S 1 T 1 0N A ~ U

IUmT O R IC.

LETTERS .

'.

Letters are written communications addressed by the
writer to some other person or persons. Not every one
can reasonably aspire to write histories or works of fiction,
or any of the other varieties of composition; but every one
writes letters, and the difference between a letter well written and one badly written is so great as to demand the most
careful consideration of the subject.
Usually letters are upon matters · purely personal and
private, and are prompted by friendship or by business;
. sometimes they are upon topics of general interest, and are
thought worthy of publication. The letters of distinguished
persons, from the universal desire to learn all that can . be
known of the writer's character and situation, by reason of
the impor!ance of the subject discussed or by the exquisite
style in which his thoughts are couched, have been gathered
into volumes, and form a valuable part of literature.
Letters should be natural and simple in style; a stiff and
labored manner is to be as much condemned as an affectation of brilliancy. The style of a letter sh,ould not be too
highly polished; it ought to be neat and c;orrect, 'smoothly
fl.owing, and graceful through sprightlih~s~ .aq~ . wit. ·
"

:·;·

~ ·1.·,; :~r-:~~.'.: '~ .-~: ..

The Form.-In writing a letter there are five things to
consider-the heading, the address, the body of the letter,
the subscription, or conclusion, and the superscription.
The Heading includes two points, namely, the place
where, and the time when, the letter is written. If you
write from a city, you should give the street and number
,as well as the city and State. If you write from a small
country place, give your post-office address, the name of

"1
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·-:.

/

312

COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.

LETTERS .

Letters are written communications addressed by the
writer to some other person or persons. Not every one
can . reasonably aspire to write histories or works of fiction,
or any of the other varieties of composition; but every one
writes letters, and the difference between a letter well written and one badly written is so great as t<? demand the most
careful consideration of the subject.
··
Usually letters are upon matters purely personal and
private, and are prompted by friendship or by business;
sometimes they are upon topics of general interest, and are
thought worthy of publication. The letters of distinguished
persons, from the universal desire to learn all that can . be
known of the writer's character and situation, by reason of
the impor!ance of the subject discussed or by the exquisite .
style in which his thoughts are couched, have been gathered
into volumes, and form a valuable part of literature.
Letters should be natural and simple in style; a stiff and
labored manner is to be as much condemned as an affectation of brilliancy. The style of a letter should not be too
highly polished; it ought to be neat and correct, smoothly
flow:ing, and graceful through sprightli~ess and wit.
The Form.-In writing a lette~·· there are ·five things to
consider-the heading, the address, the body of the letter,
the subscription, or conclusion, and the superscription.
The Heading includes two points, namely, the place
where, and the time when, the letter is written. If you
write from a city, you should give the street and number
,as well as the city and State. If you write from a small
country place, give your post-office address, the name of

'f..

-· ..··
PROSE COMPOSITION.

~

e

"
e
t-

;t

l

the county, and that of the State. The date consi~ts of the
month, the day of the month, and the year. ·
.
\
The heading is usually begun on t~e first ruled, line, and ,
a little to the left of the middle of the page. · If the head"" '
ing is short, it may stand on one)ine. If it occupies more
than one line, the second line_should begin farther to the
right than the first, and the third farther .to.the right than
the second. If the heading occupies mor~ .' than o~e line,
the date should stand upon a line by its~l(.~ ~ The number
of the house, the day' of the month, and th'.~ year, are written in figures, the rest in words; Each · important ,\vord
begins with a capital letter, ·each item is set off by a comma, and the whole closes with a period·. Thus: ·
'

'

'

'

'

td
s;
re
~d

Scioto, Ohio,

be
of
ite
·ed

Nov. · ~,

1886.

Lebanon, Ky.,
June 4, 1875.
~~1

md
::tatoo
.hly

W. Franklin St.,
rJ?.ichmond, Va.;
: ' July 8, .1880.·

.
'

'

.\

Glendower, Albemarle Co., ,Va.,
•r• .. '>,-;.,, \

s to
tter,
bface

you
mber
small
,1e of

November

i*

<-1:
, ~ ,~.,.;;;.? r

·10,

1887.

"

1":~~

~

The Address consists of the name, the title, and the ,
place of. business or the residence of the one addressed, and
the salutation. It is necessary in addressing a letter to
know what title to give. A young lad usually has the .
prefix Master; an unmarried woman, Miss; a married
woman. or widow, }lfrs.; a man who has no other title;
Rhct .-27.

·~

.'

COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.

3L4
Mr.

