ELEl\1ENTS
OF

RH ET 0 RIC.
COMPRJSJNG THE

SUBSTANCE OF THE ARTICLE:

IN TDE

E.NCYCLOl'.&DIA i\1£TROPOL1TANA
W I TH A DD l TI 0 NS, &c.

BY

RICHARD

WHATELY, D . I>.

AHCl llllSllOP

PF

PUIJl.1~.

BUSTON:
JAMES MUNROE

AND CO:'v1l'ANY

I H43 .

v

HARVARD COLLE Gc ~ IBRAHY
GIFT OF TllE

CONGREGATIONAL L; BRf..flY OF BOSTOr\

DEC U 111::>5

PREFACE.

A BRIEF outline of the principal part of the

follmving Work was sketched out sc\·c ral years
ago for the private use of some young friends;
and from that MS. chiefly, the Article" Rhetoric" in the E11cyclopa:dia Metropolitana was afterwards drawn up. I was induced to Lelieve
that it might be more useful if published in a
separate form; and I have accordingly, with the
assistance of some friends, revised the treatis e,
and made a few additions and other alterations
which suggested thcms1:lv es; beside~ d i,·idi11'.!;
it in a manner more co11vc11ie11t for rckn'ncc.
The t itl e of " Hhetoric," I have thou:,:ht it lwst
on the whole to retain, as !wine?, tli; 1t hv \\ l1i('li
the Ar tic le in the Encydopa·clia is d1·si'._'.11ated:
tliou '. ', h it is in so111e respects open t o oli.J('l'tio11.
Desi rl"s th;1t it is rather the 111or1 · 1·01111i1n1ih
e1111 >loyed in rc(crencc to p11hli c .\j1rnkin:.:· ;tirnw,
it is also ;11 1t to S!i!..'.'...'.1'st t o 111 :11 1\ 111i11d-: ;;11 ; 1 ~ -.:0ciated idea of empty drclama ti rn 1, or of d i ~lin11 l'St

artif'J(T.

PREFACE.

I'ltEFACE.

The subject indee<l stands perhaps hut a few
degrees al.Jove Logic in popular estimation ; the
one lici nrr
by the vulgar as
,_, brrcncrally rcrrardcd
D
the Art ~f bc\\'il<lcring the learned by frivolous
s11Ltlcties; the other, that of deluding the multi
tude by specious falsehood. And if a treatise on
Composition Le itself more favourably recei,-c<l
than the'' ork of a Logician, the Author of it must
yet labour under still greater <lisad vantages. 1-fo
~nav,, be tl1 011rrht
to challenrre
o
e c ritici sm; and his
own perfc ;mances may lie condemned by a reference to hi s own precepts ; or, on the other
hand, his precepts may be undervalued, through
his own failures in their app li cation. Should this
t;tlrn place in the present instance, I have only to
urge, with Horace in his Art of Poetry, that a
whetston e, though itself incapable of cutting, is
yet use ful in sharpening steel. No system of instruction will completely equalize natural powers; and ye t it may be of service towards th e ir
improvement. The youthful Achilles acquired
skill in hurling the javelin under the instruction
of Chiron, though the master cou ld not compete
with the pupil in vigor of arm.

speaking, those \\'hose procedure has l>een co11formal.Jle to the rules 1 !ta \'C laid down, Will of
course have anticipated most of my 0Lse r\'atioI1s:
a11d those again who have proceeded 011 opposite
principles, will be more likely to censure, as it
were in self-defence, than laboriously to unl earn
\Vhat they have perhaps laboriously acquired,
and to set out afresh on a new system. But I am
encouraged, partly by the result of experiments,
to entertain a hope that the present System may
prove useful to such as ha11e their method of com position, and their style of writing and of delive ry
to acquire. And an author ought to be conte11t
if a work be found in some inst~nces not unprofitable, which cannot, from its nature, be expected
to pass complttely uncensured.
\Vhoever indeed, in treating of any subject,
recommends (whether on good or Lad grounds)
a departure from established pra ct ice, must expec t to encounte r oppos1t1on. This opposition
does not ind eed imply that his prece pts are n:ght;
but neither does it prove them wrong; it only
implies that they are new; since few will readily
acknowledge the plans on which they have lon g
l>ecn proceeding, to be mistaken. If a treati se
therefore on the present sul!ject were recei,·ed
with imm ed iate, universal, and unquc.lified approbation, this circumstance would not indeed prove
a"

IV

It may perhaps be hardly necessary to observe,
that the following pagPs arc designed principally
for the instrnction of unpractised writers. or
such as have long been in the habit of writing or

y

vi

PREFACE.

it to be erroneous, (since it is conceivable that
the methods commonly pursued may be altogether right,) but would afford a presumption that
there was not much to be learnt from it.
On the other hand, the mo re deep-rooted and
generally prevalent any error may be, the less
favourably, at first, will its refutation (though
proportionably the more important) be for the
most part received.
With respect to what arc commonly called
Rhetorical Artifices-contrivances for" making
. wou l<l
the worse appear the better reason, " -1t
have savoured of pedantic morality to give solemn
admonitions against employing them, or to enter
a formal disclaimer of dishonest intention; since,
after all, the general ity will, according to their
respective characters, make what use of a book
they think fit, without waiting for the Author's
permission : but what I have endeavoured to do,
is, clearly to setforth, as far as I could, (as Dacon does in his Essay on Cunning,) these sop histical tricks of the Art; and as far as I may have
succeeded in this, I shall have Leen providing the
only effectual check to the employment of them.
The adulterators of food or of drugs, and the
coiners of Lase money, keep their processes a
'Secret, and dread no one so much as him who

PREFACE

\ ' II

detects, descriues, and proclaims their contrivances, and thus puts men on their g uard; for "every one that doeth evil hateth the l·~ght, neither
cometh to the light, lest his deeds should be
made mauifest."
To the prevailing association of the ter m
"H.hetoric," with the id ea of these delusi,·e co11trivanccs, may be traced the opinion ("which I
believe is also common) that the power of elo
qucnce is lost on those who themselves possess
it; o~ at least that a critical knowledge of the art
of Composition fortifies any one, in proportion to
his proficiency, against bemg affected by the
persuasive powers of another. This is undoulitedly true, as far as Sophistical skill is concerned. The better acquainted one is with any kind
of rhetorical trick, the less liable he is to be misled hy it. The Artifices, strictly so called, of the
Orator, are,
- - - - l i k e triclcs hy Hlei£;ht of lmnrl ,
Which to aJinirc, one shou!J not 11nde:·stand:

and he who has himself been behind th e scenes
of a puppet-show,and pulled the st rin ~s by whi ch
the figures are moved, is not likely to lie mu ch
affected by their performance. This is indeed
one g- reat recommendation of th e study of Rhetoric, that it furnishes the most e ffec tual antidote
against deception of this kind. But it is by no

VIII

!'REFA CE.

rm:FA CE.

m eans true that acquaintance with an Art- i11
the 11obler sense of Lhc ·word,-not as consisting
i11 j ugg li11g trick s, - ten<l s to <lirniuish our scnsiuility to the most excellent pro<luctions of Art.
The g reatest proficic11ts in music are usually th e
most enthusiastic admirers of good mmic: the
best Painters and Poets, and such as are best
ve rsed in th e principles of those arts, are in ge ne ral (when rivalry is out of the question) the most
powe rfully affected by paintings and by poetry,
of superior excelle nce. And none I believe are
more ope n to the impression of sound, honest,
manly eloquence, than those who display it in
th e ir own com positions, and are capable of
analyzin g critically the mode in which its effec ts are prod uced.
A fow rassages \\ ill be found in the following
p:1gcs \\·hich presuppose some acq u ai11tam· <~ wi t It
l .o '.'i 1· : hut the '.',r1·:1t«st p:1rt \\ill, It l'llst. l)(' i11 -1 <·11ic:i i il1~ to tlios1· \\ !io !1:111: 110! tl1is k110\\ l('(l'.',<'/\t tlw s:1rn1· time. it is i111plit'd l1v \1h:1t I li:i11~
said of that ~ci1 · n( ' t', :n1d i11dt'<'d h1 th<' 1Tn· 1·irc11111:-Ltn<T o( 111\' i1:11

ii: :: 1nitt1 ' ll

f)Jl

it. tl1::1

c:11111ot l111t «f>li:-i d1·r !11111 :1s 1111il1 ·rt:1k inc::
rJi' !lllll<'cr·ss:1rY di 1-1ir·1ilt
out st11<hi11g I .o'..'._ic, to
arg1111H'lit:1ti\·c 1·, ri11·r

r. 11 li1>
lll'co1nc

;i

I

t.1sk

1'1Hle:11u11rs, 11 it

Ii-

:1 tl1orn11c;hlv r:()nd

IX

I t may be thoug ht that some :-i pology is ncccs-

s:uy for the frequent re fe re nee mad e to th e treat ise just m ention ed, aud occa siona lly , t o su m e
o th er work s of my own. It appear ed to 111 c,
however, that e ither of the oth er t\\'o al teruati ves would have been more n~j e cti o nabl e ; viz.
e ither to omit e ntire ly much t hat w as necdl'1d
for th e elucidation of the subj CL· t in lia11d ; or, to
re peat, in the sam e or in other \Yor<l s, what h:1d
bee n alre ady publis hed .
P e rhaps some apology may a lso be tho ug ht
necessary for th e vario us illustra tion s, selected
fr om se veral auth ors, or fram ed fo r t he occas ion,
whic h occur both in th e presen t treatise, a nd i11
th a t on L og ic; a nd in which opin ions on .-ar1rn1s
s 11l~jcc t s a re incide nta lly co nveyed; in :ill of
wl1ich, it can not lie 1·:xpc<tecl tint e1n_1 011e n i'
rn y readers 1\·ill cn11 1·11r. A111l some m:1\· ;11Tordinc::l1· !Jc (Ji.'-'rOsi'd (O C'Olllp/:1i11 tJi:1t ::1e1 c;11:11<> t
jlllt tllf'sf' works i11lll lllf' li:111d" of' :1111

111111 1 :~

jll'l'Silll tllldl'r t Ji ·ir \':llT 1 \\'it /1011( ;t ri-.k of /1is i11 1]1il1i11!_'. !lllti1111' "l1i1·li tilf'Y tl1i11k <'rro11\">l1"<. T !1i-:
nl;i1 ·r·tio11, l h:11e re:1sn11 to lielir:n•. li:1s 111·1·11 l' ''jl 1Ti:1/ly f1·\t. t\11111:_:)i

11 1 tllf'

1110.-.ct

l!IJ(

rl1• 1·id1•d!r

;1l\1;1,\ S (':\j1 li1·i1i 1
:111t

:- t. 1:.- ti .

1- r:l1risti :u : 11 ri;, r. . ,, 1·

1: 11! it ~ l 1011 l d lw r 1·:1J('t11l,,·1-. ·d .
I ,ri:c:i<' and H ill'tnri" ha\·i 110- 110 'Jll'O'lPI' :-1d1'""
I
Jf'<'t-mattc ·· of tlwir own , it was IIC<'e<;.;;: ir r to

t i il' ]'i''''-'C'l1t d:tL

I i1:1t

l'llE I' \Cl: .

resort to other clc:•artmcnts of kno\1·lt:d~c fort ' \ilic pri1wi1il1·s L1itl do1111; ;1:11i

lon; ;1,; tlwy nrnliiw 1lw111scl1cs to c:ilm :1 rbuL11 ·111 :1 ti1JI:, :u1il :tlJ,,t:1i11 i'r()IJl i1l.'>ul1, li!1, ·lio1b p1:r-

it would i1av1; been i111po.,;sil1lc, \\'itl1out ,·01iii11iw.:

:o.l!l1:ility, ;iml (;tlo,ilic<1tiu11 uf facts , I c:ir111:::itly l111i"'

111y.-;c]t' so t!H: most insipid tru is1 ns, to a1·oid 1:0111 -

110 l1i1«T will cvn he c111ploycd to ;-;i l1·11rT 1i:1·;;1 ,

('ii1pli(:c;ttions

or

plc1cl_v all to;>ic" 01111·iiicii t!H'rc 1·\i-.;h a11_1 diifr1· P111·p ot'opininn .

IL in the

cour~c of either

\\'ork.

t'\1·1·pt forc1· of :tJ·;,:11111<·111.
j1,;ilnus lover"

ur

I :1111 not 011 1· 11( ti11'"''

i'reedo111 wlin \\'!lti!d hin kc·1·; 1

I l1 :tn: adnw;1t1'd ;1111 r·1Trnwo11s 11·111·1. 1111 · olJ1 i-

it :ill to il1c111s1·ir1·;-;; 11or do l dr1 ·:1d 1ilti111:1t1·

ouc; rernccly is, to rct'uic it.

d:l!l:.:1 ·r to t/11· c:111'"' ot' trt1t!i from hir di'>1'll>'"io11.

I ;1111 11ttl'rl1 111J1·011-

sci<1us of lta1i11;.:; i11 :tll} i11s ta11 c(' r(':.;ortt·d lo

cm pl u1 111c11 t n: · fa i Li c y, or :; 1il 1" t i t 11 t 1·d dc (' I:1111: 1t irn i
for ar:_;-umcnt; hut

It 111:1y 111: 0101·1 tcd l1y sonw, tl1:u in the i'ur1·-

t !11:

if any Sll('li (;11ilh c:-.:i..;t, it is

;,;oi11g 11ord s I l1arc p11t forth

;t

ch:1llt-11:..:,c 1\lii1·i1

c:m1wt lie accepted ; inasmuch as it

l1;t,

IJl'1·1 1

.\or is 11 11t·1Tss:1rv tl1.1t

(Ji.cl:trcd l>1 tiil' li 1'..'.ill'"t ll'gal ;1 ut lioriti 1·', tii:1t

11·hf'11 :11n· l1ook is p:1t illto 1ii1• i1 :111ds iii' a 1·1J1111~

"Ciiri;.;ri:111itY i" p:1rt o( tl1c LI\\· ot' tiir· j, :\ll rl;;'

st1Hi1'.11t, lic slio1il d 1111 dc rs t:111 d that lw is to :1d111~t

;ind

i111pli1·itl_1 1·1 cry d <ll't ri11c c1J11t:1 i11('d i11 it, or sli1111ld

Is li<1lJlc to pnJs 1·1 ·11tio11.

1• :1s.1· to c\;1osc ili 1· 11i.

('011Sl 'I Jl1C'IItly

;111y

OJIC

who irnp11g11"

If,

\Vl i:t t is t!w j>rt·ci'>c

11ot !)(' cautio11cd ;1c:::1i11<.;t :rn y c'rrn111·rn1s pri1wi1il1·s

rnc;1;1i11 g ui' t ]11~ :tl101c l1·'..'.:tl ma.\i111, I do 11ur ;>ru -

ll'li icli it 1nav i111·1il(';1tc : otlwr\\ isc, i11d1·1·d. it

.C'-S

111Jtild l ie i1npo;-;..;j}Jlc to ;_;i1·c 101111.c:, 111c11 11 l1:1t 1•.

0111: 11110 c111ild 1'\j1l:ii11 it to rnc: 11111 1·1 id1·:1il\·

c:tli<·d

;i

('hsc;il':tl l'd1w:1tio11, \1·i1!1011t 111:iki11c:, tl11·111

j ) ; l :. ~: ; I 1l."-' •

t'

..

l

.

1

•

10 tll'lt ' l'lllllll ' ; 11;1\'lll!..'.;

Ill:\'('!'

1!1c i111 ·rt: <·i1·c11 11is t; 11 11T, tli:1t 11·1 : J1;i11·
]Jy J ,;111· (''>t:il1li"li1·1l. d1)('>.; 1101,

T ii; It J h; l I' I' ;1 1·()I\' I· iJ

;i:

I ;h '-' f' 11 t I ll t 1II'

t ..,.

id 1•I l r ·I's

llll't 11·iti1 :111 v
;i

li<·li"iu1 1

or ih1·l1·. i111i1:1

ill1·:..:,:1lit_1 oi' ;1r'.,'.t1i11'..'. :1:.:.1i11.'t tl1;1t ];1·ii~ i ll;; .

rd' ( '.iiristi :u 1itr. (t/111(, [ h1·li1 ·1·e . i..: tli1• p()i11 t 011

r1·:..:,11l:1tir>11s of T r:id1 · :1:1il

"r

till'

·1·::1·

S:11i~:1ri1111 . 1(1r ii:·

wliil'ii tl1c '..'.r1•;1tP.'-'t sor1•111'"" is frit.) :111d tli:1t tl1i"

st:11)('e, ;ire 11111111c"tirn1:1l1lr 11art "( li11 · i ,;111· :•i' till'

do1 ·s i11cidc11t ;1 J/_v i111pJ _1· SOllW <'l':hllrt~ of' liios1:

L :111d; lnJt tile q1w;,ti1111 o( tlwir l:.\[J1'1J1 1· 111 1· i"

11 iio r1~jf'ct it , is 11(\t to he d1·11il'd.

fr1'1·h· disc11ssed , a11d i'rt·q111·111h· i11 110 11·1'.1 ;;i;·;: '-

[~11t tlwv

az:1in arc at libcrtv. and tlic1· arc not h:1 ck11·:1rd

un·d lan'..'.·11;1c::e ; 11nr di.I l ever hear

in usi11:.; their lilwrtr. to l'l'fl<'I tlw

lwi11c.: 1n1·11:11Td 11 irlt 1•ro:-.tTlltion (or <T 1is11rn 1:..:,
1li c ll l.

rcf11ti11c::. ii'

illf'V

( ' Cll"llrt'.

c:111. t i10.s1· 1·1·id1:;1c1•s.

l11·

A11d ;1s

o( :1111· (1J11•",:

XII

PREFACE.

I presume not however to decide what- steps
might, legally, be taken; I am looking only to
facts and probabilities; and I feel a confident
trust, as well as hope, (and that, founded on
experience of the past,) that no legal penalties
will, in fact, be incurred by temperate, decent,
argumentative maintainers even of the most
erroneous opm10ns.
I have only to add my acknowledgements to
those friends for whose kind and judicious suggestions I am so much indebted ; and to assure
them, that whatever may be the public reception
of the work, I shall never cease to feel flattered
and obliged hy the diligent attention they have
bestowed on 1t.

ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC.
!
·•

I

INTRODUCTION.

§ I.

0 F Rhetoric various definitions have been given by
different writers; who, however, seem not so
V 11 ri o11~ defilllUC h to have disagreed in their conceptions
1'lli nns of
IU1 ctork .
of the nature of the same thin g, as to have had
dilTerent things in view while they employed the sa me
term.
Not only the 1·;ord Rhetoric itself, 1111l :1 b n
those used in defining; it, kn·c bee n taken in 1·arious
senses; as m<J.y \Jc ol1scrvctl 1\itli re,.;pcct t1> 1 : 11~ ''"rd
"Art" in Cic. de Ural. 1\ l1t•rc a di :sc: 11s,.;irn1 i,; i11trud11ccd :1 ' to th e npJ>li r· :1l1ility nC tk1t t1 ·m1 to HJ1e tr>1·i··;
rn:111il.r > tly turni 1 1~ on tlH~ diilcn·nt se nses i11 '' l1i1·i1
"1\n" Ill:!\' lw 1111 rl ('r,torni.
To c1Jtcr i11:0 a11 (''>;;uni1.~11io11 of all tl1•! ri· ·l:11i1 i' ':"
:kt lu\·1• h r1·1 1 :.: i1·1·11, \\01ild l•· :1 <l tr1 11t1wli ' !ltl •'i'" ' ' 11l~ ;u1d 11ni11." truc'li\ · 1~ Yerhal Clln!ro ; cr:..:.\·.
1t h '.'-'.i 1ni 1

r:ie 11t to put tlic rc:idc r on
111n 11 1'1Tnr

( l]

Cllll'

df·fi 11J1ii111

()r

s11;ipo-.: ir 1~

Iii,;

~u :ml ;1c.::1i11cl ti1c 1· r>111-

a

~' 'llt' r;tl t1 'r n1 11 :1 .; --1 · j11• '

T ]1;~t

COJH 'C jdi1111....;: --- -- 1J1:t1,

i::'

i()

t 'tlll.- t'!j i H ' lll )_\-.

::-: 1•!:H'

\JI' c( ll f )]( I \Y11ic ' 11 \\i ll (' (:j ! l j ir1 · ] 11' I '1 i i

r ·0 1:( ~

( '', ' ! ' !"\ '

2

ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC.

§ l.

that all others must be erron eous : whereas, 111 fact,
it will often happen, as in the present instance , that
both the wider, and the more restricted sense of a
term, will be alike sanctioned by use , (the only competent authority,) and that the consequence will be a
corresponding variation in the definitions employed;
none of which perhaps may be fairly chargeable with
Prror, though none can be framed that will apply to
e1·e ry acceptation of the term.
It is evident that in its primary signification, Rhetoric had reference to public Speaking alone, as its
etymology implies: but as most of the rules for speaking are of course applicable equally to Wrning, an
extension of the term naturally took place ; and we
find even Aristotle, lhe earli est systematic writer on
the subj ect whose works have r omc clown to us, including in hi s T reatise rules fo r such compos itions
as were not intended to be publi cly recited ." And
i.;1'c11 as far as relates to S peeches, properl y so caliPd ,
lw 1ak1·s 1 in die same T rrati sr, at one ti mr , a 11 id r· 1· ,
;111 d at another, a more res tri cted vi ew of tlt e ~ lll>j n:t;
i1wludin c; 11ndcr th e term R hetori r., in the ope 11i 11 _!.'; of
I.i s work, nothi nc; berond the fi n d in~ of topics of l'e r~1 1 ;1s 1 0 11 , as far as r c~ards the matt er of \\"hat is spo Len; :u1d :ii"1cn1·ards crnhracin_c; the cons id cr;1tio11 of
~I.\],., Arr:11,:ce111c11t, ;ind Dcl in' ry.
Ti 1c i11 vr nt io11 of P rint in'.':, 1 01' extc nd inc; tlir'
~

( )r

r:1 :) i. •r o (

/l, JjU'f .' j~ 1r t )ip jq yPnf !••n

,,f p r i n!Jn'._'

j-. f <•• • nl ••.'\ •• H~

~

t.

INTllODUCTION .

sphere of operation of the 1Vriter, has of course contributed to the extension of those terms whicb, in their
primary signification, had reference to Speaking alone.
Many obj ects arc now accomplished through the ·medium of the Press , which formerly came under tJ1 e
exclusive province of the Orator; and the qualificati ons requisite for success are so much the same 111
Loth cases, that we apply the term " Eloquent " as
readily to a "\"Vriter as to a Speaker; though, etymologically considered, it coukl only belong to the latter.
Indeed " Eloquence " is often attributed e\'en to such
compositions, e. g. Historical works, as have 111 vi ew
an object entirely di!Ierent from any that cou ld be
proposed by an Orator ; because some part of the
rules to be observed in Oratory, or rules analogous
to these , are ap plicabl e to such compositions . Cnn formab ly to tliis vi ew Llierc fo re, su 111c 11ritcrs k11 u
spoken of R hetori c as th e Art of Co 111po:3ition, 111 11 \ l' l"' :tll y; or, wit h the C'\ \'] t1 sio n u f l'oetn· alu1H', :is
c1 11 \1r:l\'i11g :il l l' ro,c -co1111 "'' itinn.
:\ -;t ill 11i d1 ·1· C"\t 1'1i'ii ll1 1 ui" tl 11! pr"\·i11\"l' \ >C Ji): ,.t1>1·i, ·
\1:1-; Lcf'n conte11ded f~Jr hv so1 1w uf tl1c ;11wi1· 111 11 :-1
t1· rs; who, thi 11ki ng; it necessary to i11cludc, ;1-< Lr·l <> : 1·~­
i11'.'; to the A r t, e1·cry th ing; tha t cuuld co111lwf' tn ii1r ·
:11t:ii11llll' J1 t uf tlic olijcct propo,;c \i , i111rnd11, ·1·:i 111t•>
tl lf'ir -;y,;tc111s T n·ati ::;cs on L aw, '.\l
l' 1Jii1i,· ·- , s,_,.
0 11 t li c .l'. ro und t l1at a kno \1ledge of ti 11'-;c , 11Ljcr·h '" ::"
l"i''\llisit1! to enal1 lc a m:m to speak 11Tl l 011 1iwill: ;u1d
c\·cn i11~ i : :i tccl on ''irtu c~ as an cs :) cn tial

T111t t11 li ·n ·" ~lit·i· d il \· j;, j].,w 1'd, in a likr:iry 11 :i. ti( 111 , t!1i · i!11r .. tl111· t ~ •1 r1

•·i'a p;1 ;11· r :-;11 :'. > ..:··1it!y c li1 ·:1p fn nu!;;:c !)1 c a r t H\';1 i Ldd1 ·. ! 11 d1·1· d t l H·
11!' t lw :ttt(' if• nf ~ ~r-r· m tn h ~n·r lwrn 1 klnrl ,-,ff' t :1my-• -: , wi:h \1 ·f1if"l

~~1 ·:1l~

t iw y i : t h1·i ii:-intr-d ·~w r:- r a rrw~

3

w-

S1_·c· Qni11ctilia11.

<;11al i!'1t_·;i i. J\ 1ll ( ' :·

4

ELEMENTS OF RH ET O!U C.

§ I

INTlt O DL' CTlON.

§ I.

can 111 no way b e so surely es tab lished as by deserving it, has great weight with the audience .
T hese notions are combated by Aristotl e ; who attribut es them e ither to the ill-c ultivated
Ari:-:tot le's
cci.• u re uf his understanding ( uawvsuala ) of those who ma11111redt:cc:isors.
tain cd the m, or to their arrogant and pretending disposition , u.i.tt ~oNI« ; i. e . a desire to extol
and magnify th e ,\rt they profcs-;cd. In the prese nt
day , _the extr:wa:;ance of such doct rin es is so apparent
to mos t readers, that it wo uld not be worth while to
take much pains in refuting them .
It is wortliy of
remark ho we \·er, that the very same e rroneous vi e w
is, even now, often take n of Logic ; * whi ch has Leen
considered by some as a kind of syste m of uni ve rsal
knowledge, on the ground that Argument m ay be employed on all subj ects , and that no one can argue well
on a suhj ect whi ch he docs not umlerstand ; :rnd
,\'l 1icl1 has been com pl ai ned of liy o th ers fo r no t supplyi ng any such univ ersal instruc tio n as its unskilful
advoca tes have placed within its province ; such as
in fact no one Art or System can possilily afford.
T he error is prec isely the same in re,; pect of R heto ri c and of Lo~ i c : ho th be in~ instr umental arts ; and ,
a~ ~ 1 wli , :1ppli1 · alil1~ to 1·:1rio11 s kirirL; oC sul i,irct-111a11cr,
1d1:c li do 11ot proiJcri.',- come Lmtlcr tlicm.
~" j11riicilJ11s :lil a111 i1or :F Q11i11rt iklll 1rn1ild 11ot k11·c
L1iicd to pc rcci1·c, kid he not !wen C'11 rri cd a11·n;' l1y
:1n irm rdirntc Ycnc rntion fo1· hi:< min .\1·t , 1li:1t :r s tl:1!
jHl "--:{ · ~'-- i(Jil ot' !n1i ldir1 -; 111:uc r i:1 l:_;; ir..: nn ;)~1 l'i o ( ll 1r ;irt 1)(

the Orator is to speak , constitutes no part of the art
of Rhe toric, though it b e essential to it s successful
employment; and that though virtue , and the good
reputation it procures , add mat~rially to the Speaker's influence, they are no more to be, for that reason,
c onsidered as belonging to the O rato r, as such, than
wealth, rank, or a good p erson, whic h manifestly have
a tend ency to produce the same effect.
In the present day howe ver, the province of Rhe toric, in the widest ac c eptation that wo uld E xll emt's i n
l imitabe reckoned admissible , comprehends all the
t ion a nd extensi o n o f
" Composi tion in frose ; " in the narrow- tt1e rm.1vin ce
o f HIJ t=to r ic .
est sense , it would be limited to " P ersuasive
Speaking."
I propose in the present work to adopt a mid dle
co urse between these two extreme p oirits ; oi.je ct of'""
pn~se11 l Tre'land to treat of .ll.rg umentative Composition, "'"·
generally, and exclusively ; consid erin g Rhetoric (in
conformity with the very just and philosopliical vie w
o f Ari stotle) as an off-shoot fro m L ogic.
I re mark ed in trcati11 g; of tl1al Sc ience, tk1 t Jleason11 1~ may he co n'; id1 'rc d as :1ppli(':1Lle to 111 " r 11 rpnsr '" ,
wh i"li
ven tured to dcsir.::11 :i te respcf'1i11·k hy ilw
tcn11 .s '~ li1ferri11~ 1
;111d '~ Pr 1 )vin~;" i. (_
' . tlH· nscrrlai1w1cnl uf tlic trurii 11:· i11n:s ti:,::atiun , a11d tLc esl1d1
lislw1rnl ol il t11 till~ 9ticJ11('tio11 of rrn"//iu: :L11d i
tl 1i:rC rc111 :1rk<'ii, il1:ll 1:1w1111, i1 1 i1is Urg cuuui, i111s i:, ;i[
dm1· 11 rul e,; (,,r riic crn1d11\'t of tiw fc1r lll•'l' of tlJ•' -C

.:\ r 1~l1i1.1T~t1rc ,

pro\· i n c~ ot' 1\ li i:tciric : and it w11--; addr·d, th :t t
to in(rr j,, l< • !11: r· ·r.::·1rd "d ;io illC' 1m 1pn riJ)j,.,,
11 C the Pl ulo ,01ilwr, o r tl1r" J11dc;e ; - to

llJ:l1 ( '1' ! ~ti ~ 1

:-'.

1

ti

l i1 i..;

11:1111i_--;-.,i]i),.

111 !111ild \\·it) 11J 11t

>, liH• l·. Jt1 l '·, dc \ J:_:-~: o( !]Jl' :· 1d1.it·i·f --;

Clll

v:Ji w! 1

q

p rn cc...;:-::r '-.:,

:1iHi

tli:tt TlH' b ttr'r

l'

1H·! () !1 '.!'-'

tn ti H'

6

ELEMENTS O F JUlETO IU C.

§ I.

the Advocate. It is not however to Le urnlcrstood
that P hilosophical works arc to be excluded fr om the
class to which Rhetorical rul es are appli caLl e ; for the
Phi losopher who undertakes , by writing or speaki ng,
to convey his notions to others , ass umes , for the ti me
being, the character of Advocate of the doctrines he
mai ntains. Tbe process of investig ation must be supposed completed , and certai n co nclusions arr ived at
by that process, before he begins to im part his ideas
to others in a treatise or lecture ; the oLjec t of wliic h
must of course be to. p rove the justness of those concl usions . And in cloin1; thi s, he will not :il ll':1_vs fi nd
it cxpcdic11l lu adhere to the same co 111'sc o i' r!':isPnlllij l1y wi1 ich hi s ow n di scoveri es \\'r• rc r1 r i ~ i1i:tllr
11w.de other arµ;uments ma_v occur to him arten\·ard s,
u iure clear, u r rn ore conrise, or better ~l(f:-lpred 10 thP
11111 :.. r,1:1111iiu.·!, ot' tlinsc lw- ·,11 1,1·l1· r",·.'r· ··.111 t·'-1' );1111111.~
· ·

tl1erekire, ~UI<l cstublishinr; tlH: trnth, h1: 111: 1y
11ave occasion for rules of a cli1J;,rP11t kill(/ i'r0111
c111ploycd i11 it s discm·cry . .\1·c"r' li11'.Cil-, \I i11· 11
lll:trk1· d, i11 1lic \\Ol'k :ilJOIC :ill11dcd I<>, 1!;:11 it i' ;1
JJIOl1
1;11il1, 1;1r 1lio:;c e 11c::1 '.~c d 111 l'l1il"'"l'li;l':1I
'fl1cul 1 l~ic;d 1nqu1nes,

to

f \Jr!!('f

rl: 1·ir·

O\\'i l

oltcn
those
[ ll!1·11111:111 ,j

p1 r·iili; 1r
1

u;iice, :u111 :1 ,;,; 11111e tliat of the A1kcw:iir' , i 1111 iro pf' rk ,
1l1:..; c;i11tio11 is lo be urHlcr;;luod ;1 .; :1ppli 1·; 1J,J, ; 111 ;J-1,;
prucc·;-;s u!' .Fnnn ing tl1rir Ult:l o;Ji11i1111s; 11fd 1 :is l ' ' \ t !11di11~ 1111·111 fr1111 1 :i dnw:11i11l; l1v :ill 1:1i1· :irc:: 111111 ·11 1-c, r! 1,.

begin s (as is too plainly a frcq 11ent mode of proceeding) by lns tily adop ting, or st rongly lc:rnin g; to so111c
opi nion , ,1·bicl1 suits his inclinatio11, or " ·l1ich is s;i:1c tioned by some authority tlt:1t he blin dly ve11 crat1:,;,
an<l the n studies " ·itl 1 the utmost diligence, not as <111
fny cstigator of Truth , but as an Ad l'ocate labouri11:;
LO pro,·e his po in t, l1is talents and his rcsc:i rclie;;,
11hateve r effec t th ey may produce in lll::iking; co 1:1·crts.,
to hi s notions, "· ill arni l notliin~ in cnF::;li1c11i1•g; Iii ..;
own j udgment, allll sccuri 11g; l1irn frn111 error .
Cnmpns ition lioll'e \·er, oi' the :\r:,;1 11111·11t:11i1c Linrl,
111~

11 1:1 _\'

c·nn :-; id< ·;·ed

Leen ~dJt)\ ,, ~1;1~ 1·d )

ir1C::. 11i;cl1 :r Ilic 11rm·i1we of' Hl1 r·t11ri" .

.\11 d

:i-> 1"f 1 !:

1 '""''

11: ;-;

:1

1il1.j. •r · ! :1it 1, l l 1:1...: 1; J'i 1

it " not l1kr·lv 111 l1·;1 d to di.;1 ·11,·.1 r>11 -: ik1t 1·:1r1 !11:

:h

dl'C'llli'd

:--;tJjl('!'IJt](lll:.:..:,

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:ll\'

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~' Pcr~11;1~i\ · l;

{ll

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~p f'ak : 1 1 ·_i_·; ''

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iii.

1'

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:111il 111 I}, .. , I' l 'l •' i
1l 11~
.\i'i'illl '.Cl' !J l1'ill; .;r•1'1liidly 1 tr1 J:t\' drl\\ II
I) ]"( i I)\ ; < ('

1)

I:

( :is li:i:-;

1lt' the ~til1jf•ct i:-: tlH: lt '~<.; !lj) l'tl t(l

Ill-

It' "

7

L\'l' J\ODUCTI ON.

§ l.

lo t1w
:~;i: ! 11•11 1 t· 1\1
i11:i1! _\·, P t - 11: : .1, 111

tlw

1· _'!1 i :~ :-1,;

!'.11'

(

1]

l

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' :·

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in r1 •

·· :1

....
.. ; *

·~-:...

~

..:...;..

:·~

..:...:.~

-.:..•·;:

8

ELEMl·:NTS OF RHETORIC.

INTRODUCTION.

§ 2.

Quinctilian is iu<leed a systematic writer; but cun not be considered as having much extended O.nin c t ilLrn.
the Philosophical views of his predecessors in
this department. He possessed much goo<l sense, but
this was tinctured with pedantry; - with that ,;).«:n ,·du
r.s Aristotle calls it, \rhich extemls to an ext ra\·a;:rnt
degree the province of the Art \vliich lie prolL: ~scs . :\
i::rea l part of his \1·ork indeed is a Treatise 011 crl1w:11ion
•'c1
1cralk
· in the conduct of 11 l1icli lie \1·as no mean
0
. '
proficient ; for sut'h \':as the i11qH1r t<rnr·c at t:wlwd to
p11lilic 'p r' al;in; , cn?n le11; af'tcr th e do1111Lill of tl11c 1tl'1111L!:c li:iil n:t off tl:c Or:t!u1· from tltc li "i'L'~ c f ;1:t;ii11i11; 1
tl11
the rnc: \i is of tl1i-; q11alific:11io11, tl1c l1i~· )w, t ;111li1ic:il i111pm!a11r·e, :l1 :il lw 11 i10 11·as 11u111iP:illy a J'rof{·s -

It may be expectLJ that, Lefore I proceed to treat
11;.1,,n· or
of the Art in question, I should !>resent tlie
Hl1 i.: toiic.
. reade~ with ?. sketch of its liistory. Little
however. is re qwre <l to Le sa1'd on this head, because tlte
present is not one of those branches of study in 1rhicJ 1
'.ve can trace with interest a progressive improvenient
from a!-)C lo age. It is one, on th e contrary, to wlii('h
JJHJrc attelll1:.i11 ;tpp ciil'S to ktvc bee11 paid, and i11 which
t:/c:ater pro ficicncy is suppo:;e<l to Jiave been marle, j 11
tlie earliest days of Science and Literature, than at ;iny
Ar1 •rni1e.
suL~er11w11t period. Amon?: the ancient,;, Ari;toi le, rile eariiesr 1rhose \rorks are "\f·. 111 r I ll:I}'
solick
be jJl'Ol10Ui1 Ct;li· lo 'IJe aJSO the twst, of' t]ie ')'SJ
ll'lll:Jtic 11 riicrs on W1cro1w. Ci<'cro ;, h:irdJ,
y

.

,

SCll' of lii1•.> t111·i(' , !::111 i11 i':u t tltc IJl()"t i11q1nrl:111l L1·:11wl11_·s

tif

i:1:-:t! ·lw1inr! i11~rt1 < 11 ' :l U1

Ji;-.; (·:tn'.

I.

;t !:d

;) c1\ '."l ' r

~ :n: i \ y < i ..:

1>\.

The 1ni1 crs
\\·()rl-:.~ :1ri·
<

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1

ll:llTO\\' \"ll'\\.

to

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uf'

\\ 11:1· !1 ..\ri·-1!11]1·· 11(1 ·,:-: 1

lll1ctoric

011

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n111011!.;

:1rr:1 11~ t· 111 f' 11L

petty

~rtiti\_t_·~

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_c.;1;1 1jt·1 ·t:

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:t11d \\·1tf1 die

dt•l: tii...;

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(\( ." 1 _\·] 1 ·

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<ii' '. '. i \ ·1 1 1~ : t

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uf

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11t;1<-

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tiic

rm1wd ll"'ir
irI

1

\\ T i!1 ·r:-~ <)f ;1:1i;i1\~ ] 1 :1\ ·1 ~
"11h·w, 1; :i11d 11111 Iii;!,. li:1.'
:1 d(i1 ·d. r·111i1·r 111 J't' .' -'.)H'' t (If 111;t1 !1' 1' , ~) r td" :--:\·:-t . ·111,
j ~:I I
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f I \\ "f T t'

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10

ELEMENTS

or

lllli':TOIU C.

§3

does not enjoy indeed so high a degree of popular favour
as Dr. Blair's, but is incompm·ably superi or ~o it, not
only in depth of thought and ingeni0us original researc h,
but also in practical utility to the stud ent. The title of
Dr. Campbell's work has perhaps deterred many readers, who have concluded it to be more abstruse and
less popular in its character th an it r ca!Iy is. A1uid st
much however that is readily understood by any
moderately intelligent r eader, there is muc h also that
calls for some e xertion of thought, which the indolence
of most readers r efuses to bestow. And it must Le
owned that he also in some instances perplexes his readers by being perplexed himself, ancl b ewild ered in th e
discussion of questions through which he does no t clearly see his way. His great defect, which not only leads
him in to occasio nal errors, but leaves many o f hi s best
ideas but imperfe c tly develop ed, is hi s ignorance a11d
utter m isconception of the nature and object of L ogic ;
on which some remarks were made in my treatise on that
S c ience . Rhetoric being in truth an ofl ~ s hoo t of L ogic,
that Rh etorician must labour und er great disadvantages
who is not only ill-acquainted with that system, but
also utterly unconscious of his deficiency.

§3.

I NTRODUCTIO N .

the wiser in this respect ; -

I
l
l

11

in other words, whether

Rhetoric be 1oorth any diligent c ulti vati on.
vYith regard to the first of these qu estions , the ans wer
A_.; ,1 uu•"
gel1erally given is, that the nature of the Go\·- c11lllva
ti on
e rnm ent in the ancient democratical States caus' ..byr HIH'tonc
rli t: lt U ed a demand for publi c speakers, and for such m 0 " ·
speakers as should b e able to gain influen c e not only
,,·ith e du cated p ersons in di spassionate deli beration, b11t
\l·ith a promiscuous multitude; and accordin gly it i~ remarked, tliat the extinc tion o f libe rty lJro11 g;ht \\·ith it , or
at least brought after it, the declin e of Eloqu ence ; as is
justly r emarked (though in a courtly form ) by th e author of the dialogue on Oratory, which passes und e r th e
name of Tac itus : " Quid enim opiis est long is in Scna tu sentcntiis, cum optimi cito consc ntiant'l 'Juid , rnH/tis

apud p opulum concionibus, cwn de R cpu/Jli cft non impcriti et multi dcliberent, sed sapie11tissi111us, ct trnus7 "
This account of the matter is undoubtedl y correct as
fa r as it goes ; but the importance of pulili c-speaki n; is
so great , in our own, and all other count ri "" tl1at ;m · 111>1
under a des potic Go ve rnm ent, that th e npp nrent llf' !:l•'• ·t
of the study of Rh etori c seems to require smiie i'mt !1 <'r
explanation. Part of this explana tion ma:• lie '"l'Jili 1·d

l1y the consid eration, that the difference in thi s l'<' 'l "' '" t

§ 3.
From a general view of the history of Rhetoric , two
questions naturally s n g~es t th emselves , which on exnrninntion \\"ill h8 found ve ry c ]o:.; ely ('onn ert erl l<'; •·tlwr :
first, whnt is the cause of th e c areful nnd ext!>n~in'
r·11lti\·ation , :1 mon2; th e ;rnri cnt ;;, nf :rn Art wlii1·h th e
111oderns b:we comparati vely ncc:lf'rterl ; :u1d sccnndl\• ,
wl1etlier the forme r or th e latter ar() tu be reµ;a rd cd a;;

h et1H•Pn the nn cients :uHl 011r~ch' rs i:; 11 0l so
WI
l
Tli· ·;J!H "i t• lll<I
µ;rent in r eal ity as in app< ~ ar a11cc.
1c11 t 1c 1• • :1, •. , . ,.,,., , .
1· r 1 :1.u1 rt-.1d ·
011 /y \1·:1:-· of addr es;; in~ tl1c pu1Jli c 1Y:is l lY "ratitJ11 s , and \\"lif'n all politi('al llH' ;1 -, url's IH'l"l' <;,._
hated in pnpul :i r assf' mhli cs, th e r li;1r: 1<" t1· 1·.; r:C Or;1'. r·1· ,
;\ 11t hnr , :md l' oli tic i:in, nlnw ' t 1?11i1 r1 ·l _1· '" "i:11 ·ided ; ),,.
\i·l 1n \';ou1 d Ct> 1111ll111 1it"atf' Ji j, id1·;i' tu 11 11' " "iJ, 1, o r 11 ll1::. ;
~ai n politi cnl pow er, and e arn· i1 is li:~ i ~ l: 1 t i1·c ot liem<> i11-

12

El.E;\H~N T S

OF lU-JJ::TOIUC .

to effect, ,,·as necessarily a Speaker; since, as P ericles is
made to remark by Thucydides, "one who forms a judgment on any point, but cannot explain himself clearly to
tl1 c people, might as well hav e never thouglit at all on the
su bj ec t." ~·
The consequence was, that almost all who
sought, and all who professed to give, instruction, in the
principles of Government, rmd the conduct of judicial
pro ceeding;s, combine d these, in their minds and in tlie ir
prac ti c e, with the study of Rlietoric , which was necessary to give effect to all such attainments; and in time the
Rhetori cal writers (0f whom Ari stotle makes that complaint) came to consider the S cience of L egislation and
of Politi cs in ~eneral, as a part of their own Art.
Much the refo re
what was formerly Sttldied under
th e name of lLlictoric, is sti ll, under othc,r names, as g;c n1"; ;i\Jy and as dili:;f'ntiy ~t lldi ed as eve r.
Ir l': 11111<>t 1" ' d1 '11 i1'd liol':c1·0r 1li:1t :1 :~n,:it di1i;' l't'11<·1·,
tltOllC:h less . as l han~ said, than mic:ht at first s i ~h t :ip·

or

J 1 t•:1r~ dlJC's t:\ist i )ct \\TCn the a11cicn!s ~111d t11l~ n1 ud~ ·n 1'-i

i11 tliis poim: -1li:1t \\·l 1~t is s: ri!' th· ~111t! prnj't'rh· 1 ;ii[ ",]
[\ hctoric , is muc h less stu d ied, at lc:t'I. le-;,; ,;\·~t1:1t1:11i";tlh
st udied, now, than form e rl_v. Perlin rs thi s :dso nwv he i11
<;CJ111 •; lil!':t 'lll'( ' ;w('n1111l <'d lnr frlllll 1111· 1· 11'<' 11111 ~Lt!1C 1 ':~ \\ l1i1·l1 li:t \·:• l11 •t ) 11 j 11.~t JJ(lli<"('d.
~1wl1 t 'i
t!w di~!r 1 1~t (' \ 1< t1· d lty :111 y ~t1..;pi1 · 11q1 o( 1\li1·!ori<'lii 11rlili •" ', 111:11 1·\· .. ry 0:111· :il;1•r or'" 1it •T \'. !11 1
1~, :t!t\.iPl!'-i tu c:ttT\ ' !ii-.: !)\J i 11L t"J1d1\:l\Ollt'') l ! l c]i -.; 11\\ll ( I ]" !n
j, ' 1·p <l! JI. nr ~i:_::liT :in~: -.:11;w r ior i1_\' u( :-; kill, :111d \\"ic,]w , ~ 111
i1c ('(J th 1ti1'!'t:d ;i.-; t'<·h·i11 c:: r:1ti11:r 1>11 1111· -1 r1•11'. '.l i1 ,,j' Ii i'

13

J .\Tl~OD UCTION .

~ ·I.

nuity and c xpeiln css as an adrncate. H ence iL is, t.l 1at
even those who have paid the greatest and the most succ ess ful at tention to the study of Composition and of Elocution, arc so far fr om encouraging others by cxn rnpl e
or recommendation to engage in the same pursuit, that
th ey labour rather to conceal and disavow their O\\·n profi c iencv · and thus , theoretical rules are d!'cri ed, e\'Cn
-'
liy those who owe the most to them. "Vlicrcas amon~
the anc ients, the same cause di1\ not, for the rensrm s
lat ely m entioned, operate to the same ext ent; since ,
however careful ally speake r might IJC to di :;< 11" 11 tltc ;1rtifi ces of Rhetoric properly so call ed, he \\·oultl ll Ot lie
ash:u1wd to ackno\\ lcde:c hims 0lf, gcnc rall;·, ;1 -:11il1" 11 t, or
a prnfi('i1·111, i11 :in ;\rt \\·l1 iclt \\·Qs tmJcr,; tocil to i1l<' lt11:.,
tli ~

cl1'!lll'llls oi P(il iti "al \\ i,; d(\m .
~

4.

'Vi1h rr:::arrl tn tlt c otl1rr q11 es1 ion ]'l'"!""''d, \ i1. .
('(lf1('('l'Jli11:,:: tl10 111.ilil\' , ,\ Hlll'111t'il', it i,; \'.\ ],, . I <> I'! '. .. ;
<1\1 ,; 1"J'\·1 ·d tl1:il it d.11 i,\1 ',; itsf'il illto \\\l>; i'1r,I.. I " " " '
\\ J: .. till'r O r: tllll' il' :ti sk il l 111' 1 1111 t h ~\\ l11il<' , 11 !"'!,Ji" l•1"1!f·fit. or t•\'il: :rnd s('(·nndl.\· , \\]Jl'illl' r :111 ;· ;11·1il."'i:1l s:,. , :1'i11
ni' H 11l<'ci i,; " n11d 1w1 \t' Ii>1110 11 11:1i nmen t ni' 1k11 ,;, ,:i. 'j"j ,,.
fortiH 'r

()r

1)H'~1 · q 1w :--:t i()J1 ~

\\ ·;1:--:

1':1 ,~-1·rly 1l··1 1: 11i·i i

; 111H11·, ,_1.,

:lw 111w i,. 111c:: ntt 1111' l:r:111r li11I li1iJ,. d1.111•t '" " ''"' ;"
l 1:t\"(' 1'"~: . .: 11·d . \\'ith 11...:) 011 1hc er;11tL1ry, 111
i
1•

1]w...;1'

il l ,'..:'::,

l jl Jj

•...:l

Ji :t 1J ]r'

:-:\ : :'

1

'

1

J O !l ~

:1:->

i1

f '\ .

i (l1' I1 1 J .\·

i . .; l l l ;i J J\ i~!',

i:-i

t ()

l

1('

1· 1

' I i·

i ': 1 · :· 1 · i l 1

ii:tl1i iii ,. tt1 :i\ 11::-:t · i:-; 111 iil wr 111 1]11 ...:, 1J<1r 111 ; 11,,· 1it 1wr
f':i:.:: (' ) { () lw 1· n: ·1'-;i 1k•r(\d ; 1 -~ /"(\1]1 " 1l)'"~~."I' ~ 1 '. .: ·; ;~ i -..:f d !t\ 1 11i1i~\ r·, f
1!1:t1

1

I )

·--·:-=':..'

..~. ·:: ,:) ~
;,--~~·;,~~;:r;

14

I::LE:\lt:NTS OF RIIETOIUC.

any kind of art, faculty, or profession; - Lecause the
ev il eHccts of misdirected pO\rnr, require t!1at equal powc1·s should he arrayed on the opposite side; - and be cause truth, having an intrinsic supPriority over fal sehood,
may Le expected to prevail when the skill of tl1c r:onte nding parties is equal; which will be the more likely
to take pbce, the more widely such skill is difli1srrl.
But m:rny, perhnps most pcrs~ns, arc i1wlincd to tl11~
opinion that Eloquence, either in wri1in~ or ~1wnkin£:, is
eitl1er a natmal gifr, or, at least, is to !1e ;w1p1ired l1v
n1 e re practice, and is not to be attnined or iin11roved J,y
any s_vstern of rules. And this opinion i,; f:11·fl11rr'rl not
least by 1hose (as has been just ol1serv1·d) 11 liosP om 1
expnicnce 1vould enable them to det:idt: l't'l"V difier•'11tly; :n1d it certainly seems to be in a l':rf•at d~e:rec pr:wtic:tlly aduptcil. :\lost jH'1·:;011s , it" not ],.ft 1·11ti1·l'11· to 1) 1,.
<!:''i"'':il oC cl1;uwr~ in rt''\'•'r ·t nf tl1i' \,1:1111 11 nC •·r\11c;11in1 1,
;111• ;1t l1•;t>l ir.ft tu ;w1;11i1T 11 l1at tlwy c:i11 )11· jll'!Ir/iN,
~ucii ~i::; sci 1ool or co! k':!:C C:\.crci:-:c:..; ~11l( ·1rd. \\ 1tl11 H1f rinl<') 1

c:1rc bc i11~ t:ikc11 to 11111ia1c tl!l'111 s1·,;; 1·111;11i1·;1Jh- i111" 1111•
J>rtllCiplcs of li1c Art; and tl1at , r1·r·•11w111l _r, tli >t so lllllr'll
111':_:-J !~ t ' llt't~

fr!llll

i11

Jl1e ('f)!Jd1w!Ol''.-i

o(

;]~

1·d111·;1liill! 1

frr1J1l

tln·ir d()1ii1h ui' tlic 111iii1:· or ;m_1- srwli l'f'l'. llhr _,:1·.- 1r•111.
L ,-..n :ii11h- :111r-i ;,,. :id1 11 i11t'd . rli;1t rn 1,., 11 "1 c1•n,t1· 1wt cr:l!1 1p tl1:n1
1i1;!(

;l

1:11 ·::t:1I

~i...;.~ ht

to

}H'(i :J1 1ti<'
ir 1 tf:i~

;,lie
(Jj

rh:in

oper:ttio11s

(Jr

lt~<'Liiic;ii

re ;1n y· ninrr

jli!ft: 1JJT'
\·t · n·

dial a ~_\·::;tc1t1 ut'

1:w1il1ic ...;; __ _

011r

~.kiil

h

jJljJ' ]l(l'-:1 '

h':

tiit ' C~I'-- ~' (jHt •\"t' r : !: !!t 'I' :ut

1 I ;I [ I

i111;11 •il!llll'!d

I

'

:t

,..

()r

1

i l 1I I I l i I

1!1:111

('\t"

1>1

rtdt.' :; 111qh.~rrt'cll.\- ('()t11pr1 ·!w 11i it ·d

!': I l \ l i l i;I ! . I '/. I ' ' ! 1\·' . l )1· : : ( . 1i ' ' ~ ' ' \ \.i11 ( '. '· ~ ' ; 1f '

d1·1i-i-

t11cir1 1

~inrr

'

~:

1I

ii-

INTRODUCTION.

§4.

§4

l
;

f'

indeed will be found in all other Arts likewise ; - and
that no system can be expected to equalize men \I ho5e
natural powers are <lifferent : but none of these con cess ions at all invali<late tlie positions of Aristotle ; tliat
some succce<l be tter than others in explaining; their opinions , an<l Lri11gi11g over others to them ; ai1d that, not
merely by superiority of natural gifts, but by acqt1i1·cd
habit ; and that ('.Onsf'quently if "·c can di:;co1 lT tl10
causes of this superior succcss,--tl1e means by 11 l1icl1
the desired curl i:; att:ii11cd by all 11 lio do <Jttain it , - 11·e
shall UC in jlO':i SCss iun or rulcs C:ljdilc of ~encr:ii :q111licalion: 1~ : nv

( 1rr/, :-:;t\'S lie, rt· x1 ·l 1 ~· ;~1 ;.nr.~
]~'\pcric11cc so
p!Ji11ly c; in cc:;, 11·hat indtccd 11·c llli ~ht 11:1t11rally lie led
antcccdc:Jtiy to conjecture, that a ri~lit jt1de:1t1cnt 011 ;u1y
s1il1jcn i.-; 11u t ncc e,;c;;i rily accompanied by skill i11 clii:ct111.~ co111·ictio11, 11ur the aJ,iiity 10 dis1:01 er trnt11, L1· :1
i:wili1 1· 111 c'-:11L1i11i11:.: it, - rli:it 1r 111i.:.:lit !11• 1t1atl4' r c.;
11011d1:r li1J\\' a111· do11!Jt sliotild c· 1· er li111·c cxi,tcrl a' tu
tl11: 1•0,s ii1ili:_1- r> f dni<11~, :111d 1\rc u1ili1y of 1:1111il"y i11:.:.
a :-;r,;1c111 of ](u],.,; fur'' Ar:.:111111·111ati1·c Crn 11i'osi;iu11,"
,;:,r'111·1·;ill y, rli:-;ti1wt f:·r11 11 ;1111· c;y,;1t·111 t·on1·t'r:-; ;rnt ali1111i ti: •:-

s td>_jl '('t -1 1i; 1Ut'r of 1·:11 l 1 C()J!1j1(>-.iiiu11.

IL is proliabk il1:1t tirt' c.\i:-;tin:r, J>l"4',j11rl i1·e:; 1111 1l1i:-; s1d1Jt'CI 111:1y Le trar·L·d in .L":rc: 1t 111c:t,;i11c 10 tli.: in1111·rf1·r·t ., 1·
111crn-rt·1·t 1101 iu11s ,,( so111 1'. 1nitl' rs , 11 Ji,, li;11·., cill1cr l'n1ili 11 1·rl tlwir at1<·111io11 to 1rilli11L"; 111i11111i:t: "t" ;;1ylt• , or at J,.,1 ,1
11 :1\·1· i11 sinne rt"'ilf' t' l f:tilcd ln 1:1k1· a <:.;t1flil·i,'11th· ( ' (\J1i;1r1
hr•;-1<:.; i\"f' yj p,,- nf rhr 11ri nr· irJp·~
ti(I)\

r•, : w1· i;ilh·

jc;.:

flr

thP •\rt.

llf_'ip:

fI

(

() :Jf' df ~; !JiJf"­

tn !H· (")t ·arh- L1id d'l\\Jl :1:1d 1· :1 rr>f1iJ I,·

fl(•!
I

15

~

~JS
r

[1 !

16

ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC.

§4

in the Elements of Logic, between an Art, and the Art.
" An Art of Reason ing " would imply, " a Method or
System of Rules by the observance of whi ch 011 e may
Reason correctly;" " the Art of R easoning "
/\ ri ghtl y
. j y a uystem
'-'
r..rn ... .i ' " •· wool~d imp
o f 1>\.LI j es to w l 11.c l 1 every
l t.: 111 d "...::::. ri u t
d
·
crar11n 11re one oes con form (whether knowingly or not)
11 ;1 lurai pow ers.
who reasons correctly : and suc h is Logic, con sid ered as an Art. In like manner " ari Art
of Composition " would imply " a System of ltulcs Ly
which a good C ornpo~ition may Le produced; " " tlte
Art of Co 111 l'ositiun, " - " suclr rnl es as e1 cry good Composit i"n mu st co1iiorm to ," 11·hcti 1e r tire a1nlior uf it l1ad
tiicrn ie his mind or not. O f the fornlt"r ch:i:-:1ctcr appc:tr to ha1·e heen (amrrn ;; others) ma11_y ol 1i1e Lo;;ical
arid JU11::0ric:tl :-:iy:;tc111< uf .\ri,;totli-\ pr«dc,.1•-:,;<1rs i11
ti1usc d<· 11:i 1·11111·11 h : lie lii11i.-;L· i1· 1·1·itl ,·11 1k t:1k"' ilw o tlll'r
an d rnorc Pl 1dn~ oph if· :il ri c w 11f lH 1tl1 IJ1· : 11](' ! w ~: ;is ;1p1w :lr:; (i 11 tlic ('1 1C'<; or l\;wtu1·i1·J l1uil1 fr1 11 11 tl1c 1da11 lie ,;ch
1

17

l :'<TllOUUCTlON.

5.

H this di stin ction \\'ere ca refully kept Ill \'!CW Ly t ;, ,~
teacher and bv the learner of Rhetor ic, we should 110
hrn,;cr hear co;nplaints of the natural powers beins f\'ltererl bv the formalities of a Svstem; since no such cornpbint ;,rn lie ac::iinst a Sy st~m whose Rules arc rl1·:1\'.11
from the im·ariahle practice of all \1ho succeed i11 a1 1:1i 11 i11g trieir proposf'rl oliject.
No one woul<l expec t that the study of Sir J1J~ l1 1 1a
l:e\·nrilds\ lcct ur C'.'i \\Ou ld cr:unp the t;"11i11 -< of th e pai11ter: J\u (tJJI~ co11!pbills uf the rnlcs ul' Grd111111;u· as i'L- tt1·ring Lang1 1agr; hcc1u;;c it is 1lll1krstnod tl 1:it r·orrl'ct
use 1s 110L i·uLUHil'd on G ra:r11111ar , lnit G r~1 1 n11 1 :1 r

f>!I

~

,-).

The ch ie f rr a"lll prr.JJ:d,Jy for 1hr~ c'i is1111:~
;1['.ai11st tc1·l111ic:il :-:1·;;1\·rn r; of Com1 11>si1in r1 1 is lo
'---'

\1(~

,

!11un:\

.

11 1

1

j

,

]I'

I

1

( ' \';lllljH'I:, l1\f·:i ..'.: l' t ', :t\ l (

j 1·,. ,. ,J, ,J,,.
~ .

:

(Jl. c_dl

\\ l10

du succeed in

t' ti( ~(·1i1i~ (~(H1\i1·ti(111 ,

s~ rer;d pass a ~cs u c curri11 ~ i11 \ 't1rio1 1:-; par!:-;
\\- l 11c i 1 i 1 1 di (';i\t ~ lio\\' :·.;t'i ; tiltiu .'-'I \' li t:

\\;t ~

<ii'

(Ill

; 111,\

t'r()J1t

Iii .-; ' J' r1·:1ti:--1• ,

hi _-., ~t1:1 1 \ \

[q

C(Jllki :· 111 Lo il::i t pL u:. Tit ll:ir_' II l1<J 1111\ " lliJI ;1ll<'lll i"d Ir>
tlic i1nporta11t di,;1innio11 _i 11st all11il1•d tu , 11r1~ ol.t1·11 di ,.;po~cd to f1;1'l \\ .! Hltier , Ji. 111it \\ . ,' :1 r111 1 "..:....;~ ;1! hh ri Jt i'J': llt·d
rcrn~lrb, tl1:it " u/L 1111•11 f'.lie('t pc1·,; 11a c; 1u11 1·i tl ll'r 111 tl1is
\\'ay 01· i11 tli: 11 ;" "i t h i 111puss il1 /1; 111 :11111i11 ,.;1 wl1 :u 1d
~i tch ;111 c)i 1.11~c l i1 1 :111_\' t i'.h tT \\':ty; , . \.\.:r·. \\)Jlf_·l1 do1d1t!t'_":S
11· ,,rc i11l<:111ii.:d lo rc111i rll l Iii :; n·:1rl1·r" 1JI. 11"' 11at 11r1~ of Ir is
1~ \ iZ . IHd to 1e:11' i 1 on .\r! 1l i' l:l 11· t ()J"/f', l11 1t t!1c
.·\rt;

-- llld

1ni_~·it.t

lw 11rndl11· 1·d ,

111

l l! '- l!'l!1'T

ifll' !!l

iH Jt. iH•\\-

il

11 11 ·1 ·1 · 1\'

11111sf.

i1 11\\'

! ' i >ll\ . l! ' \i(H!

c<)r-

rect use . A j11:-:t syqc 111 of Logic or of Rlictu ric is an1d0;;0 11 s, 1n tl1:, rC''J>CC t, to (;r:111 rn1:1 r.

('l i~t1 ·~ ~l · 1 1 T u!- 1110:---t

t 1C

_.;.:11 r·l1

4':----.::1y-.: 1 ...\..1 · .

1• •

:t..:. :tr( ·

w·o1cr11/!I r·!\111 p•H' d ;11·r ·11 r<i'111~~ to tl 11• ri11r·,.; ,,f

Ii
:-:1· , 11•111. 11 -< li1J11 ld lw n·1111·111lr1·r1"l 11<!\1·1·\·n, 1: 1 11:" l" 1··t
i ;l:ic· 1' , 1l1 :tl :\1 1' :--f' an' ;1i1111i:-:t i1n·;,1r1;i!,\y tlw 1)rtnl1 1ctit1i 1 ~ 1{
frnrnrr .'': it J1, ,'i11 LC 11-.:11 ;il fr1r 1110.:.:.1' \\ hn h:1 \-c :!IL:ti1lcd 1 r 11Ccir·i:('\·, 1' itlw r tn \\ T i: t' \\·it l11111 t tl1 i11 ki 11...: r d. :1r 1y r1i1
r to
111 ~ iJ,•,ir1lll",
]1;1-< IJ1 ·•·11 -< 11iil, ) :llld 11\' tlll'i1· i111r''." ' '" I r• :-. ;1e r: :1 1· :-·<. ; t\1l t l!l 1·tit H· i';1] 1l1 1·i r (' !1 11•l i1y11H ' J11 il. :1\'l . :'\"r ·s
:t11\· :, ti•

1

1
_•-.: ,

•

1

1

1

11

j .,

11<1 i

Lt:r

111 j 11d:_:_t·

,i1· tl: (' ,.;i 111 e 11!"

;!1 1\·

::-:y~1 1 · 1 11

( If r .,

t!Hi<e ()f ;1 iJ1·;11\ i11 ['. -l1ta'1cr fllr i11-< l:1!H'C , fr 1<111 tilf' li1'1
;1\\

1\\':;lr d :-:k 1't<·h('...: 1il~ t\·r n-.:

i r1

t h e ;1rr.

:-; 1i!I ],., . -. . n111d it 111 : 1': 1ir I•• _i1 1dl'. r' nC rn 1r· ,.;y<e1 1l, frr1111
tlir' il l-s1w 1·J> . .:-. ; ri f :t 11il '1 \ w r , \\ 1 1() ~1· nd1·:-: \ \ T1T 1·ra1r1f ' d ( :
1

-.;

18

ELF:MENTS OF RHETORIC.

19

l~TIWDI JC TION.

§ 5.

is tl1 e case 11 i;li Liwse ordinarily laid d01rn for die use

cast n, l1y p::rc1i..;i11; tlH~ harde r .

of stude11Ls Ill Co1nposition) on narrow, unphiiosophical,
and erroneous principles.

will oJ°!c n !L1 ;11wn th :it su('li C':ercic<cc< 11ill lt:1H~

H t1t 11 l11tt. i,; 1111rse , it
\llr·!'.i ,1 ·!<1r•· ·

;.,

duce the con1pla i11t all11ded to, is , that in thi s

l1:d1it nf ~t ri n .'. .'., in ~ t< ).!..'.:C' t\11'r f'11q11y ~ 1~~\1 •11 1 ~ 1 ~r ..
cot11111n11-11L w1~c;, :111d Y:1i'i.! rl 1TL1111 :it ion -<, - of°
111ultipl\'i11l.'. 1nmb and s11rc111 li11.:; 011L 1111~ 111atlt'r tlti11 ,- lli°

0
::::;, ;;(",'.';','. ;_

case, the reverse t3kes place of !he pl:111 p1u-c;11-

co111pn ~ t11 : -; in

Hut tl1e cir c 111n stanc c which l1::ts mainly tend e d to )'rDn;m ... .i•v

cd

tn

i1q 11 J

r1:.1.:i t ~"I :

Il l

h (· '. .'.: !1 ,
l1 ('i'1 •,

or

ll :c Jcarni11 ::;
OtJicr arts; in 11fo 1· l1 it
fc-)r i/ 10 ~<lkC of pr:i( · f1( · ! ' 1 \\·id1 \\ J1;1t
tl ic <.·o ntr;ir_,. ) t l ic

( 111

t\·rp !1:1'-i

IS

h
;1

t l"i ti : d i \ '

ta-<k a-<si'..'.11 :' d l1i111, 1111<1 n1J1~ i11 ff)ri .. li 111~ is 1,.,.;

!111r'1l'r

l1kcl _1· tu :0 1w ce1·d , tl11111 lie 11·i ll n1r:ct 11·iil1 i11 tl11' 1Wt11:tl

di 1i i(

1110...;l

: 1i·:....::1i: 11t,•:1 : -..;

<l\' ,

I ))°

F 11r it is 11 111 [,•ni:th!" 1l1at it 1,; lt lt!I It tliv
r· i1l 1t'l' 11r'i j lfl '"-i t1(111c.; to 11 1;1i11 ! ;1in , nr

1il1

!o li 11d

it

jll'!)\"C

!1 11 · :11 - - 10

i Ji ) \ 1, . \ ():-..,; !\ - i t - -

()j}

;! ) ]\ .

)\!Hl\\',

. .:. :d1.irTf

Ill

:-.;Ji()rf , \ . l1:rt

() !l

\\-fl i(·ll

ill

1

( l f ]t·

)J;J ~

lt:m li 1· 11t1_1· i1ti.11rn1:r ti"1 11 a 11d 11u in1"1·1>1; :d1ot1l 11 l1i1 ·l1 It"
little, :u1 d c:1rcs still less .

h111_111 · ~

:\n .1· t!t ·' .'> 11Lj 1·c h t1 ' 1t1tl l_"· 1,;·" ;1n·,<:d 1°11 r ~1 ·!ill11! "r C " l1

litis dt·.-<niplil)ll.

;\11d

J:.•1tn ~ it C' 11 t11ttt t11tl1· lt:t[•[ H' il ',

tlia t :11 1 <'\1•1-cis L• <"'"tl"'' "d 11i1ii dil i~r:11 1 1·111·1 Li- 11 ·'' '" " '. '.
st11d l'11 1, 1i1(lttJ1 it. 11·iii i11t1· i; 1·ost l1itt1 1: 1r 11111r <' 11:1it 1s 1l1111t
1

a

real lc:1.:r 11-ril tl' 11 ]Jy li:rn

111

1(11· n ·n/ no·11 ., i u 11s <> !. ·l! ·l i T l 1i'1·

fl1" 1Jp () ~ 1 •il

i Ji tl

i--:,

ll ll!

li ll

1C l

i:i ·.-

ln c 1i11 11 i1: 111ir· ;1! 1•

;:; 11:1i ]e, ) 1
( · : ..- ·

"

j l O~il

\i.-i·r · · ( i1 · ~ i :: : H ·d

Ut'fl

irt!

( \t 'r

lH ' 11tT

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1 : 1.

22

ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC.

§5.

but interest him, and thereby afford him such exercise;
secondly, that the younger and back warder each student
is, the more unfit he ,,·ill be for abstra ct speculations;
and the less remote must be the subjects proposed from
those individual objects and occurrences which always
form the first beginnings of the furniture of the youthful
mind. *
If the system which I have been recommending be
pursued, with the addition of sedulous care in correctioncn couragcment from the teacher - and inculcation of
such general rules as each occasion calls for; then, and
n ot otherwise, Exercises in Composition will be of the
most importm1t and lasting advantage, not only in respect of the obj ect immediately proposed, but in producing clearness of thought, and in gi\'ing play to all the
faculties. And if this branch of education be thus conducted , then, and not otherwise, the greater part of tl1e
present treatise will, it is hoped, be found, not much less
adapted to the use of those wi10 are writing for practiccsakc, than of those engaged in meeting the occasions of
real life.
* F 11r somt• furth e r ohsP rvations hf"arin g 0 11 tliC' r-;.a rnl' 1u •i11t , !"f't' 1' ~1 r t
i\" . ch. vi . § 2. See nlso some valuable remnrks on the s 11 bj~1· t in
Mr. Hill 's in ~e niuus work on Pubiic Education .

PART I.
•
ND INTRODUCTION
OF THE INVENTION, AnRANGEMENT, A
OF PROPOSITIONS AND ARGU~1F.NTS.

CHAP. I.
Of Propositions.

§ 1.
the Treatise on
IT was rerrnu·k e d ·n
1

LoGI C ,

that in th e

process of ln-vestiga.tion properly so .called, Inqu i ry aO c r
Trulli nud
. th· t by which we endeavour to discover anu
VJZ .
a
·
t·
h m e n1 .i db!in Truth, it must of course be uncertam to um~ o gub1hed.
.
. "
that process, what the conclus1on
1s cntenn::. on
.
. l <l · b t tliat in the
;11 be to which his researches w1 11 ca ' u .
.
\\I
'
f convcyinrr truth to others, 11y reason: 11 ~, (1. e .
process o
o
t - \ 1·11
C'Or<lin "' to the view I have at prcsen 1' 1 '
. 1
t l iat \\. l !I C l aC'
,_.,
J
1 '
ll"
, be termed th e R hetoric al process . ) tic crnw i1, 1u11'
ma) 1 . . ·l .~11 arc to lie establishe d mus t be prc"•~n t to
cone us1ons \\ 11. , '
\
. 1 ( f 11i111 \r\'o is cornl uctin g; the Ar ~1111H'nl , ;1111
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0

LLL;\lL.'\TS Of J:iil-:'i'(>i(i' ;

l'A.r:

{

hirnseJf With SUCh a V:J.sll8 nncJ indi,;tit!C"t \'II'\\' of
the point he is to a i!11 at, tlint th e whol0 train of his rcas"1111:,'.:; JS l!I COllSC<jt:CllCC nlir:ctL'fl 11i1li :J ('(lJTl''J 'O JJ(! i11:;
]':cr plc>.i1y, ui1scurity, and looseness. It 111:1y be 1ror!1 1
11i1ile Ll1ernJ()re lo give somr, hints for the cond11ct uC tiii:;
prd!minary proress, - the choice of proposi1ions . Not,
ul course, tbat I am supposin~ the nuthor to he in do 11 bt
\\ luL (Jpi11iu11 he sh:-dl :-1dr)pr : the 11rcice~ .c.;
Ir1\'('_-:1;:::,:1:i(JJ]
1
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upi11i11r1 :-;]1;dl i)c~ :~ta~'
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conclu sio n, hut to he cnq1 1i1·i11; 11·/111t 111·01Jnsiti1m is to lie
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l"l'tj1l ! rt·

'l'iw (Ji·-.; l ·.; tt·p is., :1s 1 li:n·t~ uh~cr\·t~d, l(J h\· tL \\ll
1
ll111 :111ll1nr'.; 111i11d ) tl1 c prPJHl"iti<Hl 11r 11r1 111is1t1111 1, f(l i, ,.
111: 1i1 11:1i11t:d, ,·J1 ;11l1·' llllli i11 :1 c:11it:1Lli- 1'111'11 I.

k1·:iL (·l 1,;1r. i11 ;1 ~1-t'ai

1!1():--:c

1 : ·iil wr;1;i11 ~ \\ iw1l1" r tn ;uL ·11)t or rr·_;r _T t 1hr' prn11n~i1i 011

; i :·,, ...:11)!)!1) :-'. 1' 1 ]

t()

i11~ 1·:·wl1 o( :lll'S<" ohje('l :-i .

11·'

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1

( ill":-:lit) ll.

s111l1cJ1~11l

J\1 1•.·t<>ril' :-i11J11ld 1J11 t!t:it :wcou11t Le .li1·i,\,-il 111111 t-.-. ..

};q

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l!l 111•' \\\ ( )1\i'

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1

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L1· r:1ll~ 1 d, i11 tlif'

l1u11; :11111, 'cr·o11diy., Conrii:ti11n i11 1111' 11:11T1111•T c:rnsi·:
i.

( _'~

tl11' :-.:C 1\\U (1 \1.\1· 1· 1-.. :;1\

~

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tl1c

( \ 1JJH/u;

tr• ·:r! :.. : 1' (' 11 l10C!l'

1111ilf·1·,;all:; , tl1c
1 ".1 1' 1

resp(~cti11 g; t!1e

doubting

la:1cr, rcspe<·tinc>; tlic l'rcdirntc. l t i;; c1 i1l1·111 t!1:1t ;i11:
'i"·:1k•'l' or 11Till'r i.; 1 rclatin:ly to these Lt'f, (tl1<111c:]1 :11 ,i
t" l1i111 ,;1· li',) coml11cting; a prol:e.;s of lnl'Csti::;:1tio11; ;1s i'
i ::ii 11 1'rn111 11·i1 :1 t ii:h Leen sa id oi' tl1:1t s11i._i1 ·cr , i11 tl11'

·::·1'

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l:Lliit·:d \\ell·~, j~ J r
ii1:..;1 ;uwt\ (Jtlc 11lil} Le !r ruling (~( rirt1u·) \1, ) 1ili· di ·~( t!'-i~i11~ :ill or ;111 \ · cit ilw~ c <;tw .c.;tin11-.:~ ~- \\ lwn·i11 \·1rti!I'

L1

disc11.,·>cfn,:..;· one 'llu . . fiu1L

dl"C

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it rlf'lT'1"C' ~ i:< nf>!i:.:-;J. li1> 11? " ..._'- 1· lillt
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(1r

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u :-k ~ ]i,- \\ iiii-; 1 n11:;·ni:-; :lie \\ ritcr

t~i1d 1J1 1i11tcrc~1 i1 1 .~ ~cneralitics; ~ 1 s
1;
:

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ii 1

lr1 11p~1h of tlH~

i:-;

;~ l"l\lj \ "i'~,-cd) n!' COLJL-.,('::

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only of suilic:icul

u·n~U1 tu hi\'C a c]1 ; lJ';11:t1 : r i~1i c dt~s('riptioi 1 of st nrll' (HH'

d nt_v ~ or of ~ornp nnP p;J.r·tir ·nl;tr n1(-1ti\ ('

Ur<J.11 t:H oi'
, .

,; , 1:i 1 ~~:ll~.'l

1\Yn;

~111d

C.\.J1il1itcd .

§ 3.
it 111:iy Le 11sdul for one ll'iio 1s ab011t tln1s tn L11· d1111 11
1l1rcc
\\' 11\·

\\' l i~ tt i:-;

fir:.:r ,

( ,111'_--.J 1(HJ:<

h1ilt i;; 11"' 01l11 •r j11,;t 1111 ·11 ri1>:11·d,
'-1.

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a r· n 111 i 1~ 1<; r1( 111 .
lf1c

or

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·
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llt·ld l~'r

oC

t•lo1 it'J1 11·11t

th 1i-..; ;1111il.1,· i11.L': ; :ts iL \\t '. l't_~, :1 1nit·ro;;copc lo a :->111a l l ~i)~trT,

il.

\\lt.Je ;·1

ftill d•'\

tlH'.

!1)

\1·ii l ;11·""' ': 1t tn tli1: \"i('11· IllllC'ii tli:1t a 11·ii!er ,;mn·1· \11J:: ' .:
11111 Ji:11

t/Jf\~i·

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:11

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(i. t'. from 11lut C:111c;1 ·) '' it

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it?

Tlw !:1,t t11·n ()f tl11;c1~ q111>tili1l3 1 tlio11~:J1 the1· \1 iii
1;1

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:-·1' {i1wiwc ri· :.;ul:~ (rn111

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: 11'

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1

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lt _':t-.:.1, t i!'ii'.n !'uri1isl1 :--..w ~1

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d1c pr:-icncc (if ir.

n t 11n':ll' f f1,r

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\ · If"'\.\',

t:inr".p rh.1t

:--li;d:

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:i i('

c:rcatcr aLunda111·f' ":' lll:1ll 1T , ii" · ff ider r·"\t1·iir

t> I ~lli.J_iCcl tilt!\" ('()/ \)j)J'(•lwllii; 11111
1ii1 ·

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.; 1\ t ·

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P\)H'l'i1 ·1w1•

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lil<'

tl::n

(''~T1 ' Jl­

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l1·;1

v.h 1\11 , upun 11J.rru \ \lu ~ thi~ Jj,.J.J

di scuss ion, many in teresting questions of tl eta il prc" 1~ n t tf1,~m~elves. No\•.· :i ''·:·ri~rr - \\-·he. j~ ,-w 1· ihf<1iiH'd it)
:~ 1 ;1; 1: t() lii111~-(·][. jl!"( '(' i :. .:f'ly, in tlH· fir-..:t i1 1-.:t :11l1 ·(\ 1)11 ' 1·(ll!i·l i ! 01·

lending, \Ydi be th e less likeiy lu
:-nc-n :i "; rnn:::::l st nf Yt"r_\ · ~ 1·1:rT:il
~~dlc!! :l:! i il;:;; ~t: : d \'. ill uftc11 h e Jed~ c~ v P. 11 \\ iu:- rt.::.' un e;.:tcn s 1v P- VJP. \ V 1r:; il t

tir c.: t

Lra1 1 chc~~1 :nil; .

1-\: : i\

prnp0i:~d.

to

d ! ~ tri11 :1~ 0

it

i;tt,-; ~ .-,\.-f'f .:d

:r 1 ~~ i/ 11• dl ·..:1· 11..;...:i1'P ,d· tLc n .:::L tu l in.., ;r

ti'!lll:i ltl

tl:r·\'

be

:1rr ~

lll:1i11iai11r·d, it
:il\\·:11' :i

I J\Hlll !1 11 · n:i:11r1~
L.'.: l\.t'Il (Jil li1:1 t

lll

!.1:

(Jt" tl 1c

i:i 110t rnc:11 1t
s!1!.lr1L

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lie

i111i1li1·d

fir,t; 1i1l! t \\ill

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,µ

11iii11L

i,; to Lr : 1>l!Cf'l"lt ' d :den, tl1i!I !1y ill" lll>rd, "P:·"i '"sition " or " Assertion," throughout this Treatise, is lO
he underotood some c1J11c/11sion to be establ i ~hed 1>
itsrl(; nnt \\·i :h ;-i \'iP\I: to a11 1i1ll.~fi(1r ('OllCh : ~ i n11 : tl 1~1·- 1·
ii

1 ;·

!rc1p:) -:::i{1 1_1n~ \\--!lit." ll :~rP iui f-' !H! t ~d

iH.;;iH~ ~ ·Hlltld 1 Ill aliowaLl ~:

in

~. t-->r~' ~

: !:-\

p: · : ) ;, \: -~-­

confr_1n11i!y \-Vi!L pOjPiL1r 1; . . ":r;•,

/lrgu111en!s; it

Leiil;:. cu;,loruury to u.r;:.uc ur tLc CHtli; -

n1Pm:itw. 1nrm,

anrl rn r.alL fnr hrt->virv · ~ sakt->, 1lie f-'X -

pruni,~ of

-·

r:1~e~ aii d nile~ \,-J!j l1"1T:1C' 1'J" )11·

a11 1_11tl 1_11111.·rnc, tl 1c :in.c111111·11t li·r

\vh? r.h th P. r.nnr.1nsion of it is proved.

--

i~~-~ . (;
,'.!j\:.__;;

. -~

-<- -~·-v' ~

§a'

=:

.

"' - 'Fli?S.. l" "f"'"' b""',,;.,

- .- - -.t=

<-.-j: :'.".:',:,v;__ ·,.;..:,.;;,, .,_.;;i,('
~Hft·\~i~ti?~:f~:~f{;~'.':::~.}~

~. T~

.....

28

Fl.l:\IL."\'J';) OF Elli:TOIUC.

PA

HT

L

\'11.1 P .

OF' CO~\'lCTIOI\/

IL

CIL\i' . ii.
jc·.-t 1i1c 111e111!1cr~ of a divi:-11111 :ire 110! OJ'l"'s1•1l , li11t a1-.:

(;( .]rg11111c11's.

§

m

fin<ling oi"

J.HE

I.

"l.:'..,b ' -

. ~ ' !"'. :llil

PuJtn;r 11; 1·•t::" i: !; ..: ~.

i!: :.:~

i11 1;1ct 111c111bcrs of di1:crc:1t d i1·i,1<l:is 1·1·1 >,-,i11:; each "tl: -

puiJil,

Le

dl1u

11~1 ~<.u-~u 1 nen r s to prov~ :: s;\.('n
u1c sn.. 11111l arran gcn 1 ~nt n f th e :n~ ;;i;-;;·

cu11:--.1diTt·1)

;h

i)ii ·

er , it is 1nailifestly ililµossilile tu vl.itai11 any dear 1wtivu
of the Species treated 01 ; nor 'v111 any labour or ingc11Ltity Lc.:> tu\vcJ on tl.ic ~ulJj1;cl Le uf t!1c lca.:> t avlii!, t:!:
1li1: ur!.~i11al source 1>t' p1·r1 1L.':"iiy is rt'Illo\·ctl; - til l, Jrt
,!111rt, 1! 1c ('l'O's-di1·i,io11 i,- d1~tf·1 · tc·d :rnd C':pl11i1wd .
.\ r~'.1111w11h liw11 1!1111· lw di1 id··d ,
H r·~;u~ :rr.1

Fir·-->!, 11:to frr :·:..::1 rl :rr, :ni t!

1.

' "

l :.tll'. :.'._ u ric;tl aml 11 _1 putlicllc;.J;

cii1; ~c );bl inlu

(h::t .

( ; ; t1·~~uri 1 ~ii,

.)''1·L

11 1·· 11t iwr Fic;1 1rc', ~<' ~···
~r·r · n r ir1h·. Tfii·\· ;1ri· frT ii 1 p-·11~h· di\·ir!cd i11 lr1 u 'f.1r;;~-"
{or t ! Prol;;d;!e, ''} and '"'1Jen. 10 H.:jlraliv e," (or~~ .:\ec.t-! :;-

fr;r;·n

_i i1C ;J_l"L ,:,j

~;~~~~~1

~ .. ·1ii1:.::''.ll~ '-::

ll llU1Wll

i11tu ~-' ll()~i_-,111~ i1 1 the tl1>t

?~ :r~~~~1A'.;·_~~:~~. :~~:f\;

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Fi~1 1rt',

• ;,..~:_~.:.4;:;;