Messrs. precedes the names of several gentlemen.
Prefix Dr. to the name of a physician, or place the title
M D. after the name ~ Esquzre, a .title of dignity next
· below a knight, is prefixed to the name of a justice of
the peace and other magistrates, ·a nd, by courtesy, is extended · to men of the liberal professions and pursuits.
Prefix. Rev. to the name of a clergyman; Rt. Rev. to that
.of a Bishop; Rev. Dr. or Rev. before that of a Doctor of
Divinity, and D. D . · after it. To the name of the President, to that of a governor or kn em.bassador, prefix His
E:ccellency ,· to that of a cabinet offic_er, a member of congress, a member of a State legislature, a law judge, or a
mayor, prefix Hon. ·The prefix Hon. extinguishes the
title of Esquire after the name, but not any title of special
honor, as LL .. D~ Guard against an excessive use of
titles-the higher implies 'the ~ lower. When one reaches
D. D. or LL. D., he drops his A , B. or his A. M. It is
customary, . however, to retain both the two higher titles,
D. D. and LL. D., written in the order conferred.
The President of the United States is addressed thus;
on the outside of the letter:

'To the President,
· Executive M ansion1 ·
· Inside:
,,·

Wtishi~gtrhi]" r.D· : " C.

Mr. President,-! have the honor, etc.

Salutations vary with the station of the one addressed,
or the writer's degree of intimacy with him; as, Sir, Dear

Sir, My dear Sir, Madam, Dear Madam, Rev. Sir, My
· dear Madam, My dear Dr. Finlay, My dear Son, etc.

·· ..- ·

PROSE COMPOSI'fION.
~ n.

tle
~ xt

of
exits.
hat
of
res-

H£s
:onor a
the
~ cial
~

of
ch es
It is
itles,
thus;

315

The address follows the .heading, beginning on the next
line, and standing on the left side of the page; or, if the
letter is written to an intimate friend, · or if it is an official
letter, the address may be placed at the bottom after the ,
conclusion. In other letters, especially those on ordinary
business, it should be placed at ..the top. . Never omit it
from a letter that is not written in the t~ird · person. If
the address occupies more than on'e line,
initial words
of these lines should be written each .. a little to the right
of the preceding, as in the heading. ~\,~ry important
word in the address should begin with ·a capital l~tter. ·
Each item of it should .. be se_t off by a comma, and the
whole should close with a period. The important words
in the salutation sho':1ld begin with a capital letter, and
the whole be followed by a colo~ or a comma. Thus:
I. '

the

Hon. John W. 0aniez;
Washington, 0. C.
'.Dear Sir:
We have.
. ·.· Mr. James F...,. Harrison,
Pres. tBoard of Commerce~
'

·

7~0

•

•

~

'·•· ,Ar

Pine, S{. ,.', S( Louis, .Mo.
.

- ~f ' \'. ....... '. '.

....., /'

.. _

-~

.

My dear Sir,-Your,•

Messrs . Hough.ton, .Mijflin, & Co.,
ressed,
·, Dear
.zr, My
:c.

4 Park Street,
tBoston, .Mas.s.
Gentlemen:
Your letter of the 4th instant..--

',.,.,·\

.··
316

CO~tPOSITION

A:--:D RHETORIC.

Th e Body of the Letter.-. Begin the body of the letter at the end of the salutation, and on the same line or
on the line below; if on the same line, follow the salutatio n by a comma followed by a dash. Paragraph and
pu nct uate as in other kinds of writing. Write neatly and
·with. care; the letter bespeaks the man." Letters of
fr/ends/tip shopld be natural and familiar. It is a great
mistake in writing such letters to su·p pose that only · the
marve lous is worth writing about. : It is t.he incidents of
every-clay life, the characteristic little acts and speeches
of the members of the household, that one longs to hear
about whe n away. Busz'ness letters should be brief, and
the sentences short and to the point. Jn formal notes the
thi rd person is generally used instead of the first and second; there is no heading, no introduction, no signature,
only the name of the place and the date at the bottom,
on the left side of the page. Thus:
11

Mr. and Mrs. James rR.. Field invite Mr. H. Jvf. Logan
to mee! their niece, Jvf iss Gertrude Townsend, on Friday
evening at six o'clock.
zz Genesee Av., Oct. ~.
Mr. H. M. Logan will be most happy to _accept Mr. and
M rs. ] as. rJ?. Field's kind invitation ~ to meet Miss Town=
send, Friday evening.
· 144 Oi'.ive Street, Oct. z.
The Conclusion consists of the complimentmy close and
th e sig nature. The complimentary close consists of the
closing words of respect or affection, and is expressed in
many forms; thus, Your sincere friend; Your !01..1ing dauglttcr; Yours tmly; Respectfully yours; Very tnt!y yours, etc.

>'

.'

PROSE COMPOSITION.

let: or
Jta1nd
and
of
reat
the
: of
:h es
iear
and
the
sec:ure,
:om,

Jg an

viday

. and
-own=

se and
) f the
sed in
i azw!to
·s, etc.