. •. '...i,),i·.·,...;:~,~

;rn J tLc

1~{;;:·:\. :'5~ ·~

and i11

~~~.~

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=-~-

/- ".; '":,v• • - .';·.~~' •:

..

- · '"•

.-;..;

;~tid11..: ::'.:..<;;~ 1i;0

1lt 11 '.: :: 11 uL Lciu::;:: 1' \1·;u-...i, - t_·~~·
wl 11.i:surrlwn,) the Dt:iC'.!ic ;i11d Eicc1wli1: iii' Arisloile.
l·\111r il1h·,

i:it(J

..\r:..::t1i1wr1h

'' ' I' t· :. : 1i111 011 _,,, :, fruu1
~y, ,, ""\:(·
..\:.c .

lt

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srrtrrr / di1·is/r111s
/>i 1 ·\1t \·

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t11l'! JI

.\11 d

!)l! Tl '

di1·/ . . ,;,,.1t,..,. ii:n:r. rrn\·c·d :1 :-0(111r( ·1· rl i'n1JL
: 1 ) 1h 1. '. f,1l:__:i1 ·:1 ! ;11iil l \ l1c!(~r i 1 · ;d .:-.: 111 i 1• r, Le(
11

'~ (;t li ~t~ tu

i>(TCC' i H·d,

of t}1e dine renl

-~ J.:....-_; 11 1q1lt· ,

11

1·;( \ ]ll

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Oil all<_';;liH'

tkt t

1_·,;11ni11;1l1<_>J1,

specie~ ju~l 1It e11tiuneJ

wilJ

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fr(f;11

(/'"'' 111· 1 J-..1• iiw

r-i .'\r~llnlPTlL ~:r-: rl

:-in .\r~nrnrni frn m Tr::::iirn0n:-, S.·r·.

ili1...; Lt-->iP~

lfie

(;;\-i!lt·r] ();\

~t·\·1·r;d 1Ji: i\·:·1. '! ! ~

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or .\r~·:!t !! h-'!)f...; !t :-n

pr::11 l1 •l1· -.:;

in:.::

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;1 ( ·:- , 11 111 ~i: 1:1(··

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f1 r' IJ!J :-;ur ·i 1

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I'll\' t'(•; 1d 1·1'~ ;t ·~

i i ;;\'!' nr1i

l :: -· 1· t1 1· f1!1Yf't"·; :1:l{ lll

"it:i!il'< \Ii!! ii:1rdh- ],,. tlt'\""''ii l'l lwli1·\C 1l1:1t

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30

ELEMENTS 01" RIIETOJ\'.C.

C:11.H.

could have been (as is the fact) generally overlooked,
;uid that emiuent \vritcrs sliuuld in consequence ha1·e
J,,_:c11 im·ulvc;d in i11c\tricalilc confu-.; ion. I 11 ccd only r.:11ll IJJ tl1 1;1u liO\l" C\"lT {IC t lic arwcJutc or Cui ulllLHl S lJfcaki11; the egg. That wl1icli is perfectly obvious to any
man of common sense, as soon as it is mentioned., m;w.
! l1~ \·cn l 1clc: ...; :-i l;til lo OcC'ur, CYPJl to 111 c n of <· on:-; id cr; 1l,i!1_:

l I I '. ~- ( _• l I : i I f \' •

1t 11 iii ;d -;o li e re;uii i_v l'ercc in:d, on cxan 111 1im~ tl1e
; :,·;~;,~~' ::,.ut priilciples of tl1cse several di1·isio11s, that the
· ' ~ ' ' ' '" "'' · Lis[ u:· ; )11 ; :11 :d•J1 1c is propcrh· nnd stricrlv a di1·i:;iu;1 or .-lrg 11mc11 /s (IS suclt. Tlll' i°irst is ('1· id~ 11t ly a
1

di\·j _--; iu 1i

tif

s11.11U',

1;1

:1

1ih11d \· :1 ii i\·i " i(l!l (lr :\r'.~ 111r11·11 h
c urdi11 ~ !11 ilwir s11l~ject - n1 al!f'. r, \\·h0f!p1 r Nf'i
i ' ; . ·".

f ; • ' l ; ! ( ) ....;

:

i ; (I : I

ri I'( ~

( ' ;I i

t

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1 '

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t: i i_' Lt\ \·...;
(): ·

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( ti

, I1

Il l.

d e 11_\· 111J1'

~.;1 )1 ne

1

;i ~ 1'~ 1

1iic pt·t· 111i:--.l' :-'. .
n rH '.

11 01i-< 1 ·, i-.... 1 ~ 'll<'t '

.:\'t)\ '; 1l 111:l\'

\\·ill

1·l 1() ( l'." ( '

tlic

o[. 11;:i1H'r \\;1 :-:. :t 11e1 f "< < 1n· ("(111 : ~ 1' 1:1:1 · :11"·c~ oi.

Lor ·l.;.1 ·\ 'l'iw(H"\ ,,t· ld(·; i-., : li1 J\ t !l\~

P _-.; -

/)(1111[ )i1!t',

11 1
l

IH' r ~ ori

or

;w

°' r ; I 1 '

;\ l ~11 1 11 1 · 11! :--

l" C<l.'iUlll'l'j

or

!u

:1rl 11! it

\'; ;::-; lt ~d

\\-!iili• 1lH_' l:t \i( ' r

( ()r!!lt'l"

: u h·1 H' ;Jlt~

: 11lC!

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1l 11 ·

\en

1'1 ;11.
:<111 1c

v.; L"

lw i1 c'; l1·d,
<';

11 0 11-( ' ',r ~U'rlf
Ar~~11i1:c1 i i

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r1·:1 ( l 1· ·i 111·1.· (, 1· : 1
i:1 ·_i_: ; h

tJ1t~

Cl !°

ru rn1n, ill lli :111 uti1c1· t)11, btt1· r,
tii1·-;e altn11atin·;-; . It
IS jlfOli:dil<'. \' ..• tl1:1L 111:1111· li:1n: lWt'll i1 1d 1wc 1l Ill :1d111it
rl w du1 trim: ul 'l \:ui:;11L"i:111ti:1 tion. frorn ih cle:1r t't•ll 11•·'. l•lll II itii 1!11; i11Lillil·ili11·
tlll' nu 11 1i cli Cli u11 !1 ;
:111il 111:1111· 11tll('r,; , l.1· ti!(" \·1-r1· '.::1111• : :\1c::11rn1•11t. 11:1 1·"
,c1 11T1'11d• ·1t ·d tlw1r \.,·ii•
1t1 1i1:1t illr":1llil1ili1 1-.
.\ ;:.1!1 11 1
1:1· 1k1· l1·1· '"'d J; 1· 1il -;1•1 ·111 \tt i1:1\ 1· ;1[;\., 1• :1.\111it 11 ·.J t I 1:il tl:1;

c i trrli n··
;t -;

i11/ C1J/i1J ll

H iH·:lll'r d 1: tl lH'. in e:-;1;tl,J i~-d 1 "' dirc1· rh" (nr '~ <):->li':1:-,i \ -c ly ") tl11.~ 1·1 1n cl11-;iu1 1 cii-:llrn, or ('' i11 di rcl'.lly") l1y 111 ea11 s
or Ull a\Jsu rd r:Olll ' J11'ii011 to di'jJl"O\.C l\llC or tl1c j>r1' li l l 'i CS :
(i. t'. to \ ll'(l\· t; i1~ 1· 0111r:1dil · ti1ry :) :,i11c·1~ l111~ ; dt~ · rt\:t1 i \ · t ·
prripo _,,,,j i11 l'l'l' ry 1·:ilid . \ r~ •11111·11t i-; , citlft'r tl> :11l111it tlic

tti

i--;

I . \'

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~o l1:1ppcn 1h:1 i

itt•::::i11 11ir 1:::: . it had a ca11.;r• : it h:id
a Lc;.;iJ111i:1;;, " &c. c1'erv 0111' would c:ill the sm11P, Ar!!ii1:1 c111t , d i1i l: n·1 1t:y ~l :1~L1d.
Tl1is, therefore, evidenrlv 1s
110:. a d i\·i :-:i1111 nf .-\r:..:- t l!!lf'iilS n s ~qrr/t.
l-'> +1 !·.11·.-1. ·

:1ITl11"di11 ,~ lO

('C)JH ·l1hio1 11 rn·

cvi:ry

th e~ ~~tri ( · t :-;vlln~ i.;­
llc fo rm; ;u1d tliai, •·i :lw r c~ t e:::;tiric:ilh- or l1'"poti 1e 1i;:clly , 0.:_ c ., c ..~ · "\\" 1nt1'vl'r 11:1s :t hc'.:'.innin:::: h:1s a ca11-; 1,;
lli· ~ 1 ' : ~rt h ]:;l'_l :t lll':._:; : 1 1r1 ! 11 ~, tht_•rt_Jorc it l1a d a 1·;ui~ e ;"

' L' 1:1 1 ~ ~ 1 ·c 1 11 Hl

th e p1;rpose for \1·hich they arc c111ploycd; r" 'I'"''"' ,.r

0111 ~

t: ,r

e J JS an c11thy 111e1 1h; , t>f l1ro11::;fit into

m, " I( :f1,• '':u·i1 1 lwl

concl usions ot' course , in each casL:, l1a1·c the s<u11c cl q~, rc e
and kiml or ccrl:1i111y \I itli the prc111iscs. This t!1crci'ure
j.; 11 r< l['1'1ly a di1 isiun, IH1l 01· ./rgrrn1c11ls as sue Ii, b11t c.J
tlw } 1 i"IJjlO Si/iol!S or \IJ1i1·t1 they CO IJ Si:;t.
Tlic tl1ird is a divi sion of Ar;11mr11b accordin,; to

A rgtnn0 11 1 tll:ty be i:i t!ii"·r .'-' Ll i-

/',, r ,ns ''.{ slutiug Lli.c1u ;

1!1•'

\\· 0 1dd allu·1\' tl 1:1. t tl 11 :

31

OF C0:-1\'ICT!Oi'I.

II.§ I.

1 : ·1

1

1

11 1-. ..:. ,

:11

1 -r : . :il:-tl
1 1('

1]:1 ·

1i:t:(1!"1' l"t'llliti 11 l1! li l 1...:l1 1rl11' d . rl 1• ' <·n11-

I

1 11 ~ J H 1

'

I

I

11 11 j 1J.\' :t 11 <t. h11 r1 . 1f.\' ;

;u 11I

fl 1 r~

-- --- -·-

~... ~-"~:.~i ;~~kJJ.·-~~~

.

)

!.l.l:\ JJ·:.\TS OF Iii f l·:T( llUc: .

J-

~

( ' II J. I'

h prdpt·rly a di\·i:...;i(lfl of
su ch :11Hl <ll'C'()rd111·,;:k 11·1!1 Ile

OF CU\\ I< :'l'\ ( J:'\ .

i.

fu11r;li, \rit il ·Ji a i1l1JC
I:

,\, · ~11111. · :ii,; 11s

: ;:< i"n ,,(

.'\ 1 :1 1 r11 •· •:;s

In d i-c 1ril111ti11~ 1 1!1"1 1, tli" cc1 ·1 ,.1·al Li11il, ul· .\r:1::1 :c11:,,
ar:('nrd i ll ~~ l<J tlii:, di1 i,,j"11, it 11 ii!

Le fu1111d 1·1 111-

rlic ~'n ' l:tti1..iJ1 : ,;_· IJH~ :--;ti11jcct-111:11tcr of d ie prc n1i.-.;i ·. ~ to

\'t•ni1_' r11

ti1at Ul. lfH: (_'\ll"l(' Jt:~j l ) ;l. "

dcr 0111: 01· utl1cr r)f 11 liwli :di r·:m \Jc Ii:·,

Sil)','~ uf

i

d1e s11lij 1:r_·t-J1l:tttt'J"

1
1

'

L 1.•1·:u1 s r1 ti 1c !ugic11! c11111H1xiu11 lic:t11 1.:c 11 tlic ]>1·c11 1i"'' ;1111!
t ' ()[J!·]1_1:-;1on i::; ind1 ·p"!1dt·11t ()r ti:e 11:e:u1in:!; ()r tllf' rr'n11s
c· :1 q 'l1 •_y<'ii, :u1 d 11111_1 Le· "'-l1i li i11·d 11 itli J,. 11 .. rs c•t' 1!111 :tl;iii;d)!·r <u11-..::i11111·d J~~ r lii! ' rt·ri11·..;: L11t tlw rt' l;tti(111 I ;111 1
1:1·~ nt·

JJ()\\

[ri1_·

1:1 rt·.--: ;l('Ct

i :-i

1ir1..'.11t 1:-:t :-.:.

1· (11w!1i-.;iu11,

dif'ir

1J\.

Ar-

>~t d~J(T\-111;1Urr: ;is 1>. -~~ ­

":\rc:<1111c 11 t i'r1>111 C;ul:ic to l-:1i~·1·l " is :-;o 1 · ;1i!1~d a11d

c·n11-.:i1i 1'r1·d i i:i n _·1·1 ·i·t·t 1r' t ' i o tl1t~ rc (;tt i( in
i:1 1_'

;u id

t"unn iiic .<i'\·r ·r;d ~11ccif·..; lil.

\-;i;· 11 ' l ; 1
__: .- : !ii . \\·iii t - li

.~_ i1111~·11!
;i;1

tlit:

lwi\\-1·1•t1

!J !·t · ri~i:-: :< \\·Li1 · l t

i:-: t1:1 · C'.:ui-.:t', and

c:...i:-'1i1i:.:;

lwf'.\'(' ('IJ

t!1 c {'()!1cl t1...; iori, \\

\'I'~.

to 1:1\· d (1\.,·n ~ir...:t t\1.·o

( 1r-cL

,;· ;i·]1 .\r ·:i:1111•11t-; :1 ·; 111
)~ 1!'

l n u 1·c,.11; 1f

tf 11'

c1:1...:~c-..· ,

;..:1TJt

1 1\'

f;~i · f ()]' ]ll' l !H i jiJl'.

111:1!J:!·i, .. ;]\
f'n1111t

(1

i1·

' l' ! I ' '

~ .( ) 1· j i l ! ' i'

't .·/

7n·u1i"1

l: I - -:.;

(

( 11. )

( ' i1; 1 .;: t

llii11~, ~i ·~'11dl(• _. .; ,

;1•1\ ·

'f ] 11· <ll i: 1·r

\\

\!)

1111'11L;; 1>! 11l1icJ 1 till'I'<'

Iii'"

~ ll f ljl \ I ~>

1u1! IH: :: ()

1·0 :1!d

• I' I' (_ : ! l I .~

l ii l 1 i 11 l !i i :;
j ·

il\

111

t ') I · :1;~, 1

c1-111t'

: : ~111 ;

:d l

1· t l 1

ol. Ji .

1' 1'\l'::ti ],;111].;, 11li i1 ·]1 11i]J /,, .

lii c/ 1

'l'lw

j1::.., t ~;1uL 1 _·n

b1"·11

<"ii. jl!'O<d \'. lii\ \ 1 11 :1\·c

rH-11 c; 11ri ·-'.

\li)1• <, r, :1 1·(1j'

Loh

1i u l

tlit.~ CJ.:;e \Yiii1
~tra!ive ~ ")

\\"hc il

11 o il :('r;

id1T('d L\·

1 l H·1n ~' '1\T.-·-'.,

111

i!!tt 1 ~ c 11rol1:1lili:"

:tnd - ~cl1·n1nn­

f111t ()j' .'7r;:un1rn!s eu11:..;id1TPd

:1-:; such; fc)r

dw 11:· 1~n1i s -.: i~

:1 C:l!l<f'~ ;i;11!

rh1~

1hc: E lli)r·t, !l : ('-.:f~ (' Xi)J't _"-=<.: in11 _..:; arc c\·idt' r::l·t·

rcht i \ ' t~ , :tnd
(':1(

Lltt.: divi~ion

\\'C ~ : l_': ~ ( ~. :.:: . 11::1l

( · 1 1'.wli 1,~ !nn

('!)fl

L:~\' f' nn rn(~:l. nin~ , C\('rpt in
:it111

:~1

i

:1\ :-:(J \\

l11•r1

\\ .~ ' ~:1y

rf'(0rt '! )l'1'

tl 1at tLL'

t1 1

prc111i~s

and the conclusion arc two /Hti'ftllel cases , that v e rv exdenotes

Ltli\'J' 1 ;;i 1r\ 1 ~1/,11 f()!' tl11~

t) 11'

L~L·n ::;u

1! i- i : l l ' i 1•1l

()r ;11'nfJ'1sitir1n.':

ut: -

ut11t' J" ;\r,:1 :-

,.j'_ :\ri-i1'll·~ '""11 :s 111 !1::1·1· i1:tc11d1·d to d1·.-ci :: 11<1i" 11\·

<li\·i~itin

I ;

i..;

; 1-.: :-.:1 ~11 tlic (':1 11 :-il '

~ -. : , u:· <·r ; 1 1 r~ l·, ( '( Jt11 11r1-ltt.'l11l "i

1

'

t'lllil!l,J\'( '11'

lr1;·1i 11'.: 1i 111•iJ ,

..\1"'--'..:11 1111'1 1t \\

\ r ·_" 1:rll · ;·it fr 1 \J 1l

Jd . .,

1t;

1! 11:11 :: li1·1·11

i11 .~ Jts irl1lli eT;i:Jtc~! : :-::;co11tlh· , ~iwli a"

1!w 11 :11t 1"

i111-

clc:.ir ~~ ..) cuulJ Le \\-isLcJ i11 ul ;:;cn i11::; tlu..:
1

j ,,' ' \'.l ': ':l

i ;: ·-·: ";") .

\\ill • !1 1, ,: ;., 1111 c: :i; , ]1 tl11•
1 iiic ;1)11

:\rc·111111 ·11h 11l1i 1·]1 ),,.J,>11'.'

l : , 1 i l :I' < i1l rt ·r, (11· 1l11 ·. 1 ·

t·

1:1 :. ; ~·. ( ·< ,

i...: , 11 1

:ii: ~ .·\ r :_:: !lllH'nt

(li' 11(1\ ? ))

ft \\·i l!

1lw i1

l_H · r1· :1dily n>ft'tT1'd i1> i! 1('

tin1L1Ll \·c ur tl1'._' nv :. ,:, :i1 i -.l·~ :1 - - ~ 1· :...::. i1·
0 11e

111 l1J> ;1d111ir

t;·~J; / 1 .

;-:.('l'\ ' f'. j ( J l!CCUUJ1l t°1JJ' 1/ ;1;

11r 11; tl1e Littt·r ('\:!<.:.. :1' '( ·nrdi11'..': <h tltt"~ ~111:-:\\l'I'
:t

111 ··
';11· ·

Ill

t l 11·

;1 .... )\

r.iun, '' ~uppu:-:: 1 11 ~ tl!1' 11r<i;Hi~iti < Hl i11 11i 1e .-.: 1 iu11
l1'il, \\:\HJl,(

put.ed to any

th ·

!lUI J1 1•

( !)j] Jl{'r;

(11r111('r

i< 111

11 111 1,di. · r

1\;t ' :1\'

\\1': ·( . :: 1.-

ou Lhe ~J'O Ln Hls of his " J 1 a vin ~ a han-ed
h: ;-s dc:-:rh ," !i:c:

iv Lh c Jccc<..b cL1, i.tlHi ~d1 intc ::- c~ ::.t i11

rncn~ \Y ould bc i on~ to the
/ ;

I i • ',.

r11;pi1 •

)

\rq\\'

_ 1 11 l \

)p ·

!•l

l1

cla~s;

forn1er

(/ 1/ ,','/

r :t i tlt' \ 11 1 · i;t:d1 t :

:: I

dt+-~

Ji ;

hP".q
1

1

1::p
.

; ! 1I

ii

ltlli!'d1T ;

]i (

1

]' \

t!tt·

1 1; · 1_. li ! il-

~

~,_"l~_:,t_ ~;L'~-~l,
4

;.. fi~ . . ·-·
,,g.'

:~-

'~---~

'~~~;:"-1;· '~:·~~

-~....:_.; _
· - ·-·, ~

1.

Rm~ T O IU C.

EL EMENTS OF

!JG

PART

l

tals arc rep resented as acting :n the manner men natural
ly would have <lone under those circumstances .
The Probability, then , which the writer of fic tion aims
at, has , for the reason just mentioned, no tendency to
produce a particu lar , but only a ge neral, belie f; i. e.
not that these partic ular e vents actually took place , but
that rnc h arc likely, generally , to take plac e under such
c irc umst:mccs : " thi s kind o f l.Jclicf ( unconst: iously cntcrtain ccl ) Lcing; necessary , an cl all that is necessary, to
p rod uc e that sympatheti c fe eli ng which is the writer's
obj ect.
In A rgume ntative C ompositions howe ver, ns
the. obj ect of course is to produce c onvi cti on as to th e
particular point in question, the Causes fr om which our
Ar.; umcnts are drawn must b e such as are e ither admitted, or may be p roved , to be ac tual ly existin g;, or likely
to ex i ~ t .

On the app ropri:1t 1 ~ 11,1 · oi" 1l11~ ki 11d oC ;\ rl',1t11w r1 t,
(\\·hieh i:; prnh;1\11y tl1c ";' x·" .:: of Ari:-:.totlP. tl1011 .~h
F1111•l • •V! HP !; I
11n lort11n:itcl:: li e has not i'mni ·dwd an:· C'::rn 1 p l 1~
,,( r l :i ' 1•lira..
.fl }lriu ri.
of it,) surnc TI.ul C'~ 11·ill lie Liicl du1·. 11 lin1 ·:tf11T;
-, 1J

[f. § '2.

C11A1'.

Argume nt, is not, ind ee d e mploy ed by all in the same
sense ; it would however generally b e understood to extend to any argument drawn from an antecedent or forerunner, whether a Cnuse or not; e. g. <<the mercury
sinks , therefor e it will rain." Now thi s Argum ent being
drawn from a c ircumstan ce whi ch, thou gh an antecedent,
is in no sense a Cause, would fall not under the former,
but the latter, of the clas~es laid clown ; sinc e whe n
rain c omes , no one would account for the phenomenon
by the fallin g of the mercury ; which they would call a
Sign of rain ; and yet most, perhaps , would class this
among "a priori" Argu ments . In like manner the ex pression , "a posterinri "Arguments, would not in its ord in ary use co inci de precisely , tho ugh it woul d very nearly ,
\1·i1h tiie S<'~e nnd c lass of A rgum ents . T lw div is ion hm1·c1· er 11·i1 id 1 lias he re been adopted, a ppears to be both
more phi losophic al, anrl abo more prec ise, and con<1'thP ~ :lk r nf hn•\·ity . ii:"tvf' f•1 11 nd it 11:-wf11\ to ::ul•ipt, in d r :1w111~ np an
0 11 tl i1w or analy ~ i:-< o!' a 11 y f' r111q 11fs.1Lio n. certa in arlfi1r :ny ~y11i\1 .. ls. l •)
d1 ·n()k , ri ·s1 H" cti\'t·ly, <' :1d 1 c b ss o f J\rg-11 !ll f'lll8 an d uf l ' r1J;i nsi t i1°n..; : Yi1. .
_.\ . 1:,r th i' 1; .ri 1wr

• 1f

d c· n i1li • ". l 71rlo1r/,"

t i:·'

i •f ·

f\\' •-1

rntt'd
J .

i'

11

/'I ,

I .· ~

lt

j \ ( Ii

l \l t

': l J J

t

it)

'.\Tl [l ' I"~

;;. u

l '.t •,t:.:.11:t'.i·tl

'.1]1;11 11;1,, lie1 ·11 j11 <t d1'<r ·nl 11· d '.

\ ' ( JJT1 · :-:1H, \Jjd

j fJ" ( ' I

j-.; 1'1 _,. \\ 1rl1

Tii<' l' li r:1°C<' . "r1 prinri."

il. ..

J H11 · ;i·1~"

0

llli'1·1 ·

j'j 11 ;,

-..!i·~ t.1

, ,j'

."'' 'j :l 1 "ii

; 1: 11 1 1,· : 11 H

ii 1·1:l ll !~: t c,(

' \\111

!J

!fi.::t.,-,r r .

•.in rr

it

:1irns at ~ t' Tl ' ' f'l l,

iri -

"f

( 1fl'! ' ;\

I( ,

t(I

prir1t · i11:d

ii1·11•:\•'

. 'lr!.f1 t mt·f/L l w a r1 n:f t)w ~_v 111 lPd , : :\ ."

1:u·
• ( ): 1 \\· lii 1· l t ·~r1 1 : 1 :1il .\r[.._,; ,, 1 ) ~· (' 11 n1i-nd -.; 1!1:d. tl11. ~ t·r td 1•f F i(' :i ,,n i-i

.- \ :f: ti ri . tli• 'y

th !· /:1°d!/ 11f' ,. \.;(1 · :1 ····

:1,

(

•11t 1·

,i1 ·

i t.-.

tl iat

i~

adJ11it1"d .

tl w ~r·

till'

Ll1"1J<,!'1l

1•r";i" .~ 1

],y

\\' 1th

a

tl1P

c1n11l•) _\1·i\ 1'11r ~t d '11:·. · :' 11t

d .. 11l;tr•;1.
a !..': ;t i11,

C (ir .dl:t ry fr,,!ll tiw pr !1j(' i11:t!

C . Tlwn · S " t· 11 1<; t11 lw 1li1• ~:u 1 1t•
:-iy1 1i liro\...i ; 1~ l. r 1~ i 1 · i:1no..: )1:t\'1 • f,,11nd

tli·· lot
iJ,·111i111i -

:1 ~:~ i·rfi,111~

i d~·ritl t \' i11 fo.' 11!1 ,•( . 1111·r

T!w pr .. p•1:..;i1·1 .. 11,

!-i_\' nil iol

d ~ · :-- i g1L1t1,

t111d nri~ i ri;tl

\' iz . n .. t 1" 1' .'°i il /J// 5 !1 a !'- 1r· t ti 1:il i :->

!1 fl <;Crj 1Jt · 111 ·1• 11r

Li 11•

n ! A:_r111111'111:-1 j11-.; 1 ij, . .-;, · r 1.!>1·d . 1 t ·i

s r'\' r•r:d d11l1 ·ri· nt k.i n d-1, n1 :L\. lH '

tl• •n , \\'J; 1,·l 1 11r·r1111n!s )~1r !!w
l" i JI

<dl11 ·r

i:

r\ ;1-.:...:1 ·-.;

,,\1i11• (' t•d,·n1," pr11 h;d 1il i 1y .) a 11d !ti f:1r

li'r , w!11d1, ;ls r·• l rl " l 'lltn~~ o f'

jI

37

OF CONVJ CTJON.

!>J H' .

[qi\ t11 t1r(1 11J1 1!

w l1w!i n·:..;n] t..,
t l H')' d~~ ~ i ~ri:t !t ·

C' ll ll \ 't'Ili 1·r1 e1>

in

t!1('

;1~; :l

11_·:
u~1·

in t111 · Prnpiny1111·11 t ,. f'

·\ . !·: 1. <l. I " r· i'C · · « · 1: : ri '" 1;, , ir k in.J, ,,f l'r"i'"" I'""" ""' " 1«ii11g
t o qu antity rinri qnil ii tr.

-1

-- ------~/::~$~-;;: i
~:·:..:~,~s
=-~=-=-.-: ~~

I."'

J·:U:.\11-'.:\TS <>I-' /Uil:T<l/:11'

OF

I

I

<"O'i\ ICTIO'i.

<1t1c11!iy 1c10rc pr:wti«:tlly 11ocit1l, 1l1.c11 .1111 "1!,.·r; ~ 1 1 ,..,,

1i1L: ( ·:t11..;c or C:1uscs ; :111t! ii" there l>c ()!1h· Utll' 1)1 1-;.< \.: ;1 ·

1i1cre is so ca,;y a11d Lkci,;irc a 1c,;t hy 11l1wlt an .\r['.1111w11t

( ':111'« , tlt1..; lwin~ ali,;olutt ·ly c soe11ti:il, 11t:1y

111ay lie :1 t 01we 1«·i(•rrcd lo 1l1c om~ or tn tiw nilwr
the i:h-;scs 1k.;rrilied.

"r

]i,,

(11'! 11 1111-

'-1r:1:i1 ,·ly 1•rn1Td fro1t1 tli c L ti;cct: ii' 1itc ' ::1m · J:1j;.,:
111ie;l1t rco;ult from ot lJl': Causes, tl1en ti1c 1\rsu111f'11 t i:-; ,
But it is to Le oliocn ,.,!, ti::il

at bes t, bu t probaLile.

§ :3 .

1lwrc :ire :dso 111am· circ~u111st:rnccs 11·lii«li h:in: no lc11-

The second, tii<'n, of these cbc;ses, ( 1·i·;:. "A1·;::11111c111s

ck11cy 10 ;1rudu cc a cerr:11 11 Eflcct, tli1J11;.:l 1 11 r·: 11 li1• •t

11 i1ici1 c<111id 11<>l J,c '"";d rn :w1·01111t 1;1r 1l1c l:wt 111 qt11";-

t•xist 1rilho11t them, and fro111 11·l1icl1 Etfrct, c·r111..;r·q11<'111-

t i(• i 11

~1 ip pq _-.: i r1~

it .~ra11 1 erl,'' )

r11ay

h1' _<..;1il11li\·id1·d

1nt(1

t\rn

k111 cL;; \\ liici1 11·ill b~ d1•,i;.:11a icd !11· tlw l<"l"lllS "Si!.'.11"
:1 i 1d " ~ i·: "- :11 1q de ."

ny

",')i,['.tl, "

ni~1y

C. :n1 s 1· ~ ; ('. !..'.: .

lll> i11fcncd 1 :1s Cunditi<ll lci 1 il1<>11:.;l1 not
;1

111:111 \

t ~ lwi11~ ~ili\-t:

u 1 1~·

c1111 1:.: L i! l CC Jl (' c e:.: ~:ll· y ; :1~ a (' c1I1d i t i <; ll, t')

d:ty ,n i <..; :t c irlii-.; ' d\ i ii ·...: ;iii ·

("0 c:Jl)pcl fro111 tbc ~'"".'II/or of .\ristorfe,)

next;" but l1as no tc11dc11<·:· to prnd11cc it; l: i:s i1111 ins

' j> cr· ip ..; "i' ;\r.:c:11111c11t o f 11 i1icl1 1L1 ;

1Jt•e11 :tli1«' , thcr1'i'urc , <1ll il1 c funner tL1y, !ll<1y J,c pr11n·d

1,; 11 1ca11t

;-: i ~'. ll .

ly, til<'y

:i

a11:1lrsis i,: :is fol lo11s; As Cir :is :1111· c1rc11111-

fru:11 i1 i:i s u L,cquc11t df':1 il1 , L•1t TJ() \ 1·icr 1·crsrl."

I t i .. ; to Le olicern·d tlic·rc{11 n •, that tho11:.;h rt 1:; 1·c 1·;·

1s, \1li:1t Jll:t1· JH> called, a C111ulitiu11 of 1lic c:-;i,;~f' ll f'C l !f :1 ('l'J' 1:t il1 1· Jil' <' t

Or

i r d~ 1 rr 1 'd !"r " 11 1 ti H' c· \.i:-i ,1 ··1 1c~'

tJ \.

~ (l 1;ir

l1r:

cnninH>ll f1 1r t h e C ;u is(' i o lw }lJ.()\-r'd fr n 1n

tlut I ·:1i~'\'l: it. it lw a ( :011-

l l 1~;

j i iJ <'!l O !ll l' IHHl,

JI Jl1;1\·

i1:::

l: l l~· ( · t , i t

a Ca1 1st, i1ut

cii1i<J11 11/,,0/11/<'/1; r· .-·srn!ial , iii " .\r'..'1111w11i i.' . "( " '·, 11 r'<',
(ic11Hin<r;ni\·1~;
11r {1i )'. 1r :: \ 1Ji

;n 1d tlii '. Prol1altilitv j:-;

L" \\ (' . 1 1 l J 11 ir ! 1

t( )

l) (' tl ii::> kind is ti:e l\rg:1_HIR'nt in the
~. 111·11: :1 1n:111

is

tlh--:

~tru11~(·r

111

!ntehr
of 1111' ' "l'-

lnStRnce

sii:;pcctccl :1.; 1i1c JH ' rjH' lr:ilnr

i'"·'c•i 11111 . der, lrc1111 tlie "i:'t·11111st :t11<T uf his r·lnl11rs lwi n~
d ~ · :E,l'!'• J ~ t

jtl .1•i):tl1l· ~

~1:n:cP.

~\

l 1u t c:t :-T .

fr r-nr/f/,:r_nt of tha t ~1ppr'~1r:-rnC'r

1.

;1•,J ...:i
: ! ~- : )ll \ , !I) :\\ 111 ' ~ ll1jl l 1 \:·cd f() 1 1i' () \ I ' :lll T' j )~ ('~,
being the fir3t cht:i:i nf Arsin;u~nt:.; ;drc:uly dt ::"'1·.n!;ed, ) sll Lu·:,,; ii /111.1· 11. l n 11! n1ry tu 1•n 1d:w" il11· r.1·r, ., 1,
en'n tlir111sh it lie 1111! at all necf.,·sury tn it; ( i. •" · 1•. l,ic;;

"]t
1-· .

it i.;;; pr1•~ 1 1ff1(·d d1:1! his r!ntiws "·nnld nnt nthcr1cisr. li~l\'t '
1)! · 11 i• i 1> ,
~· \::.: 1 ; ii , C1n111 t i ll~ ;-q1pcai:11H·c 1d, ice, \\'1 '
i111~·r, .: ,_. cidcJly, l11t: t:\i;.;tcnee or a t1~1t1pf'ra 1 1m~ IJ()[
above frc>f'Zin g pnint ; that temperature being :u1 csscn
ti:1i Cnndi1inn nt' !h P n: '!:iilizalimt (lf wal«r.

(

1

,

(ihi~

!11n,· •·\' 1'r

a11;1u1 '.. tu lUClll1ull.

;\T;., ~1111• \Y111tlil
,11

11\· ('<1nd1tJr,t1~

111·

Y• · r_\· 1" •l1JJ1\••ll. 111
i.l:j

t/11· 1·:1r .. ],·~-.:rw:<:-t 1,J' < 1 :·~! r 1.1n

lJ JL: L ' i.!.U::il.'b L'f plll'll(_•llil'll·l!

;t! ].11,•: .
1l JL'

(>11

L :1;·1' 1.. ;

c1111:-.idcr; 1ti11J1,

in

1 ' ; t1'.\!l 1 1 ~ :· ~1! 1 1

ti• ] ..• n '·t

i\llt'~l i 1 1 ll. 1·_

t ' :-i

\\

(':111-c,· -:

g it \1: ,,11 :1: 1\1'

i

: r:

lt: •· l1
:

, ,~

~:1;

;l t•~·nd.• r pinnt, thnt it \'l<lS drst rny r·d in rnn:-·wq1w111·i---- f•r !p· f ] .. ·iH:'
co¥·ere<l y.;ith a mat; though every one~ wuultl 1rn.:a11 Lo iinr•iy t1 1:tt
th~ frnsl de~lroyed it; this being- a Cause too 'veil knn\Yn to rn·r·ci
Lt·in;,!" pwrili1,: 1t ·d; ;111d !l:al \'.-hi1-·h i-; ~pd~ r- n nf ;i ~ t!ir' C"·11: " '' \ T :
t iH ;1i•:-i·:11.·1· ,,r;c •' f) \'1·ri11;.:. !H-' I ll[!' oniy !he' (_',-,n chtic·n. wirh n nt ·:,·:1 ~ d1

tl 1•'

r1-;il ( 'a11--1· 1~ u11\d

n(\t. hare npcrak d.

....~···:~

·:~12~~::]

~\;\1j
~'::··

t:..

:

-~

.J

=~

40

}->111"1

other Causes rnay produce 1he same Etlcct ;)

a:nl i11

tl1is case, tliou~li tl 1e Etl(:ct

lil:ty

C11

l

di><"ll."i"ii<Jll ol tlic Call''-'' 01· Lil(>1 ·1 s

lJl' i11l(·rrcd fro111 the

~ · frnm n 111()rt al 11·01111d \'01 1 11111\" i1il't·r death, but

:: i er:

11

iir·11

;i

extent according;ly, anrl tiic i111prirt:uwc of the rnic;1:1ke·;

C ;111sc ic; also a nccessa1·v or yrobalile

condition, i. <:. 1»Ji,•11 it is 1111; 1111!!/ l"'""i!ilc or only likely t: :llb!', d1cn \'>· c~ 111 :t.\' :1 r ~t 1 P li~11!1 \\·:ty-;: e. ::.:. \VC 1na\·
i!ll 'i _·r ct Gc11<er1rl':; :01 1u:e"s 1·rnr11 !1is k: 11rn11 sLi!I, or, Iii:;
skill fro Ill J: :c.; l\i11l\\11 S l !('CC ...;:..; : tJ ll'.'-iC t \\ () ~·\ r,;11nle1JIS
bclo11;.:ing~ JT .-.:r) ~' i 't!\· ('l _\ '. lo l hP t 1,·n eh.-.;:-: 1·:-; nri:.:- in :ill·.· laid
d1J11·11. .\11.[ it i-; to Lr: 11 1,,;cn·cd, i!1:1t, in s1wl1
T.11:.:i··:d :u 1.t

ol·,

Ar~tlliH'::h C:·n:11 ~i~~ : i :t-.; 1l1 i-.- l:t ~ i, ;)11·

irrr~l1:1·:u1t

!Tlll~trL ~ 011 tl:~' ni-i~in of tlic ;1111Li;:-::1t il _'."
1

1·t JJ1cl 11 -

)!]\'

1

a11d 01 1 1!1c c:111tic'1h tr1 J,,. u,:r d i11
111i-;]r:d ii1· 11.

p: C'111

' rl1e

..: :-:

h ·: \•:ii i (

:11p;

!1

tn "ffor ;;1l11w

1 ·~

tl1 i 11:.:

w.:::1i11.st 1"· 11 1<::

;1r1.1\·1 ·d

::-->

01· iJci11 .~ CO!IVillced t!Jat it

l.S

<o;

8 .

(J,

cn111j1\;1i1t'.'d

.:::11~ rri i11<c:

l\Cl ' l'S'l lrih- 1l1c C:twl' o: the r:wt'.; /1ri11:.; s11cf1
it- i.-;; lir_1: it i..::; tlH~ (' i<t~ tif n11r kn:)1ri:1:..:,·

pliysic:illy, ( i. r'. as a 11 ;li <:rai EJ:l:l'l.) llicr<: ill"<' i11 1lii,;
case two di1:(·1·e11t kinds or Sc111.1CJLCC OJ'!'"'''d (1) Cal'li
c1tl1er; <' . .I.'. · '' ~Yi:li 111a1,1· nf !l1r ·111 Cod 11:1 s 11rJt \1ell -

~- tlic

1-.;

1

111)t

].,,""'' "'"
qut· 11 • •·

l\"Clllt'.S S

or the

e:1r1li i.; 11ot tl11 ' C:11n; ot· r:ii11, Lllc it ic; rl1e C:111."I' cl n11r

piea-;t:d; l~Jr tiw,· 1v1•rc 01·1•1·;lirm1·11 i11 tlie ll'ildcrncss. "
:\n.::1irnf'1 1lc.;

tl1r :i111 bi ,:..:;11i t;· eo111;\l:ti111•cl

]'i"l''t'tlt li1 11iL.;; lrnt i1 will 11ot li1:

1111ss, Lein; the Ca1i.;e from 1>.liil'li the prc111 i.;.; ./;11/0,,.s,

In

()r

0t1t

i1walc11hlilc. To dilate lljl!lll tl1i' p1Ji111 :is
hr~ d J/1(' \'.-ltli ;1d\·a11 td~(' , \ \"Otild (''\(_'CCd

l.'

;i_-.;

/ ._1. ~icully _~ iru111 t11e r!·t~·

s1nn ,.,-)-::( ;1

:u11· 1l1i11<c:. II J,,,

ti11l'tin11 i l1111·e he<'n SjH'11ki11<:: cii", or 11!10 !111·; '"'";q•ed
till' l'IT!l1·s ;1 11rl pr1·1 1le 'l:i t11·.; 1111'1:r-1· r1•,11 ;tin:; . Tl1 r; 1' j, ;,.

llO t

:1r1(l rl1 11 11·11i ii(',;.; ari.-:;in;.:

] ' !i\ -'! ,' .d

or

lia-; c lc1 1rl.'· ]'l'r<'ein:d :111d c;tc1ulil.1· ke]'t i11 vi111» 1l1c d1.--

1·r rs1L.

L:1.stly,

41

OF CO\ I IC'l'IO:\.

l1:1r1ih ' ;111v :t r ~1nni•:1tati\·c \\Ti ier· o n s1111_iet·ts 111\-( )h i11:.:· a

Ca11sc, the Cau1;c crnnol be inferred from tl1c EflCct;
P.

I l. § :L

A!' .

k11u11·iil:.'. tl1at it has rained.

p( i i10 fir;-;t <' h..;-.;, nn ih0 C('J1tr0r_\·, d1C' -.;f~

n1i .<_.: ; \\·l 1i1· h ;n·o diW('..;.

Tl1 l'<c t110 tl1i11~", t1H•
co11,.irtiu11~

fJ1/i"

;i1 1d

t l :r"

J'l"l'-

( · ~ ui<r

1J

ki11ds nf S1·r;;1c11r·c 111'c ·· 0:11lii11cd; i. c. 1)1<: Co1 ll'l11sinn ,_\·hir- !1 fnl!n\,.-:; J n~! 1··::-t11v fr on: the prt~•iYii~~ , i:-; ft l~o ilH;

ffl,-. n1nrr

1\lii1·li 11rnd1w1•c; tl111t
11·!1ir/1 "" 111"1' ,·om i1wr• d. arc
likr?;~ to hr ronfntindrd to_
:::0thP1·, in tlit• lc11)..:('~

E1ii:n fullu11·i11l'. pln si1·:dly frum it as a Cau:;c; a Gc n-

ni·:-:~

1-r;ti \ ,.;i.;ili, '-" :::. Lici11::: both the C:111se and tlw !'roof nf
l ii ' Lt ·ir ''. .'.', li],_1 · [ ~,· t1) ~ 1 11 ( '!'( ·il .

(as li1h lie1:;1 aL-01·•: n-·111:11"k<'ri) 1l1c1· (1·1·r11"·111l.» r·11i111 id,,;

t110

IL i:-- JtH> .~L i1ll1Hlrt:t:Jl to kcci > in 111i11d 1l1c di~1i11ction
bt~t\v~1 ~ u 1i1t.. s1~ 1w

hind'.:' 1_lf Sequence, 'vhich are, in . .i\!-gumcnt , sometimes cninlii.n1;d, arnl so111cti1J1<.:s uppuseJ.
Tl:erc is no more fruitful source or cvllrusiuu uf Lliougiit
tlian that ambiµ;11ity of the fan~ua~e elllpluye<l un these
1)

_-. ; d 1 i· ~ ct,.. , \\ l!ii )1 l+---'!t•l:-:

i·+·~d~ t •t:• d

i1•: .. 1·dr1·r

d:r·..;ro !\•;r J

tliiu~s, :;u e11tird_y tiistiuct in tlieir JJatu!·e.

There i~

tq

;1...;,

-·
=

1J!' r· ol1ni; 11 ial Lir1~ u:1:.:: 1·~
1•.

::.:.

\\ lll' fl

f'r"111 tiw f:ill
!H~nce

\\.C'

iu,f'rr

1!1 :1t

ilw

1!1t·

t·irt·11t11:-;t;uwe

L'.:r()1 111il

\\ j]] J , L~

r:1:11 ")ij, ·ii ;11·11r/11rn· tli:it 111•11 1•' ' '·

1l1a t

\\1·i,

.\1 1il

that the su1ne 'von.!s h~ve come to be :1.ppli cd ~
in CUlill11UH, tu l2ac11 ;.. JnJ or StJqueuce; e. g. a.n EfTci..: t
is saiJ tu "fulluw " fi om a Cau:;e, and a Co11clusiun io
u. ft_,liow fruni lhe Pre1nise~: the 'Xord.= "Cause" n.~d
!.~ Hr•:t~lln~ ., :t:·p e:u·h :ri'ldif·d indii!Pn·ndy, tH1d1 tn a
Cau~e, prvpcriy su called, anJ tu tlie prerniss of an Ar4 •

it

i~

"r

frP111

H

1:1 .1 :.\ JE;\ '[' ,.;
,;.:, tllllt__'li[

or

Ill I l:T<Jl\l • .

tl 111t::-;h ~c ]~1_· ~ 1 -.;011) ' ' 11 1 :-;1 r it't1H ·;..;s (>! ;-;p c: tl1.in1; 1
.".; : '· ) 11 l (_ l lit ' I' () 11II1 : 1 ; ; \ l l t. l:l [ [•::I ' .
• • • I' ; i ( ' l' ( ! 1· 1 ' ~ '
' i. l Jt .'llCl '. 1 ' ' (( (' {)JJ-.:1'1jl!('1lll_v," '-\:_! ' , 1 :11 1d :tl -..o,
1 ':

' •·1

" r ! 1t:r1•i,. r •·, 1'

"''·

C H .11-. I I. ~

f ' .\H T

1

i ('t' i .,

~tll{!

~ lw r · ;1 · 1 :::--~·,: · :111d ·· \\]1y,' ' J1 ;1\·t · JjJ\c-

., \ :ill

L:i ! l 11

'' j i:I'! <I\~."

1 rn; 1111 u ~1: t 1;k u; t:11· 1';01·.J, 11·l1]('h ln·:ir tl 1is d o ul1Jc

nie~tn111 .~ (a11d tli:tt,

ui

1

T!1t~

.

'

• ; •·

1
C:111_...;1_'; (. (. /(,.1((, '

J·i..(liJl

i11~ l.\ -~

corr<·'po1Hii11c; a111his11 ii_1 .

\lloC a

J · :~:( • ("

< · n 1~( 11 1...;i( 111 1·r i111 1 ]1re 11 1i " t ·:...:.

.I I

ct i. !1!~ :-,

:;·~ill'!;tl]\·

lie

1' !1 1'
r(l] J!)d

~ i1J11i ' ' i:.:_· 1 tti I' ~ ' ' l l i l t

i ()

('il['J'l'' l \( ) )l{l

i111 nr":.; :11in "11·!11" 1s c111 1>\1iycil to

111c'n

iT:::o rt

1

:-)l'Jl<-;c

\<'!'\'

_}

)

il!'C )

ir

b

..'..1u~

a

'J "1·'1l 1 '
' LL
1 1:

' ( ) ; II'

'

t_' (

'1

,

'
11:t ,_.i'

' ~ t[
:r<'.-.; .l,'..'.-1lt '( j ! 11;

'

t ()

-#\

''.

j.::;

to he nhs erved

t h~1t

the di:-: c1t V( TY t> f

--;tsd

(_\;-ii:J."C

tl ::tt <d. 1i1e J~iH'i1, r ic 1:111; ;--u1d tli: 1t , tlrt11

h \\ I:~

1' a 1

of r:11:

ulin:r , iL i;:, w usL i1uµ urlJ.J1 L Lli;it tl1c::;e t11 o uLjccb ::11v ulu

not be confounded together.

I

\'> 11 1• !l

C'i:.nsr., hut oniy :t L'rr_1c~/ that t.hr. f1(·_f i ~-~ ~.; 0 ~

Se vf"!nii , f1 nivever , of the words in qucsti\1n~ f1 1o 11 _e) 1
emp loy ed iwfo.,cri11iiHatd y in Luih sig11i lications, se e~ 1
(as _was ~bserv e d in the c:isP of th;> wnrd " R P~~rm " ) in
their pnmary allll strict sense to be Gunfined to one
- "" ~ '

~~;~(:,;,

f

l.av1~ frc'l11cnl t11Ta0'1u11 10 assu111c tlw cl 111r; 1ct1 •r

ilil U ii;l\'1 : ri l'h Lee11 led int o :m end!'''' train of crrnr~
au <l _iJl.:r1ilc;,itic;-;.

,,

\\'):\· :ire

belone:s rrnperly to the rrQvim:e ur Ll 1e l 'l iilusu p iie r ;
! I H-d pf " H_t>a:-J11 1.. :. 1 " ~n·i(·t l y ~o r<l ll rd ') (i. c:. Ar::- n m r:nt ~ . )

1

..... 1

fir >!,

111 c r? t h ir dl y, 'W hy are th e wor ks o f a 11·,1 td1 ri >1 i, t r1w t

~1ia11 lie told 1li 11t i i i,; 1li11l r1·11111 \\ l1 i1·li ''"llll'il1i11:.; "(111 ltJ \.\:0 ; " U f , \Yf1ich ;::-, iuJit:aleJ by diP. \ \'f1t· d s ~ ~ f flprp f~-Wf· , n
" 1~uu:oct;ucutiy , " &.c . all wl1id 1 eiq1res::;iu11s arc as equiv0cai unri i.in 1~. Prt Hi H_ ia ll1eir s! .~nific ::lt.i on :is th2 ori~: inal
011<' . f l i:; in 111iii Ill allc1 11 pt ;1 ·'>·crt:1i11i11~ Iii· ti"' li:il 111 wc
il 1(~ rruc: ;u1 iri11 11t o !· ~uiy ('(JJJltiJ(Hl1ry ;r f;d _-.; 1; \\·e i .~ lirs ;ire
}lLu-cd i 11 Ilic ()l1l11 h /ll; :-;c11 i c.
I icu cL'. it i ~ tl iat ::;,o UJaHv
writer~ , iu inve::;tigming ti1e Cause to whic h anv fact ,;r
']

ir

1! 1c
"r a 11·i11n'.' l1· c' l" :il t1i t11·1 ) ri'.'l1t
>l'i'()11dh·, \ \ '111 :w: tl 1c 1L1ys ,1 ,,lrl<'r i1 1 11 i1iltT 1!11l11 111 ,.;11 111-

uf ;in\"

_,.

! ,(

.. \\) 1)

:<1111c ;11 11l 1i··
,., 11 i1"- c . S· 1! 1ve CJHiuire wl1at is me<u1t l.iy a "Cause," 11·c
L':-.Jll·c: ,,1
<ll:, :in_· iJ1i'1 ·1_·tcd 11 ii1 1 1l1c
..

',1) 11('j ) ()!Ji~',' 1 11,',·

\ 111 1•!!_'.ll i l \

:il l L11 i .'...'.:u:1.~_t ' :-') .~r, · atlr uicri; ; 1 ~cs

fur asccrrai11i11 .~ t!1l~

to

l'!l!j1 1!! 1' ,

1

fir:-:1, tl 1c (( H t·a:--1H1 )" (()r ' (. P roo!'; >)

jt~Ct i\nii1 1 1~1__,d,'' ur F :1;u]-Cau ....;1•: c .
11ir·:11is

(1 \.

E11~\i...;/t \\ 1 1: · ~1

,...,

1

•

''

)j

.

u-reeK, ana " eq;o, * or "iu1rp1P, " in LHtin ,
s ~ t-:"i 1 1 nr:.'...:"ina lh- 0nd prOlJerly Lu dr:nntc Thi St·il t teltf· ~ ..
111

()f Si:..'.;ns d1P1 1 t11t •ftl

b flect

U l'

p lit.: ii U::H..~ll U ll,

are

soJtH ' \vli ·1 ··l1, (rP111

infe r ll1c (' <_: ;.u J ;::t~"

;1

{1 r

1 P l'L llil

ii ;

;u i d

others v.rhich, in l!ke ma.11ner, infer s0me .;~ Cnndi ti0n"
wliicl t is liul tLc C au;:,e. Of tl w::. c: la;:,t, urn.: :011ccics is
1i1P Are:11111P11t from Testimony ; the premiss T,.. ,;,. ,, .,,,

1

~

H
i

be ing th e e xiste nce o f the

1' e~li11J U1l)' J

dt e ~lll • I

nf

" ' ~ II

C c nclusion, the truth o f what is attes ted ; wliicll is c on -

1

--- -

·- -· -

- -- - - - -- -Uf!W.

1 ~ ~t ' t ' tii l' ;: : Lil: '. t · \\'tt i i:1 1]1, · .\;' )H..' !1 ~! 1x t i• t iw 'l'r 1· 11 1: •· \ ' !l l ,•i;_r;,.

44

ELE:IIENTS OF IUJETORIC.

i.:,11·c11; s 111cc

ll

is e vi dc 11t tl1at so far 01ily

J'A ET

C11.\1» ll.

tl1h i:;

rc 111 ;u k

:i,;

allowed, (i . e. so far Jnly as it is allowed, that the T estirnony 1nmld not have been gi1·cn, bad it not licen true ,)
cau tl1is Arg11ment have any force.

but the distinctinn
oetween tlicm is so obvio11s, as well as the various C'lrClllllStauces wliich add to, or diminish tlH; weight of, anv
Tc,-timouy, Ll1:1t it is no t ll()Ct'''<lrv to enter into a111·
detailed discu >s ion of tlic ~ubjci:t . It may lie 1rnrth rc1narki11 l'... ii1>1,·cver, tliat one of the 1110,;t irnportan t di5tinctiou:-; i~ liet.\.1·cc11 TP!'li111ony tn n1attn.-< \) f Fff!"/, :mil to
/J>Jct,-inrs or "11i .1i., ;1::;: i11 e,;:i111a1i11'.'., tlw 11i:i.~l1t. of 1lw
fonncr, we lo"k (·hicik to tlw l10J1esl!J .,f 1li1 : ' '· i1 111·,, ,
and hi,; lllCaJJ':<
0Ltc1i:1i11~ i\1forlllation ; in tlic latter, Iii .-;
a/Ji[ity to jud(!;C is Cljl la!Jy lo OC taken i11to COI1'i d natio11.
\"1 ' itJ 1 resp e c t. J1< ,\\'Cn·r l<J rl1 e crcdiiJiJit1' oC \\ itncsscs,
1! i.~ i ' \·i d1 ·n1 t: 1at \\ ·n 1· t 1 !11;u1v cuiiwid.c i11 Ilwi r r ~· ..; 11n1 t J11 ~1 · ,
\ \ \-) J 1. ·i· c~ 111' jll"t ' \·1 1"111....; (_'<i1w1Tt c;111 h:1vc t d\1·11 pLwr ',) the
Testimony is of various kinds

or

; 1rul1;1h1;:1:· r1_·~=1il:ii : ~

th1 · stippo-.:ed

tl:l

i il!t uu

1i1c

:·i. (l! 11

ri ii...;

()( 11' . .; 1111t

r'11 jJr' 111Tt '11 1·1'

\"+ 'i' :tcity o! · ('ac i1

io; ap1il1cd Ly ])r. C:11111'lwl l 111 tl1c Arg: 111 llc'l1t
from Te sti111011v; but he lllig;lit have e.-. tcu<lcd it l\l other Ar~11111c11ts :.:l so, in 11l1ich a s i11iilar c:d culati 1111 uf cku1 ccs 11·d l c11aLlc us to dr:tw a Co11clu:;iun, sorn1~ti11w-< r1'<·11
amount in"0 to moral ccrt;1i ntv,
from a co1111ii11atiu11 uf d;l',a
.

,d 1ich singJy would kl\'c hall little or no wci!-',lit; c. l; · if
a11v 0 11 1~ out ol a hundred nwn thro w a stone \I !1ii-11 :; trik1·-;
11 ;rrt:un oi•j<'ct ,1' t'wr1• i:< 11111 11 sli'.';iit probability, fn1:11
tli:it f:wt :tl<•1ll', tlic1t lie 0i1m:1l at tl 1at object; l111 t if 11il
tl ic J11111ilrcd threw c;to11e,; 1'.lt.wlt stnwk tli c sn111~ ', Jij <'c l,
no
,,lie

Ii

11

( ~'i l !

t'.

iii ;:11 iiitci i::..:: 1•11\ C;·· ·:l l i ll' (r 1\r11 tin~ 11iark . . . 11(

i1 i1pr{)lJabilir _v oC ~i1cl1 ~lll :1:_:r1·en11· 11t 1 ; 1 kin~

llll\V'>l'dl\y

1·;w l1 (1f ti11'_ \\·iuw--~( ·-..; ... lhniltl !.t· ('(111 :. ; id,·r1·d ;t~
uf t'J't·dit . :ind t'\'~·11 lll\11')1 lll!li't~ i 1k ~· Jy 1() ...:)l1·:rk

J.;1 ;-..: 1' l: 11(J(j

t l 1;11i

ti1r'

1·!i:1r 1{ · 1 ·:-:

r11i~ i 1~ l11• i111 ir 1 ir(~

T!i i,
"'

,: fl d1 ·d-'[. \'t·~ ! 1), 1·\•,·i -.: 1• f • 1 }'1' ;tTkJl , ;,. ,; tr~ ' ' Tl

pf conr:1ureiit 1P:-;1i111011 i1 ·~.

111111dwr

( in r· ; 1:•' 1' ~

li:1n · !11 't'll no pr!·vi•'l!~ f''>rt''t·rt.) th erP i:-l :1
1 ' 1; 1t

fro 1n

wl1 i! ·l1
\)11·

r 1 · r11 :u 'I

11i1t\·

1)1 · t• ·r 1n1·rl th "

k .' ii .i 111 1o111 •· s

r· \'• · ;1

1 11 · .r1

_;h

,, )' f iw
1 )1 ..

'-'11111

,,f

pr11 1i;tlii li1y di ~!i nrt

1) 1,,

l 'r"\,-d, iJ it i1 · ~

w1l t ll':'~•·s. a pr1.\1;1hi l11y

\\ ' ii 11 r· -.· , . ...,

\\ '• ' f "

t !wn· c· r 11 i!d

.. :·

~1 1· ·

i1

:l

f! ':..: iil ti n~~

wl1id 1

1' 11;1

fr,q 11

w1iti:d

r ~ 1 1' f, · r

11 :-;

to

C tJi l1J' i \ -

,;l'.1 1,"1 :111rl :w1·id1·11t:il; l111t tli:1t tli c·v ,;l1111ild ull 1"· 'Lwl1 ,
1-..; !JJ( ll
\ .l J j ,

lt

( ~n·;tl (:i re

:: ll \' i1 t!J l(h ·,i1 ii ~'

( \; : l \'

1'.. ,

'~ ,i J \'I .;; ] \1, \.

I

·~= 1 , : 1, , 1 :

' . ' lt;
l ]\Lll; 1::1

~ ~ ! l;) rJ j,

1
', ' ,· ,. . I I ·, I ' l, I " , . ...;
- ·, ·, I I 11 1' l : ~ '...'... 1. \ < l
I I:

,. 1 . , , .

1

i·i id«iwt',

l ]" . . : , ( l)

11 -:

nn :-:iii '.:le :-:i:tr

11

\ ! \.

11 11 · ,,

i ii

I i) 11 ' • , '

!11d~· ~

1: " \

:--.c l\ H i _';

ir1

( ) '."

i 1 : ( 'I

~ ~ H·

\: · ~1 ,-

1...::

;

11 , '. • t •

\\(1 '. "l '.

1l

rn r

1 ! l: l j l

;1 11, l

j_--; l't ' (jllhii1_;

[n lJH il:t r 1\ 1:. .T~i l l l'"-t ' ~

!:\ ;l l \ \ .

ti

: ; i )., . 11 :_:

tl1, •r1 ·f(l!"f'

111

:l

;1

r
,I

! l 1J I : '. ' I '

f ,ufll.r.1J

1

1

11 11i:1v lw c:ill"d, i11 11·!1icl1 tl"' l1r1i li:1111 ·v ,.i·
1
1·;i r 1 tlC fH li 11:i ·d (Jill- tl11~ ltL-. ir c ()f tl1 1· l'(l/il

ti:1;jr ,1 1 1 ..; ol'ti_ ·11

i,-

]1 1....:t

(1 11

tl1t

111.

ll c11cl' it

i:-:J ; h

\\:1:-:

ri'-

11111rJ;,.d j 11 1111' Tr1·aii'<: ll11 F :dl:w1t"i , th:n tlw ·'"l'l1i ~ 1i1' C

!)ii-.; '-' I i),"! '' . fi 1:1l ! ! J :1

wlwrt ' in

j.J, r 1iw .. .. ·, -1 -

\It·

;111 , e, j,jJJ\.~ i1< tl,1; l 11 in·:·, l-, tl 11J11;,;lt 11 1:1!1;- of till'.''-~ 11r•:
s:;: ·li :h . t:t !,('11 ;.i 11·.:k, 111 il'.l 11 '1cll L1; 1·u111 :«i1 <'d 1111d,·-

\·1·

rr111 l1, '.--l i il

1·<J111L111:1tirn i 1>1" .\r:.:_1111Jo•111 tl111l

r 1'...:t

c·r )JJ....;id( ·r1·d ~ 1' f 1:tr:t11·]_\·,

45

OF CO:'i\°ICTlO:\

rf'!ii't• il :·w l t'

i:< ;1:-;

Tl~at.

:-<twi t a 1· .,:1Clll'rt ' 111·1·

t' ' i n liiiili' · tli:1l i:-;, in

., 1w

1,t\H'f

sl11Jt1 \d ~pr111~

tJ 1, .r,•(, 1r ,• (' :•nf' e r t ht · 1.x,,], 1d,·d . tfwr1· r • · 1 1 1 a in~
r1·:il~t \' .,\'tlw ftcl "

: I i,

I ·~ : '

•If I

r1 ·1 · , il '.tTt

ri::li t ]_,_ -, t ],, . ..,,,

4·ii: .r 1, · 1· ,

1·r ., 11i

\\·o r •l :-i, 111,,r;i \ ly i1111 •· •":'i l 0l 1•
11 ,1 ,,j ] 11• r

\' .

If

l•11t th · ~
!1 _ i. ]'; irt

( :i1 1.-- 1·

ELE\ll~NTS

4G

OF lll!ETOIUC.

II

1"11\1'

~

men: it is nnt improbable, (in tlic ahon~ cxa111pl1-,) tl1,1t

i(1 t.'\fdai1t \\l1\ C\· 1·1 1 Il1i.-.; L L..., ! ~li}l\ Hh t l• 11 1 i
s) 1ll11LI In: r1".C:1!'d1·d a,; ],,,,, prnli:1lil 1· 1l1:u1 :1111· lli]1»r ;

each of tlic stones, consiJereJ scpara!cl!J, 111ay li:11 c lJ1'.t:11

s!11cc tl1e J..1 t1 'rs ol' 11·i1i1 !1 tlic Iliad

tiiro11!l at random: ;md therefore tlic s:u111: i,; c01wl11d1'd
of all, considercrl in co11jnncti1111.

1":,;11tl 1i: r at rand11111, 1n11;l !':ill in

"Composition," a:; it is callcrl, so frer1urntl_1· 111i:-dt':1ds

(" l ia \ l1• 1 1 .'..( i .~ t h

is

co111j11J,;1' d, if cl1:1l.:i-11

S<ilJLC

f1mn "r utiwr; :11 11!

\'fllvcd in tlii: rejection oft lie cvid1'1we ,; 11fo11r r1·lil'.i •m, \1 1: 1

ti11111 ,;li tiw cl1:u11·''' arc !l1illi111i,; uf mi l\ i111is to 1111, 1
:1 '..'.:1i11-'i tli:i t, 01· :11 11· 1Jtl11·r rfr/1'i'111i1111/r 1>1·11,.r , //1 r rr a rc
]>ffciscly us 11uwy c/11u:ccs 11g11iHsl 1111r, us ru.:·ui11 st 1uu1llirr1 \\- ) J('th1 ' r 111( i rt~ nr lt~s:-; JT~1d:1.r: ~1! 1 d in Lk ~ ~ ni:1 ~ 1 1: 1 · i · ,

!JP pl;tiri tn

:H.<111i ,l wti

inst:mce as this, any one 11011lcl reaso11 so \\·1~:1 kl\': l111t
that a still t:>;r catcr al~'l 1rdi ty of tlw \'l'l"V s:rn1e ki11d J.'-' 111-

vid11:d

l;JITt',

:Hi_\'

nt H'

\riJ(l c<l!1:-;id1T:-:, ,

n o t 1n c r ch· t! H· i111!1-

l1ut tlii: mwz&cr and rnricty of ilH• sc c11-

And here it may he ohscrvcd, tliat tliou:d1 th e
\ \. l1 a'
IJ\l-' ;\11 1

1-:
)\\·

f.\ ! ljl ;i.1t<ll h•ll.

(':JSl<"'l

and most pop11lar way of practic:illv ri:f111iw.>;
tlic F albr·,· j11s t mentioned (or i11dr' <'d ::11\'
F:1llac-y) is, fw hrinc:;i11e; fnrn·:ml n p:ir:ill1·I
case, where it lc:1d s to a rnnnifr,,t :ik11rr!i1v,

a mctaphvsical

ohj1~r.tion

mnv ~till he ure:•~ d

ae:ai11'1

1nany r-a-;c-; in which we th11s re;i-;rrn from e:ilr·1il~1tinn "f
chances; :i11 nhjection not often perhaps likch- pr:11 ·ti 1 :1!:n i11il11<'1wc an\· 011c. h11t \I iiicli 1n:11· :itl;ird tl1« :-in11 i1 -

lv

i:;t :1 tri1rn111l1 m·1·r 1lin'e I\ !10 ;m, u 11:1h l1' lfl fr 1d :1 '"luii'>11, n11d \\·iiii·ii 111;1y funiisli ari c'c11_..;1· l~)r tlw nj1·1·tHf1\
of l'\'i d (• :1i ·p \\·lii f·h Oi lC i~ p :-r\·i o 1r ~ ly re r)h· 1 ~ d Jlilf t o :i 1 ~­
:11it. Ir it \\"(Ti' a11 , 1\·1'rf'd then t1) tl11i,;1: 1\ /11) 111:1i11t:1111
th:1t

:11HI t"lllll

i1w 1·d 11!' 1Ji,• i11l ' 'i"\ l'll-

1n1t :iii tJ, ,. c:11 d'
a pa(" k in l'l"~1d~tr :-;1·quc1wc:-;, it. i:; de1nr);J '-> lrali l1• th:it
tht~ cha11c c~ arc JJOt 111()re a~ ~1.inst tl1at urdi_:r , tl ia11 ;1:-: :t J! h t
a11\· 0111' d»trrmi11a:(1 ord<'r \\e llli'..'.hl cli1)(Jsr1 to fj, 11p ()1 1;
:1 .:'. :1in :'I 1lia1 t>1\1', f1l r i11,;t:11w1>, in \\·l1i1·li 1l1c 1·ar iJ, ;1r11 :1 t
1l1is m111n1· 11I :ll'i 1i:ilk l .1·i11~ 111 an» i11d i1 id i:: tl i':" :.:.
The rn11ltit11d 1~ nf 1lic ci1nllc<'s, tlwr c i'•> r•', lw 111 Hrld <:1:: ,
a~ain<t any scrie.c; of crents, docs not co1htit11tc it 1111 ;i :·oldi\1~; :;i1w11 tlir: lik1: liapp<'ll' tn eve ry one C\'l'ry day;
i/ 1·:111

i11

d c1H';'-.; , -·

! ~" '

111 ' , IH11ild \ii',

; i,;

1i1lll 111" anili1·1>, ii' \1·11 '-' :1 11· :1111 111111

tl1c u11ive1><', \1·i1i1·ir <"'.liil1i1:;

:;o

111an1· 111ark,; "f ,J,·-

•.r
..,.

I' .

st r• ·c t s <i11

tlll'O\l"h

·"

>

()1· dll'

1i:1\'

l]:: 11:

·t it \\"( )1 J l(I

1l1i·

\" ~

1i1;11

( "!1 : 1 1 H·1' ~

;111\·

tliir1~

;1] fJl(\-.;t

:1 .: ::r i1 i-;t

i 1111Jru l11il1/f' h:td

L;ttli t.

(' ;[ ] ( . \l

j»'l''"11< i11 tlw urd1:1·, :md

:ii

·r; i ~ petradux

Cl( ' ( t l!TI "( !

II)

( "I ))

li 11i-;1 •

l i j \. 1: t '

\Tr \·

the ti1111·,; :111d pL!('1' :.; 11 1' ii i-;

tn1·t•11::~ ca: ·l1.

one wuuld l1•~ i iev ·~ it po:;silile fo r such a \1ork as t iw
Iliad, c. c:; . to he prod1HTd h_>· a fort11ito11 s sliak i11 c:; tllg(~1IuT nf dH~ letters of i lii: nlphal1r.i t, t!it~ So!d1i"'f nlip:,l1l

: hnnl-'..li

t'«w mi~iH h1: pranicaily !lli~ie<l

],,, :\t :1

]11,, Ill '"]I

* I\1r. D:1vi:-;nn in the introduction lo his work 011 pr11phP1~y i:;;t.a t••f!

Lt! ;(ll 1

Iii-.; 1ne~·ti11 .~ preci -.; t•!y

s1gn 111i::Lt !Jc tl.11: \-Vork of Hun - jlltt!lli~~Ht Lw1:-:e'.'-i, 1l !:tt
110

11 '.

1111,!11" '' · 1111·1'h :i1 ·r· .1 d•'11 1:il l:c llll11d1"1 ·d' "r ' l!ii »r< :1:i' ''
11
11 l r]'I) I l ]\ rl1 1·; r--: : :t:Hl lH' \'dlt!l t l
))l .li
'- ; i\ :1: 1)I r "

dHh :-.iL·e111in~l.y t''.)ta: ~:1-.: l 1j·(L

O\' n, lll:my ''°'"·'ld

I'.

Tl1c tnitli is, 1li:1i :my s11l'l" "1t1n11 1c; j11<1ly 1·:ill1·d i111probablc, not from the mm1bcr of cl:a11ees a,: ;ai:ist it, eo:1 -

r;lru rqdv tlw l' ll lllll i•tl1ve iiin·1· of a 111 1dt 1t11tlt-• of "'nrnil rrnn1rnlrir"'.

sidr red 11H'•'7•rrrr/1'11tly , h11t from

Sf"P. c:h. iii. § 4. of t.hiR TrPn.t.iRf'.

~:_: 1l n~ ~

i: cn 111prtrrrt

·wi~h

d1P

nwnli•-'r of ''fHHl""~

;hn~r_~ \\' f1!t·Jt

1J (• :::. .._ Ti:'~~

··• 1 :~ i "

l ·: LP.:\'IENT~

OF 1un:T01UC.

l'A wr I.

ctfte r supposition: \\'C call die drawint; of

:1 prize in llie
lo ttery improba ble, thou;h tl1c re be Li11t til' C to one ::i::;ninst
it, because there arc more c ha nrcs of a Lb1:k; on 1he
other h:md, if anv one were ca st 011 a d1•scrt io:Lu 1tl 1111d n
cm:t1111st:1 11ccs \\-l1icli \r:irr:u11cd J1i:-; l11·li c1 i11; tl1:1l 1l1c

"!1:11wc·s 1"·c r1; a l1u ndrcd to OI!f; ac.:::1i1!'I :my 01w 's 11:11 i11~ Liccn there Liefore liim, yet if lie fuu11J 011 the s:u1d
pdibles so arrani".e<l ::is to fonn disti11nl_v the letter~ of a
rn;in',; 11:1111.:, hr \1-oulrl not onh- r01wlt1d1' it prohahle, hut
al1soi 1nclv cPrtain, tha t some human lw in::; lrnd hPrn
there: hcc :111'c tlirn~ wrntld h1~ 1ntlli1111s nf "h:11H'es
:1::::i1r::,: ti1osc :·orrnc; lia1·in ,::; been prndtll'Cd 111· 1!1 e l'urt1uI01h :icur1;1 of tJH' w:n-cs. Yc t 1f :1c:;:1i11 I sho uld li nd
some rrce o n the isl:rnd such tha t the (' !1:mr· cs appeared
tu me l1n) to one against its ha\· in~ :rro1111 then; s ponL1 :11'(ll 1..Jy, :-;1i ii, if, :1:-; hr{on_·1 I ('Oni·r·i\·ed tl ie (·1i :u:c es a

OF CO'\\'ICTION

Tlic f(m·~oin; oliscn·:11inns lH)ln~1· cr 1 as \\·ao: :tl1 <>\" r1"m:tr!; c d, :1:'l~ not confi1w d tn 1\ r;11111 ·~ 11ts front '1'1 ·sti111n11y,
!lilt 'IJ'ply to :ill ca.-:cs in I \ liich tl1 e dc;rec of prul!lll1 il iry
is c· s11matt'd from :i c:il('11l atio n of ('li;1111· 1•-: .

D1•lurc I diorniio:s th e con ,; idtTa tion of Si ;;:11°, it 111:1y Le
wortli 11Iii!,; to 11 ot i<'c :111 otli1·r ca'<e of co111l 1i111 •d 1.1""' '.""''
A r:r111 11ent diffrrcnt from rlic n m· l:it1·k 111 1·1 -.- "" 1"''·" 11 ·
tirnwd , y1'! 111 som 1' rlq."I"l' <' ff 'c l'llliili 11;;: it. Tl11· <· n111Li natinrt .i 1i....:t_ ~1i cik r1 1 of i--; \\lwr11 :--: 1· \· 1'r:il 'l'··....:1i 11H11 1i1 ·....: t '•f

Jy, :111d hy tilt

ir ("( l J111·i d t\111 · c-., a dt' .~r('1 ' ol

t' \ CC' t 'l li11~

sun1 of

l_\-

di . ~

the: r

s 1~\-(T~1l fnrc1·~ ,

11ri1L:1L1liry

~ i11 :lie ca--:1'] tllll IJO\\" :1h o11t t1) 11( iti('1', ;;:1·

f()r\'t' of ilit• S< 'l'Jf'...: ni'" ;\r~11111c1Jt...; r1 )...; 1i]:...: 1'r11;:1

~;;r

~~ ' ;•:1r· : 1 ~ ( '­

1:1k1'll
r

iL"

111 1 ~1ri11 • 'd
n!'rlt,- : r1

i111nd rcd to one a~:iins l :rn y lll:1n \ li:t\·i11c:; pl:111ted it
th ere, I sii uul d at once reckon d iis ]:1;.;L as the more 11n ·

l)r 1111· L1\\. cir 1i;1 111r1· c: tllcd tli1~ '' \ -i , ·1111'r i i ;1 ·
i--;
'' ' t 1!ili..ol,,. d \1"· tl1e \ 1·'.'. 1111 1<· 111 :ill 11 d1·d It 1 : \'iz. 11: 11 :i 1.... !·:
~ l ' i i 11 tl)'\ f )• 1Jl \\ill
!IT!l:dh- / '( l;1tiJl11f' I l l ))lfl i J ll]l \\ j )1 11
f~ll'lll \' ( •] (W li \' Jll a I ;:_:i11 li1 11', :-;q f;t r a.-. ; ii 1...: IHI\ :11 \t ·d !lji!' Jl
h 1· :1111· r·11 11•1 ·' \\ !1i1 11 r1 ·!:1rd <1r <;lnj> , :w• 1·l1T:itr• •·r il i11·:·1,
ih ('( H Ir .-.,; ~ ' .
dt'r 1H1r i1l1:-.:1'!'\":t1io11, .5<lJ1lt; ."ll('h c·;tt!S t ' :--; d(1 i :1 : t '1'\ . ( ' il 1 ' , i'. 1 '
:t 'i"'1 i rJl( 1r!
..; 11!)i ) ~)...:it Jil l l, i...; 1'r:w ti( :d hin 111 r )-::-.: i \, )1 , :1: :1 1 \ ', , ·
h:1\ 'i ' l\IJ ())1 p 1q·11111 it y rd. \·1 rif·.:i r1·. . : tl lt' 1:t ',\' 11-.· d'11, ' r· f 1·\peri11w11t; li1 1t 11·c 11 111_1· :.;rnc/1111//y n;>/Jl'111u-/1 i11d1·1°1:ii 11· k
p:1rt

an,· 1111 111rnn111 ::; fo rm into whi"li :< 11111nlwr of le t11'rs
i11 ic.::i1t f:1il , \•:n 11i>i 11 r>t he c:iil<'d 111 1111 ·r 1l 1:1lil1-, i'llltl1il1' '" :1.;
t.ii1: cii:u wrs arc :t'.'.111nst ti1at p:1rtir·11lar order, lw1 ·a1 1,1:
tiwre ar c jt10:1 Ile lllllll)' a:~ :1i1 1st f':ll'l1 tllJP CJ!. :ill otl 1rT
1mm r:min;;: i"1•rrns : h11t. if" riw lettrr' f~11'11 11 · d ll 1·1 ,]1P11•11t
p•lc1n, it 1nntld 1lw11 he called i11c:il•·1il:iid1· 111111rn! 11 tl.!1· !li:1t
t!1i:J t(Jr!ll ~ h( itil 1l i1:i\· 1 ~ lH·i ·n ft )J" ll1itn 11 ~ . tl1iit1~_.rl1 Tlll~ (' l 1:111c1•_;..; :i:::::1i11q

11 l'!' t1 1:1 111 1iw \"('n· ~ :1111t':

!)(' 1·;111:-:1'

til<'rt·

r 111i.<t

li e rmwli .11· 11·rT r·:1:;iwc c.; :1:::1 i11'1 th e s111)11 n;.; 11i1rn 11f 11s
l1a1· i11~ be en 11111 wmk of rftq":.;11.
Tl11' prnl111l1ili1.1· in
~\:1lrL n!. ;1 J1\· ...: :1;1;111-=. ; 1i( l ll, j..; 1' --: ti 111:t red fro111

:t cr 1 1u11nri .~nn

1

11c:1r t o d ie \·n:-:- t·

l 11 , r; ! i 11 ' i \ t-...:
;I !
l \ I --.;
I( I'

:-.'.-l l\lfH)< t·d

1 111 1 1·1 •l lt · 111 .... 1• ·, 11

~ l 1·(

'

-

: ~ ' i . ; {.' i

I

;

:u1d
; ....

l : l ! l I I I ·__:: ; l

t 111

1·1 ' l 11 11l1 .,

ti w

!'t ", 1:11

o ( '1; ( )1 , \\-

i.
~I ! ; ; : l • . ' ',

\' i

I;-...:

J: I'

.1

.;
'·.,

.... .~
-

SU

surface, 1l continucs lo11c;er i11 111"tiu11; 1f 'l\"111 i"'" i"11:,1_' r still; and ti1c Jikc \\·i1I1 r<'~;1rd to \\ -/1 :·1 ·]-..:, \.Xe . 111 11rofHll'll <ll J

as 11e g:raduaU,- lteo :;c1 1 tlie fri1 ,t io11"r1l1c 111a1·1ii 11 -

•:ry ; ii·

\\c rL'111()vc

tl11~ r1' :·-1~i ;11wc of rlw :rir , !,y :--:1·tti11s

11 licel or l'l~nd1du1n in m"1iu11 1111dc:r
liJt1tion

i~ ~ti;i l(1Jlg1_·r con11nucd.

l ·:iJ,,:t <)!. 1)1~· <lri .~_ i11:tl
iii tirupun1u11

i.J.:::i \\L'. llHHc

;u1d

\\'I ..i

'.'..l 1t

\\j-,l':-.\l

rc:i''ll11aLl1 i11, ;1tl;<i·li1'd to tlie np1 1110Jb of tl:c
;111d Lr>.,1-irh1rn1 Icil, ,till, as \ \ " t~ k11011 :!1:1l Sl l1 ·Ji
llill \"

1!!1111 art' not e\c111;1t frrnn r1Tor, 11c t·annut iJc
,,1f11 i11 :1il,,;i1i1 :'.'. th" licli1.f ti1,.1· )1,,Jd, 111iJ,.,, 1111

:1 .. 1 · ,.,q1vinccd tl1at tl1c1· iiuld it in c1rnscr1111·11cc of tlw1r '! H' I :l'..:,
\\·i~l· -.:.t ;1J 1d Lr~t i1hlr1;c1t·d ; - - su )~"· j;11·/lt ~i.-.: t11cy ;!rC

:1

uir-1'1111qi, die
l' 11 1di1 1_~ tl11·11 tlia t tln;
a11

11lt>l't'

i1r(1fr;~c·J( 1 1l 1

~i11 · l1 .

111i1rc rc11!0\·+-:

tl1e i11qtt. . d!-

ta!;Ji~h~d

i11111til:..:1_' j-.; t111ll"<'

:111tl

51

OF ('0:\Vll:TlO:\.

1

1 A llT ! .

.\· ()\ \'

t11h i-=

i'rt•,·i :- ; t.·l_,.

1l1i' p(\iiit

\\l1i1 ·] 1 !iJ.'!_,.

!11'

lty the r1bcn:('- 111cnt;11ncd prti.sr1·."--.i" c ;\r.c:u1111 '. i:!.

ur Atheists, if t11 .. re ;ire any such, arc confessrd ly

111e11ts to 111otio11 from friction :md rr' sisf;mcc of the air,

Nations

we reasonauly conclude that if ti11s could be completely
du1w, ( wl1i..l1 is out of our power,) tlic 1111Jtion wrlllld
rwn·r c<'asc, ;<inec wi1at ;1ppc<ir to he the ouly causes of
its cessation , would hr: ahscm."

amon2; the rud est and mo st ig;no rant sa1·ag. e~: tho se 1Yho
l"l']ll"<':iC11l tllt'ir G 1id or Cnlb ;1s 111;1le1·ul1.111t, c;11'ri .. io11s, or
su!Jji;ct tu l:urn:m p:1;;,jr111s ;111d l'il'C'', are i1ffar1:1hiy tn h r~
itHHH1 (in t11e pre.::;ent <l<ly at lca~t) [dYtong th c~ sc \Yho :-:;c

Again, in ar!!;uing for tl1 1~ P> · ~!PnC'e and moral attri-

brutai and

or!],., Deily from the ;iuthority of tnen '~ opi11irins,

butPs

;u11I a11ror1g; tii•e 111•ist •·ivifo...,,j 11:1-

Liu:1s uf the ::u1cient~~ \\ho profe~:::ed R s1n1lh:tr crf"'n11, th,,

src:Jl u~c ll!:t_I

Le llla,ic ul a like jH»f'/P"sive cour~e of
:\r:.::u!nt~nL thnn::h lt h~s hi:rn oftrn ovPrlooked.
St)tn1~

ir:1\ ,,

lUtciviilZ'~d;

JJ!Urt~

e1tJi:;Jitc1 1ed 11i!'JJ1i1rT<; of <;<lf·i1·l_y

q•t• lll

t:iil1l'r

(()

;nqy, 1he.
:i~:1in ~ of r.1~ c

!i:1vP n•i»,.t e d 0];,-,!';PthPr, or to h:11'e f'\pl;iinf'ri

l'')i\ll1;ir~ !H_'l:i·t'.

:i:;.::"•. ·d Cur the Lci11~ of a God frn1n the 1111iv1·r,;il,

'r- Lc \f:ilu1 11 H:T:-1!1 n;tricin.-.;'.!

al it:a~l,, :;:cr1eral., consen t of rnankind ; and sorne hnvt~

pr0:;pnt d:1;.. , \\·ho an: crrt;1lnh· rnnrc ;ul\'ancr ·d in r:\'il1-

app caicd l.O the OiJtIIiOIIS of tJie wisest a!lU most r11Jiivate d portion, r(·spec tin~ Loth the cxis!.ence :1nd tl1P rnnrni

7.:tt inn t h~n t ht~ ir Pa~an neiu:liUuurs, 111aiutai11 tl it: unity
;rnrl ilw mor:ii exc.e ll1~rwe of die Deity ; Lut the 11ation~

•:xcdlence of tlie Deity . It G:mnot he denied that tlicr"
;, r1 pn:c;uniptive forr·c in c ;:wh of thr se Ar~11rn1:rlls; liut
lL 1~.1ay Lt.: ;_iiL,, \ l'.l't_:d :liat it i:S •...:01H..:eivalJle, an ~pi nion con1:non to a1rnost ~111 the ::;pPcic·~) inay po~sihly he J.n crrur

"-1f Christendor11~ \vhose notions of the IJivinc goodness

•_Ii

arc rno1T c,alt•:d, arc 11nrleni"hly tlic most ci,-i iizrrl p.1rt

10

resuiting from a constitutional infirmity of the human
mteiiect; that if we are to acq11icsrA in thA heliAf of tlir

rna.iorny,
rrr..-:d of

wP ~h:ili
i I"'

.j
Ii

be lcri to Polythei"m; s11f'li bei11'.'. the
that thou:c)1 morn

;~rt•: tier p:u'l: --- and

~.- • •

ii1 ••

:ir'.: 11t 111·11t in Bnth·r · ~ .'\n:t!0;~_\' t o prnvf> th,• ad\·; 111 1; 1 ~~

\\'li·1· ·li \ ·: r1111' . 1!'1wd:.. , t, r 1ii;~!1t ;, ••

f'\] 11·:· 1t-d t~i

1>l •!iii 11

wo11ld asc ertain , aml appeal to, th e sentiments of Man as
n r:it innn l B0ing;, \Yf' m11~t !'11r0ly look to tliosf' whi ch
not. 01i1.v pr1'\·ail 111(h1 ;1n1n11 ,~ the most ra:i(J;1;tl ;-t11d ('1ilti \ at Pd ~ ln1t to\Y;1rds \'.;hlch ~d s o a progrrssirr tr·n dcnC"y ls

!
..

of the world, am! pu ~:;e~~ , ;:,ellernlly ~peah.ill~, U1t.: lllu~I
cuJLi1 a[1~J ;u1J ill1jlfOl·ed inteilrrtm] poffrrc:. :'\m\· jf \H'

;

fn11nd in men in proportion to their de!?;rces of rationality
lt 110t1ld lie 111<"t 1·, trav a:.:::11 11. lo""\'-

:1:1rl f"l1lti1·:11inn .

\Hls" li1:1t 11i:111 \

a1h:11wc to1'.;1rds a 111orc iu1pro11:d a11J

::~~~

..

~