The signature consists of your christian name and .your
surname. In · addressing a stranger, write your, christian ·
name in full. A lady writing to a stranger should prefix ·
her title in parenthesis-(Miss) or (Mrs.)-to .her own
name.
The conclusion should begin near the middle .of the first
line below the body of the letter, and e·~ch line' should
begin a little to the right of the preceding~· ;'as in the heading and the address. Begin each line of it with a capital
letter, and punctuate as in other writing, following the ·
whole with a period.
The Superscription is the address upon the envelope.
It is the same as the address, consisting of the name of
the one addressed, the titles, the number of the house,
the street, the city, and the state. The name should be
about midway between the top and the ·bottom of the envelope, and about equally distant from the two ends.
The spaces between the lines should be the same, and the
initi~l -·of each line should be placed to the right of the
one preceding, as in the address, the last line ending near
the lower rigiht-hand corner. Thus.: , , ..

" . ', >

l=:_

Hon . Chas. fJ?. N ewcom b,
1 ~ ~ Fayette Av.,
Louisville,
Ky.

Both safety of carriage and respect for the one addressed,
deman_d that the superscription be written in a legible hand.

.

"

318

COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.

ESSAYS.

An Essay is a composition treating a subject in a manner somewhat formal and systematic. Essays vary in size
from short compositions to elaborate and lengthened works,
treating the subject with great fullness and dignity. Of
this latter class Macaulay's "Essays," and those of Carlyle,
are illustrations.
No other species of writing ranges over so wide and
varied a field of topics, and none other allows such freedom
and diversity in the handling; hence the great number of
essayists-a number c:i.lmost identical with that of writers,
for essays are -written by almost every one who is engaged
in any kind of authorship. , Essays now usually appear
first as contributions to magazines. If they have met with
favor in this ·form 1 they are sometimes collected and published in separate volumes.

:' ./ '

TREATISES.

'. ''hreatise implies a more formal and methodical treatment than an essay, but is not necessarily a full and elaborate discussion of the subj e9,t, ,:tho~gh it is expected to
embrace the whole. An ess~y, -· on 'the other hand, may
select particular parts of a subject; it may also abound in
ornaments and figures, and reveal the personality of the
-'writer, while a treatise is usually plain in style, rarely admitting rhet~rical ornament; it aims . to set forth the bare
facts and truths of a subject, ·and is, therefore, comparatively impersonal. Treatises are usually upon some definite
' branch of science, as astronomy, botany, algebra, arithme-·
tic, rhetoric, logic, and the like.

f,..

··,··

PROSE

/

COMPOSITIO~.

TRAVELS.

. '\

A Book of Travels is ~ a work describing, or picturing,
places and peoples visited by the author. Since he tells
us things which we can not see for ourselves, the traveler
should be specially accurat~ - in regard to:_facts ge nerally;
we look to him for the exact truth. While we· can not
1
expect works written in the haste and .exc) ~me~t-of actual
travel to have a finished and elegant style, yet there are
books written by traveJers o( the present day that abound
in passages of eloquent description, ~~citing narrative, and
delightful humor.

f

d
n

,f

s,
:d

1r
th
b-

·atabto
1ay
l in
the
ad)are
aranite
tme-

/

HISTORY.

A History (from the Greek, lzistorein, to learn, to know
by inquiry}, is a narrative of events arranged in a methodical
manner, so as to show the connection of cause and effect.
As the proper office of the historian is to record truth for the
instruction of mankind, the fundamental qualities r~quired
of him ar ·impartiality, fidelity, and accuracy. He must
not e~~e"r 'into faction, nor give ~cope to affectio~ ;, but, cool
and tifs·p assionate, he must present to his re,aders a faithful
copy of the men and the events that'.'h~\,,e ·<fofit:ten~ed .the
destinies of nations.
In the conduct and management of his subject, the historian should aim at unity; his work should not consist of
separate, unconnected parts, but should be bound together
by some connecting princi12Ie, p~oducing the effect of something that is one, whole, and entire. In his effort to render his narration agreeable he must not neglect chronological ~rder, but must he. able to form some connection
among the affairs which he relate~, so as to introduce them

/320

COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.

in a pro per train. His style should be grave and dignified;
no affec tation of pertness or of wit is allowed. In the application of the lessons of History to questions agitating
· the world at the time of the historian, there is need, at one
time, for the most vigorous and logical exercise of his reasoning facul.ty, at another, for the spacious flights of his
imagination, and throughout a demand for a wording which
shall range from dry and matter-of-fact up through all grades
of expression to the ornate and elegant.
The delineation of character is one of the most splendid
. parts 'of historical composition; it is, at the same time, one
of the most difficult. Some historians have given us pen
portraits that are masterly and enduring; others have painted
in colors already fading.
· It is necessary that the soundest rriorality pervade all
historical writing. Both in describing character, and in
relating transactions, the author should always show himself to be on the side of virtue.
Chronicles, Annals, Memoirs, and Biographies are species of historical composition.
A Chronicle is a history in which -the events are stated

with special reference to the order of time:'
Annals are facts arranged in strict chronological order,
and divided into distinct years.
A Memoir is a species of history composed from per-

sonal experiences and memory. This species of composition does not demand the same research or the same varied
.information that is found in history; the author relates only
that with which he himself has been connected, or that
which has fallen under his personal observation . . The writer
is not subject to the same laws of dignity and gravity. He

·~

..;
.- ~ .- ..... (_}.' ...