- ~~~i

':=;
'·; ~-~

~

i~

52

ELEMENTS

or

ll!l ETOIUC.

PART

C11AP.

I.

r. § (;_

or

some seclll to "l'J'Jlll se, lllukc a11_1· t•ssenri:d diiii·1•·11ce in
tlit: 111(lrl1: ol- R ,,:1,;rini11 g ; t'i c refe rc111:c to :1 co 11:1111111 C /:i,s

S G.
I.
l!t

or

l 1 1·i11 .~ :1 h \·;1_\· -.: , it! ~ 1 w l 1 :1 1· :l-..: ( · , 111 11 li· r "- ! !1 n d , d! (ll l '..:.! 1 1 1 ( ' ~ 1·:-,. prt.:::i:;eJ .: fur it is PvirlPnt !11:11 ri1ne ran be no- rc:1S0!1in:;
from one indi1·id11al to a11othf'r, 1111li:"' tlt<'y 1·<Jin r- 111 11 ;,.,
su11iu cu111111011 !-'.f' llll ", a11d arc co11'irlcrcd 111 111:11 i'"i 11 t oC
Vlt~ \\' ;

t• •

.~·

" :\srr0n on1_y 11 a;; dcr,rierl nt its fir~t introd11clJ()11,

as

. ...........,_,:,•.
~

~

~~~~·.
~

~

"

-.-

~·-·

..

'

-

;

Gt:ulugy is likely tu Le
df'cried, &c .

tu r c li L'.; inn :

;tl h ·L· r::::t'

~

~.

2-.
C.·
-.

"'

e 1·Pr1· ~r·i t·nc e 1s likeh· to J," rlr·rri 1·d :1t ih tlr ,t 1:1 twd 11ctir111 , :1" :11hr·1·w to n·li ['. ill11."
'

,

CO:\\"ICTI O :\.

draw an inference from tl1ern respt•1·ting citlier the 11 l1"le
C l:1 :- s, o r o tl1 n , :es:; k11mn1, i1 1Ji1 id1ul-; of ir.
111 ;\r; 111111·11to; of ti1i :; ki11d rlH'11 it 11 ill lw t«n111d , tii :t i,
w1ivcrs0l ly, 11-e ass11rnc as a rn:ijur prc111i ss, tl1:it 11li :1t i,;
t1·11<· (i11 rc·,.:ard to tlw point i11 qu e::; tion) (I C tl11: i11di1 iil11:d
or indi1·iduals 1d1ich we Lrinµ; fon1·ard and a1•11r·;d t" , is
tr11•1 ol rl111 11liulc1 Class to 11liicli tl1 .-_1· lw l1J11;; :i w 111111 " r
pre111i s::; lleXt asserts som e tJii11g of ti1af i11di1·id 11aJ : :u 1.J
the s:t111 e is then i1il«:rrcd 1-cspecri11.t; ti ll'. 1111., Je Ch' s ;
wl1ethn 11·e stop at tl1at g:r- 11 cral 1·onclu-.; in11 , ur r1,,,,. c11d
from then c e to anotllf;r, 1111k11uwn, i11di1 iri11al ; i11 11lii l'i 1
la,;t case, 11 !1i.-l1 is the 111ost usually called th e J\r['.1111w11 t
frorn Example , we i,;enflrall _1· ornit, for rl1c s:1kP ,,r b11 ~ 1-i­
ty, the i11ter11wJiate ,;t1'p, :111d l'" ~ s at onn\ i11 tlie cxp rPs , io11 11! tl w .-\1·; 11111 1'1 1t , fr or n tl 1c; ki1 011·11, t" tl1c 111 1lrnmni, irnl.i.\·id11al.
This dlil'si;; IH111 c\ r·1· d<1t· .s not, :is

exalted state of existence should tend to oLlitera'.e tme
and i1htil 1;d-; e notion" . On tiw co 11rrary we arc a11tlillr1wd to concltide , that tl1ose 11 otiu11s ll'U1dd ill~ most currecr., which men would entertain, whose knowledge, inrdli~ e 11ce, a11d i11tdl cctual cultivation sl1u1dd have reacl1ed comparatively the hi~hest pitch of perfection ; and
that those consequcntlv will approach rli1~ ne:uPst to the
trutl1 whicl1 are entertained more or kss, by various 11ation~ in proportion as they have advanced towards t11is
civilizNI slate.
M:rnv mher inst:rnces might be adduced, in which
truths of the hi;hest importance may be elicited by tlus
process of Ar.!!;ume11tntion ; whirh will enab le 11s to c!t~­
ci de with sufficient probaLility what consequ ence would
ti i\low from an hypothesis which we have 1ie »er experi enced . It mi _glit, not illlproperly, be tcrrned tlie Ar?;urnent from i'ru[!;ressi\"c Approach.

Tile third kind ol Ar:;uments to be considc>rcd, hcin;
the other b:·nnch o:· tLc secuml
tile t \1 o
classes 01 ihi nal ly laiJ d"11 n, 111:1y lw trcat._.d 01·
111Jtin tin~ l:_1·11cr;d 11:u11•~ 111· E\a1111ilc, takir::; tl·at tcrin i;1
its 1nclcst acceptati on, so as to co111prclicllJ tlie .\rt;uments cle~ignntcd hy the vari011~ 11:i1:1Ps of [nd11etinn, Ex 1wric:1cc , ,\!1 : d u~y' i'<i ri ty ur H.c<ts01Ji11g, .\. c . ail of\\ l1icli
are cc; ,;ential ly till:: ~a111e, a.s for as reg:uds the ltn1da1rn·ntal pri11ci1iks I ~1m 11crc trc·arini; ol'; tiir in all thr: .'\rg11l:1tcllb desisnatcd Ly these na11w·;, it will be found, that
we cons:Jc:r one or more, known, imli\·idual 0!1jccts or
i11.-;t a1ll'C ', 1i1· :1 f' 1'rt:1 i1J Ch " , "' !":1ir s11cc1111r11s , 111 re·;11111·t
11 1· '" :11c i'"i"t ,, ,. utl1• 'r, ,Ji· tktt c l 1" "; :ind 1 · 0 11~r:'l 11 e utly

l

..

IL

.

•

...

OF IUILTOHIC .

E;.1;~n:vr~;

Ed

I' uu I.

Tl1i' Li11d ,i1· l·: :-;:111qil1•, 1!11•p ·(·,,n·. :i]' l"'aro< 10 l"· a 1·rn11\ ; ~11:1ii'~li,

J1111111d

'i 1 1 1:--: , ~t11!;

(le

l \\\)

·.:r-~ n i: : .. 1 '. i:t11t1 r:" il "< ; y~: .~ ::-if.~r

W:! " !l

, i11l 1\ 11 11_ll i\':"

1i·: n1
1

~

kn ei v:n E:icct

:l

1 ' 1' 1

ii

I

j)

opPr ~ni n ;:

d i ll:

j ! •]',

:J..

ry~

I l'. ) -

''· S·

\\.'C 111 ;1v froi!i

th;.~ 1: :a r k:-; of J) i vi ~ H-·

lwnt·\'tilt-"tit't"

\\'( 111 i (i

hr--n1i·'.:; t ·\t.' ito h;; d

(

11(1t

c:i1wl11:-:iun

in

11 \(l/I\ .

t/ll'fi:

:::ccui::; lo L~ in l.'.\CL~r\ l>~an171!1~ ~

:1 rF)~ :r P.n1:r. !u

s<>11111 C:11h1', tl1u11c:,l1 1!1 a' C::t1I'-' " 111:1y fr,_'<.jU'_'lltly }y; w1-

e. ~·

\\.\ iti1d

:tllu\\·:dili:

li e

()r

r1ndi;i\ 1\ (_'

;r

t'\'l' Il

01H~ 11i:-;t:u w c,
lHJt

!()lid.Pr

th •:

p1'i'111isr ."·

fr,liil

~ , i:--

i · · 11t1 111 1,t1 ! \ ·

c1~'. ; ior: ;

common

U3",

a::Hl is th11~i

from E xnmplr> .

iiH~ ;.1 p!ilicHtinn Wt-' rt"! 111Hd H lo H111dl"_. r

ii.

l:

'r ( Jl; r ( J \\

as to the ir
dtl!H~

<!)

~

d (!\' l J( I: t, ! ! 1:lf
1h1":i:

i:'

is n0 t

11:tn1 re, a
"'' 11'1i:\

i

"" : .~ l

r" :: I j( 11 i: 1i:11-..,

-t ·

i l;i :..;
l

j ~·

that tl!C':-· ha\·c fo rni c r!y

L\l ·'· ri 1·1:;

1·, \ \ 1' 1· ,H H. h i1l1

<ll 1\(' It j H ' !I« l 1ll ' 11( l! I

1

111 -

,

l] (. «! l 1 i: )l !!' .

\\ 1

1·..: !_'.:1·1 H·r; ilJ \·

1·: ::;1i< 1., -t·d

i 11

:lie

l

\\ i 1: il

c:::cr:t~::...l:

· •'X:j•• •r1 1111·11t , 1·a1 r h

:i

:di<•l\l'd

!•l

1)1' !"<>II' lii.' in·,

(r 111 11 l li: tL lu \\l 1i( 11 i1

\Yr-ndd he -=: :-1i1l

f(1

i:-,

:11i11li i·d

1zn<n\· Ii \· f>'-Ii"rir·rF·

nu.\.iuu:::; e1Tcct~ uf a ccrlau1 Jrus on the

bulii;Jii co!L'-:i.HU -

tiuu, if la.: had fn;tiuent1y seen 1nen po isoned by

I;~,- ., 1:w t111i1·l t• "r~\j l (' JJ!' lll't~··

:i 11d 1" :1rl" i.1iily
!n·l":lll>C

11 ;11r 1' r• _'J l 1(1 t 1_'

r!~ :~.-:ie i nn

f.<>«" J1'.

I11:1il · •

i \

rrJi(· \\·u r d .\ iuLi'...'.,\- :1 :.~ ;:i11

i11divid11al ,

since \\·hcrhcr the inference
be rnn.,ie fron1 onP. insi.anct-=: or frorn sr~v ~1-«l ~ 1t ,, Ptprnlly
c all e d an Induction , if a ge11en..J conciusion be legitirnateiy drawn .
And this 1s to be det e rmin ed by the
l!dl11r 1· o( i lw 'HLj· ·c! -111;t; :1·r.
T11 !111• i H \ · i : ~1. i~ati1_ru vi' Ll1e

Lill'' ,,,·

Il

I•:xp~ri e n c. c~

0\'.·11

.::11 !

t ': t:tT-': t

!lD\YC'\· c r ~

1k 'i"':1k-

E :rpcricncc that th e tid es have daily eb bed ;rnd Ho 1';cd ,

rn

ThPrP i;; :doo thi s addi-

uon in thf' sin~nhr m1 mi•er; whilf' f':wh rnw ,-,f

i:: :1[1;111 -

Hi'~l il'.

tb.·

!1\ ·

)" J l1l\\
I'{ ! 1) i I( 1

1irn1:1l di1Ti · rP11<:•~, tl1:it wl,.·11 w1· iir:ill' :1 ;~1 ·1 w1· :i1 ,·111w!u-

case..; ,

11

!~il'

l -.:;:,ur fj L'f::: . ~

\-\-!1f 1· l1 \-H-"'

<\ J· 11

r.. ont r:1di ::;t in:::u:~h ci rl)

t \ · (·11

j ' , •'f•'i1·

./~_ r2:Ui.ileH~s ;is Z)tuµ _.burl :JL tlit-~ 5t:-11t:1·rtl. cuti "'

1nduc:uon.

t!Jt ~ <·1 · rL1irity ~ (1r

~ir i ,
Ji I.~,, \\I '

:t; 11 1iil·1 ! f,J

1:rc1 r;l

i "'''l'jlf·r .

l~~xppri'-'nee 1 in its 0ng inai c:nd prc1per ::e:r:::e ;
c;lldc io

::)('i(')l('I' .

:i·i l

f'l)JH'hFFJn.

;1 11

!IJ(i\'

cr1 in r· i d i n~

Jii ;ttl \ '

lli1· ;t<~; 1 ....:-.., ·11i:1ti1111 <d

11r1i:1:ti1 il :ty , uf a JjL._,_. LLl t~ ;.iLL1_'1h.:i1 J ~ illl

irnown ; f'. r:: . l'.'C SllI'f'0 'C , in the ln':!::tnCC abO\'l' f;!\'Cl1,
1h<1t tnere is some Cause, thou;:::h we m~y be at a loss to
a~ _. .; ;:;n ir, \d1if_·h le~tb !!H'.!I ~1~1u~r:dh· tc. dr _~rT\' a r'!f!\\'
'f~hr Tf" 1T1 ~~ f rir:1,i

u11i, · cr~:ill_\- , ;;nil \1.i·l1

us fn colk·( ·t

\\'~tl'r:111L

tU

irt:-.:l:tlt1·t •:-:

11 i ,·:;i ]...;

t'd. tlil: ciJ" 1'l lfll '-- L'.rl<' ~'.") r l1tH

:tiii•t·! !l it.:; rc~:tlt,

h 11!

~1 -- · : i~·': <:

iii

bu! \\utdd d r: t\\ 1l: ··

"']Jt'('JJ!l('ll.-.;)

c on1·cr n111:.: tl:iJ '-I C

n ~~1 l t'T ll!l .'..:C

t;.1i111y

:"t"~ei-· n:-r fn (· C~)

c:..t pi.iLfl:: L) uf cu1 11 L 111LL.:. \\ LL l J. ~l'LL1iii11 k it 1H · 1·1 •< -.:.;tn· i_1) in· th·· ~<t r1 ! 1' ''"- i

\\·ith ~c··, · r~rtil (>t iwr

11 11'ilt

l·: :iLTl, \r C tLcn u111tc in 1l1is c_\a11 qil c, till~ ~u·.~: 11u 1 :_.~ 1L Lu.i.11 E: i~ '.ct to (~;ui:-:i.c ~ :u~ d i l i~ti CriHll C ;11 1::-e lii F1i:·.1·1 ,
!d 11 1\\-i1

:-1

ur ~ u l1J~ i:. ::;

.:::t _l l_' !__'.lLi l_' ~ i_

\\" (!

L-

I ll

t iw /\p)W!l!ltx

ti )

ti. ;

Lt.it

ti w Tn ·:it ;Sf'(Jrl

I

\

!i6

ELF;MENTS OF RH

~;TOIUC.

l'AfiT

I

if he thence c onjec tured that it would be noxious to some
other sp8c ies
a11i111al, lie would be said to n ;ason from
analogy ; tl1e only difference IJcin:.; ti1at the
resemblance is less, betwee n a 1n<u1 and a lm1tc,
than between one man and another ; and accordingly it
is fo und that many brntes arc not acted up on by smae
dru~.s 1d1ich arc pernic ious to man.
But more strictly
speakinr;, Analo~y ou~ht to be distin gui shed from direct
resem~Jiance, with whic h it is ofte n confounded in the
Lrng;uag;e even of e min en t ll'riters ( csl'ec ially ou Cl1emistry and Natural History) in the present day. Analogy
bei1i.g a "resemblance of ratios , " * that should strictJy be
called an Aq!;umcnt from Analop;y , in which the two
thiw"s (viz . the one from which, and the one to which,
we arp;ue) are not themselves alike , bu t stand in similar
relations lo some other things ; or , in other word s, tli<il
tlic co11 1mon .i;en11s wl1icl 1 1l11 :y hotli fall und er, crn1sis1s
in a relation. Thus a1 1 l'Sf!: and a ;oeed are 110! in il1 c111 selves alik e, hu t l1car a li!;i' n ; 1·1111l!1 10 111<~ 1•a1· 1~1 11 hi1·d
and to her f11tu rc nestli11g, 011 tlie 011e h<md, :u1J to 1lie
old anti young plant on the othe r, rcs p1 Ttively ; tl1i s rc lt1tion being the ge nus wliic I; l.otli f;ill 1111d1·r <11 1d 111;111y
Argume nts might be drvwn from this Analogy. Again,
the fact tk:t from birth di fferen t pe rsons h:-n·c different
1.JOdily co11 st'1tu tio11s, i11 respec t of comple.:-;. io11, stature,
strength, shape , liability to partic ular di sorders, &c.
whi ch c onstitutions, however, are capable of be ing, to a
certain degree, modifie d Ly regimen, medicine, &c.
a ffo rds an analogy by which we may form a presumption,
that the like takes place in respect of mental qualities

C 11 H. II

or

~ (j .

or

S7

\'UX\'J\ 'TH>:"

also; thou gh it 1s plain dial the re can be no direct rese111blanc" ei1l1e r l1e111·cr:11 \1uc~i ;111d 111ind, or tl1c·i r l'l''l"''"tin~ attrilrntes.
In this ki11d pf .\rg11 111 c11t 1 one error, 11l1irl1 is 1·1-.:<
1·0111111011, and 11lii(' li is to he sedulously avoid l:d, is tl1:' t ,if
<'011r·.111di11 ~ tl1 e thing s i11 quest ion t o he 11/ikr, l1cc:11h<'
they arc .·ln11/11gn11s;-to resc111Llc each otl1L·r i11 tlw1:<selves, \10ca11sc there is a resemblance in t!if' r<' bt io11
tlit')' ll1' <1r ID 1·crtai11 otli1•r tli i11 µ;s; 11 liicli is 111:111ik·<tly a
t;ro imcllcss i11 fL~rn ncc . ;\11otlwr (' a11 til1l1 i,; applic;ilJk to
the wl1ole class ot ..\ rg;urnc nts fro1.1 E":u1 1l'le; viz. 1111t
to con sider the B.cscmlibnce or :\11:tll)µ;_I' to e"t.:11 d fmtJ1er (i. c. to more particulars) than it 1\<Jes . Tl1c ri ·~c111l il ;uir-c
a pil"lmc to tl1c oliject it n·11rcsc111.;, ;, direct ; hut it e"te11<b 11u further tku1 tl 1c (11JC sc11oi: uC :'1 :L·i11 g; is conce rn e d. Jn tl1c Par<d J]t; o! tl1c u11j11,.;t :'(1•\1:11il ,
;111 Arµ;1 11n c11t i,; dra11·n fru111 An :dt1.c:.1·, t<J n•c ·o1111111·1 1d
prcid 1,n1· rc :111d C"rcsic-:lit tn Cliris1ia11s i11 'pirilt1<1l C1J!1CL"rll : ;
1J11t it 1n11ild lie ;il1smd to co11cl11d c tl1<1I Craud 1t·:1s 1·1.,-orn1nc11rkd to om irnitatiun; a.ll d yet 111is'.:1kc:s Yt;ry :;i111ilar to such a perversio n of th::it A r ~11rn cn t ;1r1 1 li1· 110

or

Ji.••

' nc .....ns rare.'** "'rhn~, h Pr,am:;e a j n ~t A na~ ngy h as hrr n di sr:r r nf'rl h r t\'1,.-.... rn 1' h.•
m e tropolis ofa r,ou ntry , nnrl the hl'n rt ofth1> onima l hndv, it lu " '"' rn
HO Ji H.: tinw~ c0 11tc1111Pd that it:3 incri'a:-irJ sizt• i s a di:·wa:-:f',-- tltat it rn:1y
impeJe some of its most i1nportant fun ctions, or eve n OP the ca u ~e 1Jf
its di sso lut:on." S ee Copleston's Inquiry into the Doctrines of X ecessity nnd I'r edestination , nntf' to Di ~c:. i ;i. '1- v. fnr a i,Try ahlf' di~ ­
St"r ta.tinn on the F1nhjPr:t of

An1tlorry~

in the

court.0~

1) f

an

anal_y !-! i~

of

Dt . King' s Discourse on I'redestina..lion . (S'-' t' ;\ppr 11d i\ i H.j,) In
the prl'filt't ' to the Lt~ t editi on (1f th a t nt~r n nr :-;f" I h ll \'i-> r.ff;·:Pd ~"lite
;1dd i1i(1ni1\ r1·ri1:n ki-; 011 t!w ~ul1j1 · ct; and I l1a\'1· :1 ~ai:1 :u! •:1·rt 1· d 111 it
(1· l1i1·rl_v inn 1i\_v to s11 1111· p11p 11l:tr 11hj1 .. 1· ti •rr:-.: t·1 l> r . "' in·! I tn tlw ll 1:-' -

,,

J'l,J:\11~\TC:

S m111 d
f rn [M"i rtr\nt.

a 11.J

1111111 q 111r

l<tHl Ht·t<t•H1 -

hh111 ··:-; and

d1 rfr rcn ccs

1wnt

<W Jtlll:T11Jll\'

;ind Yi~iLu1t

(':t1111011

f'.-\HT

:ire

n<)

\\hfTC

wore calicd for ti1a11 i11 <>L,;u1 in!.( 11 hat di11l-rer1<'CS (11<·1·ii:qi,; SC (' l11i11.c:;ly ,',IJl:ilij dt1, :u1d 11l1at do
not, 111illi1:,. tl1c ;rnalo.~y ill:t11cc·1 1 two cases.

:\ml rite ~<u11e 111:1y lie s<:1d i11 rc~ard to 1/1c
applicabiLiy of l' rec"d1'!1 is, or :wlrn\111 l1 ·d;::1"! lJccisiuns
ul·

;u1y ki 11d, St1« i1 a,; :-inipt111·1·-jlr<'""J'I', c\.!'.; ail 1>!' 11·i1i l' li

indeed arc, in their co;se11ce, of the n:ttll!'c of J>.,:unplc:
since every recorded dcdaration, e. ~- of :.idm:ttcd au t/1ori1y or i11j111wtion, 111ay he re~ardt-'d (in r·o rmcxion 1rith

the persons to wliorn, and the oc·c:1c: 1on

11·h il'h, it 11-.1•;

caocc; .

tilt•

lllay rcaso.i to anv other p<Lrlll!d (':1"~: ar id tl11:

tliL'i'(' ;1r1 :

lll!lll\'

to 11!1"111, a11d tu 11iia1, it
s;ud1 a S!'t ' 1111n'.:.'.:h· ::-:nL1 i l (
a11;i ](i :_':\· _ ;111 ( !

111) ·: 1'

JS

a;111lic11/1!I'.

1rc 1111i:...;;;in1·1·

a

11r1 r•1•1l 1· 11t
1

\\ !]!

F"r, :1 ' I /1;11·1·
(1(r1' Jl

--1 1r 1·i·1 ·j •f,

( !1''d r,1y

~<· . - -

a11 d

::-L ~,:; nol nt

a1l \\t:\..:.ke.u

spet;t vf t11e w·~u1nent in h:1nd .

ilit

wLilu;..:.,y iu rt>

And rhos there is a

tLrn~tT but!i of nei11: rn i-- lc·,l !i\· '-' ] H't' j( Jlh ;1r~· 111r1~ ' 11h n(

this rlr'.'cri1itin11, 1,Jiirl1 l1<1\' 1' n0 rr·:rl Jllrc·P, :ind ;rl,r1 of'
bci n~ Sf;J("("l'rl"O h\· rJ:i11 <ihl0 nh_irf'linnc :Jcc:iin c t sw/1

t'\-

ampies or appeals to authori tr, &c. as are nerfectlv valid. - Hence Ari s totle o lJserv~s, that an op~onent, . if he
c:anno t ;-.hew tlial tlic 111ajurity of instan ces is on hi,; sidf!,
or that thn'fo adduced by his ad\•ers:U'y an~ in:ipplic:ihle,

1·(J;1 L

l·uri1,

(' l l 11 l:S l ;tJ)t. ( '. l ()

1> !. '._'~1i\d

t\':

v.-i1ii·lt

<ii' 1·oir1, lJ t ·i1 1 ~ ,·,:ry ~ r1• ; 1!.

i lll!' j)(L·-1' '-i

,m~·:i

2\{J\\'

pni11h uC lT 'L'l l1l <l:11l<'C', :111d 11 1:r1 11· ,,f

d i1i ~:n ~ 11ty 1 ln:t "' c'<:11 ti"; prr·1 ·1r111:i 1r 1c1:1l.-; r.11 I ]'" <Jill' li:i1 11 I,

jlf'/li/ .'

c~h i ' .-~ )

cac l1 11:1y, !.1· 11<1L t•,1 1111;,111 1.c:.

111

L. ;::, It 11·mrld In• ad1r11ttcd tl1:1t a ,;::r1·:1t a11d
pcr1n:111t·11t di111i11:1tiu11 in tlic ri11:111 111y ol' ,; 1111"" li '• 1'111
cc1111110dr1_1', _,1wii <F ('llf'll 1 ur cuzil 1 or iron, tl1ru11:::li uL1 L ii,.·
,,-urid, \\1i11L l Lt~ a :)i ri iJ llS and Lt-.:ri11:!" lo~s; a 11d ll1:tl 11
t!ic: li1 ·:d, ;i1rd 1111J 1C.i yi c! dt'd rec:;11 Lir ly du11lil.: q11:111til11
11·ii11 tlH· :c: 111 1c l:tl1011r, 11c c; /iuuld Le s o n111cl1 tl1c riciil'r:
l1c1 1cc it 111i ;lit Le i11:·crrcci, tiiat if' tli c q11:111tit:' ul i:;old
a11d :ciilc·r i11 tlH· \1·orlil 11·•'1"' di111i11i,/wd ni11 : l1:ilf, or 111· n:
d1J11lilt·d, Jii;c ]'i' ' l ilh 11011/d r" 11 ,l\I'; the 11 1ii i1_,.. 1> \. ilw,1:
ll\'O

1ne1al~, l°P r

:is

•j•l<'sl1"r1 11 iiicli 11 c rn1 1s t be ca rci1il i11 dt~1·idi11'' will hr·,

tlw

\Lu11' ;u·c 1rri, Ji.,I,

a1·i;::lit thr: dr:;::n:c , a!ld rl 1c kind . of di!i(Tcncc lict111·1·11

;1 !:1101rn cw·c; i'rurr1 11 lii1~/1 1:nr1s1•111rr'rr:ly

<kli1·<·rr•d )
II'<;

011

·11\ \Ii' I i ll\

<J}·

J

Hi ld

11 11

&1·. 1ll l

l ! lt '

tht·

:-- : I ) 1[ J( ,-..,1 ; 1

_...;j/\ t' t'

(;1 -.:

(1t1H

1

r : 11tll tl1c 1-111;11,r!dnt

;! 1·.:_: 11 / 1l,~J Ii i ! ..;

!

('(Ji l l,

\\ ! 1i(

)1

~ t l 1:t i 1: ii'

i< f:tr

1111•

i!.

Ud.lll~ tl l 11 1~l11 :

1/ i'-

('li i t

tlrcir 1·11/ur, 11 l1ic ·lr ic; l'l''..'.,lfLll1•d l1y ilr1· 1r

\\-lll'r1' : l:-i

1·i1 -

I ii I/ I/ ."J

·;i :,

1-

{' (':·11 ;111d (' u;il \\t·1·1' 11·11 t1 1111· -.: 11 1, 1i-i · ;1L 11 11-

11:·

ci1i1i · r

\\-lll lLl

--:.ttl l

lH'.

;i;;

\J >,t 'i.!il

:!

l1 t J\\ .

But if L11ere \Vere tw lce a:-:i niu,_· 11 g,,ld !n 1.11.:: ,\ ,-,! ~d ; ! ..;
tli(·rt~ f:-;) ;t ~0\'1 rl·i:.·,11 \V(rttl d L1 • l\V!t 1--:' a:-; l: t n.~ t' ; Jr ,,~ t! _v
liaJt' as 1111 lf'li, it 11»11ild Le uf 1i11: ,;i'/.C ol a l1alf-"l1·r·rc·1;::1 r
and d1 is (he'.-'id1·"' dn-• 1rill ir 1:_: cin·u1tJ-.:frttH 'e o f !lu-~ 1' ht"":-q1 ness or dearness of gold-ornaments) wouid be aiJ tiie dij:.
ference . The analogy therefore faiis iu the point es;;ential to the ar;2:Hfl1t'.":nL
Ae::·11n ; l h~ A posd~ Paul rp,connnends to tlie L~orind:: ­

' -~<\(' ~;~~
_ rr-: --- ~ ----,

- --.--- .-

-- ~

0

: 1ih

l'l')i\);11 ·;- ; 1-.;

!"fl:t!1!$lS ..
f<i•r l:tlt!)fl

J~ogiP..

"fl

t '.h

tlw 11r•>\'l ll ,'" H1'i1"r•n111;r. ~1il1J"l l!l'd ~o t!u~
v ~ I p ?.<l

E lt'llll'llfH uf

r\' : ~ i){'(·t

ll J'('\ t' l·;dJlt•

JrJ

J!) ; ! IT!:JsP:

]wJH'I '

J!11•

ana. o thers .. have inferred that t.hi ~ 11')1'-b

()r

:-di

Cl1ri,<i:i11~.

pninl<, Ciiri- ti an"

nr

\"( ;\\-

i11 1n;_1 n \ · 111o s t

1\ 1<> ]Wf'"i'nt dnv

;))'P

n1f -

;..(f_HJd

H!

i 1)1 ;l(lrt;1: 1t

in ThP

~:llllf)

h~?~:$! :.' ,;

:~-J¢i?2:82;
~:' .·~i··:.:I~

tt'f!~~,:~

60

ELF,MF:NTS OF' lt!IE'T'UltlC

I' ,\HT I.

conditio11 a~ the Corintl1i:u1,; ; b11l lhry were lialdc to plur1-

~

' ;.

dcr, .(;)Xile, and many kinds of hitter persec utions from

lilt' p:1,1 1 :1d111ils il1at tlie ;1spl'd u( 11•il1ti1·:tl li': ::1':" ·1i .. 11,
\1 ii! >ary frollJ ti111e to ti111e i11 tl1eir partit·1d:1r f1,r11" ;111il

their fellow -ci tizens, and it appears that this \ras the

C\tern<J cliaract c r , :is \\'(:II as in tlie drgrr:rs i11 11 l1it·h 1111:

very ground on w'.-iich celibacy was recommended to

operation of c;ich prin('iple will, on ditif·r('!lt O('(':t'i''" ' ·

them, as exempting; them from man:• afrlict ions :md tcrnpl;rtiuns which in such troublo11s tillH's n fa111ih- \\<J11ld

111: di,pL1ycd;' h11t li1: cu11t1'mb 1 that "as lon2: n.<· li11 -

<'ntail; since, as Bncon oh.-;crvc:.:, "J le 111:11 li:1tli :1 11 if,~
a11d c liddrc11 hath t:;ivcn plcd:::.-~s to Fort11nc." Nn\\' it i'
not, I.Jc it ohser\'cd, on th e intrinsic impnrtancc 11f this
dJticn'ncc between them nnrl us rhnt tlw q"""tinn turns:
L11t on its i1npun:u1cc i11 n;f1·n·1wc '" ti11: ;uh it"C .c .in'll.
011 Ll1e utl1cr hand , suppn.sc any one !ind , at rlw npPn;n~ of tlic French Bcvnlutinn, nr nt ;iny <irnil:tr N·11j1111rt11r1•1 L' XJH'l'"'('rl :1;1prcl1t'1i,;ic111c;, .l~/Cll1:1il"d 011 :i rc1 i.- ·11· nf
li:stor;-, of th e iLlilC::Cl' of anarcl1\·, L!""d sl""d , .J, .,l l'll!'tion
rll' social order, f(f'11eral corru1J1i1•n pf 11111ral"., rn1d rlw lont::
1r;1i11 11f horror~ ~o vivid]\' d1")i('1{·rl I)\· 'rh11f·,·did,--· c;. ;-1<:; rC'.
l
.
l: 11,111 '~ l·i.! l J11 ('J'. i; di.--~ ·. 1rd, !' "] wr·1:d l.'· 111 lii-.: :H· (· o1111r 1i! . tl lt'
.'Td !llt !!l ~l! Lor1· _\ -r:t; it 111i:..:-l1t /1;n·1 • 111':'11 :n1~\\ · 1·rf•rl, t!1;1t
t!i l~ Cc.arnple dot's 1101 :1 i'pk 1 iJf'f':i11st' tl1t•r1~ is a .l.'.1 •':11 dii(,·1·•·1wc lwt11c,·11 tli(' C1Tr·b i11 tl1t" ii111c ,i1· Tlt1;nclid1•s,
:u1d the 11;1tions of 111 r_H_lnn Europt'. i\lany nnd .n(':1t 1 no

a: ·

Ii

( ·, r _\ r.

1Pi ghr he enurne1·atcd :
the ;rnri.ent Greeks had not th e use o f lire-arms , nor of
1lie rn;irin c r's co mpass ; they \1en· slr:in!.' /'rs 10 du• :irr of
rrint!n~ ; their ::r!s of Yrar nnd of n~H-i!.Ultinn .. find thP.ir
lit0rnture, were m:i.tf!rially influ enced by these dilTerencrs: they kul tl"1111»ti1· 'd:tH'.s; rlw:· 11·1·r" i11f'1·ri11r to 11s
i:1 lll:1:iy 1r1;mu!':ict11rcs; they ex cel led us i11 sc ulpture. &e.
. .'..:.r.
ThP hi~tori~n hi1 n~elC "·bde profcssint! to leave a
l~·~:-t< ·y nf in-.:tnwti()n fr,r

!'ir:11r1 ·

:1:· 1\1;

: 1:_::1'~

_.

·1

111r'

1 \:11111 ·lt' .-.:

·!

11um 1wl1ire

rc111a i 11s Ilic same," like f':1ti cC'.' 11 ill r·n1111• 111

1il:1y, ;111d prorltll'C 1 s1il1sta111i:iliy 1 li l-1· cll(·c ts.
111 Corl'yr:1 1 a11d afi.cr\\·;m/s i11 u1J11·r uf 1)11~ (;,·,·1·, :1 11

I•>

sr:itcs , sucli c11orllliti es 1 he s:1ys 1 \1·cre perpe11·a1rd :is
11ere the 1wl'l11·al rcsnll - ul' pi1ilt"'S npj'l'"" '"11, :>1111 111()rJi1ia1~· tliir:-:l for JT\.t.'ll~t' llll t l ll' ()pp rt' ~..:i r r :-- ;- - 11\. a

cravin)!; dc ~ irc ~ in so1nc, to t;et fref' frn111 :l11'ir f(ir1111'1 ;1( ·.,·cny, and still 111ore, i11 others, 10 l.'.r:11il·\. tl1<·ir :i1:1ri1·1· L·:
1111,i11,t ·'l"di:11io11 ;-:111d of tl1e 1T11111\·;il of [1·c.:il r1 "-' lr:1i: ::,
Cr<>rr1 ''the n:trural (·liara('ter of J1i:u1, ' ' ( /1 1 ~ J ' \ ' ' ' ' 11 1' ( 'I"''!
11liicli 1 i11 cu1i:;cq11c111·(·, "e:1[.'.rl'ly di,11l:t_1·1·d it-;i· ]( "' 1.. ,,
11·e:1k f~ll' i' ~"si•111 1 1n() ,;tr•111sJiirjusti\'l' 1 :1111 1 l11i.,1i l1· t1> 1''."r_v

:\1) \\. tiH_' qtw _-:;ti t1 r1, in111111·/unl lo 1/u' ut ·:._: 1i -

>lijhTJ(ir. i

1J1c11l, is, :\re the iii1i;.,.,.,H't:o lll't111'1·11 tl11· <1111"i1 ·111 ( ;,,. ,
:111d 111ud1'1'11 11:11i1111s 1 11f olll'li :1 1·h:1r:w11·r

1·\'111:1rks 11!' T!11 11 ydid1·s, :111d tl11· t'\:111111\,.

• r,,..,i,uoa.. i"l.,, 11.ui

a.,;

•utf'na., t""~ ;,.., ·11 ,\-fTII •_I,1-}:IS a.,r:et..1,,,.(1.''

,u.'.iA;a. o, b!, x.ad ;,tTvxa.f,,.,ea, xtx) 'TO'!; ,73.,, bmAAa:y,uha.,

4'J

F,,

a~, t'\:c. B. iii.

§ 82.

+

1

E,

~· oJ, T~ Kie-"'-~e~ r«. KoAA.1

p1v Q:.~:i:;i?µi '"'

rr0

«VrrZ,

'lr~Ol'TOAµ~l1'1, Xl'7.; ;,.,,;,ITl7, ;.;p.~u

wA,,,v ~ tT~ fe otTiJv-,, LJ11'"~ T~v 'T~v rriµ.we;·u., 'T~~a.O',t otrwt, o;

~1-:-a.µ.~.1v~µ!1~1 ~(J o'!1!ti' · ":'!"tr:a:.; ~£ -:-r.; iI:...i#v::.:.; .i7..:t/,.i• .:x.;1 :av-:-i; 7,~&•. u.dA. a·r .-.

.. "°

~

•

;vwraea:.:tli~nos

Y~.UC..-J' Xf!.t;t.·TY:t!a~cx.

~

'Tl

ToCi ;;;11111 i; <rOr ;ca.1eOr -TaV-r.:r, ·T~

T;A i;,

x.al

or .....

ci:Y)~w'1'"E :~ tf'~!if { , !:wd!.i;::t r.a.~ ':"'!"'.::r.; .~ T.~:;,: w.<u:;:-; ;i:},.":¥,

'

n:,::_rx ,

J!:~t • 'lrT~r

-'

~
1) 1 :-o:.;

)1>; '1,;:;,

~;)

'

1µ,r.r:.

.:i

ELEMENT::> OF lllf E'l'OIUC.

•"

I

pected) merely such as to alter the external shape (,;«Jo;)
of the transactions springing from similar human passions?
Surely no mere external differences in customs, or in the
arts of life, between the ancient Greeks and the French
(our supposed disputant might have urged) can produce
an essential and Jundamental diflcrence of results from
any c ivi l commotio ll : for this, some ne w vital principle
of Ac tion must be introd uced and estuLlished in the
heart ; - something capable of over-ruling ( ~ Ct. v[fl.!omelu
,,.,,.,,,,) man's natural character.
"As Ion"' as thi s re.

, I

l'All'J'

'

0

mams the same, ' (€"'' 1) utin) f, , as the historian himself
remarks,) subs tantially the same res.ults may be looked for.
Again, to take an instance from another class of Political affairs; the manufacture of beet-sugar in France, instead of importing West-Indian sugar at a fourth of the
pri ce, and the prohibition, by the Americans, of British
manufactures, in order to encoura.,.e home-1iroduc tion
0
'
~i . e. the manufacture of inferior articles at a much higher
cost,) &c. are reprobated as unwise by some politicians,
from the analogy of what takes place in private life ; in
"hich every man of common prudence prefers buying
wherever he can get them cheapest and best, many commodities whi c h he could make at home , but of inferior
q11ality, and at a greater expense; and confines his own
labour to tl1at department in whic h he find s he can
labour to the best advantage. To this it is replied, that
there is a great diffe rence between a Nation and an Individual. And so the re is in many circumstances : a little
parcel of sugar or cloth from a shop, is consid erably different from a ship-load of either; and again, a Nation is
an oLject more important, and which fills the mind with a
grander id ea, than a private individual ; it is also a more

Cu...-. JI.

~

G.

OF CONVICTION.

complex and artificial Being; and of indefinite duration
of existence ; and moreover, the transac tions of each m:m,
as far as be is left free, are regulated by the very person
who is to be a gainer or loser by each, - the individual
himself; who, though his vigilance is sharpened hy int er est, and his ju<lgrnent Ly exercise in his own departrne1 1t,
may yet chance to be a man of confined education, possessed of no general principles, and not pre te nding to be
versed in philosophical theories ; whereas the affairs of
a State arc regulated by a Congress, ChambP,r of Deputi es, &c. consisting perhaps of men of extensive reading
and speculative minds. Many other striking differences
might be enumerated : but the question important to the
ar~ument, is, does the expediency, in private life, of obtai11in0 eac h commodity at the least cost, and of the best
quality we can, depend on any of the circ umstances in
whic h an individual diffe rs from a cornmw1ity?
These instances may suffice to illustrate the importance
of conside ring attentively ,in each ca5e, not, what differences or resemblances are intrinsically the greates t, hut,
what are those that do, or that do not, affec t the an;11ment. Those who do not fix their minds steadily on this
question, when arguments of this class arc employed,
will often be misled in their own reasonings , and may
easily be deceived by a skilful sophist.
The argument from Contraries, (i.; lvun1wv,) noticed
by Aristotle, falls under the class I am now
Argument~
treatinO'b of.) as it is r)lain that Contraries must from
Cont ra ·
Tlt'S.
hav e something in common ; and it is so far
forth only as they agree, that they are th11s employed 111
Ar?;urnent. Two tliini;S are called "Contrary," which,
coming under the same class, are the most dissimilar in

\
,<

iO

l':LE:'IJEi\TS 01' f\llLT<llUC

Of the varinus uses , an 1l

J>

:\HT

tl1r·. 1·1",11 n_ 1- ;1 pp:1re11t rci1Jia1·

;11:-;111li<'lllc 111''<' di1 ir.kd; (1 ;,__ by those fr11111 Cause to

LflllL·t, ) 1l1t; l)ilwr, liy ilie Litter.
To 11 Ji;1tcn~r class, l11rncvcr, the Arguments \1·e resurt
to may !1cJ1 >ti'.::, tJie )C:•' nCraJ tCllOl'f of the reason in:; wiJJ,
111 1111111:; n'"i '"' t-.c, ];,, 111i(~ct"d Ly tl1c J'l'l''"'lt e1111c,iJerati1Jn . Tlic dio;tincti11 11 in q1 1cstion is ncYertltl'less in scn('['Jll littiL: attl'nded to. It is 11s1ial to call a11 Ars11rncnt,
o;i111jll_\', s/ro11g or weak, without rd'ercrwc ti) tlie )"ll"J'I)"''
1;ll. 11·i 1i1 ], it is dl'ci~111:d; >1lwrr:a.s tl1c Arg:111ue11 t-; 11!J,.·li
nll;irJ tlic most sutis)~iclion to a «andid 111i11d, arc often
,;11cl1 ;E 11nuld kin: J,•,,; 11ei :.; itt in cnJJtrol'cny tl1<111 1:Jn11y
(lti1t:rs, 11liic·h :1r;;1i11 \\"(JlJld Le !t•s:; si1;ul1k Cnr 1!11· l~1rnl<'r
pmpose."

<if·

l'itilt'r din·ct, <: !" ;rn;1lll:-;i1·al, is i111rorl11ccd r()J- llihl'r jlllr·
'iz. 1111! (fl Jirrn·r ;11Jy thi11:~ , L11t 1·itl11 ·r t11 ill11 :; rr;ttc ;u ui f'.rp!ein o n e'~ IJH':11i1r1:__: . ( \\ liwl1 i."-' tlit' ~rri~·t c1v111olug:i1-.d 11:.;i, ,,r tl 11• 11·ord IJJustratiC1 11 ,) or t o ;11m 1:.; c ti1e
Cu1cy 111· ClJ"ll:illJ('I!(
i:rn:.cua _:c:e . It i:.; of ('()IJrC(' lllflst \11 1bo1h in 011r 01.,·11 c"111111lsi1il)11:i a 11 ti
]10rta11l l" di:-;r·
those of oli1ers, ;,..,!ween rhe5e ditforent purpose;::. i .shall
~rrornin!!;h' :irln:rt to this :illl-i_jrct in tl1" cnm:-;r nf die

or

"_-:p;-~

·"'

71

CU:\\ !CTI U'i

tion~ nf E'\ampl_cs, ( as 1n·ll as of fltl1N An'.11111 1• 11 rs,) I
shall treat l1crl'allcr; but it may be \\"orth 11 l:ilc ltere to
ob:.;crvc, tl1at [ have been spcakin;; nf Y.>.;:1111l'lc ;is a ];i 11 d
1:1 .J,·glll11rnl, and wi1li a vil'w titcn·J;,rt' 1" th:1t J''II'J''''C
aio11c ·, tl10t1'..._,_'Ii it n 1·1 en )1appPns, t }1at a n'sc111hbnre,
I 'll'<'-;;

:. r:.·:~ .~t.~~t: ~·i~;:?itt.:~-~

Ul-'

I

fl)i!<J1rin:.; ch11pt1•r.

'h·

;.>_,

1111•:111:11 ~ ~ r ;in11 <ii_

111·

],.<_t('r i~l 11~tra ted

t/i;11 1 ); \

an 1r1~t.1! io 'P r~'­

fe rred to in that inc:u mpa raUlc gpct;ialeu uf rc ~u ui.ug, Dr. l'u.!e )' '3
Jlor ~ Pau lin~. " When w~ tak~ in to our hnnds th~ ietter~,n (viz .
~t, l'~Hl• ~ .L;1:,<,,:,;,_.,.;,.:" \.\:!Jw.h i}Jt• t'llllfag•• a11d cu11~1 ·11l uf li!.:.tHit.: . !.y
hath thn~ trnn!'lmittPrl tn l1~. thf" fir~t thin~ thRt ~trik f>~ on T" Atff"nffnn

CIL\P .

m.

i-1 tiw air

(•r n- ;11it .\·

and

h11~i111·~:-;.

a:-i \\' j•ll

victi•HI. w hic h p1'r\'adt•s tl w w 110\1•

1'11.Tl.O?l.< vse and order of sc1·u11l f, i 11 ds "f f' r npositions and r>j Jlrg1l1ncnls
· 1! 1_,·17·crr11 t cases.
~·
1n

OJ th e

lw lw IliJl
110

s1·n~ibl~~ oftbt:~t·

\\'t'i!!l1t

with

lii111.

;is

of

twr io11 r..1w~"'

The J'irst n,/r t" he

nlic;c1T1'<l
- 1,_··,

ti 1a t 1l'
· I1011 I!
Iie cnn 1

sidercd, 11·lw1hcr tlw ]'r.rwipal ,,Ji_i1:rt n( thP
nf ( ' 1•rir'11tn•·
lh:ll ltlld of
U.1::cu1ir::;c be, to ~ ivt~ sali.~/~1-r·t-i on tn a crrnSil tl~ t'a L.:t1uu.
rlid m i11rl , ;in<l rnm·r:; instrurtin 11 tu tliusc
v;ho :ire r"adv to r...-c ,-iv e it, or to rnmprl 1he a:.;_", 11 1 or
~il1·11ct~ tlw ul1_;1 c(·f i1> 11~, 1)f an (111 1t)r) !l1'1 1l. 'l'. I I f) 1·1m111 •r rd ·
1

tlicse p11rpos1;s i:.; , in t>; 1'11<'1·;il, prirwipallv 1" }11 • ; 1,., ,,,,,_
plisl1t~d by the fonner of tho<c t11·0 great c.Jasscs into 11Jiicit

Ir

quaiitit.'S in thc111 . tht• arc:u111t•1tt c:u1 ha\'C

11° lw

IH·,

if hf' pt•r\:t•iy1· in

1tl1 1 1o~t 1·\·1·ry

pne:i· t}w l11n~1rnt_;1' r1f a

rni 11 d iwt 1111 kd l1y n·•tl of't'a~i .. 11~. rind 4•JH 'rn \in!..'.' 11pnn rt•al cirr-11111.-;tnfl ('f' ~ : I wr n1ld wi-..:h it t •1 111• tJ!1twn·1·d 1 t!iat

tlw proof which a.ri ...;1 ' '."I fr •1tr 1 tliiH P"rtf'pt.ion i~ not

"'""""""''

and con-

Lr·t tliP ~kt:>plit'. rf'ad thPlll.

or

i11i:l~in:1ry.

or of

!Jt"in~

\ 1)

!11' de\_ 11wd 11('r1i!t

bf'c ause it is in1·Hpald,• of heing- draw1 1 011t in \\·r,rd~,

cr 1n vey(· d to t}w nppr1·lwn1'ion oft.be n ·M!er i1 1 ;1ny other

Wii\', th:i.1 1 hy s1•ndir 1 ~ hi111 l1) 1iw l 1 <>1•k~ tlll'ni:.;e hc~."

p . .1 11: ~.

TJ1.crc i<) Hlsn a p :1.ssa.;,! f~ i11 Dr. A . S1n i th'~ Thr:ori1 rf Jfor.-Ll S'niti rncnts, whir~h ill ustrates Vl'f)' h a ppily our· of tl u_· nppli<:·at iquH of
the µriuc iplc iu que.sti r. JtL "S 1 .1 IIl!.':t1111C'~ we hflve (i(~t~u.sl•_' ll ti) rk·frnd
tlw pri)pri1•t .\· of(,h~··rving tl1P !_!erwrnl rnlrR <if J11~t1ce l•y 1lw c on sidt'ratiim of llwir nf' c'e~sit.y to tlw ~11pp1,rt rif' Soci4·ty. \\'t' t'rt·q111•11tl?
!Jt'rtr tlw ynun;; a.iii! tlw l~lPntiouH ridiculillg- tlw !llost !'il1('rt·d rule~
ut' 1nilrality, and pr1d~,~~ing, sornetin1eH from the C(1rruption 1 liut nwre

ELEMENTS <ff Hlll':Tl)J1J<' .

PA RT

I.

\..HA P.

general proves the most satisfac tory to a b.;liever 's mmd,
is not that which makes th•J mosi: shew in !he refutation of infidels ; the Arguments from Analog;y on the
other hand, " ·hich nrc the most unanswerable, arc not
so pleasing and consolatory.
Tt may serve to illustrate what has been just said to
remark, thnt our judgment of the cl1aracter of any individ11nl is often not originally derived from such cirrnmstanccs
::s we should nssi~n, or could ader;uatcly set forth in language, m justification of our opinion. \Vhcn we undertake to ~i ve our reasons for thinking: that some individual,
with whom we are personally acquainted, is, or is not, a
gentleman,- a man of taste,- humane,- publi c-spiriw cl, &c . we of course appeal to his <'.ond11ct, or hi s rlisti11 c t avo11«il of his own sentim ents ; a11J if tl1ese furnish
s1ifl i1:i•·'nt proof ol' our as:-;cnio11 s, \\ c arc ad111ittcd to Ii av e

[.

- - - - - -- - - -·-

--

--- -

- - ·-

- - --

·

C1·i''jll''nlly f'1(11t1 tlw v:u1ity nt'Ll wir Jw ;1 r l~ . 1l 1t' rn n-.: t ;i],, ,111i11 :1LJt. lll:txirn:-i

ur cu n d11r'f .

:.

!·

Ou r indi !,! n:tliori

fllll:-lhl

und

Wt .. ltn •

1•11g~·r tn n•f'11tt"

nnd

expose su c h dcte stnlilc principles.

H u t th our;h it is th e ir intrimir lrntrfuln c:-1s and J c tc:~ta0li; n c!3s wl1l c h ori~~wt.l!y iHJ b w eti us ug-ain~L tl1e!H,
\H' ar c llll\\·iiling to n~:-:ig-n tlii~ a~ tli1.,, A(•lL' rt·i1 ~1 1 n why we c1111dc 1J1n
t lH' 11l. or ti ) prc trnll that it is mrrr ly brrJ11~r wr o ur!' ~ · ly i·~ 1i :11 r nn d cktesl tltrm. The reason, w e think , w o ul<l u otnppeur to be co n c1usivc.
Yet., why shoulcl it not ; if we h ate nnd d Ptest t.l1<•rn bl' crwse they are
th e natnra-1 ;1nd prr1pc r obj ects 1,.1f li nt rc d nnfi ch:tr·~tn ti on? Bnt \\'hPn
wf' arr ~~l:;rd why we ~·:d1011lrl nnt ;1ct in !·nic h or ~1wh a 111:11H1r; , tlie
very ci11 0st in n :-:rPffLq to F'Uppo:-;p that , to tlio ~f" wlio R~k it , tlii~ mannPr

of a<'-tinf! <l0r:'.i not appC'~H to hP- J~ 1 r itR own s:lkc the na.~ural and prope r object o f th o~e sc r1ti 1 11ent~. \V e mu st tilww tli e 111, tlie re f.1re, tl1a,t
it oug ht to lH..: HO for the sakl' of sometbiII~ cbc . U µon thi:::i a c co un t
\\· e gc rlf'rally cn-.:t nbout for o1h f'r ar[!'1111wnt~. nnd thP rnn~idrrnlion
w hir h firsl nc'r11r~ to 11 s i i~ ! li e disordf'r and co nfu~ion r1f s rif'i1 ·! v which
\\.'Olil(l rP s n lt frnrn tl1 e nnivf'rs:ll prevalrncr c1f snr:h prartirc .-: .
I

1

"

seld om fail , ther..forc, t.o insist upon thi• \r>pic."
p. lGJ, J G2 vol. i ed . J .~ J2.)

\Vt>
( l'art ii. "'~c. i1.

73

given good reasons for our opinion : but it may be still
doubted whether these were, in the first instance at least,
our reasons , which led us to form that opinion . If we
carefully and candidly examine our own mind, we shall
generally find that our judgment was, originally, (i f not
absolutely decided,) at least strongly influenced, by the
person's looks - tones of voice - gestures - choice of
expressions, and the like; which, if stated as reasons for ,
forming a conclusion , would in ?:eneral appc:1r i"ri\ olous, merely bc<'.m1se 110 lan~uage i,; co mpet('nt adequately to dcscril.ie them; but which arc not ncn·ssari \y i11s11fficicnt ; r01111d s for lw;inni n; at least to lllrlll an opinio n;
since it is noto rious that there are 1w111y rw 11t e persons
\vl10 arr srldorn dr:rci\ed in such inrlications of rharartcr.
In all s11l1jr~ct;; :ndccd, persons unac1·u,tu111t•d t<> writing;
or disc11..;..;ion, ln1t po..;sessin.s nat11ra l s:1i:;;wit.\·, :1wl ""Jl"rienre in partirnhr departments , haw~ been obsen' eo to he
e;.·11cr:tlly unable to g;iv c a sati sfactory rr:1sn11 for their
j11d~ 1n c 11h , 1~ vc11 on points on which tlw y arc ;t('tually
vi·n· c;ornl .i11d:.:1 •s . This is a df'i'el't \\·\1i1·li it i" tlir· \,u,i1wss of rd1watio11 (espcr, ially the pre se nt L1·;11 wli 11f it)
to s11rmou11t u:· di111i11ish. After all !iO\\ en:r, in ~«rn 1 e
subj ec ts , no lanf; ua,e;e can adequately convey (to the inexprriPnrcd at least) all the indications \1hi c li i11f111<•n•· c
tlw judc;mcnt of an acute :rnd practised ol 1scne1-. A11J
lte11ce it has been j11s1ly :md happily remarked , that, "ne
must be an indifferent physician, who neve r takes any
step fur which he cannot assi;n a sat isfactory rrason."

hit

!"

OF CONV ICTIO N.

II[. § 2.

i.

I
f
i

§ '.2.
It is a point of great importance

decide in
each case, at the outset, in your own mind, and
7

to

l'rr.:11mpt in n
an d Huni 11 t:.

uf lJfO'•L

....- <~~-~.
71

l'-\1tl'

I

11 l.

C11 A I'.

~

2.

<W C(l'.\\'J("J'IO'<.

:--·.e1T1\

pr11jH'rl)' 11f 11·liwl1 111"\. <11-c i11 :wt11:il i" '' " '" .'''1 1: tl.1~

un 'vluc:}1 side tliC J>rcs ip 11rJ!i r1n lir-~, :HHI tc \\'liicli !Jt~ -

d rws Ji<ll 111ea11 1ii:1L 1l11·y :ll·1 ~ or :ll·., 111it /i/. r·/y I•' I"· 11 11;

c!1;arl) t o ;iu :11t ouL to tl1·.. ! lic~Lrcr) :L s uci·:t'; 1111i

11 1:1y

:1h1 e~ \'.·hen

r1'..: l 1tf11l 0\\·111 _•r:-: ; liut 1111'ri_
·ly ~ tli;it tHl 111:~1i i ~ t i t !ti'
turb2ri in his posse ss ions tiil some rhim :ic::iino;i him ~ !nil
lie <::>l alili,l:cd.
I 11• is 11ol lu Lt• call1"I «1 1 1,, 1.:·111" Iii ;
ri::hr: hnt 1hc f'iai m:mt , Tn disprnyc it; 0 11 11· hom rc,n cc-

rl 1:1t

ij t1t ·11 1ly

it

11w1·

ol.t1•n he; e' prriirnt to brine: forw:ird rnnrr proo!S

1i1a11 c:u1 Liirk lJc Jcma11J1cd of yn11, it is :1 h•::1Ys drsir-

th1 ::; is the r:isc, th'.lt ji ~honld hr /.~nn ·1rn, 0nri
r i1(• -.:1rt'll :.:: 1li n!· the f·; 11 ; _~1_ : ~ : 1 r11il d ! 1e t ' ·1i11 1;1 t1·d :t lT< Jr d1ia-~

:\r·r · n:·(i!n:.:: lu

c1nTt~t·t

rnu...:t

in

lJ

f;n· o1 ir

or

;1 11\·

it:---,•

(1f ilr;..

suppn:-;Jlj(l!l,

lPflH , a

(d.

;·11 1i ('i't'dt'lil

p r(ll1;1L iti:_\"

Ill

ih

1'; 1\"( lli!',

'1'] 1·

:~ :i \\·1 <: -1 ~:10'.'. ·11

ii

(inrludin'.2:

('\'(';'\ .. 1n;in

1"

!11: 11r1:stwtt'd

;t

l*t

cunm1011 ~ Cll><' 11 ii i c 11:il 1!c ;11 11·
!'.:' 11e\V) on

\\·l1it· l1 Jit_le

"IH«:

L:1i,\·,

pri ~f) !lf'r hr<11rtl1t lljl r()r

rnnoc e 11l 1ili iii~ ~uil1

.~;{~,k;
.;· F;~-~:~:;

::r~.~~:
/~

l~;· _:~
~--~{~
t·,---·~;

11·l\1i 11 .;

!llil\'

lie' ;«·rf·,·1 11'- :1rl< 1;1 1:1lr1 l1J !l1 t1 rJ, .f,.,1,· 1• nf :1
1

~- ~-,:~~~~

'~~);

-

,·-·-·,2

.rtJ~

tl i:tl

tri:tl )

fl\ d1 i1 1t<J lite "i";11 Ji 1·]d

j _..;

1,; ('.;t;il)li,;l1<«i.

Thi s do« s Jtu'., of course, 11H::11 1 1i1:1t \\< ' :11·c· 10 tul.-r·

!,: ;t'~:,:; t

....,,,},;
1;1rtrcss ai-'.:ti1i:;t :u1y all:wk tl1at 1nay lw 1nadc 011 it ; u l1i!'li

() 1· 1) 1"

;1;~:;:,

dcter111itia1io11 ul· tl1is q11!_·:,;1iu11 t l1e 11 l1ulc ck1ral'l1'r ul. a

!I.

;1r i:wii il1:

~

all!'11 1i1in , it i-; of1t·11 <J1·1·t·io1Jkcd : a11d 1n1 the

lll !l.

:nc:1i11<t i: : i11 s!1orl . tl1:1t 1L1: /Jur,/cn u( 111«1u( !i v-: l' ll
s1d1' oi' iu111 \Vho \VO!dd di:--;\H l l(~

11f

~ · l!t' _
-.: .

l1i,; alt«11 li u 11 ,,,, " '';'
i:; (':tiled to t\i i:; qJt1>ti1)!\: 1lto11;cl1 1 f"r 11·:11 1t ,J ··::, 1,;,\':."1'.',' ;;

f:nrh ;1 yir~ - nunpnlion of tl1 e crounJ, ;is 11npli1~'' tha1 ir
1n 11~t ~: ;1:11\ ~.~:01id till <-.: ()JJW ~11li .wi 1'r 1t l'\ ·;1-..t111 i_..; ;idd1wcd
1!iP

11r1 HJf

tli< : l' rcs1n11pt irn1 li <'s, 11lic11

llH'.111::.:,

not (:is l::L; !ic«:1 ,;rn11cti111c,; CiT011co11Sly i111,1;ci 11 ril) :1 prcpq11dt · r: 11W ( '

~- IH1rd1·r1 <J(

A moderate portiun
011e io per(' e tVt"') and

111:..:k .
(~ Prr' '"- lillljil~rlll

lhc

;;'i~
:~~

suii;...r a n-•1 11tl,;e.

_r,,;·

[U

Clll'Ulllll«r tJ11: l':t C' ll l_I·,

/IL i '."

:\! :1 111· r:1 1e, (~ v e 11 if c;!1'i<11cc <'lt<\11 ~ li l•l

:t('t U!l ll1c ull~'lhl\ ' t' ,

t/wy

OU'.2:l1t.

:--tii\

It>

Let'\' 1)(1 -:--:( · -1 <i:1

;· .t·.~~~
~-~{·' ~

-·- ~

""'-'

-· :·;::_~-~

r: rantrd /1r: is innorrnt: for ii' !hat 11·"1"' 1111' «:1s«, lw
\nnild !H~ ('1lli tl1_: d tn i11111wdi:1!!~

st 1111 i1:i1ll 1 ' ' (111 y<i11r :--i 1!1·,

mcnn

111r11ts 1H·o1 1;cl 1t :1~:ii11,;\ Y"ll, 1·011 h:11-c, C11r !Ill' ;q·,. ,1 :::

1hnt

it

1s

nP is n1iHH't~ 11t:

lih('r::!11lrl ~ 11<ir dot''-' it
nntcc:edenliy 11t1Jrc I i ki:iy than not dial
ur ~ :! 1;tt dw 111:t_il) l'ity l)r tlH h t' lir1nt:.:J:1 lt)

lt .i .... r,

tri :tl arc , u .
c u.JlcJ u:1 Lu pro1·c iii:; i1 11ioccncc, or

T !il

!Cl

W

h'-'

,

1-:

;1

l\.

r:wt [Caf'ing out

he: 1k·:1lt. 11·irl1 as a

:w1p1i;;1 •1l.
:i··:1 ::i. ,:I,

hut i!'

;i!l

1\11· ; 11__:1; -

t1· ( · :i:i1 1 11i1 11 1 , . 11 1 1·; 1\ id Jr
1
1

,.r

t lie ri ·•_l11 nl" :ll: ., . i11rli•:idt1:ib nt· lirnlir'' -cn1·pnr:\lr tn tl1e

fl itf.

yni1 al1a11d()J1 ; ! il-~ 1)1 i_.._,i i1 1111,

r'.(, JH~rhrr11s, your

s!1"11U'_fl',\'l

!/i' :_:· u -

you may appear tu Lie makiu; a feeLlc all.ack , ittof rt triun111 h~u 11 defPnce. :-;11ch ;;i1 u1J\ t ~ Hh ~ ;, . ,__. <t..;

i/L CILLSJ

r

~it~;11.1

'':w ()!'tl10sc_ji1st st :itcrl. 11·iii ·'" n·c to ill11.,tr:1 t <~ tl 1i c ;i:i:11 i;,J, ..

L et an\' one i111:1_ccin l' a pcri"c c tly uw1q11111rtcd :111· w:tliu 11
111· ~( 1\Jll' ( il:~' ]l('t '

1() lH'

l!l'tlll _~lit

J.·1 l1i111 i111:1::>.i1w hi111 s l'll', i11<;!J;;1d

;1~:t!tl .._,t li l [JJ :-- ; • ]( '~ :1~ 1d !l 1t' : l

or l'< ' ]il_1·i11 _:.;

(a,.;

,,1·

J~,·
~;;.,

:1 1

IJ:< s111J; ·ri11 :.; thi' l'n > 111 11111io11 t(I lie 1; 1ri-'.1lt!1•11 , ' " i1i 1 11 1, 111

of prnof" Iii·' 11i1l1 !lw :1rTJh( 'r' ;-111:1! Ji,. i.; 11<>!

~L11n1~

c:,u 11l·d .t \I! tui \

<ttHl 1· : 111 ! 111t n(utf'

('{)((J' '' ' '

~

:, ;,.

,"•-.

II

70
he

LLl~;\lLYl'~

\ff>lilri

rin) hy

accust_~ r to prove

~ nc;at.i \·c, -

rt

OF

llllLTUl~JC _

simple tk11i;1],

''"' !

PAHT

(. 'II I'

I.

' l' I )I' I'('

t~il~in:; on

fie, !n nl~lriY r;:?:C'~, th~t this
1".; t;dili .~11111~

t

1

f r:. u~1:1,:;

;1 (

crLti11 1y,

C'\yid('11Cf' \\' C~ul.-f

;u1d 111i::lit

;1 2u~p1ct1.)r1 ;l;:. Lu1 ~t

('\'1'11

eili _'.ct

I

-,1

~~

l) l .

1

I •

''-.'.\ Jl lll1,;u11

l l

•

~1:...::;1111...:.t

:!11 ~·

I .

lillll _' ,-

i11Jl

0

jltl(r / -

P:-~ ~::n: i ::f;.n

"'-''tH·-;

t

i··I!·•·

tu Le c:-;pcctcd to ali;u1d1J11 ilw prcnilin~ hcli1·( 1dl

~ ( )i J ll' !"! ':j~ ( l/l i:..; _c_;) ]( '.\ 1:1 l.

Hence it is probably that many are accustomed to aoply " Paradox " as if it we re a, term of reproach, a~d
in~1p1ietl Hl1s1!!'1Jity or EU::ity. B ut correct u:;c is in i'i.ivoin-

ln th P other ::(alt<.

The foiiowing are a few of the cases m which it is
f

.I --;

~

l1i111; lit~ l1a\·i11µ: i11 LH:t ktTt

in then1selves , arc to be \Vc ighcJ agaias t absolutely noth-

t:

I

do :i:ical, i. e. contrary to the pre;~iling opin•
•
l-.
.
:nn : lt n1rt_\r !; ~ true ; uut the B11rd1:n of pro(;f
11j·:..; \Y1d1 iiiiil \-vho 111:1ir1::!irrs ;t ; sirH · r~ rncn ari ~

f;dj fiir ~i1ort

!1:1\.(' die

out of sight the important circumstance , that these probabilities in one scale, though of no great weight perhaps
ln~

.,
-

the t'. lH--1q.::;-.i~ seiHHS h1:11;:.eU· tu t':ilaLlli:::h

hi 11 L..;.1, l!" tl1G l111rd1'n uf i•ruviHg
h!s own innocence , by collecting all the circ umstances
indir:ati·n; nf it th~t he r;tn mlFifT : rlnd the rcsuit \·HHiid

nf

\

'

f'OltH t ry.

.J,·!1;111• 1; o( his

;1

III

i rnr ort::tn t ~ t hnngh v'::"rY ea~y, t0

point out 'vhere

t!1e

Pres umption li es.
'l'i1 cre is

Hblituuvu.

:.i

l).:..·csu~nµ:io11 111 l~\·utir u( C'.·cry c.r£.·,:11:ng

~lanr u~· these (wt! \viii t'll1'1 "J:::ie the 111ujon-

a can c iaini no atteuliun ; but. ii f~ds<\ it should be ccn
s m ed on that ground: not for lu~ in g 11P 1n • if 1rw•. it !c:
ll1e m ore impon:mt, foi' bei ng a lruLii not generali v ad mi1l t ·1 l.
'-· r11 ;1 •1\:1 11J i \·1il~ 1; :" J 1 •1·!~lll! \1(]1•f; C::- l u [.11 t¥J t;('.i: ; 1: .
\ -,, l

' 1 ~l 1 '

: 1

i.k'. il

i 1~~lL.) a i..:ilar~L!

u( •·

1JaL1Ju~ and

11011...;t :lly _!

1

i'

t_,v j J!! ay Ue ::;u:::)ct.:pLiLie ur ahcral!o!l fur the Letter ; but
s uii the " Burden of proof" iies with him who p ropn:<1•s
an aitcration ; s impiy, mi the ::;round that since ::i change

uruu,:;11L !ur -.\'aru, as 11 i..i1tTr; \.\.-8ftj ::-u111e clv:-::e: cu!Ult.!\. i un

IS

And iuJeed, i11 one sense tii i; i, :j,.,
101) dnil } c•1· ton p r ~\1:diccd :o
adrnit a11y notion at variance with those the_v J1ave b P.Pn

~11~11' crn~~

'
'
11: -~:; ;; 11: ':1:1~,r:;un ;,.i."' ;"~·J,,.::.~· / ;. il ral rr:;ry aprc~tr nonsClLc ,

"l! ~:dir i11 i-,, ~ r n,...-.: ..:.

fi ed " 'vas " to the J e \\'S , a s tu:nb li.ng-hioc:k , (pnradn:"{ )
~ud lu tl•c G-n..:cks , fuuii~line;;;;;;;; ~ j 1.~1·. ;:111 '.'P the on~~ . rr:' -

not a goo<l in itself, he who demand s a chan!!:e shoulrl
iur it. :\o one is called on (thou;h he may
find it ad\•i s~blc) to dcfc::ul :·n1 e x ist in g in ~ fifntinn: tiH
some i1rpi1nent is adduced a~ainst it : and that arg_1Jn1e11 t
i 11 '. ' rnvP , nnt ntPrely an actnai in ~o nven­
ic1we, hut the pos <; ihility of a r·krn<:;0 f{H- tiJP hPlter.

J·~vt.:>ry IH..."~k ~t~:i.irl,

as v:ell Cl~ person~ ou:;ht to be pn~­
s 11 merl harmless ( :mrl consr>fjt:l"n tly- the copy-right prot.cctcd by o ur courts) till sornc!hin~ is prO \'etl agaiuJl it.
It !:-~ :1 l1:1nL-d1ip tn rt't!i 1i rr: 0 n1;in i<-1 pr 1~i\ 'r' . Pit he·:· uf' J1i'-)
IH11 1 k, ()]' \)( Iii --:

i)ri\:tl( ' li!'t 'i t]i;il

;1111- :t• ··11--;:i11on; nr !']--;e

1n

i!H 'IT

llf' d<'11i•'ii

1l1P

1<

IHl

~~l'!ll!Jld

)'i'"l•Tli"11

o ('

r(l!'

l1i--;

cnsc ; for lo liiuse \.vho :u·(~

1~hwh to nth er~

<jllircd

<t

':'ic:11 "ul·

j., <=n 1:nd

<t

S<:'fl30.

Thm "C l1ri :;i u:_1 ._i~

di1i;·1-!'11t n:1t111·L~ fr o1 11 :rny tl 1;1t

cd~

:Jnd tlic Oi.Ht:r:-.-; "' ~1 1 11_!,ht
schools of philosophy .

;.1!"11·r

'11'!" '' "-

\-vi::sdorn" u 1 1lu ~ ~r

:\ccordingly th P. rP
a Prcsun1pti0n ~t;u...u.: :st tlic
111 iis fir~t :innonnrrmrnt.
1·l:1i 111· •rl Ir> j,,, tlic 111-n11 1i"1'il I »· Iii •·l'•T, 111 1\ 11<>1:1 :ii i r:,.,
ll;tl 1()11-..: ()I llJI' i•:: 1r th \\' l'l't' lrl h! · Jt)1 ".;'-\1'd.
·r 111• n11i·iJ1 i :

· :" '

pmi,5

\1.:~s

~() ~ pp ]

w

"'

ELEMENTS OF JU IETOIUC.

78

or proor lay witl1 Him .
011

?':o

Oil('

CHAP.

('Ot1!d lie i'airk called

lo ad111it his jlITl c'n~i,)lLi till llc ~iic11cd ._,,,,1 ,, 1: iur

believing in Him. if He " had not done among them
the worlcs which none other man <lid, they ha<l not ha<l
sin."
,,;\'in~, ;he case is reversed .
Christianity exi;;ts ; and
those who deny the cfo·inc ori;;in :wrilmtcrl to it, :ire
1Hn11H1 !(} '.-iht~\V soinc rf· a-..: on:--; f~ir ;l,<..;c..;i~11 i n~ to it a lH1111:-i.t1
{·,ric;;11: 1H1i i11dt~~d lo pro\ ·r ~ that it du! nrisin:1t1~ n1 this
or tlial way, wiu1uu t ~upernalural ai<l ; Lut w pu i11t uut
some conceivable way in which it migftt have so arisen.
It is in<lcetl highly expedient to bring fonr:ml cv i<lcncus tu estaLlisl1 tlie <livi11e urisin of Christianity : but it
ought to be 111ore nirefully kept in mind than is done by
most writers, that all this is an ar~ment " ex abundanti," as the phrase is,-over and above what can fairly
Le c<illeJ fur, till S(1111e l1ypotl1esis sl1all Ji,, f1w1wtl, to

=

'rlw

pri111it i\ ·~

;

;

I - I ] f ! fl.

fj

~

I!_)

.JV \\'

-'=' l

Epi-;.1·np1wy i:; e_"~ actly p:ira11el: l; ut
{q

rlous1y existed n1a.i1y ages , and that co1betp1t~ 1:1Jy~ t~\' t·:1
i:' :lwr1' l!;1d Li'<.'ll !l(~ d irc>ct •_'\, id c1 w~~ l~.1r th !1t>itt;~ 1._:i._:t.·\-:d

with Cliri:oti:mit\·, it mi~ht foirlv lie :11.
till snrn0 nthPr pt?riod ~hould

to l1 r. sn~

1":1-;t ~11ppn>< ·d

ht~ \HJintt-~tl out

at which it ha<l been int.ro<luccd as ;m 1nn.-wa11<111.

r1

i;-; \VO!'flt n··r!l:1ri<i11~~, tinli (I Prf''-'ll'llption 111:1v hr!
rebutted by an opposite Presumption, so as
·1·n11 "frrt i• t ~
to sliir1 1i1r' B1ird" 11 of proof lo the ut11cr side . !!tr· H11rd1 ·11
\)r p; ~uf.
E . e; . Suppnof' ynn h;id ;idvisl'r! the rf't:'1\•1 :ti
:-'Uflle ~.ri,,·/ ing l'e:-.tf'ictioll: )'Oll IIlisht Jip; 111 t\1p i'ir":t
instance, called on to tak e thr, Burden ().r prnnf~ :'ll !rl

or

The Presrn11ption was , rn
d1u~c puillt~, u11 ll1cir oidc ; ~11J tlH.T ]1;1d rnil\' 111 r1'.pk
to 0]_1jt'c.tiuu,,.
TJ1is iJ1qJurt;u1l di~Li1w11u11 i~ ui'tcn lu~l
~r· . of

iJ:c

tion, ;is if bis task had been to intrndttce it. "\Viiatcn·r
force tiiere may be in arguments so ruld1w.1ed, it i~ plain
they must have far more force if the import ant Presumption be kept in view, that tlie instituti on had noto-

what they left unaltered.

l' "'k ;1t il1r "d1w1ri111 ' '

or

:-.{:1~111:-;

iii

J1a\d~ ovcrluukeJ this advunu1~·.._, t-~: !u~
""t' lii111°Plf to pro1•e the apostolic ori;in uf the instilll-

Tl1c Bunk11 of proof, asain, la,.- on tl1c anthors of
y0;-P•j'P hO!!!!d fo ~l teW c:t1 1~1 · rnr
every clu111ge tliey aJvvcatcJ ; ;md tlwy ;1dmitted 1h1:
fairne ss of this requisition, and ar.rPptcd thr. chnllcnE;•"·
But they were not bound to shew cause for retaining

l1v tlt"'r· \1lio

,·11-.;.1 _·

I Tu\Jl1o1:r

thP f{{1f'r.rnl:-lfinn : fh.:ly

nr,

ir ; co11.:;iderin.:; the Uun.icn to lie On r.hn :::r. 1·:hl:

rlcni0d it:=:: t':....l~ft'rH ' t'
1rhrn it did ari,P .

The: Burdc11 of pruuf rune lies plainly on him who re jects the Gospel : " ·hieh, if it were 11vt btablislie<l by
mirar,]es, dem:mds an .-;xplnnntion o f ti"' ~ r.-· ( 1kr 111irade ,
its i1avin;; hPP11 establis hed, in defiance of all oppos1t1on 1
by human contrivnncf'.

~i ,~1 t1

79

OF' CONVICTION

11!1'. Cl111rch ,,i· l-:1 1c:l a11d as c<JJi:;:iw:('d <1t tl!f' i:,.1;,r.:::1 rion," in thr: mass, 11·id1011t di-;:i11,s11i:d1i11;c; tl1 1; ~dtc-r< cl
Crrn11 tl1•.: umdcen;<l pans. Tile framers of tile Ani, ii:::>
kept this in mind in their expression respecting infa::th:1ptism, rliat it "011;ht h;· a:J r11r:111s !fl Lr rr!oin r rl."
'l'l :e_y did :int i11:rod1wn thP prar_·iic~, but Jeft it a~ t11!:-V
f~-Hfftd

accuu lll ltJf th e uri;:;11i of Cliri:otiauity Lry l1ut:1a11 ll1t:w1~.

,;_

!II § 2.

f

r

allege your reasons for the r.h:mge, on the gro und tli;:it
there is a Presumption against every Ciiangi: .
n11t
'
_\ uu 1 1 1 i ~i1t L1irly r ·~ pl y , "trnc, ln1l tl1crc b :!J!Olll<T
T' rc :·i1HllJiii1_i11 \\·11icl1 rebut~ t!H; !~H'tner; t·~\'t··rv !ifslri1·tt:ou is
in i1,1•lC :u1 r·1·il; :rnd 1l 1<~rr·!'nn• tli1•r1' j, ;t !'rt''1 111 111•in11

:1.1:.\11:,\Tc; OF ll!ILT111;1('
II!

l.d\ llll!"

ry

! ~ll'

!' 1

l_"i

r;! .

l h l" t'tllO\'(lJ, u11Jc::-;S

it

:111:,T Sj7fri~6 .~

:i1li' ,'._"."/ '

IU/l/ {_'((,'i>di

L'llO ll ~l 1

r c:1:-;(JI!

>JH·\\ Jl

ii

llt'IT:-'~a ­

diH :n_· l

I'; if

in(\J)l\- t •i J1!-'I JI

i.-:

:'/, ;);;ii

!1t :

C;l! l

j:: ·t' \. 1 ~ 1::1Ln; ( ~!' ~.;. \_i H.; 1_' F'.,l' 1_·!1 t 1...'f C\

01

1·,JI

it k1pp1_·1 1s m ure frL'qucnth, lw11 c1 er, tkit, 11 lil'n rn
di·...;r;r...;:...;!nil n f Iii: lll l'f:...; 1;f npi!iil.lil ~ tlii r>\i iil lld ' !-...; l f) 1rod1J(T!L it i-.: d t· -.:i,~r11·1L 111i! C1 1t" ;\J'~il!Iil-'JlL Lill, --iri1

LuunJ

thP

ri 11' !J'>!J J1 ii 1.1t J
i t--;

:-.:I'i' ;1 k i1i~> !.t )r

;i!HJ ]J (HH l

1rs dc:ll::i1i.,rs 1i1crdorc <ire :irirk c;tllPd rn1 In 1 11 · ,,, . , ~ i1s
rl'i1u :- ;

ll/11s! r'ilf i1 11 ; - -- llllt
1

ti1111 in q1 1e::;:ion 1

.,

'

I JL'l'C ....;:--, J;\· .

RI

d1:\\l('T I UN

t fi

l ill' )l l" !ljH·~i

;1r111-r

hut tn 111:1ke ii r11 (J rf~ clrlf,-l.1,1

11nrft:rs! r11

1

rl;

c . ;:; . tl :1; l'WjJOcition rn:t :nt;1 i111·d ! 1· Cin'l'lJ, ( de I !fi'.
1

t11:)i' !I

l ~ ii\:ll ,'. .'., t)1i-..;

:: t l ~;JCC

liU\"

jl l' l' J]J< i ,i : drY

\"]( '\\

;()

•-: } i ( '\\

1)1 , '

l)!'li l1 ' -.:t;:tl'

(1f

i11ijH1ri ll Jl't'

uf

!Hink 111 )

(';t t ' 1l rplL':'.c\ lUil

\·11..

r, 1 Iic c[; . 1·11" '" I.

\\r ut r11:1y

h

!!l'

:t("c ·< i1 1! lfr·d ;1 111;iT!i'r

tl1:tt -~ 1Hi1 ) 1ii1~ i~ C'.\f w d;(·11r \\li i1·/1

h

ui1~11i11 11:

<1f

d1.-..;/ 1(iJH1 11 r~1'1 !( ';

11i11·n tll 1' ll 111; add111'1'.' rl1" l·:~ :u11 1 ili: of 1/11,
~1~Jl]H) :< 1'd 1 lt ' -..;i~n of 'r1tr~ 11li.~1(1( · l1·s \() 1Jt1n1 1hi·

·i

1.,P 1 '"" " "
J_\;

1111

1, it·.,. -

all ied llce t, whidi he mai!ltains, in cornrndi r·1i11n tu :\ri~­

\Litter:; nf Opinion, ( ;i , tilc1 n:·c c:iilcd; i. e . \\ l1~ r e
'Li : ' •L· ,,r
\I e arc uot saiLi µrn1·er l_
1· 111 !.:1w11: . !lilt to
I
1,,

rid,.s, 1nmld

A r:..::1i11: e :1 t-.:
il11 · Iii -..i , !:'"' ,
viz. fro1n Cause to E(l'ei..:l, j thot:;ii lhc tcsu11 1onv ( i. e.

p:·1:-,r· I

1, · :

(

LH_·

j, 111:u1iCc,.;t, th;tt 11·e 1n1 1,t l!l1il»r,tanil

i ~ ·'r \ \ ·; t 1· ( 1 ;i -.;

1 ,(

m:d1urity) ol wise nvcn !S a.be aJ:niss ible ; past Facts ,

)1;in~ 1wl'll i11n:p 1'rl ien t, bc-!';111,c t111jtiot,

l l r)

1 : i r ' :- ! ~

l ] 1: t l 1 : t r 1

it

ilw in otaJH'" Ln111 c;k

I J l 11:--- i 1 :1: 1< 1r 1

< ,

t· ! i :i ~

be.~gin ,g of th<e que~uon to arg tte Jrvu1 :..t p;_trticul:.ir
tiuu> wliicli c fiu1 d 1'....H1iy be ad1ulu.t:d by thc:sc \vh o
a::.::. t= !iteU tu tile ~ ~iH..: r~ priHci;1le.

plain

j

!li c l:....:ll1 ~ 1...: 'l'1 '. :... r 11:Hii: .\-; j ;i:; d
t'11111re
Ly .\ iii1 ·~_ ·(·d1 · 1;~-11t·(Jli;iLil1i1( _' -;; , tu1d L.:. tu11;.Jlc~.
Example, ho\r ever, is not f'Xrl11rl Pd fro m du-. 11rnof

a~::--:ei

~"'~

----'~

rc 111c111 Llf..: 1 1_·J.

c\·c·n:~ )
!·

l'

( ) :·

( l :;(i

l 1

'/"~ I 1!-

(I

j I: i \j(

)j]

;

~j j ] ( ' t'

([

! ! );i!

case 11iay Le aidnl ur curredeJ

to mistake for an Ar!!:ument such a one as thP fnrp e·o-

j

ly cl1ar~e with sop lii ~t ry l1irn wlw ad<lut.:e~ ~ud1 a one

l y an appeal 10 his

0111 q 1k

t.

we ~U' e JirccteJ, Ly tile l1ie;hest authority, to guide our
judg n ent in those qu es tion s in which we are m ost liabl e
10 J cceiv e ourselv es; viz. wl1at, on each occas ion, ough t
tn h e our c c nduet t _nr:-ud_-.; ;::1ut 1: i_·r ; \\ c ~ll"L' J lrct_LLd lu
1

fr;nnr fnr niJr::.:f'i\·c :::

:i.

~intihr .' llj 1p ( 1-.: 1•d ( a::i_-_ )_,\· uua_s i11 -

i1h a

11t•1\·

Ill

("\j 1L111:1ti1111.

i111rnd11t ·t·r l

1

in0 ourseh-cs to ch:rn;c pbccs wi th our ncigl1bor , aud
di ·j , t'o1h;l i,·i li1s i "'w ~ 111 1l 111t (·~t-:: ,_·~ "T s ho 1dd in t:1irn r::--:s.
expec t to b1~ !mated .

11

It is aiso of the greatest consequence to distinguish
b etween E:rnmples (of the invente d kind )
Illus trati o n
properly so called, i. e . which have the forc e and
~imile
L .

!

~

rti~ 1 in~ 11 1.o h­

ul.

fn r dw nrn;mirnr nf S; y lr', in tlw fo rm, Pittwr
o f Simiie , as it is caiied, or Met:iphor .

i11~· ''ti i 11 \ 1..., f':o ltill<ifi:--1, ll ofi r• 1t 111i:-.,ft_-1 ht•r1 ~.i · ~t
t

7 -.

1:i~~:,~

~-~

N ot only is an

1•fnof, d1,1i 1:')1

be s 1wh ns. when tried hv the rnl e s laid clown hero

!f_~.t

P.\llT

t

( '11

:111d i11 tile trc;itise 011 Lor:rr, atforri s no proof at ail;"
!1111 ai;;n "ll tl1c utiwr li:u1d, a l'<':tl :i11d 1·;;Jid :ir:.:,11111c11t

I 11 f J 1t

l J l J 11

'f)H'

pr;t c ti,-:-il r,• .:ilr :1 < 11· it L:1d t:iJ,,·11

11 1:11

·1·

'r. ' . "

l!li:'l: d,t ~ 111
:111

lj l H '< l !11 J l

l~

'--11 ]]

111 <1]'!'

Ar:::11 m rn t j, rnm·r\·r-rl in

:1

j1)\ i j \

1· (·:11 ·

f1 l

1

c:i n::: lr t•·rm r'm -

ploycil 111ct:1pl1nri .. :tlly; "' j , f':" lll'r;1l1_1· tl1» ' :: -•: 11 i t" I "
tlic all11<ion is cnmmnn a:1d nh1 io t1'- ; ,-., '..'.. "11·e 1', > Jli •t
r<.'r ·ei1T as tlir' gr'1111i1ll' d1wt1·i111•s n( till' j•li111i111·1 · ( ·1,, 1r1 J1

new idea introduced by tile A11al(lf'.)' .-lt:1111·e,; tu he a

.

~

whrn "llrh

slmuld not be fair Analogical R easonin?:, in \d1ich the
E. µ:. " Tl1c eJlicacy ul'
penitence, and piety, and prayer, i11 reudcriug; 1!1e Dei1y
nropitious is not irre<.:om:ilealile with the i11uuutal1 ili~y
'
of his nature, and the steadiness of his purposes. It
is uot in man's power to alt.,;r tlie t.0uuL e uf tlie ~1111 ;
hut it is often in liis i1ower to l'ause the ,.;1111 to -;J,i11e IJI"
not to shim~ upon him; if lie wil11dra11s from its Lcams,
or spreads a c11rtH in hefore him, the sun no lonr::e r s hin es
npon him; if he 1111its tl:1; sl1:ulc, 01' remol'e5 the curt;!lll,

1

~

l1:in• ri:e '<lff: C

i.-; 11ut u11i·n~q11e:1tly c01i:;id1'l'<'d 1111T1·l_1 ;1' :111 ur11:111:1'11t
of Style, if it happen to be surh :is to prnrhwe that
eli'ect; though there is evidently no rca:ou 11 1d11 tk1t

sublime or a pleasing; one .

111

\I'

'
L

II i1at ]111\"C passcJ d01r11 Llie puflutcd s/rca111 uf ]{0111i,J1
Tl1e ..\r,;111111'11[ li1·1'C is 11ot the lr·ss 1·:dir!

11·:11!itio11 . "
l

•b

or

fur Lei11g l:OllveyeJ in the form
a Metaphor .
T he employment, in questions relating to the future,
liutl1 ul Lhc Arg;umcnL lfulll Exau1µle, 1rnJ of that f;;,i11
C:111o;c to Eil(?ct, m:iy lH~ ,•;;pl:ri1wd l°rr11n 11·li:it li:1s J,,.«11

already ~aid ('011<"f'rtting thr- (·01H11·xinn l;i• t;.v1_ 1' n dH-' in;
<:ome Can«e , whet11Pr known or nnt , hPing alwavs ~117J ­
pn«cd, whrncvcr an l·:;;nmplc is n<lri11ceri.
1

tl1c li t;!ll 1,.; n•'\(lrcd to l1i111; :11111 tl11J11~ l 1 11" 1·!1:111'.'.;C ic;
~ 11.

i1 1 1'1c 111c;111 time ciTcct('d i11 tl1c lwa1T11ly l11111i11a1y, l111l
ouly in him-;Pll, the re<ult

h

the same ns if ir. \\Trc.

Nor is the immutdiility of GvJ ;my reason why the re-

t11rnine: sinner, \Yho tears away the Ycil of prcj11dirr or
of inditit'l'i'll('<~, "l1011ld not :1~: 1 i11 111· ],],.,,,..] 111 11 1 till'
sunshine of divine fa\·011r ."

i

~·

\Vhcn Arl';lllllents nr (':l('!i or tl1I' t11·0 fr1rnwrh·-1 111' 1Jtioned c lasses are emp loyed, those from Cansc ~;,~.','7'.~~~~
to Effi'ct (:\11kccd 1,11 t-prcili:1 liil it y) lrn-., 11s11- ;:·.~:n;;, :
ally tl11· prec1'd"1wc.

Tit<~ i 1 11:1~.c;i · lll'r<' 11itn11l1w1·d

l\lf'11 arc apt

is ornamPntal , but tlie A rc:11nw11t is not th e ]1'35 perfect ;
s ince th e case addu ced fairly establishes the generai

principle required , that "a change etfoctc<l i11 one of
two ohjerts h:ivine: a certain relatiu11 to (~acl1 other , may

r
f

ii

l

to

P,,.,,.;,,,,,.

li,;\1'11 11 irli p1·ej11di1 ·P to

tllf' ,\r; .11 -

111l'11h udd11<-cd tu J>l'me any 1liin~ 11l1i1· l1 '1l'IH':1rs u!,-

s/ractedly improbable; i. e. accordini; to what has been
:1bove bid down, wmatural, o r (if sueh an P.':pression

nri!':iil be ;iikm:pd) 11npla.nsi/;/I'. ; and thi« prPji:di"" is t11
lic rc111on'rl Ji:· the :\r'..'.111nr11t frll 111 Ca11s•' to l·'.1i;·1·t,

"'Tlw pl PHio< Hft-> olP:rived fro n1 taki n u: l11 t!w autl11H':i iueaniBl! , wl1cll
an in;:r1•n\1J11s (~nrnp:.uison iEl emp1nyf'ri, (rrfi ·rn·d hy :\ r: :-;i.11!i1· 1-11 I.ht:
plf'~1~11n~ of1h1• ;wt of

learnin g.I i8 !in gn-·a l , Uial tl 1t,; !'l'itd1·r vr

i~ np t to rni :-:it;dte hi s apprf' hcnHin n of this tUr

and convincing- analogy.

it

See part iii. ch. ~. ~ J.

l1t'<UL'f

1>crc•: plw11 uf llJUcst

*

Vc1r an i nst:-tlH'C' nf :-t hi~hlv

hf'.111tif11I.

.~~ 1111 11 ·n tnl iv,• .-· 0111p:ir i ~o 11 : ~.,,. 1\p1 11-•11il1\ :

:i nrl

[C.j

:1t t/if' !'1ITTf'

Tt

ri:nr n r -

;1~ , p··;1r:-> 1.1 111.-• l]111t

tli t• pa~:..:; t :.'"1' pri11k d in !1:'11(· ~ aff11rd~ <l rn 1s11n f~.r 1li1ri :i.i11~- it pr .. l1:1L l1_·

that tltt•

t·an~f·:-;

(ii·

tli~·

A p1 1:-;lks' r •111il11C't an· ri[!"lttly

a.-.:~· !:;111 1 ( 1.

. LL\H:\i'l'c; 1>1-' l\l l l·:'l'<Htll' .

\d1wl1 1ln1... ;

jll'l ' \l~ll"l'~

tli\·

f) !ilf'r Ar '..'. 11111r •1 1\o.: : t'.
1·]uJ"dt'll_'.f

]"t_'{' ( ' iltitl j\

id"

tl11•

ii' a 111:111 1111" li<H" ' a .'..'.()(1d

'..'.·

:U'Cll ~1 ·d

\\\'l ' C'

cvi -innc t" ;u::ii nsr him

r{)r 1l1c·

\1.';1y

cd"

n1i ~ i n.

tJ\f'

(_'!l!Tllp( i t>lli

;p:.::i il li1tlr.

1\-rrn

Cll\cl()l\ S

di:'j>O,;iti<>ll, tlii·;, tl1<111~l1 it
tn s1ilis1a111i;itc tlw " ri 1111•,

\\ 1i1dd l1;1\.t '

'..'..l't ' :1i..

\\ · l~i~.:.111

1;1

i illl1wi11~ li i...; _j 1id~1·...; to

.\ nd

li1 11:-;

1

Ji; · ( 1r11l l '-' ! 11 1'\ [ 1 11ti 1 :1:..; iii_· 1 11i~11t ]1 :1\ ·t · tI \ Jl l( ', l.t , ~T i -\1n1 ciJn- :-111d P\.f' I'\.~ f.\ht··r ki111I ~·f S i :~11 J {'1 \1,.]ii. ·~ 1 it j,_, rr' '

:--.:\t()JJ _:;:i· ::-:1

hu t if he:

~

11111 dd 11ot :Jl,111r• lie :rl l,lln'<l

jllT>I f'd w ilf' o t' a

OF ('<l.\l\ l \ :'f'IO:\

I'"'" I

l1· s-; "I 'I .Ji, :11.I".
,\ 11<>:lll'r n ' ;1' <lll ;;,r a ii1r •rinc; to tli .: ord>'r ),..n• i' r>'1

sc r i!ll'd i-;, tli :11 ii. !11.: .\r~11111r·11t i'rll111 ( ':11: .1·

lt 'tlll

in \\ l1:t! rt·h1c ." to

I :1 ;; <'i

I"

11·erc 1<l:wed a i.t• T 111..: u till' r.s, a d<ltil>t 111 i'..'.l 1: "1·:,.:1

l'\1, 1 .

11·lic 1lw r 11·c 11«' ;·,, <·11c: :ic>:ctl i11 )Jf'on 11 g t! lt' 1•<•i11l 111 ' i111·ci111i1 1.~

uo11, <Jr

tu ace
ni: 11·

i"'

cir"11 111 -; 1:11irrc; 11·hir · lt \1ill
but

pn·1c11t tl11:

1lH ~ J'i '(11 1" (',

ti " '"t : l'irt·1111 1-;La11,' f' S do not, at lc:1q a'11·a:·:-:. 111·en·11t

a1i

:t d1'q 1.i :1 lt '

l l} :L

u u LLu\·

cu iu1 1iJ.iiJ c r.

til;ll

(';11i...: 1 •

11r1 '-

'

r:1 n ;~

rjt

::__.~ Ll ' ~ .~@. ,:~::.::

..:,..~-

tl1c

\dH'll

uhji'( 't in eaL·l1
:i

t i ]'

(!ll_\ · \'(J)l\-t L- i\l)I

('( l 't '

i)!'{1jJ ( )'- J LlU!l

jl1'( 1\H• -1'\ ;

;1; :: 11J i\ r ' i\

h

1

!ii

u1 a.:

b

'

•

t

'

•

'

..

-~

1

•

n,

:\ r ra:1:.:, 1~ ~1H~1it

•

.~

-

H n

or

:\r :.:. : t1! l!'t: l'.: ~

ru'.c is ur' 11 1u rc ii upu1La 11 c:.c lLill1 Lile UHC u u\\ 1u1 dcr

sid1: r;i!il i11 ; ;1 11 d

=

ArL l!iS ' ' llH'lli

li1:.t11 i~ e~· ~111·r;-t;;y ~111•J 1 " ""' ,..d ;

1~ a

tJl(lI' C

i11d r>:~d

ii

i1111)i q ·: ;u1l
is

" ' -' {

fl(J

l 11J1 -

1~1111i1

1··~ riEq _1 ~

uf i e~~ cu1be qu e l!ce 111 Rla.: Luric Lliau rn tlic: :\E i::u v
Art; in ,,-hieh it i~ \VP1i krHnvn, that ,...-Jth ~tn f"1Ti '.'"1H i _y
u f fuJT Cs , in n uu1Lcr~ , courage, :ind c1·e1J utbcr ti ui:i: ,
1)w

rn:mnr•r in \\·l 1i<h th e \· aw dra\1·n up ,

;!lf~ i rd

tnut uai support~ or)

011

SD

:i s Pi dw r tn

Ilic ollu :r l1 a11d ~ even to

111 1111 ·d " :111 d ;in11oy <':1 c i1 uil!l'r , 11i:1y 111:ik1: t lic: di:i;'l'<'lli'I'

-

.
&

.;_;;~;~Z?~'fl-::'~?"r~~~f.{~.[-r;;T.'"·. :.: · ·.;~·

t11

(I(',

\V i1 l_1 a \'; ~w !o ii:,~

Buuu~qJ:HiC. \'. ~h

.
i .-.r,""' 1rp-. - .~

a~

! l i:tl

;i::;ai11:-;t

tilat Kin a \ViH c n woui.a account i o r

1

.
.
t·:·-.c:;1; j1f. -·-...: lH : L .-·

ti n_· \ t_· r y

1

'

E. g. if an y

lthi .. IV" lo P~::tltli~·dt a di• :-: 1H1ti'll l on th{'. r11i11 :' 11 1" th1' Fr1 ··11 , ·li
Re p11Llic , tl1is Ar~ll!llelll, I•y i1sdl', W<111ld li:iv" i.·!'1 ltt*'ll
;1t li1Je rt v to sup::tJse tl1at :::uch a rc.-:: ul l \v vuld Le pre ..
\'("n ff'd hy ~ .1 .-:i nl••ll~ ntt ;ie innPnt tq hlu ~ rty In ih P ciii ,, c 11 ~ , and a fdl 011·-fcclin; 0f th e soldi e ry 11it!i th em :
tii (· 1 -1~ 1hc~ T:x:in1i-,i C'::; nf' r ~ 1·-.;:1.r 1 and ni" f'ro rn\\'l'n , \\·ri11 i d
h:n:e pnn:rd, d 1i1t siwlt prcvnitivf ·~ Hi'l '. :nil :n IH: ln i::f i:d.
_\ri ::; t ut11~ :..!cr·ordi:1;.;ly i1;1-:: rr'111:-u~1·d <)ll tiH' t'\.1wdi1·n1 ·y
ii r:!.

b1_'.).l 1:-:";

:i::o:oi:::n :i c:tu:::c \Yhich docs account for it, ('<1L icci 1
oi' tlw .. L1o~t:':' ,_,r l' 1·111111sit1on::> fornwr iv
\\-)\I'll I i 1--: /lri{ :t 1\11 t1 l ,1 •1l : tu 1u· urf' it l1y ;r 11

0 :1 c n:1tt ar:::u c tl~ 1ru:11 dn: te111 t-'la t iu11 ~ and npiHn'1111d·•·"'
, w ., ' i.iri1 1:{

pro\'ed) ir1 ~(' t'h111!..( u1d v

..\r ~ u1 1 1c n t

10 ~11:1rd

i:-; J'l'ij lli '-' itt'

111 1\i..; : iP1'1!1 c:-; ...;

\\ i!i ·~ J w;·

\- ~ou ~:dy a::;s!g;ncd \v iil s he~v th e rn to be .

:d rL·;1d y

l '. 1i(;,.1

1·>:rn1plc:; ,_;11 l1.io i111 •d ,_;l 11 ·11· tli<tt

u l· U 1: ! ; 1 ~. !1 i::::t~ ~ r 1c c~ uf ir_ ; \', i1 i1_ i1

; 1'"'

tl i: tt

nat ure of it, suc h as wnuld account for the truth con-

taL lished, lea1·cs us still at liberty to s11 ppose that there
fr"11 1 t:1k i11~ i'l:lt'c;

it

ll ~

:·tir

.'l.LLl

,.f

\-H'i•-•r\-T {)!'

d1 •fr•;I\.

86

J:Lt:~l

l·:;'\TS

or

IU I ETOlllC.

c """· rrr.

J'., "' I

§ -1.

or

C OC'IV!CTI O '<.

87

E. g . in the statement of the E vidences of our R eligion, so as to give them the ir just weight, much dep end s on th e Order in whi ch tlicy arc placed. The
Antecedent probability that a Rev elation should be
given to man, and that it should be es tabli shed 1.Jy mira-

le:ist as to <"stablis h the fa c t th:it 0 11 e lw s Lee n ~i vf' n.
Whereas, if it were fir st proved (as rnay easily be done)
llierely that th ere is no suc h abstract impro b:ib ilit v of a
R eve btion as to ex c lude th e cv iclP 11 cc in L1nim, of ii
.
~uHl that 1f on e were gi ven, it m ight Le ex p ected to Le

cles, all would allow to be, considered by itself, in the
absence of strong direct testimony, utte rl y insuffi cient to
estal.Jlish the Conclusion. On the other h:rnd, miracles,
c onsid ered abstractedly, as re pi:_csented to hav e occurred
witl1out any occasion or reason for the m being assigned,
c nrry with them such a strong intrin sic improbability as
c ould not b e wholly surmounted even by such e 1·id ence
as would fully establish any oth er matters of fac t. But
th e evide nces of the for:n c r class , ho we ver inc ilicienl
al one townrds the estnblishme nt of th e Conclusion, have
v ery great weight in preparing th e mind Jor rec eiving
th e 01her Arguments ; whic h again, though they would
Le li sten ed to with prejudic e if not so supported, will
th en be allowed th eir just weight. The writers in defen ce of Christianity have not always attended to this
principle ; and the ir opponents have often availed th emselv es of th e kn owl edge of it, by c ombating in d etail,
Arguments, th e combin ed for ce of whi ch would have
b een irresistibl e .* They argue respec tin g th e credibility of the Christia n mirarl es , abstrac tedly, as if they were
insulated occ urre nces , without any kn o wn or c onc eivable
purpose; as c. g . " \1·hat testimony is suffi c ient to establi ~ h th e b eli ef that a de ad rnnn was restored to life ?"
nnd t.h en th ey proceed to shew that th e probaliility of
a R evcla1ion, abstrac tedly conside red, is not such at

s11pporte d Ly rnirL1c uluus e1·ide11ce , th en , j11 st eno11gh

Sec § 4 . ch . 2.

)

reason would be assigned for the occ urrence of miracl es,
not indeed to establish them, but to allo w a fair hearin g
for th e Arg um ents by which tliey arc proved . *
The irnportance attached to the Arrange me nt of Argum en ts by th e t1rn great ri1·al or:1t or,; of A1h1
1
e ns, rn[)y se rv e to illu st rate and e nforc e \\·li at . .t1 ~·;~~1::, ~·t:~

lw.s heen s:rn· J.

I

J

JEJ sc h'mes strongly urge d ·th e

me nt.

judges (in the celebrnted c ontes t con ce rni ng the cro11 n)
to confi ne hi s adve rsary to th e same ord er, in his reply
to tlie charges brought, 1d1ich he himself had ubscfl' cd
in bringing th em forward . D ernos tl 1c11 es l1011-c1·cr 11as
fa~ too skilful to b e thus entrapr;ed ; and so muc h impo r1:111 re do es he at.tacli lo this point , that lie o peno hi s
s p ~cc h , ~vi1h a most sol emn appeal to th e Jud;rs for
an impartial hearing : which implies , he says, not onlv a
rej ecti on of prejud ice , but no less , also , a permi ss ion .for
ea.c h s peaker to adopt what eve r .flrrangemcnt he shoiil d
thmk fit. And acc ordingly he proc eeds to adopt on e
ve ry difforent from that which his antagonist had bi d

do~m ; for he was no less sen sible than hi s rival, that
the same Arrangem ent whic h is the most favourabl e to
one s;de, is likely to be th e least favourable to th e
01 her.
*See Paley "• Fvid,.nc cs, I ntrod .

,,
.f

"·

SS

LL1::1J1·::\TS OF 1\ 11 J:TO l : I<.

'n·

"'

lo l.

P A1n l.

\ '() _\\'!! 'T l< t '.;

S'.)

ll :::pcr.;Lli J.-.: 1iiv !-.. il1l•· i li;c l'~·upti:-.!l; , ;:i ~n :d thr
Pro(:C.;;. is cq :1al1y sif Pnt .i~ t,-, !ln~ nrder in \':h ir·!1 ihr'\.
:·-dn1uld ~ 1 c !)heed ; !1luu~l 1 lJt~ 11' ;1\·l ·.~ it tn 1,e uiit!1ir ~ \ t )(H i ,
fro lJ1 hi.--i I1i:1n1:1_·r of !-:jH~i!ki n~ 1 th f1 l tiH~ (~nnr' i11 ~:i f1:i f11r
(~1H: ., !iti11) i; \!1 Li' l/r . ; t ~ Lt!Pd~ ;nid dH·n th P Pr1 ·111i ,1·~,
'-'~ i!I .\ b tiH:111;i:j,.,,. Tl1 i' i11dced is ilH · usu;-:] c.nJ natur-:11 \':;1y Oi spr 0/\! n .~ nr \'. · 11 !1 11 :; ; \·iz. to h1
Ly d1'1·hri11~ _l"<lttr Oi 1i11i111 i, 11 11d tlwn 10 s11l1jn i1 1 1/1,, l~e ;,,;(1 1 1 , :«ir
it
Bu t ti1crc :ire rn:rny oc:-;1sions on \\ l1icl 1 it \\iii 1,.~
! 1111 1 \'. l1 i _li

h~n.- r

..

hrr.n ;:;i\·r:n r rs11c:r·.1in~ !hr: Order in " ·ili ch rlifiCrcn t
kinds of Ar;::11111r·:it ~lirnild lw :1 rran:c e d, rebt" 011ly to
the diifercnt kinds of Arr;nrnP-nt~ add1trPd m snppnrt of
\':wii '''i 1:1rak i' r<l j>ositrnn; 5i11ec of crnirsr the rcfotatio n 0L111 o:ipos cd ::isscrtion, ctlCctcd by mc::ins of ~i;ns,
rnety Le k11lu111 " i Ly an a prt(!I'/ Ar;c.1111l1·11t i11 C1vrn :r
ul· <lilr 01111 Cu1 1cltt'iu11; :unl tlie like i1 1 llllilt)' otlwr

I

(.J1
,-

,'

1

•

•

•

l ,11<'. ) ·1 '

·
•
1 .:::11c' I 1·011''''!tw1w1; t" n·\·er:;e t 1 11s
pla11
.
It ffi ll
SfJltH: tillH'' c>;i vP :rn n il(•11 , i\·l·ly do:-;111:1ti" :tl 11ir \ll a C:ri:ii-

§ 5.

posiuon, lo beg in by advanci ng some new and unex-

A Proposition that is well known (whe th er easy to be
\\ . !rr-:i i:w
f's t ah~i~hed or no t} and ;,vhirh contains nnthing
!:rnni"/:~.. :\nd p~i. rtlf'ui:1rl:~ offr~11;.;i\·t·, s1101iltl in ~1'11cr;il 1JL~

pec ted assertion ; thoug h sometimes again tliis may be
adviscihlP-~ \vhrn the A.r~un1ents an'! s::rh ;;:; ,--;-1n 1,t"' ,•. t·H

rr•!ied

~

unfortunate that Cicero, who possessed so much practical skill, should have laid down no rule on this point,
(though it is onr. whirh cviclr.ntly !tad ellg_aged Jiis attention,) bnt sho uld cnntcnt hirnsr. lf \l'ith sayin!!; that
so1J1eli1nes lie adopted tl1e 011e mode and sometimes the
other , * (wh ic h doubtless he did not do at random, without distin!!uishing; the cases in whic h cat: h is to be prefr.rrPd, :ind l:win l': dnwn prinripiP~ tn gnirlt> our dP(·i~in11.
:\r i;:; toi!t.., ;-d:::;n , ,,\·h1 •n !J P hy ~; d 11n· n thr n \·n ;rr:1t licarh
• lJc Uru.L.

--

---

-

-

~-

..

,

- -,...,, ---~

On,

anrl thr pr1n(·ij i: d ()1ijl'('! i-.: !1> l''-;( j; 1· ;t ~ l i· riti '- !Jl
\ l .
I'
I
· 1 •·
'
1 iH ~r. con.ing y, \ V! fil tni:::: vi e\

;u1J
a1vake11 cmio.~J·
l" .
. .
_ _,,

Proofs ~ nhj nin Pd; hnt
1, ; ,i J!d
Jiris l.
if it Le not familiar to the hcu re rs, and espc ~
cietlh· iC it lie likely tu lie u1 1acccp'.11b lc, it i:; usu;-:Jly bette r to s tate the Arg uments tlr:;t, or a t lea~t some of them,
and then introduce the Conciusion .
T!ll.:re is no yuestiua reiali11;!; tu Arrw1ge 1nent, more
uuport~u1t than the present ; and it j:; tlit;:_reiUre the 111vre
Lu 11 d11:::. /. uU

1:

)

Js not unusual to present so m e doc trin e . Lv uo rn eans
l'P:-tliy Tl!ll'P) 1 in a nC'W ;ind paradu'\.it::iJ . ,, J:: lj>t'.
nil!
it

11 ll<'n il:r.' Cu11dusion lo Le established is '"'"' li kd\' to
thR prr:-judices of 1h0 h1• :u~t rs,

~u.rt the feclin~s and offend

I

ll 1~ e~~emi:.tl to keep ont of sigl1l, as wu c li as possiLlc,
1!• 11 : ] 1"illt
Ill \dtwli 'll' ·11·" l"ll<l1'11" t;ll 11
.· · 1
•
• •
'
' "'
~
.-1 •
'" J' f lllCl!'H:S

from ~'Inch 1t 1s to be deduced shall Ji a,·c bee n clearly
establish ed; because men listen with prejudiC'.F>, if at aJJ ,
to Ari:;1m11
·11l"~ that are :11' f1\1•edhlc·H1':
- 1 •
1 no'
•
.,,
·(
n t ~·.) n~ C·ouc1us1on
1vh id1 tlwy ~rf' indispose d to :ir!niit; wlicrt~ as ;r 11<' tl::: ~,
a::; il \\'ere, mask the ballery, tl1ey wiil nor b e al.i le to
shelter themselves from th e·' cl1' ccli··;~c.
rn1,
1
~
u. o.
I '" () •S •' fV;Jll('t'

accordin~ly, or ni?g:lect, of thi~
difforeuce of s11cPPss or failnrP.

1

nl;, \\·i ll nft cn rn::ike

tltf:

I:' ART I.

ELEMENTS OF RHETOIUC.

90

It m:iy hf' ob~c1Tc<l, that if the

Prnpo,;itio11

tu lw

tllaintained he s11c h ~ts the l1carcrs ar e likely tu n~ ,::;ard
as i11,ig11i/i.-111tl, the

q11cstion

Ill. § G.

C11 .,\ 1'.

t1·i1111q• !1; 111 t l_1·

~ lio11ld be at fir:ot s11]'p ress -

yet

!1t

t·11q 1l1>yt·d, <ill !If )

1

ed ; l111t if tl1.:n: lie any tliint:; of}Cnsire l<J tl 1eir p rejudin~s, tlic 1rucstion m::iy be stated, b u t tl1c decis ion of

pro1·c-;, t lt:tt tlie ""t<'rnir :u1;le

i1, I.or a t11 11 r·, k1 ';1t k1lk .

tii: t il i'Jt!HT

(Ir

'i" ' ''lli"l \,.

;1

!'111

t1·1; 111'..'.l1 · j, '..'.1.,.-1: •"'

11

1;lt1:ri11r ()jlJH):-..;j[C dlJ.~!1•:-;;

of the

:\11d

l:,l'lllll!1l s .

:tl'i'

1·<' ry , ·0:1 1111-111 111 \L1tl1c111;1ti1 ·s

ii h

lw11 1·~ 1

\\it!J11111

_\nd it mil nftc11 he arh·i,;1lih: to ad1111wr~ n:r_;· ::;rad11; 1l :v \() 1li r: f1d l ;; L\il:1111 '11t
;u1d

10 prtJ \·e 1L

if

of

ti11~ l'ru11usi1iu11 r<'ljll irl't!,

o n e n1:n- ~o ~pc:1k,

l)y

'' - 1;tl.\i-l11wc: ''"• :11:11l'h·, a11d 111 ord 1'r , '' ;(' 11 l""·t
111 1', .1'1

IJl

<\

1'1 ]•_·, t!:11 -; 111:11

l l t '" f Ii ~ 1l.

:( ! l ".:it ~ .<

i11,litl 11Jt. '111:-i;

"r

L·::- ..:.

1111'

.\1i-;!1Jlit' ,.,1;1lili -i l1':i

/l' 1t i1·i11g, (()r llH~ 1ir~ 1 'L' Jlt~
1.~

Iii•

1·1i: 1h l!·d

t i)

il 1: tt 1l11 ; r''\ lt'J' :i)r d i

1 '·~\ ;i i 1 i i--i:1·-.: ,

c1;11' ]l\. Olli',

the

'."iC\'L'l'ld

j ll ll!ll~

\ \]111 !1

· ;1 r ( · !

T'! \I'

·i; ! L1)

ln

1r11\ ·c ) ~lt

i :. .;, t '11 1 1:d

~1tt~ ~11 L:l1' ~ trl~1 · tl1c-r

I l::;•;•i1 « -- ', i:1 :i:0 l·r·'.:'. 11111i11c:nf ti w .\'irn111111·/11'<111 Ftl1ics,
I'" (11·-ct i'r n1·rc; 1n \\ !1 ;1t it dncs 1wt ro1 1,isL ;111d tl1t'll

;

:icc:Hll.

l 'a ]i· 1·

1:11

hi' 1".l"Hlrnr·r''J tir;;t

l•·'iil1111111

1j·..;1 i!"wd
t! H ~

]'l'<>\'t:'i

tl1;1l

i t 1s
t1111·st1 n n .

111i!'1t1·11!11rrs ;

: 1~ ;in · n'("(1rd(·(l

(li'li'll

\\'- \]'.' " ...' :\

/:110 1riu1'i11; 1i1<•11, tl:::t it 11<1s ./;,,. tlw ir

i!1;1t ; )i ,.,- '!l li( ·ri·d : till'll, :J1::I !i1c C\t'lll '
\\'f'J'( '

... .·n 11 11'

d1 1· 11, 1l1:tl d11 J-.: e

111 n11r

l)<Hd,;,s ~

~1•

('\·e11!<...;

()r

5l !f'Pp .:p ih::t

l,',"f1Clf

l~

I\\., l

<i1 il"· r1 ·1! H'd\·

:1·: ·

11. (ll

i-.:,

t • l -. .;, t:!!1'

i1r( ·..:1 · 11t !H'< · :: i i·" ~ I 1:1 rr: 11 : 1-

- 1!1;11 1· rn1 :ire 11ot to IJ1 ~ 11 1Hit'rst1lod

tl11· 1r111li

,,r

d..:. ! '

\I l

tl1i;; or t ii:1t, 1l1rn1:.J1 1·011

ii 1-.: !l l"t

1\ '

! .'

d"

;h

:1.!111111i 11c.-;

11"t ;1 1 p 1·('-;r'11l

1\.

I i·

·1 rtn1·nl

\\ ::i

"he ta( :itiy t1d1nit s U1at such and suc h inay be tla::

\ : .~ < ~

I

~

I I;'

1l

l

( ! I.> 1' I ' I 1· I

I l : i ...; I )I ' I ' ! I

j I I I I' I

II

:'l

~: · ::·

:·;i];,- ).'< '

I

!

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i (•

\ \ " )• •' I I T: • •· i.1 -

'"

!l'J ;11•1.' 1. l 11:· ;d .[\ T\\;t/'t]--, ;11!d:1( · -

,,

a11r fac t.

I'-\