. ,~j:'

1

)

. ,.

'

LSE ~OMPOSITION.
gnified;
the apgitating
, at one
his reas of his
1g which
ll grades
splendid
ime, one
1 us pen
e painted
rvade all
·, and in
.10W him; are speare stated )
ical order,
from per,f composi.ame varied
.·elates only
~ d, or that
The writer
ravity. He
l

321

may talk freely of himself; he may descend into 'the most ,
familiar · anecdotes.
··

~Biography is the history of an

individual, s~tting before us what manner of man he was, and what he did. The
biography of one in any way eminent in public life is largely
a history of his times. Biography deals much with character; it abounds in personal incid~nts and ah ecdotes, which
· afford the reader the ·opportunity of seeiil'g the characters ·
and tempers, t.he virtues and failings, of eminent men; and
which admit him intoatborougnan d.TnEirrfate acquaintance
with such persons. In such work the biographer is helped
'r
.
by the letters of his subject. In these the man speaks more
fully and frankly than in his pu~lic efforts. . His hopes and
fears, his struggles, defeats, and triumphs, are apt to find
expression in his letters, and in these he displays his inner
self to us. And so, especially in recent times, letters form
a very large part ·of biographies-often the most valuable
part.
In wri7
biographical sketches, the following outline
will ser .e as a guide:
Ancestry.
Birth-time ; place.
•,·'
Education-( all formative influences) home; school; books; nature; public .events; travel.
Orderly statement of the chief events in which he participated,
a nd the part he took in them.
Death-time; place ; circumsta nces.
Estimate of cha racter-personal appearance; mental qualities;
moral qualities; influence on the world; comparison with others .

An.Autobiography is a biography of an individual written by himself. The writer records the actions of his private as well as his public I°ife; and explains, as no . othe~
can, the motives and circumstances \vniCh controlled hi'm.
~---~- ~ - -- - -- -- · --- _,.... ... •

·-···--

. !

322

CO;\l POSlTION AND RHETORIC.

FICTION.

A Work of Fiction is a production which depicts the
· lives of imaginary persons. It . sometimes deals with real
men and women, but, even in this case, it does not claim
. t"ofelateWhat- t"ney actually said -and did.
The names most commonly given 'to works of fiction are
. Novels and Romances. These terms· are for the most part
used intercl~angeably; but, strictly speaking,. a novel is a
fictitious narrative, designed to r~present the oe.eration of
human passions, . esp ecially that of love; while a.;pmance
is a kind of novel of an extravagant nature, which treats
. of wild or startling adventures, particularly in love or war .
.-·FfCtion has to do with the 'motives that influence persons,
with the behavior of the persons under such influence, and
with the developmen t of character under-the conditions imposed. In its portrayal of character, it 's eeks to give a just
insight into human nature; by mean·s of the dialogue, in
which the novel abounds, each person reveals his peculiarities and furnishes us a picture of himself so true as to require only a few touches by the author to make it as vivid
as reality.
Some novels teach us much concerning the customs,
habits, manners, dom estic and social. lif~. a~d even the
lusfOry-·ortJie · peO-j5le-aurTn~(theage in which the scenes
are laid. Other nov els, with a higher purpose, aim to interest us in classes of society whose condition should be
improved, to lay open, to the attention of the public, certain
evils, and, ifI:leed be, to bring legistafTOn into play to re. d'i-eSSthem. The no vels written 'by Chas. Dickens are of
this class . .
, Fiction is one of the latest departments of literature, yet
one of th e most extensive. Its growth is wonderful; sup-

1

I

ii

.... .

l

.I
PR OSE COMPOSITION.

ply keeps pace with an ever increasing demand. ' Though ·
fiction gives insight into human nature, teache s. . history,
lays bare the shams of social life, probes festering evils,·
abounds in striking thoughts and rare descriptions, and
possesses all the wealth of style, yet it should n~t be read
to the neg1ect of other branches of literature. The youth
of our country should be restrained in rit>vel re.a ding; it
should be read as an amusement and a > elaxati.on, only
·~
.
alternating with more solid reading.
The greater part of the fiction now ptiblished and read
has no other object th~n mere pleasure, and that n~t of a
pt.1 re kind ; the reading of such . noyels is a mere mental
dissipation, unfitting the. reader to enjoy literature · oi a
more elevated kind, or 10 ...P'r operlt perfor~ the active
duties of life. To become intensely alive to fancied sufferin.g, and be kindled to warm sympathy with fictitious personages without opportunity to express these feelings by
acts, and to do what he is -moved to do, are unhealthful,
and tend to deaden him to the woes and sufferings of the
real world.
1

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al
m

re
Lrt
a
of
ce

-

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ir.
1S,

nd
m-

ust
m
1ar-

revid

.NEWS.

ms,
the
:nes
, ml be
ta in
) ree of
I

yet
sup-

)

;

....

News forms a most extensive branch of.lite):ature. Next
to letter-writing, there is no species of composition of which
so much is done.
The daily newspaper contains the only literature that
reaches a large proportion of the people, and i~ should
therefore embody the best qualities of literary style. Very
generally, however, this is ·not the case.
One of the most common and serious faults of newswriters is the use of slal)g words and phrases: This is too
often mistaken for wit.
•

,-1;

•

324

CO~ ! POSl1' 10N

AND

~HETORIC.

Newspapers are frequently below the standard of pure
English; the pupil should therefore bear in mind that words
are not to be accepted simply because they are used by the
. morning journals.
In addition to the use of pure, grammatical English, the
qualities of style to be cultivated by a writer of news are
accuracy, condensation, and clearness. , .
Accuracy in a news item has a twofold signification.
The language· should accurately convey the meaning which
the writer intends, and the facts th~mselves should be
undeniable. A careful selection of words, and a proper
construction of sentences, will enable the writer to express
himself so that his meaning can not be mistaken.
I.

Condensation requires that the writer should give
his information in the briefest manner consistent with clearness of statement. It does not imply that he should suppress the details of an occurrence, for these the reader will
demand. He should, however, state a fact but once, and
that in concise language.
2.

3. Clearness is most imperatively demanded of a news
writer.
People read news in · hC:!Ste; hence ·the meaning
should be so plain that ''he may run that readeth it."
The business of writing· news is very •differertt
~ fr'o m that
'
of writing editorials. The one simply reco!;ds 1 ,t~e facts of
the day; the other discusses those facts, and gives opinions
about them, commending or condemning, explaining or
defending, persuading and exhorting, assigning causes and
suggesting remedies. The one writes with special reference
to accuracy, clearness, and brevity; the other employs almost every grace and excellence of style known to rhetoric,
and needs for his task a knowledge as varied as the entire
range of subjects included in the scope of his paper.
'

v

'

.

.'
~I

'

PROSE coMPO~ l'l'lON.

of pure
tt words
l by the

EXERCISES IN PARAPHRASE AND COMPOSITION.

lish, the
1ews are

GRACE DARLING.

fication.
a which
b
ould be
proper
express
uld give
.th clear-

1uld supader will
nee, and
,fa news
mean mg
I it."
·rom that
:: facts of
: opm10ns
am111g or
auses and
reference
nploys al) rhetoric,
the entire
>er.

AMO :\G the dwellers in the silent fields
The natural heart is touched, and public w·~y
And crowded street resound with ballad st~~ms,
Inspired by ONE whose very name bespeaks
Favor divine, exalting human love;
Whom, since her birth on· bleak Northumbria's coast, ·
Known unto few, but prized as far as k~own,
A single Act endears to high a~d low
Thro ugh the whol~ land-:-to Manhood, moved i~ spite
Of the world's freezing cares-to generous Youth- ·
To Infancy, thrJ:t lisps her prai?e-to Age,
Whose eye reflects it, glistening through a. te:ir
Of tremulous admiration. Such true fame
Awaits her now,· but, verily, good deeds
Do not imperishable record find
Save in the rolls of heaven, where hers may live
.
A theme for angels, when they celebrate
The h~gh-souled virtties which forgetful earth
!jjs witnessed. Oh! that \virids a~d· waves could speak
i/!Jf things which their united power called forth ·
From the pure depths of her ptimanity ! .
. '.'. ,11,1··.,'··· :$ .. 1,:'· •, ·~ :·' ..
'/
•'.
A Maiden gentle, yet, at duty's can; ·.'·'
Firm and unflinching as the Light-house reared
. On the Island-rock, her lonely dwelling-place. * * *
All night the storm had raged, nor ceased, nor paused,
When, as day broke, the Maid, through misty air,
Espies far off a Wreck amid the surf,
Beating on one of those disastrous islesHalf of a Vessel, half-no more; the rest
Had vanished, swallowed up with all that there
Had for the cominon safety
striven in vain,
,,-

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i

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".: . 326

COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.

·-I

.

'""
'.

''

~- :
- .. ..