tu prove thi ., or t.1:~1: · " u '.: c c!0"'s n0t d"ny , ~-, nn d ~n: "

I 11' '

p r 1)()j.(if! ] 11· ilLl l ll }' rtl)J; 1·~ i ti11 i J i1l (!llf':-:!iorJ, fiH ' I'!~

11·1111·c

\) (iJ'li() rJ 11f :1

rf11t'

~ii1;1(1 ()j. :t

;ti

\\ t'r~·

que~ ti o:: , \\ hi1e our attcntinn i:.: orrupiPd \vith
point . Now it cannot be too 1·rirPf11iiy kept in
that it is n conun f 1n rnis take ;,vith inacc urate rra( ;111d :1 1r11' i :1~;1 ' 11}1i,-]1 j, ,l111ii111hi\' h·11 t "I' Ly a11
t(l

l\\·,, !!1 !1 r1 1i r

1;1111111~.;

I 11 1i}i 'l"I;

another

1ni1Hi 1

1!11~

fl//{! ''L

-... t: l'..': " )

tl11'1·

&t·.

f'"jH'1li1·11!, 5(1111c1i111cs 11r1;11 uid;ti,J1-, to

\.tir 1l :t' )1r( ':-:.('JiL :;•. 111 11• r ; t 11' :--:tiilJ1

tl1

f1 r1:1·

~1 d 1, :~:w1 ·il

{()~t·tlwr

11 11 • ;q1"· :I,.,, ~'" '"tiirrif: nr"l, tli;1t tll!'_\' l'IH "1 11111l<'l'<'d
1lwi1· 'lli; ;.1· 111 '..'. '

!\ I H".,;] l ( l]l.

:u1d d 1:1 t :dl tltc tl1r i · t~

p r) _-.; 1111)11 ~ \\· , ,11·!1 \'ntt ;in · 1111! a l

T l111s

tl11•

\ t !:\'11" 1:

.

...

eJ ;

( ~ i1J ce

(t!i:r··r

1 1 ·-: < ~ J·r:-:-. r~ :·1:,-1r11'

Fil:-

that will have been aiready •2oni:: m tl:e

il 1·-. ;. 1:1 1:'.: cn:

h1-·r·n

c;1 : .1:

11 n1;-1let"'",·fld.

;1 :.::·1:c;ddt: ;1::d

:-. ;1!: : i: n ~~ uri, ·

.. a~1d

1n::r oft en be of ::rc:i: u:: 1 i!.~,· . to cxµla '. n . ,,\·h c:-c it C2.n be
di) u(:; the l~au:s·~~ wluch prud uc.e an .Lik~c. l thar

i5 ii.::\ i· i i.

92

EL1'MENTS OF llHETORIC.

PART

l.

already admitted to exist. But it must Le remembered
that it is of great importance to make it clearly appear
which object is, in each case , proposed ; whether to establish the fact, or to account for it ; since otherwise we
may often be supposed to be employing a fe eble Argument. For that which is a sat isfactory explanation of
an admitted fact, will frequently be su c: h as would be
very insu!Tici ent to pro1•e it, supposing it were doubted.

§ 7.
R efutatio11 s of Objections should gen erally Le placed
in the midst of the other Arguments, but nearn .._. ru1at io 11.
er the beg,innin g tha:i the end.
If ind eed very stro11g objec tio11s hal'e 0Ltai11e<l llluch
currency, or have Leen just stated by an opponent, so
that what is asserted is likely to be regard ed as paradoxicJl, it may be advisabl e to begin with a R efutation ;
but when thi s is not the case , the mention of Obj ections
in the opeui11g will Le likely to giv e a paradoxical air to
our asse rtion, by implying a consciousness that much
may be said against it. If again all mention of Obj ect10ns be deferred till the last, the other Arguments will
often be listened to with prejudice Ly tl1ose who may
suppose us to be overlooking what may he urged on tJ1e
other side.
Sornetim£s indeed it will be difficult to give a satisfac tory Refutation of the opposed 0 pinions till we
hav e gone through the argu111eut s in support of our 011·11 :
e1·en in that case however it will be better to take some
bri ef notice of them e;trly in the Composition, with a
promise of afie rn·ards r onsid ering them more f11Ily, and
1efuting; tl1en1. Thi s is :\ ristotle 's usual procedure.

I

!

C11Ar

Ill.

~

7.

OF

C'.U:'\Vfl ~ TIO.\'

03

A soplii stil'al use is of'ten made of tl1i s b .;t rnlc , 1rll<'n
tlie Obj ec tions are such as e<11n1ol r1:ally !1t: ~:1 t i·if:L< : ­
turily a11 s11·1!red. T l1e sk ilful Soph io t 11ill uf~ c' 11 , l1y
the promi se of a triu1npha11t Ref11tati or1 k :re:1 i'tc r 1 gai n
attentiu11 to Iri s 011·11 stat ement ; 11lii('\r 1 if it be 11 L1de
plausibl e, will so draw off the hearer's attention fro1n
th e O bjecti ons, tha t a very inadcrJ11:tt c f1 t!iil 111 c11t ,,[
tltat promi se will pass 11nnoticeJ , and Jue 11 ei:; l1t 11iil
Jtlll ],c :rl llll1·c tl to t!te Olij1~ c tiorh .
It may he worth remarking , that Refutation will often
occa, ion th e introduction of fr es h Propositions; i. r.
we m:1y have to di ~ prov c Propositi ons, 111 1id1 t!tm1glt
111compatible with tl1e pri11cipal one to lie 111ai:rt:1i11cd ,
11·ill 11 ot be dire ctly co n1racli ctory to it ; c. ~ · B111k 1: ,
i11 orc!er to the establishment of ltis tl1eory of Lca11t y 1
rcfut t'S the other theories which have Lec11 ad1·a11cc d
liy those 1rho place it in " fit11ess " for a c1·r1ai11 e11d i11 " propo rtion" - in" pc rl..,,~c ti o 11, " &c . ; a11d Ih. A.
S1nitli , in !ii :; 'J 'hcory of Jlloml Se11ti111 c11t .<, cor11 \J,1t>
tire opi11iu11 of tho se \\·ho rnake "ex pcdi c111· y tl1•0 \e'l
of 1·irtu e " - of th e advol'at cs of a" \l1Jr:tl s< '11 . ; 1', " &c
whi ch doctrin es re;; pectivcly are at vari:uw c " ·iti r thos•!
of these authors, and imply, though they do not ex pre ~s ,
a co11trarli ction of them.
Tlw11gh I am at present treating prin c ip:1lly of tl1c
proper collocation of 1lcf11tation, so111 c n' 111ar:, ~; on tlw
conduct of it will not lie 11ns1 1ita\Jl e ir1 tl 1i.; l'Lw c . !1 1
the first pl:u:c, it is to It(~ oli~1!rved that tlwre is (:1s
1\ri stotl e remarks, R!t.ct. l;ook ii. ~1pf'arc11tl y i11 nppo'itioll to some form er writers) no di stinl'l chss of rcf11tatory Arguments ; sin ce tlwy become sucl1 lltcrcly ];y
the circumstan ces umler 1rlii ch they arc c111ployeJ

\l

.J

.......

,,'

.
;,.

;

EL lcil!Ei'n'S OF HffETUIUC.

'rh('rr~ arc t\\'O ',\ · ~i\-s 111 \d1i~·h a11:·

}' A l\'f

1.

Pr1qiu _~it i()11 111:t\' lit)

) _...;

t ' '·

i ·,!'t, ."< 1 ' 1

l

\ 1J

1I •

11 I ) I '.'.

l

1

·1

\

'
! : l ~ 1:1

-l

(

n·l·111"d; • fir :;t , Ly jl l'<J\'111c: t i1!'. 1·1J11tr:1di1·t11r.v

'I'"·

"' "'"'""~· of' it; c; 1·c·n1Hlly ; hy m·e rt lir11 11i1 1.;,:; tl1e ;\ rc:ll111c11 ts iJy 11·!.i1 Ii it has bc1·11 c;11pp"nvd.
Tl1L' 1;1 r111<;"
,,f these is J,.,, :-;1ril'lly a11d properly c:t!kd Hd111 :1ti"11 ,

r· 1 1il1 1 ~

beinp; only accidcntaily such , smcc it mi;;ht have liee11

n1ent to prove tb:tt Conclusion ;

i . .; :. . ;

( <.

~

rll i'

!·, 1i ·

j11"l's::('./

11;i1· rt:i'c1tcd i1y :mother, 11'111J li :1d 111:n·1· lw:ll'li 111' 11is ;\r-

j,

~1111 H '1 1 h.

J~n ' ( 'i· ;1~

11·cll

rr hu;.: Pc rir-irs is

rrprr:SC'Iltcd

t 1 , \ 1' : · \ • ( · i. i r 111 1i ' 1 11 ( 1 , , ; 1_, · , • '

'l:·i1 ,- tl1 :1l it ]n;uJ....;
trtH· , lHl l it

Jr)

: l ~" 1 ' J'1 i ()!J l~

kid the "i'i"''11c .\ r~1111w1 1 t
11<' 1 «r r: \i,tcd; .111d in fa1·t it 11 ill ul.11· 11 l1a1'l'"11 tl1:1l :1
)'l'\ljJU:--J!Htll lll; t i 1t1:1it 1ed l1y Ollt_'. ~l\J!}J\)l' l!\; J\' \11 · Ill ll11~
u11i1l1iyc.i c1i11a ily

J

!) 11 !

(ll•.i · 'l' l i(111 ttJ

1l1\~

U ·:1 -.. 0 11i11~
1

c..; 1w ! 1 ;i

)i ;t_...;

•·( "11h1

Jl(l fl _!/"("I'

'!

: t-..:

jl lt 'll 1"'
:!!\

\1·" 1

this sou n rl .s like an
it--t·ll', IJ!it ir \\jJ/ n()t 1111l'1·1·11

•11: 1·1 11l.1 \,,; i",J1 :11d I•> :11111J11:1I CJJ1i1· I ll a d .. i:i:il 1it' 1];" 'li/1-

!iy 'finwydit!~:-_;

l>r.

; ii i , -._;

11!' ;1 11 l ·:1 i!liy1111 ·:1\ t' ·,

rlll'

:1-;--1 J' i!\ljj

\\

i1i1·/i

11d11 1ilt« il lwi11~ 11 11! .1 tl1,, 1~\11rc·:-:; cJ l'r cll1i'', 11 11·. 1> "
;111

:\ r:.:: n tli 'Tl!

Jit nst nf co1Jr~t' ck·1H'1 1d

i

111

t\w

a~ ['ro\·in .~, j71 a si1rrrh to the :\d1eni :11 1'-', the pru l1 ~tl id-

1t1· nf 1l1eir s1ic('e,;s a;ain-,t the Pclilpo 1111 csia11s, :ulll tl1u,;,

11il111ir..; 1l:: 1t 111 dll'

vir 11i:tlk, reC111i11 ~ tile speech of the (\1 ri11tl1ia11 ;1111L:h-

f"111ri '. -..; ;!!1'

s ador ;it Sp;irt:i, \vho bad bboured to sliew die pi ulJ;thility of their speedy downfal t. In fa ct, e very one
;.vhn argues in favuur of any Conclusion i3 virtually rfl.f11i 1 n::~ in t~ n ~; W <i _\': 1l:e ttj' j 'i):--- l i e C.o;w li1:---i•1 H.
J; 11i

-,_
-~_2 _

' c.r'";. •;._

~

.,

_,._ ______:: _! _::l.:~ _

~

_ ll

lLi'

cl~:lr:w tcr

u:·

f{1· i.t Jt :tTi() JI 11\()f"(' ~tri(

rh·

!H·l(i11;.::';

.,

Ill

i

\';:1~

!1i1l

f.:111

r;f .\!() ...;<'..; tl1e .J,,. 1ri1w 1>f a

r cveal~d ; ln 1! t·o11tt:'.11d~ 1it; 1t ttw·;, ~ o

hr frurn d1 opro 1·i11.:;. ::is the Deists p r rtrnrl, hico Di• iil<'
mission does, on th e contrary, establish it.. Il ut the
ohjr'r-.:ion i~ nr.t to th e D ei:::t ':: ./1.-r;;tnnent F!'O}H~rly so
(':lil 1:d , Lu: 141 i1ic o :1i+-'r P rr-Hti ""' ""' , \\·lti~ It Jin ..,· ~n f1 :1 <..;:i/\~
l!HJJ,._ J'~ 1 r ~'.T:1 1 1 ! 1·11. :11 1iJ \'.)1i1 ·)1

lt1'

di ....:jl !" (l \"(' ....:,

\I '. ',.

((

t) 1 ~11 :t

to the other mode of proceeding, viz. in which a refere nce is made , a;id an answer ;;in:n, lo ~u 1ae ~ pc ca'ic
_\.J:.'. UlllL'lllo lll f; 1\'C1:1r of the nrrnsi:r f' r111clnsinn.
T hi.;
f{Jifn t:1tinn !!l:I_:' ("t l:1-.:i:-'t ,.. ji\ Jr'f i tt tlte d'"' llir-tl , ,j' O lli ~ of ill<-:

divinely-commissioned Lawgiv er would hav P. h<'erY sure
to re 1•.:al tlmt Juctri11e." The objection is ;hen only
prn;1f" rl~.r ~:1!d to lie· ;~1:~ : 1in~ ~ thr Rc;-i::.;rini n'2: ir --.clC \\ Lc: 11

Premises , or an objection agamst the conclusi:vcncss of
the re::isonin!!;. And here it is to Le oLserved that the
, J\ 1,i1•1 ·i illl1 j,; .-, fr,•n '1 1ppno;cd, Imm tlic lll1Jil e i:1 11i1i 1cl 1 it

other side , whether expressed or understood, still the
Conclusion contended for would not foilow from the

"

i-tli

1lt:t1

Pn·111ic1•,;; ('itill'r Clll :1tT01111t of some an1liic: 11i11· 111 1i1<:
\Jj,j,Jj,, T .. rn 1, 11r <;<>111(~ ,.1]1er l;i1tlt of tlta1 "J:i ,

* ' ..4 J' uavJ).oyHT/ HJ ;

and

i PUTuet l!;

of Aril:ilutlc , hvuk ii.

1 'l'he ~ peec h es in deed app-ear to be in gre:J.t part the c,_,mpn~itinn

of the hi storian : but he professes to give the substance of what was
either u.ctuaUy s1U1?, or likely to he a:iid, on en.c h occasion; and the
Ar 17 nmen ts urgcti. in trH:- :;p("Cf'. f : ('~ rnn'.' in rpH':-i t! n a an~ nuduuLleJiy
~111 ·.l~ ;1,... 1 . IH~ r1 :.-->p1 c L1'.1 : :::>11c .d~ l'.r.:> \\ u<d J Uc L:i. L·ly Lu c rn pluy .

( :-; ,. ..

T.of:!f: . r.h:iptrr nn F'nlla1· itf: _)
•It h a~ hP1•n r1.. mnrkt:>O tn mf'..' by an intell ig"f'n t fri,' nd , that in
cornmon df-wcourse t he w ord " Princ iple" is u sua llv Pm!iloyP d tn
f JlUl,Jf

-

'' ;.· :~
,-~

OF
1·:1. J:\!

l :\T ~'

I

ii·

!t i!!:

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j'(' I'

l )1

1i · r

\\ ith " n ,·:'11 t:1l i(l 1J ," o r

p·

J 11T; t t1 : ,:1 .

\' I 11 ~ l l I ' ( • :

l1:1l ' l \
i·1 1ltt T

1· ; 1._; ,· :

I •(

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lJ1 1T 1· t

1 \ '.

I. )l

1J J! I '] l l ; \ I'-.;

C' llj li >O·
I1 :

l iid 1r t ' ('i

cil i1 1• r

) H!\' j ll l.-.., l '.

11(",1' (t .rui i t

'l'/ 11•

,x r 1J· i1 )

. \ r ~ 1111 11 · 1 1 t, , l::h
".\ iiil'li,

; q •; ilic :t J: \ 11)

lli

Ul · :t.-.;!1111 1 1 ~~ 1lf' t1 1 ~

( 1(

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d (' l li , .

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1,( ·1

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f l l.1 f

wliicli 1s
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Ii 11'. 1r : ·, l 1! 1: 1: 11 :d ; 1.

t r 11 :i1

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c· 1Jrw ltt....;i1) n

< · <J11!r:id1 ( 1()j".\, ( ~ 1· !1~1
111:ty r t1

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rna11if1_·~tly i11ad111i ""ilil1"; ·~ ·

f )r . ( ' ;1n11iln ·H !:d11111r-..:

1":h l l \

Iii •

!!Il l ',)

!1 i1-1 \· c· ~ :

g. tl11" r\ rg 111111 •111 ''.Y

In 11rn\'!:' 1l r:1 1 f·· v 1 ·ry 1·11 r r1~ 1 ·t

1111~~, Jiti f'\,

; 1...:,

ii. 0ri rn1iir'd 11 r

:t ' ' jll

11!\ l lh · 1::"

; i ii~

fli1 irr·

rh:-i:1

1, ,

/ii/ 1 1

; :i -

ft is worth rein1u·ki11f!:, Ll1at that which 1s i11 s 1ii1sta1w c

1S CG il -

be L.Lltc rcc: in

tktt 1s lnd 1r c ct rca2011rnc: iII wl11ch we :.i::;::; urnc

f~!IT!l :· ,:-:, ~ ~

:.i::; tn:c

tLr:

Proposition whose Contradictory it is our oliject to l'ruve
and dcdu cinf' rc:::ubrh· fro m it an :11 n 1rrl Crnwlw; 11 :1,
ii1:·(T rl 1L·1wc tli:1l tlP: P r c· 1t1 :~ ~ i11 11 11(' ...:'. 1(>1 1 i:-. C\l·- 1· ~
1 ; _,,

•I

alternative proposed in all correct reasoning; lwin g either
10

Nor ii1d~t:: d can a !-Lt}L.1cv 1_1 e ~ o clt_.;wiy P~pc,,~ fi d

IIH' 1mlc:irncd render in mw other wnv.

~H)J J -

\ ·1 11 1 1

1ll 11-...t ;·; 1ii·

Ii (• i1i t ri 1d:wi·il,

;in l J1 , !Ir C t: t :1 i2" t 1iTIC nL TT1J.}- c :r ~ l\-

sid cre<l preil:r~d,J c , u1 CuntrC•versy, the indirect is ofrcn
~1dnptPd hy f'.i1oif't 1, as iL a f1u rJ ~ all 01•111xlu11i1y fr•r l1u kl i1pf 11 n ;1; 1 ():);t<ll l t' 1it t o :--( ·<1r1 1 :titd ri di1 · 1 il1'~ L.\· d 1·d11( i :1 :~
some very absurd cu1wi 11 ~ iu11 from the principies he
11 1:lilllaiu:; ) or :!f' t•ord ing:, to ih': rno1k~ (;f ;-:rg nin; he crn •

Ii

1'

nn

t1 1e tHlK:r hand, if tile contradict0 ry o f :in o pponc nt ;s
PiT rnic:·.: r·~n hr s:lii~,J:wl.nri h 1 pret\" t: J ffi the Direct
P.\.c ~ I ~

t 1J

J. t-'. tlial il 11rn \t-> . .:. 1 i 1c _. . J1; ; ' -.: tl 1, •c 1·.i 1cl11 " J1 1n 1\ r ;l \\ll, ;n H•l) 1, ·r

t h ;1!

~\ j j,

i t11lir1·1 ·t

! 1! T i·1 I \

!.111"\ \ d l' i!

1
_

l

• ' l 11)l 111.\' 11 11 '

l'lll wr

tl1: tt

L_\· 1 , r 11\ 'JIL~

p;·· in1-i pi i , ;;
(1r! 1' :l

1.o

Lt· d1·(:11
cd 1·1" 11 '1 1111, }'I" l\"hi :1,, 11 i11 11uc· sti<> 11: \\ 1"'11 ti11' l:i ;: '
l! H)d1' (i\. r t · ~ ·llt:tll(>l \ h :i i\ 111 1t 1·d \\"ith r1 ·...;lH ' C
t !" \ l ! l' ] \1,.
,, ,, ( 't '-

Th:-n 0r h -c-r~11 ry

Tir ·ft:l: 1ti(1 fJ (if

~ i],\, ~

1!' ; 1 n • 11 11 :-- 1·~.

~l 1 1·\\ i11 .~ i !i:ti a11 ;1! 1_..;11 rd

: l i 11l l1t'1H 1'

ill rt illliJilt ll lQ

!w

!J ri H 1 ~l 1 1

tlw r

Lb c:u: 1(_·lu;:;t111 1;
! >i :·1 1 : , ( ~ 1 111

(· ii lH ·r

l t11 lircc t

\ · iz.

i 1\\l1;'

i 11• \1. 1] l

~li t ;t\1:-- u rd 1·r i n("lt1 :-· 11 i 11 111 : t\

tn

It h

c 111 -

t i!. 1)1 ;!1 l tT ril;

11.... 1·

li

Cr( 111t

l' r11 !d ily f'l 111tr ii n t1 c·d tn t i1i s c111 11'1 h ic.11;

s u;.;;; cs tc J l~l('. idta uf ~ ill t(l/1' £J ,~'Ul'!J

L t '11:"

t l 11 i11 "..': li

j

l1011C \'> T, 1ni 1wii'aily :11 i,;1• s 1·rn111 1!111 \1 ·ry 1 ir,.11111 -

j'r·lli:C _) ; : \i l.'I ;

i~

,.d \u L1: pe1·11 i 1 . l 1 J :"' l 1; ) t t t t ,

r cfui1~ cir di..;j1J·11\·c , ) to

~-: : 1:1 t c ll i :i~ occ :_L.:- 11.._ 1111•d :--. l 11 · l1 a
tli.tt

11w 11 l

( '{ ) Jl!'1J\ l ) l( l t•d

\\ }I

,,; ,,11"l i11iii1 i;·r 1·:i11 \·, l~•r n ,. r,,1:11 :,,11, :1'

()7

\ '();'i \' !CTll> :" .

I' , Hr I

Jltll'

\ \ l ti (

r :111 d

\, ,•I :!•' ·.

!'I

admit Li1e Cu11clu~iuu, or to Je1 1y 0 11 e

ln1t 11y adul'tin;:; tlic f'urlll

or

For it is no
... :::ke:
'I

"'' i

or 1l1 e

l';1~ 111i~t:.-; ;

:1 Dcst rn c li\ c Cundit iu11:d, '
I ~·.. _,1..:.

ELEMENTS OF llllETOlUC.

98

J'ART

CHAI'. Ill. § 7.

I.

th e sam0 argument as this, in substance, may be stated
directly. E.g. we may say, "let it be admitted, that
no testimony can satisfactorily establ ish such a fact as is
not agreeable to our experience; thence it will follow
th at the Eastern Prince judged wisely and rightly, in at
011ce rejecting, as a manifest falsehood, the account given
!1i111 of the phenomenon of ice; but he was eY idently
mi staken in so doi n!!;; th erefore the Principle assumer! is
un sound." Now the substance of this Argument remaining the same, th e form of it may be so alt ered as to make
th e Argument Di rect; viz. " ·i f it be true that no testimony, &c. thrit Eastern Prin ce must have judged wisely,
&c. but he did not; therefore that Principle is not true."
Universally indeed a Conditional Proposition may be
regarded as an assertion of the validity of a
C hararter of
w11<1itio11a1 certain Argument ; the Antecedent correspond1,ro11u.:; itiu11 s.
in?; to the Premi ses, and t.he Consef]uent to
the Conclusion ; and neither of them being asserted as
true, only the dependence of the one on the other; the
:i ltcrn:itive th en is, to admit the Conseri uent, (which forms
th e Constrnctive Syllogism,) or to deny the Antecedent;
which forms the Dr.strnctive; anc! the fonnr.r accordingly corresponds to Direct reasoning;, the hitter to Indirect;
being, as has been said , a mode of stating it in th e Din•ct form; as is e1' ident from the examples adduced .
The diflcrence bet ween these t1rn modes of stating
such an Argum ent is considerable, when th ere
J
i~· rt J pf.
Jl-'t·I of i11tfi .
is
a I on .~ c hain of reasonin g ; for 11·lt c11 11·e
1r:rl
employ the Categorical fonn, an cl ass11111e as
l!"ll e the Prc111ises ll"e des i;,;11 to di sprol"e, it is ev ident. we
must be 'Jl<'al;int:; irnnica/111, and in the clt arnr ter, ass111ned for the mon1e11t, of an adversary ; when, on the con-

Ul" CONVICTIO:'li

trary, we use the hypoth etical form, there is IHJ 1ro11 y.
Ilutl1~r's JJ. 11ulogy is :u1 inst:mce of the latter procedur e ;
he co nt ends that ·1J such and such 0!1jcctiu11s :u·e ;1d111i ssibl e a;,;ai1i:;t Reli:;iu11, tl1cy 1111 i:; t Le a1•11Ji,·d c1111al i_1 l11
the constitution aud com sc of Nature. Had he, on the
other hand, assumed, for the argument's sake , that sucl1
ohjecti.ins again st R el igion are valid, and l1ad 1ltc11t"e
proved the condition of the natural 11·orlcl to be tot:illv
dillerent from wl1at \\'C sec it to !.Jc, l1is arg111i1ents, 11 l1ic l1
would have been the same in substanc e, wo uld l1a1· 1~
assu 111 ecl an ir011ical fo mi. Thi s form li:ts b1;,·11 ;u\, 'l 'i<' d
hy Durke in hi s celebrated Defence of .)V'utnral .'\ocir:ty,
by a late noble L ord; * in 11ltich, a s ,; 11mi1 1~ tlt e pcr, <: n
of Doli11;brokc, he proves, accunli11;; to Lite prin cipko , Ji
that author, that the arguments he b ro ught again st ccc lesiasti cai, 1rnuld e11ually lie aga inst civil, in slilu tiuns.
It is in some respects a rcco111111cn datio11 o f tl1i s Litte r
method, and in others an objection to it , that tl1c sop!ii s
try of an ad vcrsary will often Le e:-. posc<l by it in a ! iul ic ro us point of 1·iew; anJ tl1is, c1 · 1~ n 11 ln.:rc 11u c;u1_·li ,.r;;.,.L
is des igned; the very esse ncc of je s ~ Lci11g; its u1i,,, ,c
• 'J'hi8

i~

an Arg1111u. ·11t frum Jlnrt!og!J,

ilt!I

well

a~

Bi:-;/iup Hut l1·r ';o; ,

thoug h rF 1t rC"latiug to tlic ::Hune point; Butlt:r ' ~ be ing a ddl ·11 cl· 11(

tl1 e /) nctrincs of H e li .~i o n; Burke's of its Inst itu tions and praetir·:t!
A defence of the Evidences of ou r relig io11, (tlie tl1ircl poi11t
again~t which oUj e c tiuns have be e n urge<l ,) on a 8i111ilar plan with
the work of Bud<e just me ntioned, and conse<tuently, like that, in
an ironical form, I attcmpled a few years ago, in a pa111plill't, (p1dil i:·d1 t·ll~·ct~ .

r 11 11

ar~u -

f'd anonymous1y 1ncrcly for the preservation of its ir1mi c ul clntractl' r. )

1111: 111 ~.

tu s he w, that ohjf' ctinns, ( hi:-:t.c,ri,~ - dn 11 lit~ 1 ) f<ir11i h r
againht the Scripture-hi~tvry. awl 111uc lt 111urL' pluu lie ur;.~ed ag-a in s t all the received accu1JJ1l~ j,f \apul1·11r1

\\' l1 osc oL~~ct was
1n thoi;e l.Jrought

~ i hl P , 111i ;! hl

I
.l

Huo11nparte .

I

j

I

.J

Cll .H.

l ()()

will ufteu e;iv•~ additiuual force tu llie
;\.r;tllncm, by the YiYid impression which ludicrow; 1m:i-

i

ft ni:-n·

lmt 11,:::1i11 1 it \•:ill 11ot u111'1 ·;:1111e11ily l1a1·,,

( )) 1.] 1 • 1 iH 111-..:

; 1n ·

Tl a1·i11::: hcr~ 11

r) 1t '. st ri ' 1(_'...; 1 ;lilt I

to ri 11·

u1: li liolli to

i--:

l~1·; 1 ,11 1 w 1 ·", ,, 11 J;,.(..

J1;11T ~ J\\ ! · :-...:\

c i[ .

l. t•

;:-;j '!h t ',

or l () l J Jt' I~ f ·:i '"- ( '•/ Ii ! I ~ '. -. . ) i :' w \.'
I'l l 'l..l l t :t 1J· ! Jll \\' 1Ii'1·1'
1
•
! j( •i )! • (· ;I; ! i ;J ; 1·: \'

P r 1':1 11 ---( · ---,

i '\

1,, .,. '.,

n1.tc!e ou t, more tlinn it really accom piishcs .

'"' 11r
i'

thin~

that can possihlv he reµ;ard ed as witly; not
l::n·i:i_:; jud:;!nt:"!!l Lo i1t:rc1..:t\'e tl1e cuuil1 in:1Liu 11 ~ \\·l reu it
""'''!" ~ . ,,r wit witl1 ~01111d Hc>a, .. ni112.
Tit.., ivy - 1nP<1Ji1

i' i r~l, 1nH

f_-,,,-1 ,lF
_r

c:: 1i · h ;t--; ,i ~

:..; , 1•• ,--...·,,,. 11 .• ,
- 1 ..... \ . . ) ..

I

'

n II

n _'<tl

\\·uuld Lt· di1i!i 1dt .. 1·

r Pf11tc, 111:1.1,

Le:

ant.1 :--,(i\ir i A r~1t -

t:1: ;·•r·- ·-: -

11r::: 1·d ; 1~·. ;1111,1 ;1

COllljJlclcly cuHccaL from the ir
Darq.~c r

1"·"Y·

vic11· tl 1c puin t uf lltc
And moreover if such a mode of
.\1·;1111ic11t be c11q1loycd on :-'< 'r111 1i..; :'111.j tTI..; ,

t)1;1t 11 )( 1 11 11 1cJ 1 ::: ac.--::.;

l_r~: expected, ;:u1d tu a[triLutc to it, \-vl1t!u ~ati s1Uc tor-iiv

\Yarned that '' ridicule is not the test of tru th, '' and'' that
\\'isdom and wit " are not the same thing, they distrust
Pve rv

(i 11

u : :1 1 i (11 1 ;

~olid :111d 1·0 111 i1 1ci11:; :\r:,111111;11[ 1 11·lii1 ·l1

ti11 •1· r1· ~· ;1ril 11:; 111' 111"rr~ tlt:u1 a ~;nod j11Lt·.

_;1· r 1t'r;d~_\·.

111: 11'1 - .;('n-Pd

111·1,·1 1 bd, c..;p1Ti;1lly In' 11 11i1ra('1i ..;1 •d

li1h di ..;;Hi1·;1111;i c:.''i tltat 111 ~ 1 1 k 111e11, 1wre1:i1 i11::: tl11; 11·i1, arc

o:· a

HeasoIJill~, ts no ordi-

1n1rv n1an. "'!""

1q>t lo 1·<>11t·iude tit;1l 11utl1in!-'. l11ll 11it ic; d1· ..; i!-'.11cd, a11d l()se
..;1:)11 ii'

101

diccc:r 1111 w1 1t uf suuuJ ;JJ1J wisuuwl

Thi~

:::"' 1•1«·1L11 ·c ;

ll f. § 7.

ThJ·-r::;u~.

of

I

i,

1111· "\\'1•11L l11·1·1!rn·11" :rr1· '(lil\l' t i1:\! '' c1·::11il:ili11•ti 11\' \\ i1:il
:q11 i c:1r--; ir>

1h

1

·111 a

pr\1\;1 n :ilit1 11;

!Hll

li :t\ 11 1'! ( li:--i · t·1·11111i'!:t

''' [•Cl'< 1·11 .-· 11 lw11 i1 i..; 1ii;1i 1!1<: ridictil<' d,11·_..; 1 :111d 11 /11·11 it

d1H·-..; 11\1 1. ;t1];·l·l
r~~pecL

t lw :-: , , j,': 1~11 :--!il1.·11'< "l 11 --1 · 11 ·.

palJ tu ll ul_\.-

\\.rjt ~

the tau11t 1if _Ll 1_itll1

B1:1 (1) r t!H·
~1~:_tUl'il U _p _:

' ' I f ,,

',)

propiict.s of Ha:il 11·nuld prnh:1hly :ipp0:ir tn s11rlt JYTsnns
JlTt ' \
·::: .
.\rill t'.1 1 ~ c ;L. : :i · 1~ 1 ll '.J\\ i1r1il'.i·.·d \'. :ll :1 1 11 1 1 · :~1
1l 1c 11111ri: i111p<1rt:u1t, 11lw11 it i:; 1· 1111: id1 'r1 ·d lit111 hrc:i: 11
111:1.i"r 1I.1'

1Ji, ..,. 11r1>, 11 ll'' . in tiii..; p11i11t, ,·,,111e l111d<'r 1!11;

i, :1: 1 ~

'1 1

i'•

((_1 1, .,j ' fl ll:-'

dr·! 1d• 't,

<;:t :11 11

liiw 11ti1 1~

' ill 'ld 1ir11fi :1 t

' ! j . I ~·

i

h. '...!

I r I 1t

· : : ,

1 ·: ,

;1j1f1 , ;1 r1: 1t1·

:-- 11, . ) 1

~"

,· / 1. 11 i1·1· · 1

j h:t\'t' k11 11\\-I! l"·r·..; ,qi..; I•

:\d\' !• '• •

' · I : '; 11 r 1~! · · l i, ~ tl

1· t \'1'n 1·r :d11r

• ·j.

t r• ;1 !{,·\' i t •\\1 ·r ..
jH'f(•t •i y ir 1 ~ tli:t: if \\';1:-' ifi•fli";i/
1
I) ' 'il.>1'1 · L1kly r•·J; ·rr1·d r ...
tii·d

l~> f' < 'I' ~_'." f :Jd11 : 1l~y 1•1;;f) l ' •f;1!i1 1 ~.

1l l1id
1f.ir . J·;p

CU Jl :-'. !.i : ~ I ~ • · 1 !

- 1 Ii ''ll_) ' ! l 1•JiJl_'."!1 UJ.1 • \

i l ! 1 :;1· 1ti · · i ! 1 ·1 1 11 : 1 i 1 r1 , ·r1f !i!· ·r .1!· '.

;i

])j~ 4 ·1t 1·111111 i·iti11:-:, 11H·111init 1;1 w

i..1 I"

:\11d flw ~d / J]l'l

![ J

f

\»...;

j II

111!':111,

;(

:--1· [" ] 1 o!l,"i

:--.. 1!(')1

\ \ ' 111 !

11",,.

~· ·q-..\·

·

l1t l 1·:--

i·1 1 : 1-

\\;t!11 11rt

lfbt1J1\~

; 1-;

1 1ll-.: .

T !1" iti! ·.- 111 11 ~····

.1 1!

.. I'.
t!111..., :_! 1 \· 1· !1 111. 11

, ,· : - 1111t:-; 111 :-..: 111!• :11! 1 1111 . :-..: : 11

:.,r·--

1. 1

;; 11> r r-.i1
1

l il.! )i \· ·

•l ~

..t

1112

I.

l' .\1\1

( 'l I.< I'

11 I § ' '

,:. .· r; 111! 1

il

l ().)

!1t·,

11)

tlHlll:._~ ! 1

1~ 11, 11,

i1

1lw 111/y

ul!1,.111 tf11 ·t.

each e:f nv:i r_~t;n!f~ :u_iins parties has son1c rcuson to hope

1'~. ~. · ul1jcciioiis :1 ;.~:: t ii1 '::t ~tli unli:nitc<l )Jonarciiv n:;-:\· !:1~

for s 11rr.css ; :rnd this, by irrefr:u!:abk Ar::!;u1ucnts on both
si<les ; icading to Conclusions which are not ( strictiy

ruc t 1Jy

c)ll':t],i11c:: ) 1·n 111 r:iri i1·trin· to r•;.ic!1 o tl ll'r; l"r 1l11J11~l1 1\1111·

r

one partv can oDtain tbc v i c tory~ it tnav be true that

each l::1s some reason to expect it.
;;1w!1

1·:1' C'S 1,.;,

11l1i1· li

1·11'11t

is tlw

The rc:il ques tion in
l'r"li:il1l1·

1111!1' 1'

;-- - c11

wluc h side th e evidence preponderates . Now it ot'te:i
i ui' i 1c 11s tl1:1 l the inexperienced TI.c;:isoncr, thinking it

<
;
T

r
['

necessary that every obj ection slioul<l be satisfactorily
:tt1;;1v1" r"tl, will have ];i;; :ittention dr:-twn off from 1111~
argum ents of tile opposite side, and will be occupied per·
, ...;

JI!

lt L !kill _'. .'.~ :l \\ - ~ ·: 1k d('(l']l('i.', \\)1ilt•

\ ·j! 'f()J'\ -

l,\;t~ i11

ih PrP ;-Jrr i iinrr' o r f1•\ rr• r
1

in ~

' :P

dirli1 ·idtiP'-' in hi"

l1)' p(1the~is

thun

n! f n'r

i II

\l

; -~

rPf11t :1 !i()n 0. f
I I 1· '. . '. . i ' I ]

n h _j0f' 1inn .;-z . (•np-.:!..:1 in~

in

f'ni

\\ l 11• 'l I

n~ r rir - f\Ljnr -

:-,

1:1 Li

iI

1·1 1!'

1 c pr c~c 11u11;:; ~ome

Jii;1111!·r\

11:-:.L

a

r(

1

i

!

1
...i•

~·

[1 1 111. 1";] 1'iJ J: 11 i(

:i1

p 11i- ...:t1ih

I ll" ()i1.i1·1

other n ee as worse ; c. g. ii' he

r ilf' illt; a ::;ot! lie di1J.tC.)

011

J;;

the g;rC:.lLCf Clh..:l' ~ i: i­

t)' of i.Jein g; a thief; as if there 11 ere a11y 11cc<l lie :.d1uul<l
h P ritlwr.
This f~ l l;wv m;iy hP sta !N l ],-.,~ ic:illy, :t' a
D i sj1111r.rin~ Hypn1i1Pti c:-il mm the J\iajor fai:ie.
~{ ' ( ll [j l;\.,·, :)11' f1lf' !

i

lh ~ !!~ u l1If

tlie ALl 1e11i:in and Rom,u1 R epuLiics.

;lll1'!lii<H\

i•

0

!' 11f

;!

f:1•l iJ ; .L i J1l] j

) ..:. I

an Arh urn ~n t

\V11ici1 j.., ~ ;.., ;j ...{'-f1'! 11riiy a 11-..:wer'.:> tl
tile
ought merely to go fur nothing: it is poss ible tti111 :1rtT1c onff refu.
ti nH th P Conciusion dnl\Vn 1nay ne ,·ertliele~s be
t1 ue : yet 111e11 are a11l lu lake iur t, n1111eu Li1ar the Conclusion itself is di sproved, when tlte Argunw11ts Lro ugltt fo rll'a rd to establish it have lJec 11 sati olactorily refuted ; as~ mn­
i11 g, ll' l1en perhnp s there is 11 0 gro 1111d fo r tl1e a >s11mption,
that these arc all the Arg11rne11ls th nt eo11ld lie uq:;c d ...
11
.,
A11 11Uil'r li.;r;n o f' i:..:1wru.iia clcnc/;i , ( 1rrcle v·1nl t"': Oiit:iU:-il,, 11 .
\\" iiich j ;; ra th f'r ti1t ~ morf~ sl'rvicc;ibie on tiiP. f:iidP of tli P fP "< pnnfi,~-n :

b~ l,r

11ruv :..: v r

d:~pruv e

_;;,ff! ! t:

jht.rl v !' Ui.d \\ li.;di. b retpi;f:.;tl: :1:nl d '.~ , .; [

!.':::!, e !.!p p:·es:J !!~g' ~! ! !.!: c :--c- ~-;t.

" Thu s if a Unive rsity is c l iar~f: d wilh cu lti vatin g rm / ~1 tliP nwr.- !
of "!Vl:?tlH' !TI<?ti1~s . il?!! ! in rf•plv n list. of th r !ino kq s 1n dii·d

1•!: • 1n P ~ !!~
!11•']"1

f11 , · 11 .

11•

or

cJ Lu, it tnay be :: 1;s~\· 1:red by dcprcc:itin~ lla.: c>.clu :.; iu11
nf ~11<·i 1 '!11di··~. Tt i~ tl11 10 ili:it a 111::m eom:'.~0 : 1 h· r c p!: c~
t11 dw j't ' l l""' li!'I' )!;t...:...:('d 1111 ;111.\ ' \ · i1 · L~ J11_~ i .o. ; ;1ddil·I 1.'1/ (1> , !.1\ '

o~

011 tile nt iier hand , one may often 111 cf'l 11·ith a sop hi st i1·:1 l

1

govern1uc 11t
;111 I \ i 11:-- i\

11 !::;

liamb. Tlie vl.1jectio11 perlml'~ lllHY Ju~ 1_111 ;u1':'wer:il 1le,
and ye t may safely be allowed, if it can be shewn that
n1ore an<l \Yeigbti cr oLjcc:tions ii c against C\' cry other
suppos1t10 11. Ti1i s is a 111osl i111po rlwll caution lu r dwse
who arc studying; the Evidences of R eligio n. L et the
opposer of the111 be called on , in stead of co11fininµ; him·
self to detached cavils, and saying, how do you answer
thi ~ ? an d how do you explain that ? to fram e some con·
sis ten t hypo thes is to al'l'O u11t for the i11trod11c ti nn of C liri~­
l i:n iit y Ly litunan lli e a :i ~ ; ~uid ihc n to l·uti ;, id cr \Vln..: ilicr

.'-~l o\v in .;; di:s1·rip1i c n of th e horror:; of

;1

• ·1 r;·,, ,·• :

) ,,, ,

) ,, ,

,,, ,,.

104

ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC.

PART

I.

CHAI'.

This may be considered as the fallacy of denying the
Consequent of a Con<'..tional Proposition, from tlie Antecedent naving been denied : " if such and such an Arsument be admitted, the.Assertion in question is true; but
that Argument is inadmissible ; therefore the Jlssertion
is not true." Hence the injury done to any cause by a
weak advocate ; the cause itself appearing to the vulgar
to be overthrown, when the Arguments brought forward
are answered.*

III. § 7.

OF CONVICTION.

105

On the same principle is founded a most important
maxi m, that it is not only the fairest, but aLo the wi ses t
plan, to state Oujections ·in their full fuo:c ; at h::i:;t,
where1•er there docs exist a satisfactory ans1H'r to th em ;
othcn,·ise , those who hear them stated mo re strongly
than by the uncandid advocate who liad u11dcrtakc11 tn
repel them, will naturally enough co11cJmle that tl1t:y are
unanswerable. It is but a momentary and ineflcctirn
triumph that can be obtained by manceuvres like those of
Turnus 's charioteer, who furiou~ly chased the feeble
straglers of the army, and evaded the main front- of the
battle.

sitions in any work to be irrcfro.gable, it will be strange if some ill11•·
tration of them, or some subordinate part in short, will not admit of a
plausible objection; the opponent the n joins issue c;n one of these incidental questi~:rns , and comes forward with " a Reply " to such and
such a work." L ogic, pp. 178,17!), § 18. Anothe r expedient which
answerers sometimes resort to, and which is less likely Ill remain
pe rmanently unde tected, is to garble a book; exhibiting statement•
with out their explanations, - conclusions without their proofs,and passages brought together out of their original order; - so as to
produce an appearance of false hood, confusion, or inconclusiveness.
The lllBt and boldest sle p is for the " answerer " lo make some false
1:1tnte rnent or absurd re 1nark, and the n flLther it upon the author.
And even this artifice will sometimes succeed for a time, because
m11ny persons do not sus pect that any one would ve nture upon it
Again, it i~ no uncournwn 1nan re uvre of a dexterouM sophit1t, whe n
tJ1ere iH some nrgume nt, statement, scherne, &c. which lie c1u1nol di
rectly defeat, to <lssrnt with seeming cordiality, but with •ornc exc<"p
tio n, nddition, or qualification, (as e . g. nn additional clause in an
Act,) which, thoug h seemingly unimportant, shall e ntirdy nulli~y
all the rt•st.
This has been humourously compared lo the trick
of the p:lgrim in the well-known talc, who took the libe rty to boil
his pease.

And when the objections urged are not only w1:111swerable, but (what is more) decisive , - when some
sometimes oLtain acquittal Ly shewing that one of the witnesses
against hi1n is an infamous infOrrnl'r and spy; thou gl1 perhaps if that
part of the e vidence Jud l>cr?n omitted, the rc;t would have bcl'n sut:
ficicnt for conviction. Logic , p. 178.
The maxirn lwrc laid down, however, :l pplies only to thusc causes
in which, (waiving- tl11 ~ cnnsitlerati o n of honesty,) first, it j9 wi:-d1eJ to
produce u ot m e rely a tcu1porary, Lut a la s tin~ i1npn' s.;itJ1 1, and th;tt,
on r~a(k•rs or ltt: are rs 1Jf !'.iu1111~ j11d g- rn cnt; and st:cu n d ~ y 1 wht're tlii·rc
really arr. Hnmt~ 10righl!J nrg-11mr•nh1 to be 11rg-1•d . \VIH·n 111' ../1:1r ~~
c. g. can re ally bt~ trnbstant.iu.t.etl, and yet it is de8ired ln prl)d11rt• 8(JI JH :
presenteflL·c t on the unthink ing-, there rnay De roo J11 fur tl1e appli cati 'rn
of the prove rli, '; Slan<ler stoutly, and t1om e thfr1g will .stick:· · the v•il·
g:ir arc a pt to conclnde, tl1at wh e rt~ a great deal iti :-;;lid, sumct11iu:; 11111:-lt
be true; nnd many arc fond of tha.t lazy co ntrivan ee f~1r saving the
trouble of thinking,-" splitting the <liffe rc ncf'; " ima g in ing 1li ;i t
they shewn IaudaLle caution in Lelieving uuf!J a part of w/1at i!"l s:tiJ .
Ancl thus a n1alignant S o phist n1ay gain such a te 111porary aUvant:Jge

•"He nce the danger of eve r advancing more than can be well
urnintnine d ; ttince the re ft1tati11n of I/wt will uflcn quash the whole ·
a guilty person urny oflen e~cape Ly having t rio much ]aid to his
chnrge; so he ll1il)' also Ly havin g too 111uc h ev idC"n cc n~ai11st him,
i. c. some that is 11ot in itself •atisfactory: thus, 11 prisone r may

by tlw multi plicil.y of his attaeks, as the ral>hlc c.f co1111.al.a11ts 1lescriiJ,,d
Ly llo111c r sometimes did l>y I.he ir shower• of jav1·li11A, which cncu111
licre d aud we ighed Jown the shield of one of his h eroes, th uug h th l'J
could n ut pe netrate it.

0

-.

J ()( )

ELC::\TENTS (>!-' Ill I !·:'I'! llll <:.

11 Al{'f 1

( '11 Al '

111

~

-.

U !·' ! .I I.\ 1· 1CT I!

107

1\

t

:ir:_::1m1cnt that has l.Jc c11 aJ Ju ccJ , ur ~ OJ llC portiuH uf u
,y,11·111 1 &s . j, pt·n·cin1d to lie n·:rlh· rn1 s r11mil 1 it is tl1c

fairlr ~mci follr to confess this, and abandon
1t a :to g 1'tlw r.
T iwrc arc m:rny 11·h o se r·m t o rn:1b: it :r
point of honour never to yield a singic point,- never to
retract: or, if compeiied to do this, "to back out" (as
the phrase is) of an untenable position, so as to display
tLcir r e luct:-irn·e to 111ake any conf'ess i"n; :ts it' their credit
, ., . ~ 1:-.; ~ Li L t· d l l!l ;
l!lil Jt -( Jl\! ' ! I t! w t:i\ i :--; 111;111 ()f profc::; scu mt':.dJ 1uiLL \- . li ut there i::; iittlc \\ isJom (the questiu11 uf honesty is out of dH~ province uf tl1is treatise) in
such a procedure; v.-hich in fact is very liable to cast a
suspicion on that which is really sound, when it appears
ti1at the advo cate is ashamed to abandon wkit is unsound .
Ancl such an honest avowal as I have been recommendine: , thoue:h it may raise at tirst a feeble and hri<'f shout
of cxult:c.tion , wili soon bf' fo ii rrnTd b\· a ::rnrr::il and
l!l creas ing murmur of approbation. Uncandid as the
worirl ofrr.n is, it seldom fails to appl::rnd the m:i:;n::rnimity ui' cun!"essing a <lefect or a 1uistake , and to re11ard it
11·i1i 1 :111 i11f'1"f';l 't'
co111id1·11cr. Iiid1·('d tlri.'i i1wrc;1~t:ii
1·.rniJi.Jc1tt:C 1,; ofrc11 t':t:-ddy i1cs tll \\CJ, U_
I' U k iuJ U f U\"CJ"generosity in the Public: which is apt too hastily to consid er the confession of an error as a proof of universal
sin ce rity. Some of the most skilful sophists accordingly
:iv :1i'l th emselves of this ; and e:am evidence for much
rli:it is false, Ly aeknuwleJ~ing will1 an air of lfallki1es~
...: n 1n r nn r: mi s!:1kr. ; ...Yhir.h; 1ike a tnL thf0\1.'n to the
11·lmle , they sacrifice for the sake of persuading us that
rl"'1· !1:1\"n committed nnly nnr. f'rrnr.
I fear it can 1ianl·

ly be a11inucJ as y et, th..1t " Liiis trick l1as Leen so lrn15
tl c' <'<i in !' Ofl t n,1· r-rc;y, ;is to h e ilrn o "t \nJr n o ut ." "

wi~; c s t 1qy

or

§

S.

It is import::int to ohst:r\!2; th:-tt too P.::rnest anrl elabo-

f

•

!

rate a refutation of arguments which are reaiiy Too earne1t
insi2;nificant, or which their opprment wishes refutation.
tn rrprcsent as su c h, \\'ill fre qucnrly han~ rhc effo rt n l
s i1·i11:.; 1lw111 impor l :lllC'(' . \\ "krt <'.\"C' l" i:-;
l:1 11ot il' cd,
aml at'tcn\"ards pa:-;~ c d i1y 1vi1.l1 t: o11tc111p r, m :llly r <: :rdcrs
alill liearer:; will very ufLen conelu<le (some times for no
otlicr reason) to be really contemptible. But if they
an: assurc<l o! tliis again and again \'l."ith great earnestness,
they often 11c;in to dnn1lt. it. ,.fh cy sec the r r~ s 11 n n d c n t
plying ar tillery and musketry, - bringing up horse aud
foot to the charge ; and conceive that what is so vehenwntly a~ < 1i1 P d mn~ t ro ~s r o ~ ,;rrat ~ trrn;r h .
Or.r of
his refi11:oitions might perhaps have left them perfectly
convinced, aud all of them to:c;cthcr, lc:n-c them iu doubt.
Brit il is !lot. to ltei'utatiun ak1ue 1liat thi:; principle
11 ill ;1p11l_1·. Tn otlwr ":1c;1•.-; ;1]'" it rn;1 _1 h :t j' j't'll
ll a 11 ., ·1 .,(

(jLtr:rdo :. ic al ~~1 ti~ atlirsl sid1t ) d ial it sliali Le w'"
' ' " ' ·~-·
(,,, , ,

poss ible, and dangerous, 10 write too forcibly.
"\-Vhen indeed the point maintained is one which most
persons adm it or are disposed to admit, but which they
are prone to lose sie;ht of, or to underrate in re ~pect of
it::. iiuporlaHce, ur lltJl to dw t-!11 u11 \Vltlt an allentiu u su!Ti cient1y pr:-u:tica.1, th:tt is just thP. or.r.:1 s inn l':hir.h r.:11i s nn
us to put forth all our efforts in settin;; it forth in the
most forcible m:mnl'r poss ible. Y f't f"'i· rn hl'rf"' , it i.q

_:.:

.

~~

;,,\;;i:~;

~- •.·· :~

'..-t~~~

103

oft en ll C (' e~s ary to caution tltc hea re rs agai11st i11ia:;111111g
that a point is dijjicult to establish ]Jccausc its importance
leads us to dwell very much on it.
Some e . g. are apt
to suppose , from the copious am! elaborate arguments
which have been urged in defence of the authenticity of
tl1c ~hristian Scriptures, that these are books whose
authenticity is harder to be established than that of other
s upposed-ancient works ; * whereas the fa c t is, in the
very hi ghest degree , th e re\·e rse . The importance, and
the i!Wiculty, of proving any point, are very apt to be
confounded together. vV e bar the doors carefully, not
merely when we expect a form ·idable attack, but when
w e have trcarnre in the house . But when any princ ipl e