.
"'·

Or thither thronged for refuge. · With quick glance
Daughter and Sire through optic-glass discern,
Clinging about the remnants of this Ship,
Creatures, how precious in the M::tiden 's sight!
For whom, belike, the old Man grieves still more
· Than for their fellow-sufferers engulfed
· Where every parting agony is hushed,
And hope and fear mix not in further strife.
"But courage, Father! let us out' to sea.
A few may yet be saved." The Daughter's words,
Her .earnest tone, and look beaming w"ith faith,
Dispel the Father's doubts: nor do they lack
The noble-minded Mother's helping hand
To launch the boat; and with her blessing cheered,
And inwardly sustained by silent prayer,
Together they put forth, Father and Child!
Each grasps an oar, and struggling on they goRivals in effort; and, alike intent
Here to _elude and there surmount, they watch
The billows lengthening, mutually crossed
And shattered, and regathering their might;
As if the tumult, by the Almighty's will
Were, in the conscious sea, ·roused and prolonged
That woman's fortitude-so tried-so proved
May brighten more and more!
True to. the mark,
They stem the current of that perilous gorge,
Their arms still strengthening with the s.t rengthening heart,
Though danger, as the Wreck is neared; becomes ·
More imminent. Not unseen do they·apphiach;
And rapture, with varieties of fear
Incessantly conflicting, thrills the frames
Of those who, in that dauntless energy,
Foretaste deliverance; but the least perturbed
Can scarcely trust his eyes, when he perceives
That of the pair-tossed on the waves to bring
Hope to the hopeless, to the dying, lifeOne is a Woman, a poor earthly sister;
Or, be the Visitant other than she seems,

.-,
,.

.... .
PROSE CO:V1POSITION.

A guardian Spirit sent from pitying Heaven,
In woman's shape. But why prolong the tale,
I . .
Casting meek words· amid a host of thoughts
Armed to repel them? Every hazard faced
And difficulty mastered, with resolve
That no one breathing should be left to perish,
This last remainder of the crew are all
Placed in the little boat, then o'er the deep ·.·
Are safely borne, landed upon the beach, :;.'
And, in fulfillment of God's mercy, lodged,' ;_ .
Within the sheltering Light-house. Shou('ye Waves!
Send forth a song of triumph. Waves anti Winds,
Exult in this ,deliverance ·wrought through faith
In Him whose ProviClence your rage hath served!
Ye screaming Sea-mews, in the concert join!
And would that some immortal Voice-a Voice
Fitly attuned to all that gratitude
Breathes out frcim floor or couch through pallid lips
Of the survivors-to the clouds might bearBlended with praise of that parental love,
Beneath whose watchful eye the Maiden grew
Pious and pure, modest and yet so brave,
Though young so wise, though rrieek so resoluteMight carry to the clouds and to the stars,
Yea, to celestial Choirs, GRACE DARLING'S name!
WORDSWORTH.
It,

; heart,

~ '~

~.'

•

·,

... -

.

•

.

..

•

.,1

DEVELOPMENT XVJl ·.
'

... :·

·.• ,,!

"""'

·

-~·:·.~~··::~.'.l?.~.:. ~~

.

BRANKSOME-HALL.

NINE-AND-TWENTY knights of fame
Hung their shields in Branksome-Hall;
Nine-and-twenty squires of name
Brought them their steeds to bower from stall;
Nine-and-twenty yeomen tall
vVaited, duteous, on them all:
They were all knights of mettle true,
Kinsmen to the bold Buccleuch.

·~

COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.

Ten of them were sheath ed in steel,
With belted sword and spur on heel:
They quitted not their harness bright,
Neither by day nor yet by night:
They lay down to rest,
With corslet laced,
Pillowed on buckler cold and hard;
They carved at the meal .
With gloves of steel,
.
And they drank the red wine through the helmet bn.rred.
Ten squires, ten yeomen, mail-.clad men,
Waited the beck of the warders ten;
Thirty steeds, .both fleet and wight,
Stood saddled in stable day and night;
Barbed with frontlet of steel, I trow,
And \.\rith Jedwood-axe at saddle-bow;
A hundred more fed free in stall : Such was the custom of Branksome-Hall.

i.

l
'
..'"

.

;·

'\'. '

SIR WALTER SCOTT.

DEVELOPMENT XVIII.

t·;

[

THE ROBIN.

..

t-··~· '
'"·. .
I

.

( '·
,_.

r
I
I

i
I

I

THE fowls of heaven,
Tamed by the cruel season, crowd around
The winnowing store, and claim the little boon
Which Providence assigns them. One alone,
The redbreast, sacred to the household gods,
Wisely regardful of the embroiling sky,
In joyless fields and thorny thickets leaves
His shivering mates, and pays to trusted man
His annual visit. Half-afraid, he first
Against the window beats; then, brisk, alights
On the warm hearth; then, hopping o'er the floor,
Eyes all the smiling family askance,
And pecks, and starts, and wonders where he is ;
Ti1l, more familiar grown, the table-crumbs
Attract his slender feet.
]AMES THOMSON.

PROSE COMPOSITION.

DEVELOPMENT XIX.
REQUIESCAT. ·

I

red.

I

is her cottage in its place,
Where yon broad water sweetly, slowly glides.
It sees itself from thatch to base
Dream in the sliding tides.

I

And fairer she, but, ah, how soon to die ! : :
Her quiet dream of life this hour may· c~tise. ·
Her peaceful being slowly passes by
· ~
To some more perfect peace.

FAIR

I
~
i:

f
r

J.}
TT.

I, .

. "'

• \'\.

ALFRED TENNYSON.

Weave into this a story of some' one w ell known to you,
and whose home you may suppose this "f~ir cottage" to
be; change the character, if necessary, to suit your purpose. In thus . introducing nar'ration; do not forget that
the theme is principally descriptive, and that you should
aim to produce a vivid picture of the scene.
DEVELOPMENT XX;
' ';-

JACK FROST.
,;..,

.... '

'

•

-~~'

'

, __. .... '

t'

ci:eak the crickets: Jack Frost came down l~~t .i jight,
He slid to the earth on a starbeam, keen and '·s·parklfr\g ;and.bright; ·
He sought in the grass for the crickets with delicate icy spear,
So sharp and fine and fatal, and he stabbed them far and near.
Only a few stout fellows, thawed by the morning sun,
Chirrup a mournful echo of by-gone frolic and fun.
But yesterday such a rippling chorus ran all over the land,
Over the hills and the valleys, down to the gray sea-sand. ·
l\Iillions of merry harlequins, skipping and <lancing in glee,
Cricket and locust and grasshopper, happy as happy could be.
Scooping rich caves in ripe apples, and feeding on honey and spice,
RusTILY

..

lSON.

Rhet.-28.

,,.-

COi-IPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
·-1

Drunk with the mellow sunshine, nor dreaming 'of spears of ice!
"\Vas it not enough that the crickets your weapon of power should pierce?
Pray what have you done to the flowers? JackFrost, you are cruel and fierce.
· With never a sign or a whisper, you kissed them, and, lo! they exhale
Their beautiful lives; they are drooping, their sweet color ebbs, they are pale,
They fade and they die! See the pansies,.yet striving so hard to unfold
Their ga.r ments of velvety splendor, all Tyrian purple and gold.
I3ut how weary they look, and how withered, fike handsome court dames,
. who all night
Have danced at the ball till sunrise struck chill to their hearts with its light.
Where hides the wood-aster? She vanisl~ed as snow-wreaths dissolve in
the sun
The moment you touched her. Look yonder, where sober an cl gray o.;; a nun
The maple-tree stands that nt sunset was blushing as red ns the sky:
At its foot, glowing scarlet as fire, its robes of magnificence lie,
Despoiler! stripping the world as you strip the shivering tree
Of color and sound and perfume, scaring the bird and the bee,
Turning beauty to ashes-0 to join the swift swallows and fly
Far away out of sight of your mischief! I give you no welcome, not I!
,' , .

CELIA THAXTER.

DEVELOPMENT XX!.
A WINTER SABBATH WALK.

How dazzling white the snowy scene! deep, deep
The stillness of the winter Sabbath dayN ot even a foot-fall heard. Smooth ~re the fields,
Each hollow pathway level with the plain:
Hid are the bushes, save that here ..and there
Are seen the topmost shoots of brier .or broom.
High-ridged, the whirled drift has almost reached
The powdered key-stone of the church-yard porch.
Mute hangs the hooded bell; the tombs lie buried;
No step approaches to the house of prayer.
The flickering fall is o'er: the clouds disperse,
And show the sun, hung o'er the welkin's verge,
Shooting a bright but ineffectual beam
On all the sparkling waste.

'.~-

..

··,··
PROSE COMPOSITION.

.·ce ?
rce.
e
•ale ,
Id
:nes,

.ght.
1e m

Lnun

*

*

*

*

*

*

How beautiful the plain stretched far belo~v,
Unvaried though it be, save by yon stream
With azure windings, or the leafless wood !
But what the beauty of the plain, compared
To that sublimity which reig ns enthroned,
Holding joint rule with solitude divine~
Among yon rocky fells that bid defiance ·
To steps the most adventurously bold? ..
There silence dwells profound; or if th~ cry
Of high poised eagle break at times th~: hush,
The mantled echoes no response return·. ,

*
. "I.

.··•·

JAMES GRAHAME•

... .

.

DEVELOPMENT XXI I.
[!
SR.

THE ANGLER.

AN angler by a brook doth lie;
Upon his hook, a painted fly;
A dream's soft shadow in his eye.
Thus, like a charmed prince he .seems,
Destined a glorious prize to win,
Which, like a jeweled javelin,.
Poised, as in air, on quivering fin
Before his vision gleams. > :
With purest blue, the blissful sky ·
Pavilions him right royally.
Sometimes an oriole flames on high ;
A bee, impetuous, sparkles by;
A bobolink, ecstatic, flings
Bubbles of music down the air;
And so he gathers everywhere
From realms of ease, all joys_ most rare,
Like pearls on silken strings.
A Masque of Pods.

-~

COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC,

DEVELOPMENT XXIII.