is to be established, which, though in itself capable of
being made e \·iclent to the humbles t capacity, yet has
been long and generally o\·erlooked, and to which establi shed prejudices are violently opposed, it will sometimes
liappcn that to set forth the absurdity of such prejudices
in the stron ges t point of view, (though in language perfectly decent and temperate,) and to demonstrate the conclusion, over and over, so clearly and forcibly that it shall
seem th e most palpable folly or dish unesty to de ny it,
will, \\ iLh some minds, have an opposite tendency to the
one desired. Some perhaps, conscious of having been
tl1 c slav es or the support ers of such prejudices as are
thus l1eld tq; to contempt, (not indeed by disdainful lang11age, but si111ply by being placed in a very clear light,)
and of !taving overlooked truths , 1Yhich wlien thus clearly
explained and pro\·ed, appear perfectly evident even to
• S 1·e T ay lor" Hi story of tli e Transrnis:;ion of Ancient Books; u
very interf•sli ng auJ valuable work.

C11A 1·.

Jl l §

~.

UJo' ("ON\ ll'Tt<

1;"11

JU()

a cl1ild, 11ill 1·011ser1uently be st11ng liy a fcc·li11 ; c1f slt:rn1c
p;i,;s ing; oil into resentment, 1d1ich stops their c ars :1gai11st
ars11me11t. They could have borne perhaps to chane;e
th eir opinion ; but not, so to change it as to tax their
former opinion with the greatest folly. They would be so
sorry lo think they kid been blinded to such an excess ,
and ::ire so angry with him who is endeavouring to persuade them to think so, that these feelings determine
th em not to think it. They try (and it is an attempt
which few persons ever make in vain) to shut th eir eyes
against an humiliating conviction: and thus , t11e very
triumphant force of the reasoning adduced, serves to
harden them against admitting the conclusion : much as
one may conceive Roman soldiers desperately holding
out an unte nabl e fortress to the last extremity, from apprehension of being made to pass under the yoke by the
victors, should they surrender. Others again, perhaps
comparatively strangers to the question, and not prejudi ced, or not strongly prejudiced, against yom couclusion,
but ready to admit it if supported by suffic ient arguments,
will sometimes, if your arguments arc very much lieyond
what is suffi c ient, have their suspicions rous ed hy this
very c ircumstance.
" Can it be possiLie, " tl1ey will say, " that a conclusion so very obvious as this is made to appear, should not
have b een admitted long ago ?
Is it conceivable that
such and such eminent philosophers, diYincs, statc;; rn en,
&c. sliould have been all their lives und er delusions so
gross? " H e nce they ::ire apt to infer, ci tl1 cr that the
author has mistaken the opinions o f th ose he i111ag i1:~ s
o ppose d to hi111, or else , that the re is some s11btlc fallacy
in hi s arguments. Th e former of tlwse suspir·ions is a
10

,
;

''
'!;.

,•

-i

:~

:)

,,,,
,~

I !O

F LDIE :"TS r)F 'RHETOR IC .

lll ~lll L"l'

C Jt ·. 1·. i 1 l.

P,rnT I

i r'!! Pll n~ liP

credit for

~ u·ufi -:1 11·1..;~. -:-:-

A~ !':-1r

a:-; tl1e

prn vinrP n( rhP 0r~r0r le: f'nnrPrnPd, he m1 v bP

:>atislied witli es tai.Jlisliiug a just priuc iple, auJ leaving
men to imagine if they will, that nobody had ever doubted it. But the other suspicion may lead to very serious
f!v il : nnrl jt 1~ nnt hv ::inv mPan~ 11nli!u:1lv to nf'.r.nr.
M :i:n·· :1 0:1e wiil he co m·inccd th:it there mn~ t he some

l

"'

r

i i

fl

u

in a co t~:-sc of a.r~umcnt in \vhirh he is conscious .,
:rnd pr:r!i :1 ps re ady to confrss, tii:n he r:mno t poin t nt1t
tl;J.\V

any, mere !y on tile s;round, tli:lt if th ere is none , but the
whn]P i~ p0rfe0tly ~nuno nnd n!id , h0 0:innot rnnrei v0

that it should hav o been overlooked, (su uuviuus <bit is
m ade to app ear,) for p erhaps ages together, by able m en
who had de voted their thoughts to th e subject.
And
Lis tuta l inuLj]ily'! as I have ~a iJ~ to point ont rtny fnlh1r.y·~
\\'ill iJy uo 11H~ w1~ reniov e 11is cuuv ic Lion o r suspicion that
tl i t..: r e ! 1Hbl l e ::::0111e , ii' Lhe cu1 ii...:. lu : ;, iuu Le oI H:! ~ wli!ch. fu r
1r 11· 1·1 ·: 1...:1111 j 1.1....:.t 1111_'111i() 11 1)(l) ~('t't11:--: 11 ) l1!111 ir1('( l11cl·i\·alJlc.
There ::ire m~ny persons 11n;ihlc tn find 0111 rh.~ tliw iu
tl 1e ;u·i:,111111:111 t~? . g. liy wi:id1 it. is prPIPnd1•rl tn be demomlrated tlial Achilles could not overtake th e Tortoise:

I

~::The mnrC' s imple, c1e-ar, an<l obvious any princ ipl e is re ndered,
I.he m ore li ke l_y is its ex position to eli cit those co mmon remarks, 'of
1· n 1iri-;r• 1 • . ;'1• ,111r..- .· ~ ·: 11n n n>-> ,~ .,qJ d f'Vt~r dottld. il n1 t; ' ' 1lt i~ i;-; al! \''-'r.Y
true, hut th(' rC is n othing new broug ht to li g ht ; nothing that was n ot
f:1.miliar t.o e 1·cr_y one;' ' there n eeds no g host to tell us that.'
nm convinced that a ve rbose, m ystical , ancl parti all_y obscure way of
wrifill ~ 1 /')!) <.:l!•'" fl cn1J1,:P<' t 1 lo fh ri rn ns f 1i kP1y f f"\ (' :,tc-h the J.ftCnt! IJ n C
f
t!L r:. 1 '.1 !~. :tu d t• .
T~ ~::' ~~-:: n c :·:..!ity Yl: rify lla.: uL;- :; : ;·\,· ;1Ji .. 1i .. r T._lt__·-~tu~ .
1

; . r (H-'! 1!!H

1H··· H1iri !i•'·1

1

i!!1d

\•.' lt t-> ft

~1!! .'..'

ll1ir1;;

i~

111:1d1·

\" r•ry

l

-

-

-- ·

- -- - ---

I•

f .1!•_r 11

fl .

<·om,]!lq1nn q!JOll!r! h0 ff' fr r!nu!it/1t.l w hir-!1 WI' :ir,.. c: h! 0
ro c~ r:i. b h s h fidh.~ . Rut ;ii romh:i t in~ r!rrp-rr11-,; •' i: rr·-jnriircs, and main tai n ing un pop11l 8r an d pnradoxi ra l truths,
tlw po i11t to hr ai lllcd :1i. ,; l1,11tld lw, 1ll :1ddw ·c: \\ li:11 is
s ufficient, and not 1n11ch 1nn1·e th:1n is snff! ciP.nt'\ to prove
\"'1ll' eonc]u5inn. H (in "lwl1 a ca, ,,) '""I f':lll ln :t ~ :1• i,f,,­
ii

yo ur vpilliu11

i~

llccidcJly

1mnc

prvLaL:c

t L a11

th e opposite , yo u \viii iiave carrieJ your poii;t more effectually, than if you go on, muc h b eyond thi s, to demon~t rate~ by Li. 1uult itud1::- 1_1[ dn:• 1111_1::-t ftJ rc~iJk~ ~U ',~ q: ~: t-:":d-..., 1 11~
e'\lr•~u1e

aJy,urdity ·A tl1iJ1ki11,; dillerently, till .Y " '; )'"' '"
<lilr<.JuleJ Ll1e ~ di'- e ~Lee w vf ~orn e, awl aw<Lh:.e11•:d tl1•_, Ji,1 rn,1 <l l- 1>1 l1 er:c. •

Tl1c \r 011111 c11tc \1l 1i1·li :-d101iid be pl:f('<'d Jir , 1 111 "rr'.r'I'
are, cwtcris paribus, the most Ubvious, and

Th e m ost c.. l>-

such as naturally first occur.
;·~:~:;~~:[.! :~~ti~~
Thi,; j,.; evide111iy tlw 11<Jl1m1l order; :1 11d "" "' '!' "' · ·
th e adh erence to it gives an easy, natural air to t!ie
Composition. It is seldom therefore worth while to de-

"

f

'
11 /

in rhi" 'Yf!V ir i~ v~r:: . . p0~~1h!P ii n t 0!ff rP:!::.· r·n:n:: •••ro u
lie "d•u·k wid1 exce:s:s vi' iigla. "
0 I course it is not m eant that a l{et'utation should C l' er
appear (when that c an be avoided) ins1Jficient _; - that

lHeH ti i<il

1

I

i l i

lill lc ur no CUll~CljUC l E.'.L', L')~CL'lJ L :. b 1~u· ~L::: rc -

2, dl'd~ d1t~ ~-1111hnr) ~

' " ttlrt·-·

~ ~1

\\ I I

••
ll

.;o A Fre nch ".'.'r!tc r. IVI. Sar . relates !l stc r.;· of ::;ornc one ·.:;! w . !'vr a.
wn g-er. Ft00d a wh0le day i)fi on ~ nf tlw hrid ~Ps in Pa!"is . ,-. ff~rinz- tl)
:-;1- : ! ;1 f~ y· i' -f°Jait l'. -j1i « c1 : f:1r u l!+ ' fra nt:, :i lld (n ;-1t lHdJl_1--) Jl": fiHdi11 :_~- il

111t1 1· ( 1;1:-' 1'r

-

.

-..:;:-~

-·~

t
I

112

ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC.

PART

l

part from it for the sake of begi11ning witlt the most powerful arguments, (when they happen not to be also the
most obvious,) or on the other hand, for the sake of
reserving these to the last, and beginning with the
weaker ; or again, of imitating, as some recommend,
Nestor 's vlan of drawiug up troovs, vlaciug the best first
and last, and the w~akest in the middle. It will be advisable however (nml by this means you may secure this
last advantage) when the strongest arguments naturally
occupy the foremost place, to recapitulate in ct reverse
order ; which will destroy the appearance of anti-climax,
Reverse re- and is also in itself the most easy and natural
capitulation. mode of recapitulation.
Let, e. g. the argu-

ments be A, B, C, D, E, &c. each less weighty than the
preceding ; then in recapitulating proceed from E to
D, C, B, concluding with A.

CHAP. IV.
Of Introductions.

§ 1.
A Proerne, Exordium, or Introduction, is, as Aristotle
has justly remarked, not to be accounted one of the
essential parts of a Composition, since it is not in every
case necessr.ry. In most, however, except such as are
extremely short, it is found advisal.Jle to prelllisc somcthin~ before we enter on the mnin arg11ment, to avoid
an app<':1ran ce of abruptness , and t.o fo cilitate, in some
way or other, the ohjcct proposed. In larger works tl1is

i

r!

C11.<1·. IV. § 2.

OF CONVICTION.

113

assume~ the :1ppclb:i1!n of Pn{we or ,\,],cl 1i,e111< : 11;

;

and not unfrequently two are employed, one undrr th~

j

name of Preface, and ano ther, more c loselv connectrd
with the main work, under that of Introducti~n.
.
The rules which have been laid down alreadv will
'1J>l!l)' et1L~J.l!)' lu tl1:.it preliminary course of arg111n;;nt of
which Introductions often consist.
The writers before Aristotle are censurer! hv him for
inaccuracy, in placing under the head of Tntro,ductions,
as properly belonging to them, many things which are not
more appropriate in the beginning than elsewhere; as,
e. g. the contrivances for exciting the hearers' attention;
which, as he observes, is an improper arrangement ; since,
though such an Introduction may sometimes be required,
it is, generally speaking, any where else rather th:rn m
the beginning, that the attention is likely to flag.
The rule laid down by Cicero, (De Oral.) not to
compose the Introduction first, but to consider Introducfirst the main ar.,.ument
and let that SU""est
lion s not 10
u
'
ow ·
be coi nposeJ.
the Exordium, is just and valuable ; for other- fir st.
wise, as he observes, seldom any tl1ing will suggest itself
but vague generalities; "common" topics, as he calls
t11ern, i. e . wliat would el1ually weil suit sevcrni different
compositions ; whereas, the Introduction, wl1ich is composed last, will naturally spring out of the main subject,
and appear appropriate to it.

§ 2.
I st, One of the objects most frequently proposed iu
an Introduction, is, to shew that the subjec t in r.. 1ro<l .. c•
•
•
titJfl iwp1iR\
'jttestion 1s important, curious, or othcrll'ise t1ve.
JO'

l i4

PAKT

l \'

( '1 ! \ !''

I

l

I:,

0 \. ~li 1(' ! l ~ i1 -11 I.

i lllTtH!twt iP l! i1~ { 1 11i~iti\·e. ,.
'.2dl_1·, It 11·ill frr'1 11w11ily l1app r> n aL-«1, 1d1e11 the po111t to
lw p ro1·r'd or e>:p lai11ed i,; 01ie 11·liicli, n1ar lie
ln Tr 1d1t'·t;r i !1
~1:1tOld o> .\h .'.-tl.
ven' fully estabJi,,Jied , or 1_iu 1-vl1id1 tlie re 1-;
:lll 1.~

ti\·1· 1'

ol

1

1~

:tl ...;(J

i11

i'rt '1itli'lll

ti1:1! t/ 11 ~ :---1!/1.itTl /1:h

; f,1ur/ , t1r

lH'!'ll

l h~~ ; viz.

/lt~/f'1'/1 · r/,

1ni 1·1·r11rr sr11tr d Ii\· 1Jt llf 'I·'·

to

~lww

! t1i.'lll/ift ' /' -

Tl1i,;

\\iii,

111

11 L!l l \.

.

ift~.Ic~

or no do:ibL t~12.t i ~

strcrn,~e,

wl1ir Ii ca-;r! it wiil ,, 1"11·11 l1:ivc a ~ood cli(~l'l 111 rou;;i11~ tlie
:11t1:11li()J1 . 1" :'1 '1 f,,r1ii

:·i-;

,1r1111:cl_1· a-; J"h' il1l 1; this 11ur"11-

11:' ;irl\ -1

1nrtv

hA cal1Pr1 an "l ntrodnction

p~~r::idoxica!."

?;i! c :..-· ' ~" ~~~J::il

Thcolvrr:; ."

t ' 1 T:~ yt1 11 :---i111 1ii(l

:-;i-'• · :·t

ll1·i(" k ,_., f

;1i;_~1 ,, n~

in

:i.

_i n~t

as rn11d1

~ ~t \L.i.DtcJ . ~1.nJ uu l..u u r c) ·, -uu ~:wulJ ;;:cc: 11iw..:ly -11i11c u f Lhc111.;! J.U1t'.r

--- ..

~----·

---·- - - ---··- HiL.
~ ·"'",

• .u--..... _.,

.
~~=---==-'
- - -- -_
-~

u11:t ~di th ey got into a. h eap J reserving noti1ing fo r themseiYes, but the
f'hnff and th'°' rr•fqQP; k"Pping- fhi>;t h!:.~1p fOr nnr.>; Rnrl th:1• th1• WPnlcPAf;
p~rhaps

~

worst, nf the flock; sit.ting round, and iooking on aii the

wi11t 1•r ; wl11J,..t llii ~ (1nr· \V;h• d1·Vf111ring ; thl'owing ahr111t., nnd Wfl8ling
i~ ~ <t.n tl n~ a pi gc:; n~ rn 0 rc

haa:._..,. or hungry tlia.n the n.::n , tou:.;h::J. a

L!"raiu ur Uu.: lw~trd, all llw ull1er:-s i11:-.;L.wlly 1lvi11l! upo_•n it, uad k arin.!::'
1t t_q piPf'.P~; 1fyn11 shnnld ~Pf~ thi<;; ynn won!d !'ii~P l!fJt.hi11g 111nr..- llP11l

what is every day practised and estahlished among m en.

Among

1nen , you sec the ninety a.nd nine toiling and scraping together ~l hco.p
of ::i:uperfluilies fur one, (and tliiM uue luu, ufie11ti1lie1:1 th e feeblest and
worst of th~ whole set_ a child . a woman. a rnadmrtn. or a fool;) ~et­
ting nnthin~ t~• r th Pm•.u•l v P !o; a ll H1 P whilA; hnt a lit.UP of t.lu~ r.nn.rR~st

of the provis ion, which the ir own industry produces; looking quietly
on, while they see the fruits of all their labour spent or spoiled; and
if one o f the number take or touch a porticle of the h oard, the others
joi11ing u.gai11sl hiJn, and h anging him for the theft.
"T' h1·rP 11111;;.:t_ lit• i:mrne- vf'•ry i111pnrl.a11I. rt.rlva.nt.a.g~!=t to a'~count for

an instit ution, which , in th e vie w of it above ~ivcn, is so parad oxical
-· '/'fp · p:-irw1p:1 i n t" 111•·';"

ari\"lttb·~· , • .., en ~~

t h,_.

t~.Jlnwitt'.!:" ,\·1~. -

Palr.y's .Mnrr1l fJ!iiln.~r.nhu. hrink iii nart. i. c . l and '~ .

.
r'

--,....-------~----

~----..'.,. _ _

--------

-

.-\ r ~l l ill!'ll [...;,

11

fi1·id nf 1·.nrn: :-tnrl if

l rn str;id nr" ,• :i_c h pi.' kin g u-hcrr and \d1at it hk,·d: tali. in!;

ti l t' f: t\ -(Jl! ;" ;;_/ ,)(' J'(_'Cc' j Jli(ll) uf' Ull/"

11

t

* St' f' 'r::r.itn ': in the• 0.pf'ni~g of hi~" Hi~t.nry;" and the befinnin;r

o:

jq

11l1ly , Tl \\.JU ufleu l1u;1p~1t abu, that tlH 1 r1~ niJv LH!
!li',·ij 111 ~· ,; il;H!l ...:qi!l 1' })f' r'lffl1/r';f_i/ ir1 t)!l' i l i •"i1 { 1•
~ ., , .n
uf re asu ninµ: to hR :1dnpt 1~d ~ to gu~n.l a~~!:i~t r
'ilnry.

do;ncat character, and dweH on t he "eemin~ improbabdi11,· rif th:·1t 11·hi,.. h m11c;r. afrrr all, !J,, :1dmittr:d. This

I

I

1

· - ;·"

1

sollle possible nristake as to the object pr~posed ; or to
apulu::;i~e for some <frfic·i encl/: this mav be caiied the
I Hl1udtu:l ;t 11: ! !n~ r;:rntnr~:."

i

1

ii

I 11 :r. J ..• :: ;._.H

troduction," to put tl1e reader or liearer i11 n ., rr : 1~ i " ...
pl._J::i:·A:.:-s ::;ivu uf LLe uutliiH: of so1ne Lrans;1cl ion) or the de ..
qr1!ptinn f)r ~~Jn1~ st ~~c of thin;s, to \vhi ch re1~1e1H~ c ;, <J11d
~iiu :.; ions are to be inade in 1lu~ c.(Hlr'-'e of the Coinpo .. :; ?t i ( ) i l.

iiie to detail, or at leas t briefly to sum ur, a ronion of
Scripture-hi story , or a parable, when eiti1er of 1hese is
rnade the subject of a Sennon .
Two or ruure u!' llie introrl11crions that have hPPn mPntioned are often cornbined ; especially in the Preface to
a work o! any length.
And very often th e Introduc tion will contain appeals
lo variou s passions and foeli11g<: in th» henrer~; especi:i!!·r
a feeling of npprnh;l!inn tnwnrd~ tl1P ~pnakrr. o ~ of f)rcj :;d 1( (_'
I' '"' 'I .,., j, ., I

" \...

=-~ ~.--=

l IG

BLl':MENTS

or

llllETO JllC .

this is, as Aristotle has remarked, by no means co1Jfined
10

Introductions.*
• Jt has not bee n thought necessa ry to treat of Conclusion, Perora-

ti o n , or Epilogue, as a distinct head: the g~n c ral ru lcf.-1 , that a C o 11-

ch1sion should be ne ithe r sudde n 11nd a urupt , (so as to i11Jt1ce the
heare r to say, " I did not know he was going to lell1!C ojf','") 11 ur,
a.gain , so lon g as to e xcite the heare r's impatience afler he has bcP n

PART 11
OF

lc: tl to expec t an e 11<l , being so obv ious a~ hardly to need being 111e nti one d. The matter o f whi c h tlae co nc luding part of a Cornp o~ itiun
consi sts, wi ll , of c1,u rse, vary according to the sul1jec t and the occa-

•ion : b11t th llt which is most appropriate, and con•cquently most fre<] Ul'nt , (in Compositions of any considerable length ,) is a R ecapitulati on , either of a part or the whole of the arguments that hav e been
use d ; respecting which a re mark has been made a t the e nd of cl1ap
iii. § a.
Any thing relative to the Feelin~s and the \\'ill, that mny be
especial ly appropriate to the Conclusion, will be mentioned in its
pcopc r place .

PERSUAS101" -

CHAP. I.
Introductory.

§ 1.

I

PER SUAS ION, properly so called, i. e. the art of influf!llcing the H'i ll, is the next point to be consid- Anal vs is , r
ered. And Rhetoric is oft en regarded (as was l'c roiia•·vn.
formerly remarked) in a more limited sense, as conversant about this head alone. But even, according to that
vie w, the rules above laid down will be fou nd not the less
relernnt; since the Conviction of the und erstandin g (of
whi ch I !Jave hitherto been treating) is ;rn essential part
of P ersuasion; and will ge nerally need to be dlectcd l1y
the Arguments of the Writer or Spea..1<er. For in o rd er
that the Will may be influen ced, two thin gs are requ isite;
viz. I. that the proposed Object should appear desirable ; and 2. that the .Jlfeans suggested shoul d be pro\·ed
to be conducive to the attainmer1t of tl1al obj ect ; and
this las t, evidently must depend on a process of Renson·
ing . In order, e.g. to induce the G reeks to unit e th eir
efforts against tlie P ersian in vade r , it \Hts n ece~s ary 1111tli
to prove that cooperation could alone rend er their res is-

118

ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC.

P.ur.T lJ.

tnnce effectual, and also to awaken such feelings of patriotism, and abhorrence of a foreign yoke, as might
prompt them to make these combined efforts. For it is
evident, that however ardent their love of liberty, they
would make no exertions if they apprehended no danger ;
or if they thought themselves able, separately, to defend
themselves, they would be backward to join the confederacy; and on the other hand, that if they were willing
to submit to the Persian yoke, or valued their independence less than their present ease, the fullest conviction
tlmt the Means recommended would secure their independence, would have bad no practical effect.
Persuasion, therefore, depends on, first, Argument, (to
prove the expediency of the Means proposed,)
!:'&.hortatlon.
·
and secondly, what 1s
usu all y c aJl e d E"'x Jior[ation, i. e. the excitement of men to adopt those Means,
by representing the End as sufficiently desirable. It will
happen indeed, not unfrequently, that the ono or the other of these objects will have been already, either wholly
or in part, accomplished ; so that the other shall be the ·
only one that it is requisite to insist on ; viz. sometimes the
hearers will be sufficiently intent on the pursuit of the
End, and will be in doubt only as to tl1e Means of attaining it ; and sometimes, again, they will have no doubt
on t11at point, but will be indifferent, or not sufficiently
ardent, with respec t to the proposed End, and will need
Not sufficiently
to b e stimulated by Exhortations.
ardent, I have said, because it will not so often happen
that the ohject in question will be one to which they are
totally indifferent, as that they will, practically at least,
not reckon it, or not feel it, to be worth the requisite
pams. No one is absolutely indifferent about the attain·

CHAP

I.§ I.

OF PERSUASION.

11 £1

ment of a happy immortality ; and yet a great part of
the Preacher's business consists in Exhortation, i. e .
endeavouring to induce men to use those exertion~
which they themselves know to be necessary for the
attainment of it.
Aristoile, and many other writers, have spoken of
appeals to the Pass ions as an unfair mode of i11flu c nci11~
the hearers ; in answer to which Dr. Campbell has
remarked, that there can be no Persuasion without an
address to tlrn Passions : * and it is evident, from what
• "To say, that it is poss ible to pe r suade without speak ing to the
pass ions is but al best a kind of spec ious nonsense. The coolest
reaso rn: r alway8 in pf"rsunding, u<ldresscth hin1 sclf to tJ1e pa~si n n~
ROJnc way or other. This he c;Ln n ot avoid doing, if 11,-. r-:pt.,,ak to th e
pnrposc . To make me be lieve, it is enough to shPw Jll(' th:it thin gs
are so; to n1ake me act, it i~ n('cessary to shew that tJ1e ac ti on will
answer some End. That can never be an End to m e wl1i c h gr'a tiil""
no fHLSs ion or affection in my nature. You assure me,' h is fc 1r rn y
Jionour.' N ow you :-mlicit my pride , 'vithout wlii<· h 1 !1rid n<'·. 1·r
lt1:·en al1J,__. to u11<lerst:i11J the word. Yo u say,' It is l~·r 111 y i11te r1·st.
Now you UCHp(·ak my se lf.love. 'lt is for the public go~d . ' Nnw
you rou ..;c m y pa t riotism. ' It will n·liL•Ve the 111 i:o:t •rahlt ·.· ~H\\' y< 111
to uch my pity . So far therefore is it from being lln unfair 'nil'thnd
of pC'r:-011a:-oin11 tn 111 11\'1 ' tl1<" pa~~inns, th a t tlif're i:-1 110 pf'r8uu:.;ion wi1l1''11t 1111,ving thP1n.
7

•:But if su much dPprnd on pai-;:-iion, wiwre is t11e !'Cnp1• f.•r ar;..'."!1
Bt:t~ire I answer tliis fJIIt'sl.inn, let it b(\ ubsc•n·1·d, th:l1. in
order l•J r1'r:.;uadP, then-' are two tJ1in~s whi~·h n111~t. h~ car1·r1dly
111,..nt ?

fllfudi cd by the orat•>r. Tlw llrst is, to l'Xc ite some dt.· ..,i n· tfr p:i~ ;-; irm
ll• th e i1car<'rs; the second is, to ~:Ltisfy their judg1111·1J t tli::it 1llf'n•

is a connexion be tween the action to which he w ould p<'rsuna e
th e m , nnd th~ gr:tlific:ttion oft.lie deeir~ or pas<inn which hr• C'Xeite•.
r1'hi s i!'> tht• :lna}y~i:'l of' p1•r:-.: 11a.s i1J!1 . 'f!Jf' f!Hrnf'r j~ 1· fl;'C'l 1·d !Jv 1:.. 11 1·
1nunicating lively an <l ~lnwin,g it.l1·a~ uf tlll' object: till' bLtcr . uuic:;~
80 C\'id1· n t 1.r~ lt :-:•·lr <ts t 11 :~11pl'r sf'd 1: li11· 11c1·('s:-;ity. liy pr1 " ;1· rili rHr iiir•
l1(•st and rn ns t f~1rcihl t> ;irg11rn0nf:-.: whi<'h the nat11 rt~ nf 1:1,. ~ 1 r1·bj• ·t'.l

, . P,...,r

:.R:.1

120

ELEMENTS OF RHJ<~TORIC.

PAR'f

Il

has been just said, that he is right, if under the term
Passion is included every active pi:inciple of our nature.
This how6>ver is a greater latitude of meaning than
belongs even to the Greek word IJa{}-11, th5>ugh the signification of that is wider than, according to ordinary use,
that of our term " Passions." But Aristotle by no
l nflu,. nce or me~ms overlooked tbe necessity with a view
tile Will.
·
to p ersuas1on,
proper1y so terme d , o f c all•mg
in to action some motive that may influence tl1e Will; it
is plain that whenever h e speaks with reprobation of an
appeal to the Passions, his meaning is, the excitement
of such feelings as ought not to injluence the decision
of the question in hand. A desire to do justice, may
be called, in Dr. Campbell's wide acceptation of the
term, a Passion : this is what ought to influence a
Judge ; and no one would ever censure a Pleader for
striving to excite and heighten this desire ; but if the
decision be influenced by an appeal to Anger, Pity, &c.
the feelings thus excited being such as ought not to
have operated, the Judge must be allowed to have been
unduly biassed ; and that this is Aristotle's meaning is
ev ident from his characterising the introduction of such
topics, as 1!;01 wu nquy,wnni; , "foreign to the matter in
hand." Ami it is evident that as the motives which
ought to operate will be different in different cases, the
same may be objectionable and not fairly admissible , in
one case, which in another would be perfectly allowudooil.8 .

!:1 the on e lies the p:ithctic, in the other the argnmentatiYe.

Tli1-·:-10 incorpnra.IEd together constitute that veheme nce of contcn
t.i11n lo which the g-reatPst exploits of E1oq11 l' nce oug ht J.uul1tless to
11 c n"c rilicd."- Ca1 11pbelr• l'hilusophy of JUwlvric, Look i. c. Yii.
S('r,.

•1.

CnAr I.

I.

OF PEltS!JMi!ON.

121

aLlt.: . ~'
An i11sta11ce occurs i11 Thurydidcs, 1n \1 ·11ic l1
this is very judiciou;,ly and neatly pointed out : in 1lie
deb:Hc rcs1Jecti11g the M ityl eneans, who kid been subdued at'ter a revolt, Cleon is introduced co11tendin""0 for
the j tis/ice of i11fliCLing on them capital puui,;limcnt ; '.o
which Diodotus is made to re ply, that tlic A1hc11ians
are not sitting in judgment on the oflcndcrs, ]Jut in dcli/1cration as to their own interest; and oug;lit thcrc(orr,
to con sider , not the right they may liav~ to put tlic
rr~voltc rs to ckath, but tl1c c.rpcdicncy or i11cxl'cdicncy
of sucli a procedure.

I11 j1Hlicial cases, 011 tl1e co11trary, any ap pc;,J to l hf!
l'.erso11al i11t.crcsts o.r the Judge, or cveH to pulJlic cxpe01ency, would be irrelevant. Jn framing Inn·s indeed,
and ( ll"iiich comes to the same thing;) gi,·in; those c!cc isio11s wliich arc to operate as Preccde11ts, tlie public
good is tlrn object to be pursued ; but ill t11c nwre
administering or the established laws, it is inadmissible.
There arc many feelings, again, ll"!ii cli it is evident
sl10ulJ in no case be allowed to operate ·, as Impro per
Envy, thirst for Revenge, &c. &c. the exeitc- uurtl\'t'!'.
mr,nt of which by the orator is to be reprobated as an
unfair artifice ; but it is not the less necessa rv to lie 1\-ell
acc1uainted with their na ture, in order to alla); tlicm \\"hen
prcviou:; ly existing in the liearers, or to counteract the
c~orts of an ad1rersary in produc ing or directing:: ihem.
It is evident indeed, that all the we nk ncsscs, a':' well as
the pO\n~rs, of the hum:m mind, and all tl1c arts by
whi c h the Sophist takes ack:111ta~c of these \H'ak11cs,;0;,
m11st lie f-uniliarly knmm hy a perfect Orator; ll"ho,
•See tht• ~fre-:1ti~e on FAr.L.\CIEs, sec. 1-L

l l

;•'f,.

''l

'

124

ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC

PARTil

A very moderate degree of attention however to what
is passing in the mind will enable any one to perceive
tl1e difference.
How is this difficulty to be surmounted ? Good sense
suggests, in each case, an analogous remedy. It is in vain
to form a Will to quicken the circulation ; but we may,
by a voluntary act, swallow a medicine which will have
that effec t : and so also, though we cannot, by a direct
effort of volition, excite or allay any Sentiment or Emotion , we may, by a voluntary act, fill the Understanding
with such thoughts as shall operate on the Feelings.
Thus, by attentively studying and meditating on the
history of some extraordinary Personage,- by contemplating and dwelling on his actions and sufferings,-his
virtues and his wisdom,-and by calling on the Imagination to present a vivid picture of all that is rela~d
and referred to,- in this manner, we may at length
succeed in kindling such fe elings , suppose, of reverence, admiration, gratitude, love, hope, emulation, &c.
as we were already prepared to acknowledge nre suitab:e to the case. So again, if a man of sense wishes to
allay in himself any em9tion, that of resentment for instance, though it is not under the di.re ct control of the Will,
he deiiberately sets himself to reflect on the softening
circumstances ; such as the provocations the other party may suppose himself to have received ; perhaps, his
ignorance, or weakness, or disordered state of health : he endeavours to imagine himself in the place of tl1e
offending party ; - and above all, if he is a Christian, he
meditates on the parable of the debtor who, after havrnc; been himscl[ foq~i vcn, claimed payment with rigid
se~erity from his fellow-servant; and on other similar
lessons of Scripture.

CHAP

1. § 2.

OF PERSUASION.

;\

I I•·

.-<\

125

Now in any such process as this, (wh ich is exactly analog0us to that
taking a medicine that is to
operate on the involuntary bodily or''ans
" "'",' " "' '" ;_
b
) ) {,.1 ·IS('~
h/l!' tPrlC
process to which a man of well regulated mind on him•el f.
continually finds occasion to resort, he is precisely acti 11 ~
the iJart of a skilful orator to himself; and that too, i;1
respec t of the very point to wh ich the most illvidi<Jtt«
n.ames a:e usually given, " the appeal to the feelings. "
S~ich be1.ng then the state of the case , how, ir may Le
said, can 1t be acco unte<l for, that the idea of unfair artifirc
sho uld oc so commonly associated not only \\'ith lllietoric in general, but most especially with -tiiat particular
part of it now under cons:deration? tho11sli no other
artifice is necessarily einp loycd Liy t!1e orator than a man
of sense makes use of towards hi mse lf.
Many difleren t circumstances combine to procl11cc this
effec t. In the first p lace, tlie intellectual po wers bei11 2; ,
a.s has Lee11 said , unde r the inu necliate control of the \\-ilL
which the Feelings, Sentiments, &c. are not, an address
to the Understanding is cons r~qucntly, from the n;tt 11 rc of
the case, direct; to the Feelings, ind irect . 'Ilic con clu~ i on you wish to dra w, yo11 may st ate plai 11 ly, as
s u ~h; and avow your inten tion of producing reason s,
winch shnli effec t a conv iction of tliat conclusion : yo 11
may even entreat the hearers' steady attention to 1iic
point to be proved, and to the process of ar2;t1111c11t Ly
whic11 it is to Le estalJlis herl. H11t tl 1i s, lor the rcaso:;s
abon! _111e111io11ed, is widely difle reut frurn the procc"s
by wluch we operate on the Feelings : no passion, sentiment, or emotion, is exc ited hy thinki ng about it, and
attendinp; to it, L11 t by tliinkin2; about, anrl attcndin;z: to,
su ch olij ects as are calculated to a\\'akcn i1.
l lencc

or

'.

111an ., (

,.
it

·,~

..

•.. '·,,

..

r.

·"'·

;

. -.. j

126

ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC.

PART

11.

it is, that tbe more oblique and indirect .process which
takes place when we are addressing ourselves to thi~
part of the human mind, is apt to suggest the idea ot
trick and artifice ; although it is, as I have said, ·only
such as a wise man practises towards himself.
In the next place, though men are often deluded by
sophistical arguments addresse d to the Understanding,
they do not, in this case, so readily detect the deceit that
bas been practised on them, as they do in the case of
their being misled by the excitement of Pussions. A few .
days , or even hours, will often allow them to cool, sufficiently, to view in very differe nt colours, some question
on which they have perhaps decided in a moment of
excitement ; whereas any sophistical reasoning by which
they had been misled, they are perhaps as unable to de
tec t as ever. The state of the Feelings , in short, varies
from day to day; the Understandi ng remains nearly the
same : and hence the idea of deceit is more particularly
associated wi th that kind of deceit which is the less
per mane nt in its effects, an~ the sooner detected.
To these consi derations it may be added, that men
have in general more confidence in tbe soundness of their
Understanding, than in their self-command and due regu.:
lation of Feelings : they are more unwilling, consequently , to believe that an orator has misled, or can mislead
them , by sophistical arguments , that is, by taking advantage of their intellectual weak ness , than by op.erating on
tiieir Feeline;s ; and hence, tile delusions which an artfol
orator produces, are olten attributed in a greater degree
than is really the case, to the influence lie has exerted
on the Passions.

C1ur. 1. § 3.

OF PERSUASI ON.

127

But if every thing were to be regarded with aversio n
or with suspicion that is capable of being employed dislionestly, or for a Lad purpose, the use of langungc nii :;li t
be condemned altogether. It does indeed often han
1
pen,• th:it men's feelings arc extrava"t> antlv,., The rccl i11g"S
:l l't r .. r:dl
excited on s~me inadequate occasion : this only 1111
s t. 11 n .. (. •1~
proves how important it is that cit11er they, or th e prupt;r
the person n-ho undertakes to ad\'ise them l p o int.
should understand how to bring down these feel iiws to
~he proper pitch. And it happens full as often ( \~hi ch
'.s what most persons are apt to overlook) that their feel·
mgs fall :ar short of what, even in their O\;,n judgment,
the occa810n would call for : and in this case an exc itement of such feel'.ngs,. though not effected directly by a
process of reasonmg, is very far from being any thin,,.
op?oscd to reason, or tending to mislead the judgment~
Swnulants are not to be condemned as necessarily· brirw. t l1e body in to an unnatural st.ate, because they raise
"
mg
tlie c irc ulation : in a fever this would be hurtfui ; but
ther.e may be a torpid, lethargic disease, in which an
excitement of the circ ul ation is precisely what is wmll ed
to bring it into a healthy condition.

', ,;\

·-_,

~ -

t 11 C _" ;:!t-h! ,

§ 3.
'~li e acti ve principles ol our nature may be classed 111
\·anous ways ; the arran gement adopted by Mr.
D11ga ld S te wart" is , pcrlwrs, 1hc most c orrect ~.~',', ~~'.";:,,·;;_
and c nn vPn iPnt : th e he:icls he enn mer:ites :-ire cq>ic .
.!lpp clilcs, (whic h have tl 1cir origin in the horly,) Desires, and ••!JUi"
·
.11 ec1ions
; t I1ese ]ast b-e ing such as i111 ply
• Oullines of Joft•rnl P.11ilosoplnr

--,,.

Cuu. IL § 1.

ELEMENTS OF RHE'l'O.RIC.

l28

129

sary to call into play , or to contend agai11st, would be to
enter on an almost boundless field of Metapliysical inquiry, which does not properly foll within the limits of the
subject now before us : and on the other liand, a brief
definition of each passion, &c. and a few general remad.; ~
on it, coul d han.lly Etil to Le trite and uninteresting . A
few mj sc ellaneo11s Rules therefore may suffice, rcbti1·c
to the conduct, generally, of those parts of any Compo
sition which are designed to influence the 'Nill.

some kind of disposition relative to another Person ; to
which must be added, Self-love, or the desire of Happi
ness as such; and the :Moral-faculty, called by some
writers Conscience, by others the Moral sense, and liy
Dr . A. Smith, the sense of Propriety.
Under the head of Affections may be included the
sentiments of Esteem, Regard, Admiration, &c. which
it is so important that the audi ence shoukl feel towurds
the Speaker. Aristotle has considered this as a distinct
head ; separating the consideration of the speaker's Char~
acter (' 1!:Jo :; rnv Uy onor;) from that of the disposition o[
the hearers ; und er \Vhich, however, it might, according to
11is own views, have been incl uded ; it being pbin from
1is m anner of treating of the Speaker's Character, th:it
lie means, not his real character, (a<'cording to t!te fHn-

·~

...

/' ~.

~

CHAP . Ii.

ciful notion of (~uinctili an,) but the impression produced
on the minds of th e hearers, by th e spc'aker, respecting

r:i.""'"'''' , himself. H c remarks, justly, that th e Char~;; ~:":;:~•h- actcr to b e established is that of, first, G ood
""eai<er.
Principle, secondly, Good Sense, and thirdly,
Good-will and friendly disposition towards the audience
addressed ; * and that if the Orator can completely succeed in this, he will persuade more powerfully than by the
strongest Arguments . He rnig;ht have added, (as indeed
he do es slightly hint at the co nclusion of his Treatise,)
t I1at, where there is an opponent, a like result is produced Ly exc itini!: th e contrary feelin~s respecting l1irn;
vi?: . holding him up to contempt, or representing him
as an object of reprobation or suspicion.
To treat full y of ail the clilforent e motions and springs
of ar.t ion whi('h an Orat or may at nn y tim e find it neccs-

OF PEll8 UASION.

Of the couduct of any address to the feeling s generally

§ 1.

0

¥

~

1:.-

d'

The first and 1uosL important po int to lie observe d in
every address to any Passion, Sentiment, Feel .
o.
.
(
h b
J
j J•
d)
M1•n !mpn Jllg,
.xc. 1s, as ns cen areacy 1111te, that "'"" "'".i".
,
, ,
.
t:ll111n !11 r• ·
ll sl10 Ltlll not be w troduced as such, and plain- """"' n111 ... ,
.
feeling .~ .
Jy avowe d ; otlicnn sc the cflcct will be, in
great u1 e:.is11re, if not entirely, lost. Tliis circwn~tancc
forms a re markable distinction betweell the head now
under co11sidcration, and that of Argume11tatiu11. \\' L1:n
e11gag1~d in rcasu11i11g, properly so called, our ]' 't r;io'c
not only need not be concealed, but may, (as I li;l\·e
said,) \1·itlio11t prcj 11 dice to the effect , be distinccly declared : on the oth•r kuid, even ll"l1c11 the fre li11gc. ,,-c \\·i,;!i
lO excite are s11cli as ou~ltt tu Ojinatc, so tlt;ll li1cre is 110
r1· ;i,;<. :1 1 l1> !"-' a:.;i:<1111cd ci!' tl 1c t"u1il-:i1·o urs t1 111 s to i:dlue11cc

.,

(

..~.

:

' .,

L:>O

ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC.

the hearer, still, our purpose and drift should be, if not
aosolutely concealed, yet not orenly declared, and made
p rominent. \Vhetlier th2 motives whic h tl1e orator is
cnd c<.1vouri11t; tu call into action Le suiLalilc or U11s11italilc