SOUNDS AT EVENING.
SWEET was the sound, when oft, at evening's close,
Up yonder hill the village murmur·rose.
There, as I passed with careless steps and slow,
The mingling notes came softened from below; ·
The swain responsive as the milk-maid sung, ·
The sober herd that lowed to meet .their young,
The noisy geese that gabbled o'er the pool,
The playful children just let loose from school,
The watch-dog's voice that bayed the whispering wind,
And the loud laugh that spoke the vacant mind ;These all in sweet confusion sought the shade,
And filled each pause the nightingale had made.
OLIVER GOLDSMITH.

DEVELOPMENT XXJV.

THE MONEY-SEEKER.

.....

~

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WHAT has he in this ·glorious world's· dom~in?

f·

Unreckoned loss which he counts up as gain;
Unreckoned shame, of which he feels no stain;
Unreckoned dead he does not know were slain.

t

What things does he take with him when he dies ?
Nothing of all that he on earth did prize:
Unto his groveling feet and sordid eyes
How difficult and empty seem the skies !
A Masque of Pods.

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PROSE. COMPOSITION.

333

DEVELOPMENT XXV.
MOTH-EATEN •

.. I

a beautiful garment,
And I laid it by with care;
,
· I folded it close, with lavender ,leaves,
HAD

In a napkin fine and fair:

,

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"It is far too costly a robe,'~ I ~~ic1i ,•'\~
"For one like me to wear."
.
There were guests ·wlio came to my portal,
There were friends who sat ~ith me;
And clad in soberest raiment
I bore them company;
I knew that I owned a beautiful robe,
Though its splendor none might see.
TH.

There were poor that stood at my portal,
There were orphaned sought my care;
I gave them the tenderest pity,
But had nothing beside to spare;
I had only the beautiful garment,
And the raimen~ for da,ilY ~~ar~·., ....
At last on a 'feast-day's ,co,ning, . :.j
I thought in my dress to~ sl~_irie ; :: ,
I would please myself with 1,pie}!9.s ter,
Of its shifting colors fine; ···
· I would walk with pride in the marvel
Of its rarely-rich design.

Pods.

So out from the du?k I bore it,The lavender fell away,- ·
And fold on fold I held it up
To the searching light of day.
Alas ! the glory had perished
While there in-its place}t lay.

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334

COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.

vVho seeks for fadeless beauty
Must seek for the use that se.als,
To the grace of a constant blessing,
The beauty that use reveals;
For into the folded robe alone
The moth with its blighting steals.
MARGARET

E.

SANGSTER,

DEVELOPMENT XXVI.
RESPECT THE IlURDEN.

GREAT Garibaldi, through the streets one day
Passing triumphant, while admiring throngs
With acclamations and exultant songs
For the uncrowned kingly man made way,
Met one poor knave, 'neath heavy burden bowed,
Indifferent to the hero and the crowd.
·
His zealous followers would have driven aside
The sorry creature, but that good man said,
Laying a kind hand on the suffering head,
"Respect the burden." Then, majestic-eyed
He paused, and passed on, no man saying him nay;
The heavy-laden also went his way.

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Thou happy soul, who journeyest like· a king
Along the rose-strewn road, whate'er thy lot,
"Respect the burden." Thou mayst see it, or not,
For one heart is to another a sealed thing:
Laughter there is which hideth sobs or moans;
Firm footsteps may leave blood-prints on the stones.
Respect the burden, whatsoe'er it be,
Whether loud outcries vex the startled air,
Or in dumb agonies of loss, despair
Lifts her still face, so like tranquillity;
Though each strained heart-string break, she never shrinks;
Says, "Let this cup pass from me," stoops and drinks.

I'ROSE COM POSITION.

335 .

0 heavy burden ! why 'tis borne, or how,
None know-S J.Ve those who bear, and He whose hand
Has laid it on, saying, "My beloved, stand
Upright, and take this chrism upon thy brow,
God's own anoin ted. Sore thy load may be,
But know'- within it thou art carrying ME."
DINAH MARIA MU.LOCK.
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D E VELOPMENT XXVJI.
'\.·

THE THREE l\ISHERS.

THREE fishers went sailing away to the West,
Away to the \Vest as the' sun went down;
Each thought on the woman who loved him tlie best,
And the children stood watching .t hem out of the town ;,
For men must work, and women must weep,
And there's little to earn, and many to keep,
Though the harbor-bar be moaning.
Three wives sat up in the light-house tower,
And they trimmed the lamps as the sun went down;
. They looked at the squall, and they looked at the shower,.
And t
ight-rack came rolling up ragged and brown :
~ut men must work, and wo,gt~n , ml}st . ~veep, . • ,.. .
#i'h_ough storms be sudden, and '\\;aters deep/ '
., ·":· And the harbor-bar be Il10ani~g'. :......:::·'iC··"
~.

; '

...

Three corpses lay out on the shining sands,
In the morning gleam, as the tide went down,
And the women are weeping, and wringing their hands
For those who will never corpe home to the town;
For men mu st work, and women must weep, ·
And the sooner it's over, the sooner to sleep;
And good-by to the bar and its moaning.
CHARLES KINGSLEY.