to the occasion,- such as it is right, or wrong, for t11e
hearer to act upon, the same rule will hold good. In
the latter case it is plain, that the spr'a'Ker who is seeking
to bias unfairly the minds of the audience will be the
more likely to succeed by going to work clandestinely,
in order that his hearers may not be on their guard, m1d
prepare and fortify their minds against the impression he
wishes to produce. In the ot11er case,- where the moti\'es dwelt on are such as ought to be present, and
strom>;ly to operate, men are not likely to be pleased with
the idea that they need to have these motives urged
u po n the m, and that they are not already suffici ently
und er the influence of such sentiments as tli o occasion
call s for. A ;nan may indeed be con\' in ccd that he is in
such a predicament ; and may ultimately feel obl igc<l to
the Orator for exciting or strengthening such sentiments;
but while he confesses this, he cannot but feel a degree
of mortification in making the confession, a11d a kjml of
jealousy of the apparent assumption of superiority, in a
s peaker, who seems to say , "now I wili exhort you to
feel cis yo n ought on this occnsion ; " " I wili endeavour
to in,pi re :lcH1 \Vi lh such nob1e, an d g;e nero11s, anrl atniablc sentiments as you ought to entertain : " which is, in
effoct, the tone of him who avows the purpose of Exhort:11 inn . Th<' mind is sure to revolt from the humiliation
or l1 ei11t>; tht1 s moulded and b sl1ioned, in rc;pcct to its
f<'i,Ji11 t_;s , ~I t!if1 pl1'asi1rf' of' anothe r; a11d is apt, jlCl'VCl'SCi_v, to resi-;t the i11f11w1wc of such a discipline.

(_' II •\I' .

11

§ 1

OF

l -3 J

11 0 sue l1 1111p
· 1·:c< 1 s 11 111·r1o r11y
·
rn
anJ\\ 111.~ tlic imcntion of cu 11 \' 1 1 w111~ 1iic under.'!dndi 11'..'.
:\ l cil k1101\·, 11 111i (\\i111t i-; lll()IT [()Ilic p11q111_-;1: ) i'e1·!, l.V
L, _. \\ i1<1 j'll>11 111 s tu ti1 e ir 111i11 1b 11 11c1\ 1U1d cui.;tilll tr;;:n
ol Arg111ncnt, docs not 11 cccs~a ril y possess or a>,;ume 1~ 11 -:
uill:11'in:! suµcriority; hut Illa)', by mere ly liavi11 :;: dev";_
1'd 11 partic1dar 11 lic 11tion lo li1c poi11t i1 1 ' i"cs1i~n , , 11 ,._
cel'll i11 setl ill:; beiuro li1c111 ;\ri,;11111cnts and ExjJiiu 11 11 1011,
11 iiicli liave not occurred to tl1e1nselvcs. And even j(
the Argun1 cnts adduC'cd, and tlic Conclusio;1s draw 11
slio uld be opposite to those with wl1ich thev had fornwr~
ly lJcen satisli cd, still tl1cre is nothing in tlii·, so hurnili;it1
•
i11_g_, as in tha t \\hid1 .see 11 1s t o amo1111t to t110
llll[lutati on of a morni riPl;~ct.
\\ 'Jic1·L,a-;, li1nc

-l

l'Fl\~U . \"i(J _\I

J."J

It is trucUiat !::lermons not 1111!req11cntly JlrO\· c }J U} JU!w -,
1\lill'li co1i:; 1st av owedk
1111d almost cxciLhJ·\·1·'1 1· i
.l
, ,(' E·di ortation, s1rir1Jr so called , - in \\·] 1,·,_.-/·1 """ ""'
'n1Hl<>1 1

i ! tt·

\ } \· :-:i.~~l l

nr

•

i1 1flucn('iJlh

l"l\ ' 11\\" •-d ,, t

tiH~ St'Jlii111enf s l llld

f"1 '(' li1:.:.:; i:-; 1101. oi d_v :1ppan-·11 t, lH1t prn1n!11ent

l1!!rT:1 ti11 11

tliron~hout :

l.111t it. is lo be feared, that those who are the mo st~p lr· as

- ;;f

cd w1tl1 >ucl1 dio cotirs es, are more apt to ; 1pply tiii' sc,
l·>dlllrtatio11s to :heir 111:ip:fdJ<111rs tku1 to tl11: 11 iselve s :
and titat t:1wl1 be-;to\vs liis co1111 1/(:nda tio11 ra1hcr f'r 0111
tl1 e co11s 1dcratio11 tliat such admonitions arc m11 cli needed ,
~nd 11 111"1 be' 2:1~1wra llx uscf1il, il1a11 f'rorn find in ,:.i; tltc;r,
ti111.; 11 ,;1 ·f1il to hi1:i,;1 ·lr.

\\ 'JiCll i11dee1i tlie speak er l111s n1adc so me pro;:i/css in
exciti1i .~ the f1 ; L' li 11 .~~ rcq 11ircd, and li:i.s in ~real n~ ca~iii·c~
~:~1in e i! j ir 1:-.;:-;('c:sion of his ~111d i(·n1·P) a dir e(·t ;111d <: i-.;; i;i,
l·>.l 111 rl;ili<11 1 tu IH!r-Jpt tl 1i: co11d1wt rc1·o n11 11r·1,1dr·d n ;;;
1i!ri ·11 11rci\ - (' \ ' 1•ry f' l;-(,(· :11:rl ; h11t ltC\' tT c:11 1 ir he i1ecdi.1il

"1·

<t 1

hi,1tl,]c lo /rl / tf1,·111 (;i-; ~:«1 1 111: cl") 1i1 11 [ Y"';

go ing to t.1..lu111

ii;«;

l l w111.

. __;_:' ~; · · .

'. . :

" )
l ·>-

ELEMC:NTS OF H.HETURIC.

PART

ll

It will, indeed, sometimes happen that the excitement
of a certain feeling will depend, in some measure, on a
process of Reasoning ; e . g. it may be requisite to prove,
where there is a doubt on the subject, that the person
recommended to the Pity, Gratitude, &c. of the hearers,
is really an object deserving of these sentiments : but
even then, it will almost always be the case, that the
chief point to be accompl ished shall be to raise those
feeli ngs to the requisite height, after the understanding is
convin ced that the occasion calls for them . And this is
to be effected not by Argum ent, properly so called, but
uy presenting the circumstances in such a point of view,
and so fixing and detaining the attention upon them , that
corresponJ ing senti ments and emotions shall gradually,
an1l as it were spontaneously arise .*
•Ser mons would prolmbly have more effect, if, instead of being, n•
f'requ~nlly a r~ , directly lwrtalnry, they were more in a didactic
f~>r m ;- rwc11picd ch if' fl y in erplaining some transn.ction related, or
1loctrinc hi<l down, in Scriptu re . The gencrnlity of hcnrers nre too
mu ch fainili:uizcd to direct ex hortation to feel it adequately: if th ey
arc led tot.he same point obliquely , os it were, o.nd induced to <lwcJI
witl1 interest fo r a considrrable time on some point, closely, though
incid entally, connected with the most awful and importnnt truths, a
very sl ight application lo themselves might make o. grenter impre•si on than the most veheme nt appeal in the outset: ofie n indeed they
wo uld themsel ves m<Lkc this appli catio n unconsciously ; and if on
any t hi s procedure 111atlc no irnprcssion, il can hardly be expect.eel that
any thing else wnuld. To use a homely ill ustration, a moderate charge
of powde r will have more effect in splitting a r ock , if we begin by
deep borin g, and introdu cing th e ch::uge into lire very he art of it than
t.en times the qu antity explr,<lcd on the surface .

''"'Y

C 11 Ar. IT. § 2

OF' PERSUASION.

13.')

§ 2.
Hence arises another R ule, * closely connected irith
the forego ing, though it also so far relates w
style that
it 11 ll'gl1t Wll
· }1 s uffi c1·ent propriety ,,r
AJ vonta"o
·
'
«•pi"""
~J<H'e been placed unde r that heacl ; viz. that dc1 ai1.

m order effoctu:iJly to excite feelin"s
of u~11J k'lll d J Jl
. .IS
1'.J
necessary to employ some copiousness of clet~ ·l
cl
d
uJ ' an
to
well son:ewhat at large on the several c ircumstances of
the
case
111 hand ; in which resr)eCt there .I S a
'd d'IS ·
•
•
\VJ e

t111ct1on b:t,~een strict Argumen tation, with a view to
the Conv1c~1011 of the understand ing alone, and t11<?
attempt
to mfluence
the will, by the excitement of any
.
.
emotion. ·wah respect to Argumen t itself indeed different occasions will call for different cle,,.ree
f c' .
>
• •
' 0
s o
opr ousness.' hepe ution, and Expansion ;- the chain of
Reasornng .employed, may, in itsell~ consist of more or
fewer links ; - abstruse and complex Arguments must
lie unfolded at grea ter length than such as are more sim ple ;- :md th e more unc ultivated the a11 Ji<? nce the
mnre full must b. ,. tire exp
· lan ~t1·on an d l']] ustratro
· n,' and
0

~lre more freq uent tlre re~etition, of the Arg uments pre. ented. to
. r:i.pJe
. them ; but still the same gen eral
' prrn
prevails m nll these cases.; viz. to aim m erely at letting
• "N
.
.
l on e n1m, s1 ~ utarg um e n t u1n , si mul ntque positum cst,arripitur,
alteru
mque
et
tertmrn
poscitur ,· it.a m1· se ncor
· <l'iarn aut inv1dwm
· · ·
.
.
.
an t

ira_cu n d1~ m,_ s1rnul atque intule ris, possis commoverc :

nr1r11n1cntum

<' ntrn ratio ipsa confirmat, quro, simul at<1ue em issa eHt ad l1 ro rc"cil.
illud au tcm genus orationis non cognitionem J·udicis se'd
t I ·
, ,
mag1s. pc r-'
nr H
tl1one 1n .rf•qu
irit, quam consc qui , nisi muJ •A
t van,t
., e t cop .1usi
.
. _
ld. e
orat1_onc , c t s1 n11 h co nte ntion e actionis, ne rno potest.

Qunre qui aut

h r~v 1tc r a ut •_timmisse dieunt, docere judieem possun\ , commoverc
non pnssunt; tn qu o au nt omnia. "

12

Cic. do Ora.I. lib. ii. c. G3 .

134

ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC.

PART

11.

the Arguments be fully undcrstoo~ and admitted; this
will indeed occupy a shorter or longer space, accordin.,. to the nature of the case and the character of the
hc~rcrs ; but all Expansion and Repetition beyond what
is necessary to accomplish conviction , is in every instan_ce
tedious and disgusting; . On the contrary, in a description of any thin g 1hat is likely to act on the feelings, this
effect ,1·ill by no means be p roduced as soon as thf') understanding is s11fliciently inronned; detail and expansion are here not only adrnissibie , but absolutely necessary, in order tl1at the niin<l may have leisure and op1~or­
tuni ty to form vivid and distinct ideas. For as . Qumctilian ,1·cll observes, be who tells us that a city was
sacked, although th::it one " ·ord implies all that ocr '.ll'red,
11·ill produce little, if any, impression on '.he fcelmg:,'"'
in comparison of one who sets before us a lively description of the various lamentable circumstances ; to tell the
holc, he adds, is by no means the same as to tell every
10

thing. t
•Dr. Gunpbcll hils treatc<l very ably of some circu mstunces which
tend to heighten ;my impression. Tim rell'd er is referred to the Appe ndix for some extr(lcts. See Appendix, [D.J
t Accordi ngl y it m:ty be observed , th(lt though e very one understands what is meant by " a wound_," there are son1e who cannot
hear a. niinute dPscrip tio n of one, without fainting.

.

Th e d<'a lh of P(ltroclus is minutely relate d by Horner for the intcrrst of the r eader; th ough to Achil~es, wh.ose fe elin gs '~oul~ be •u~­
cic ntly e xcited by the bare fact, it ts told in two words. ><E1T<H Ila-

1oc,,dnc.
' '!'her~ is an in,tance re lilted in a number of the Adve nt~_rer, of o.
whole nmli!'n ce bei n<T moved to tears by n mimitc dcta.il of the circum"i.tli the
death
of a youthful pair
at the battle
of
~t.nnces cnn1 1L'C t ('(l ' V
· ~
~
.
.
Fo nte noy; though they had previously listened without emotion to"
general olat~ment of the dreadful camuge in that engugemcnt.

C11.<1'.

IJ.

~

2.

OF PERSUASIO:.'i .

135

It is uot however with a vi ew to the Feelings only
tl1at some copiousness of detail will occasionally be needful : it will often ha ppen that the J uJgment cannot be
correctly formed, wit11out dwelling on ci rcumstances .
It has selJom if ever been noticed, how im portant
.
among t11e iutcllectual qualifications for the
.
.
Imag1n-H lon
study of. history, 1s a vivid Imagination: a foe- til
n1· ede.1 i n
e stud y of
ulty which consequen tly a skilful narrator must lli' "'' Y·
himself possess , and to which he must b e able to furnish
excitement in others . Some may perhaps be startled at
thi.s r~mark, who hav e been accusto med to consiclrr Imagrnat10n as having 110 other office than to fe ign and
fabily · Every faculty is liable to abuse and misdirection ; and Imagination mnong the rest : hut it is a mistake lo suppose that it necessarily tends to pervert the
truth of History, and to mislead the Judg ment. On the
contrary, our view of any transaction, espec ially one
tlu is remote in time or place, will necessarily be imperfect, generall y incorrect, unless it embrace somethi ng
more than the liarc outline of the occurrences ; - unless
we have beCore the mind a lively ide::i of t11e scenes in
whi ch the even ts took place, the habits of thou ght and of
feel ing of the actors, and all the circumstances connected
wi th the transac tion ; - unless in short 11·e can in n con siderable degree transport ourselves out of our own age,
and country, lli1d persons, and imagine ourselves ~he
agents or spectators. It is from a consideration of all
th ese c ircum~tanccs that we are enab!ed to form a righ t
judgment as to the facts which History records, and to
Wl1at we 1magrne, may
derive instruction from it.*
"See Appendix, [E .]

ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC.

C11AP.

l'ART] (.

than i~ really the case.

•

j

often have the effect of wearying the hearer

I 1e forehanrl, wi th the expectation of a long des cription of
~ o metJ1ing in which he probably does not as yet feel
1111u.:h intl" rcst; and would also be likely to prepare him
too much, and forewarn him, as it were, of the object
p roposed, - tbe design laid against his feelings. It will
often, therefore, have a better effect to describe obliquely, (if I may so speak,) by introducing circumstances
1· onneeted wi t.h the main object or event, and affected by
it, Lut no t absolutely forming a part of it. And circumst:inces of thi s kind may not unfrequently be selected,
so as to produ ce a more striking impression of any thing
that. is in itself great and remarkable, than could be produ ced by a minute and direct description ; because in
t hi s way the general and collective result of a whole,
and the effects prod urNl by it on otJ1er objects, may be
v i\·irJ! y im pressed on the hearer's mind ; the circum-

137

de tail of the partic:.ilar ve xations suffe red by tl ie ex il ed
J L!WS for tl1e1r di sobedience , con vey so liv ely an id ea of
tl1 ern as that description of their re sult conta ined in tlie
denunci ation ~f Mo.~es; "In the evenin g thou ,;halt say ,
Would God it were morning ! and in the rnorninp; thou
1"
;;halt say, 1¥ould God it were eveni1w
I"'> .

§ 3.

, cnptio u.

OF PERSUASION .

st~mt ial detail of collat era. l matters not drawin" off t1 e
1
n1ind from the contemplation of the princip::d ~wtter as
one and complete. Thus , the woman's nppli cat io 11 to
the K111g of Samaria, to compel li er neighbo11r to fulfil
th e agreement of sharing with her the infant's fl esh, i.:;ii-es
a rnorc frightful impression of the horrors of th e fa~iine
~han any more direct description could lJ<wc done ; si 11 cc
it presents to us the picture of that hard c 11 in" of tli e
heart to every kind of horror, and that rlestructi;n of the
or<l lllary st.ate of human sentiment, \\'liich is the result
of long-continued
and extreme mi ·se i·y · ]\'li
.
.
~
. r· ro 11 lJ.
1 any

in deed be merely imaginary, i. e. unreal; but it may be
\\hat actu:illy docs or did exist .. To say tbat Imagination, if not regulated by sound judgment and sufficient
knowledge, may chance to convey to us false impressions
of past events, is only to say that man is fallible. But
such false impressions are even much the more likely
to take possession of those whose Imagination is feeble
o r uncultivated . They arc apt to imagine the things ,
pcrso11s , ti mes, countries, &c . which they read of, as
m uch less different from what they see around them,

It is not, however, always advisable to enter into a
<z.irect detail of circumstances, 'w hich would
1.,,1;,c ct <le-

II. § :i.

•

In the poem of Rokehy, a strikin g exc111plificaLi on o cc urs of wliat has been- said: B e rtram, in J escrilrin" :lie
J~rowe~s he had di~play e d as a Buccan ee r, docs 11 ot"'p:i rt1cularrze any of lll s ex ploits , but allud es to tlic terril.Jle
impression they liad left :
Panama's mai ds shall lon<r look palf'
"VVh e n Risin ghn m inspire: tlie tale ; '
Chili's dark matrons long shall lame
The froward c!tdd with Be rtram's name.

The first of Dramatists , who might h.:ive b ee n perhaps
the ~rst of O'.·ators, has offered some excellent exemplifications of tlus rule ; especially in the speech of Antony
O\·er C~sar 's body.

12*

''
I

j
·-'

ELEMENTS OF lUlETORIC.

r ART IL

§ 4,
C omparison is one powerful means of exciting or
.
hei"btening any emotion ; viz. Ly presenting
C 1111qli\rl ~o 11.
b
·
1 d
d
a parallel between the case m ian an some
other that is calculated to call forth such emotions ; taking
care , of course , to r epresent the present case as stronger
than the one it is c ompared with, and such as ought to

•

affec t us more powerfully .
vVhen several successive steps of this kind a.re employ ed to raise the feelings gradually to the
Clim a x.
highest pitch, (which is the principal employm e nt of what Rhetor icians call the Climax,)* a far stronge r effect is produced than by thG mere presehtation of
the most stri king obj ect at onc e . It is observed by all
trav ellers who have visited the Alps, or other stupendo us mountains , that they form a very inadeqnate notion
o f the rnstness of the greater ones , till they ascend some
0 [' the less elevated, (which ye t · are huge mountains,)
and thence view tbe others still towering above tl1em.
.<\.nd the mind , no less than the eye, cannot so well take
in and do just ice to any vast objec t at a single glance ,
as b y several successive approaches and repeate d compari :;ons. 'l'l111s in the well-known Climax of Cicero in
t li e Oration against V e rres, shocked a:; the Romans were
likely to b e at the bare mention of the crucifixion of one
of their citizens , the successive steps by which he brings
th em to the contemplation of such an event, were calcu• An anal o~on" Arrange ment of .ll rgmnents, in order l.o set forth the
full fo rce of th ~ onP wP mea n to dwell upon, would also receive the
H:tme a p pr li at ion ; an d in fac t is very ofl.c n combined nnd blended
with that whi c h is hc rl' epokcu o!'.

C ll AP. II. § 4.

OF PERSUASION .

130

lat ed to work up the ir feelings to a much Iii.slier pitcli :
" It is an outrage to biml a Roman citizen ; to scour~e
him is an atrocious crime ; to put him to death is al 1 J1~s t
parric ide ; but to crncify him - what shall I c all it ? "
It is observed, acc ordingly, by Ari stotle, in speaki ll s
of Pan egyri c , that the person whorn we would hold up
to admiration, should always be compared, and adva11t:.igeously compared, if po5sible , with those that arc
already ill ustrious, but if not, at least wi th some perso11
whom he ex cels : to excel, being in itself, he says, a
ground of admiration. The same rule will ap p1y, as has
Leen said, to all other fe elings as well as to Adm iration :
Anger, or Pity , for instance , are more effectually exci ted
if we produce cases such as would c::ill fort h those passions, and \\·hich, though similar t'J those befo re us , arc
not so strong ; and so with respect to the rest.
When it is ' said, however, that the object \rliic li \re
compare wi th another, introduced for the purpose , shouid
lie 0 11 c whi ch oug ht to ex cite the fe eling in fj llCstio11 i1 1
a l1iglier degree tlian tl1at other, it is not lllCant tli;1t
thi s must ac tually be, ::ilready, tlie i111 prcssion of tlir:
!lt'arcrs : th e reve rse will more c omm on ly ! .. : tl1c c:J :i ( : ;
that tlie instan ces ::icl duccd will Le such as act 1wlly alfoct
their fc c li11gs more strongly than that to wl1icl1 \l'C arc
endeavouring to turn them, till the flame s prec1Js, ~1 s it
were, from tlie one to the other.
This wi ll es pcl·ially
l1old good in every case where self is co111.:crn cd ; c . ?,·
111en feel natur::illy more indignant at a slight affro11t offered
to th emselves, or those closely connecte d with them,
than at th e mast grievous wrong clon e to ::i strange r ; it'
therefor e you would exc ite the ir utmos t indi?;nati on in
s1wli a case, it must lJc by e ompa ri11 g it with a p;m11!1 ·i

.'

!

140

l'.:LEMENTS OF RHI::TORIC.

case that concerns themselves ; i. e. by leading them to
c 01~si <ler ho w they w ~uld feel were such and such an
injury done to then1selves .
And, on . the. othe1· hand,
if yo u would lead them to a just sense of then: own fi.ul~,
it must be by lead ing them to contemplate like faults m
others; of which the celebrated parable of Nathan,
addressed to David, affords an admirable instance.
It olten answers very well to introduce in this manner
an instance not only avowedly fictitious, but even m:mifestly impossible, provided it be but conceivable . . A case
may thus be exhibited more striking and apposite .than
any real or possible o'.1 e that coultl Le foun~. . I n:v e
inserted in the Appendix some examples of tlus km<l.

§ 5.
Ano ther Rule , (which also is connected in some ~e­
. gree with Style,) relates to the tone of feel_mg
~;~~~~·;~',',',: ::~to be manifested by the writer or speaker him"" " 1uo1lwtl;.
"
self, in order to exc •ite tI1e most e ffiecru all }' tl1e
desired emotions in the minds of the hearers. And this
is to be accomplished by two opposite methods: the o~e,
which is the more obvious, is to express openly the feel mg
111 question; the other, to seem l abo uri~g to suppress it:
in the former method, the most fo rcible remarks are
introduced ,- the mos t direct as well as impassioned
kind ol descript ion is e mployed,- and somethir1g of exagger:llion introduced, in order to :arry ~he hearers as
far as possibl e in the same direction 111 wluch the Orator
seems to he himself lmrried, and to infcct them to a CP.rtain degree with the emotions and sentiments which he
• St•e Appe ndi x, [F.)

c ......

PARTll.

..f

!I . § : •.

OF PEHSU/\SlON .

141

1hus manifests : the ot her method, whi ch is often no lP-ss
successful , is to abstain from all remm·ks, or from all such
ns come up to the express ion of feeli ng whi ch the occasion seems to authorize- to use a gentler mode of exp ression than the case might fairly warrant, - to deliver
"an unvarnished tale ," leavi ng the hearers to 111ake
th eir own comments,-and to appear to stifle and stud iously to keep within bounds su ch emotions as may
seem natural. This produces a kind of reaction in the
hearers ' minds ; and b eing struck with the inadequacy
of the expressions, and the labored calmness of tlie
speaker's man ner of stating things, compared with what
he may natural ly be disposed to feel, they will often
rush into the opposite extreme , and become the more
strongly affected by that which is set before them in so
simple and modest a form. And though this method is
in reali ty more artificial than the other, the artifice ·is the
more likely (perhaps for that veiy reason ) to escape
detection ; men being less on their guard against a speaker who d~s not seem so much labouring to work up
thei r feelings, as to repress or moderate his own ; provided that this calmness and coolness of manner be not
carried to such an extreme as to bear the appearnnce of
affectation ; wh ich caution is also to be attended to in
1he other mode of procedure no less ; an excessi~·e hyperbolical exaggeration being likely to defeat its own
object. Aristotle mentions, ( Rhet. b ook ix.) though
very briefly, these two modes of rousing tl1c feelings, the
latte r under the name of Eironeia, which in ]:is time \Yns
commonly employed to signify, not acco rding to th e
mod ern u s~ of " Irony ," saying " the contrary to wlwt
is 111 e;int," liut, what later \\Tit ers t1 st1nll_v exp ress by
/,i /o/es, i. c. " s:iy ing l f.ss tli:rn is m1 •a11t. "

J.1:2

ELE MBNTS 01" RHBTOllIC.

l' ART Jl

CHAI'.

The two me thods may often b e Loth use d on the same
o cc;:sion , beginning with th e calm, and proceeding to the
im passio ned, afte nvards, when tl1e fe elings of the hear2rs
arc already wrought up to a c e rtain pitch: 0111 1· Hx;i V,v>7
7ou; U. x'./oraU.; , xu l 7tOll/a ':] lv [rovaiu a ra.* Universally indeed
it is a fault carefully to be avoided, to express feelings
mo re veh emently than that th e au die nce can go along
, vith th e speak er; who wo uld, in th at case , as Cicero
obse rves, seem like one rav ing among the sane, or intoxicated in th e mids t of the sober . t And accordingly,

ll.

9 6.

OF PERSUASION.

143

"

ex cept wh ere from extraneous causes t!t c au dit, ncc are
already in an exci te d s tate , we must carry thc 111 fonl"ard
g rnd11 ally, aml a ll 1) W tirnc for the fir e tu ki11d k.
Ti 1·~
blast " ·lii eh \1·o uld I 11~ : gl it e 11 a stro11g; th111 c, '' uu l.!, 11'
appli ed too soon , e xtingui sh tlic firs t faint spar k . Tlic
spc<:! ch of Antony over C res ar's corpse, wbich has b ee n
already me nti o ncJ , affo r ds nn ad mir:i blc example ul tl1at
com bination of th e two me thods which has just been
spoken oC.
G ene rally, ho wever, it \\· ill b e found th at th e s:.une
Orators do not excel er1 ually in both modes of cxcit1 :1g
the feel ings; anrl ;t sho uld be reco mm ended to each to
e mploy p rirn; ipally that in which he succeeds lJ es t; siiH:C
eithe r , if j 1u.lic io usly m anaged, wi ll ge ne ral ly provt; cflcctual fo r it s obj ec t. The well-ki1on n talt: of [ 11 kle nml
Y arico, whic h is an instance of th e e.1:l entwl i ng metl 1otl ,
(as it rn ay be called,) could uo t, p erhaps , have Lee n rende red more affecting, if equally so , by di e most 1111 passi oned \'elie mence an d rhe to1i :·al lieiglne11i11g .

• Ari stotl e , R hct. book iii. ch. 7.
t In no point pc rhn.ps more than in llrnt now unde r cnnside ration
is the in1po rtan cc of a j ud icious 1trra,ng cmcnl to be perceived . The
na t nrn.l an d su itable orcler of the parts of a dis!'ourse (natural it may
be called, beca use co rres pondin g with that in whi ch the ideas su ggest
the mse lves to the mind ) is , that th eir stn.te ment.s a nd argume nts
8hnu1J fi rst be clearly a n d calmly laid down and de veloped, which
1

are the ~ ro und n.nd j u ~ lifi ca.t i o n o f suc h se ntime nts and en1otions as

1l 1c c:1"C calls fo r ; and tlmt the n the irnp::tR•ioncJ appeal (suppnsin g
the circ11 111'ta.11 r.1·" • 11ch ns :ulmit of or de mand t.hi ") should be made ,
to hea rr rs well pre pa red by tlu' ir prc \•iou s delil>c mt.e convic tion , for
n ·:; ig nin g th c m s,~ lv cs t.o s uc h fe el in gs n.s fi1irl y a.ri se out o f that con·
vi c ti on. The form .cr of lhrse two parts mlly be compared to the back
o f a sabre; the lallc r lo its edge . The form e r should be firm and
weighty ; t he lnttPr kC"cn. T he w rik r who is <l i: fi c ie nt in s tre n gth of
A r u1 111w 1d .. :-:l't:ms lt1 w an t w e i !.!: li t and sto':.1tness o f mf'tn 1; hi:'! st r.1 k P ~
n-ia i~t~ O ut.~ sure rfic ial iin prC'ssion , or the weapon is shi ve red to fra g·
n1 r- nt::.: in his hand. T-Jf' ngn.i n whose Log ic is co nvin cin g, hut who::.i e

§ 6.
"'\-\' he n the or c asio n or obj ect in ques ti o n is 11ot su('h as
call s for, o r as is likely tu exc ite iu tl 1" ' ' ~ J•ili"- f>h .. ,, 1.. ,, ,,r
ticu ln r readers or hearers , the emo tiolls requir- "frel in ~.

1

e<l, it is a co mmon Rh e torical artifice to turn th ei r attention to some object wh ich will call forth these t'ceii11:;s;
and when they arP, too m11 c l1 e xc ited to b e c:i pa11l e ,,f

<~c-fi c i cncy is in thP kce 11n ess of hi s ap pli c ation t.o tl ,e heart and to

th e will ~f th e hr arr r , sr1 ' ll1" ln hP wiel din g a hlunt thoug h ponde rous
w pa pon ; w e wond(' r to fi nd thn.t ~rn c h \\Ti g lity blow~ hn.ve not c ut
U(•f'pf' r. A nd he w ho reve rses the n;tl urnl o rdL'r , -who brg 1:ns with

i

n \"<' li<'mr nl addrr's tn th0 f.'cli ngs . ond ollN ward s procee<l s to the
a r~ 1 11 1H~ n t~ w hi rh ;i\ nn<' j n st ify SLH' li f(>p} ing-s , remin<l s u~ of one wi t.'lJ~
in ~ 1rn e x.,<'l lrnl oword , bu l. slri ki n~ with the had• of it: ifhc did but
tu rn it ro urn l, i t ~ li l•i\•.: s wo uld lake l' n~c t.

j

.'

J

judgin g c almly, it will not h e diffi c ult to turn th eir pass ion s, once roused, in the direc tion re(111ire d, and to 111;.iko
1he m vi e w the case before the m in a ve ry di flr r e11~ iil;itt.
\Vh e n 1he met.al is heate d, it may easily lie rn o uld ed i11to
the de sired form.
Thus vehement indignation ngai11st

..,.....

1-1 4

ELEMENTS OF RIUoTOlllC

l'.\l<T 11.

som e crime, may be directed against a person who _lias
not been proved guilty of it ; and vague _<leclamatw~s
agains t corruption , oppression, &c. or ag~mst th_e mischiefs of anarchy; with high-fio\rn panegyncs on 11bert~,
of man ) &c. or on social order, justice, the const1l ·i"hts
o
tution, law, religion, &c. will gradually lead the hearers to
take for granted, without proof, that the measure propo~­
e<l will lead to these evils or these advantages; anJ 11
will in consequence become the object of groundless
al.Jhorrence or admiration. For the very utterance of
such words as have a multitude of what may be called
stimulatinrr ideas associated with them, will operate like
0
.
d
a charm on the minds, especially of the ignorant an
unthinking, and raise such a tumult of feeling, as will
effectually blind their judgment; so that a string of vagi~e
abuse or panegyric, will often have the effect of a tra111
of soun<l Argument. Thi; artifice falls un<ler the head
of " Irrelevant Collclu~ion," or ignoratio elcnchi, mentioned 111 the Treatise on Ji'u.llacics .

C11..r. Ill § !.

OF Pl::RSUASJON.

'

ll

14 &

CHAP. III.
OJ the fa vourable or unfavourable di sposition of th?hearers towards the Spcalcer or his opponent.

§ 1.
In raising a favourable impression of the speaker, or au
unfavo urable one of his opponent, a peculiar
fndirect st: lf·
tact will of course b necessary ; especially in c<>nuuendati on.
the fo rmer, since direct self-commendati on will
usually be disgusting, to a greater degree, eve n than a
di rec t personal attack on another; tho t1gh, if tli e Orator
is pleading hi s own cause , or one in whic h he is personally concerned, (as was the case in the speech of Demosthenes concerning the Crown,) a greater allowance
will be made for him on this point ; esp ecially if he be
a very eminent person, and one who may safely appeal
to publi c actions performed by him . Thus Pericles is
rep resented by Thucydides as claiming direc tly, when
speaking in his own vindication, exactly the qualities
(good Sense, good Principle, and Good-will) which Aristotl e lays down as consti tuting the character which \\·e
must seek to appear in. But then it is to be obse rved,
that the historian represents him as accustome d to address
the people with more authority than others for the most
part ventu red to assume. It is by the expression of wise,
nmiahlc, and generous Sentiments, that Ari stotl e recomrnc :1 ds the speaker to manifest his own character ; 11 but
• or course it will ofte n h a ppen that the hearers w ill th us be in ·
du ce rl , on insulTicic nt g round s, to g ive the speakPr full credi t for
m orn! excell e nce, from Iii• me rely uttering llie la ng uage of it: the
13

.I

1-l G

ELl~MENTS

OF' 1-tllETOl{J C.

PAnT II.

C!!AJ'.

se emingly in cid ental manner, lest tlie hearers be disgusted with a pompous and studied display o f fine sentiments ; and care must also be taken not to affront t11em
by seeming to inculcate as something likely to be new to
th em , max ims which they regard as almost truisms. Of
r:ourse the application of this last caution m11st vary
;1c co rdin g to the cliamcter of the persons addresse d ; thai
rni f!:ltt excite admiration and gratitude in one audience,
which ano ther would receive with indignation and ridicule.
Most men, however, are disposed rather to
overrate than to extenuate tl-.ei r own moral jurlgrne nt ;
or at least to be jealous of any one 's appearing to underr;itc it .
Un iv ersally inde ed, in the Argum ents used, as well
as in the appe:tls made to the Feelings , a
rd alivf'.
co nsideration inust be l1ad of the hearers,
F.l ocpicn ··e

are , the ca~ i c r it is for tl1e spea ke r to "rork up o n the ir passions, and
by work in g o n the ir pas ions, to obtain his e nd. Thi g, it mu s t lie
o w ne<l , nppen.rs o n the othe r han<l to g ive a. c o nsiderable a.d vanl:i :Jt.!
to th e preac ht'r; as in no Cong regation c an the bu1 k of thf' r • 'np l·~
he rC"g; 1rdcd as on a footin g , in poin t of im pro\·crncnt , w ith <· ith1•r
li o usc of Parli;unf'nt , or w ith the Jud g C's in a. C o nrt 0 f .J u d i ~ a t11 r1 • .
IL is c" rta in , th ctt the n1orc g ross the heare rs are , th e rn nrc avow<·d l.v
rnay y o u a<ld rc!-:s y o ur:-:e lf to their pass ions , and the less occa::.: io n
t!wre is fo r argu nw nt; whereas, th e lll orc intf'l lig c 11t they a rc , tl1c
rnorn co ve rtly must you operate on th ei r p:i_ssions 1 and the n 10rr~
al~C'n tiv e 1nu s t you be in rC'gard to the justness, or at ka~ t the f:; JI"·
civusn esg, of" your reasoning . IIcnce so 1ne hav e strangely c n 11 c l 11 d ·

fallnc.v whi ch in th is case mi sleads them mn..v be regardt'd ns that of
unrli"tributecl middle: "a good man would speak so and so; the
eprak<' r dnrs this : therefore he must be n good rnnn."

ed , tlicLt
hn· ccli n ~,

Y o n can not be ig nora nt," t..~C . (~C. "la m n nt nd vanc ing any

h ig h pr c trrn.::i o n ~ in C' Xprr ssin ,.rr th e sentimP nt s which such nn occn·

fr.rth

in c vr ry

honest heart," . .~,c.

th ~

only sc0pc for cl o<]uencc is in haran g ui ng t he mu lt i-

t.11d e; th at in g aining o ve r to you r purpose men of knnwl cdg C' an d

•.I-:. v, . "It woul<l he needless to impress upc;n .vou the maxim,"

.:.: inn mu~t e;1Jl

147

., "The le ss ini pro ,·etl in knowle dge and di scf" rn me nt the hea r er s

whe ther they are learned or ignorant, -of this or that
profess ion , - nation,-cliaracter, &c. and the address
must be adapted to each; so that there can be no excellence of writing or speaking in the abstrac t; nor can
1Ye any more pronounce on the Eloquence of any Compooitio11, than upon the wholesome ness of n medicine,
wi tho11t knowing for whom it is intendell.
Th e less
enlightened the hearers, the harder, of course , it is to

H

OF PERSUASION.

rn ake them coc1prchend n long and complex trai n 0 1
R cascming; ; so that so metimes the Arguments , in th em ·
sch-es the most cogent, c::umot be employed at all 11·ith
elTcct ; <m d the rest will need an expansion and c opious
iLiustratio n wl1ich would be needless , and tli erc lore tiresome, (as has Leen above remarked,) Lef"v re a diffe ren t
k ind o f audienc e : o n the o ther hand, the ir fec :ing;s Ill a)'
Le excited by much bolder and coarser expe di ents; suC' h
as those are lhe most ready to employ , and tl1£ mos t
likely to succeed in, who ::u·e lhemselves but a little
removed above the vulgar; as may be seen irt the effects
produced by fanatic:tl preachers .
.B ut there are non e
1vhose feelin gs do not occ::ision:tlly need and admit of
excitement Ly tl1e powers of Eloq ue nce ; only there is
a more exquisit e ski ll rer1uircd in thus al1c cting tl1e edu cated classes than the populace ."'

1:nm this must gcncrr1lly be done in an oblique* and

1S: c.

JI[.§ 1.

t.he exe rt io n of Orato ri cal talenls hath no inOucn cc. Tl1i•
a:; if o ne s lwuld argue, because it 111 0b is mu c h i; 1v re

i~ preci:;l' ~Y

I

'

c;t:sily subtlue J than re g u la r troops, th e re is no occas ion f~tr tli c art

,,r wa r, nor is there a prnpc r

fi eld for the exertion of mili tary s kil l,

148

ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC.

PART

O n the other hand, it is, as has b::en said, in t11e
same deg i-ee more difficult to bring the uneducated to
a comprehension of the Argu ments employed ; and this,
not only from their reasoning-powers having less general
cultivation, but also, in m:my instances, from t11eir ignorance of the s11Lject ; - their needing to be informed of
the facts, and to have the principles explained to them,
on which the Argument p roceeds . And I canno t but
think that the generality of sermons seem to presuppose
a degree of religious knowledge in the hearers greater
than many of them would be found on examination to
possess . When th is is the case, tbe most angelic eloquence must be unavailir.g to any practical purpose.
In no point more than in that now under consideration, viz . the Conciliation (to adopt the term of. -the
Latin writers) of the hearers , is it req uisite to c'on; ider
who and what the h earers are ; for when it is said that
g,ood S ense, good Principle, and Good-will, constitute
unles" when you nre quelling an undisc iplined rabble . Every bo<ly
secs in this case, n ot only how ttbsur<l such a way of llrguing would
he , but that th e very reverse ought to be the conclusion . The reason why people <lo not so qu ickly perceive the absur<lit.y in the
othr. r ens<>, is, that they afr.x no distinct meaning to the word cl.o'l"cnrc, oflp n denoting no more by that term than simply the power
of m<w ing the pa~:; i o ns.

CHAP.

II

Dut e v e n in this imprope r ncceptation, the ir

Carnpbell·s Jl /,rtoric, book i. chap. x . sec. 2 . p . 224, 29...5.
It may be :uldc<l to what. D r. C . has here re rn ark c<l , that the title of
r./o'111ritl may have come to be often limit<><l to auch compositions as
he i ~ spcak :ng- of, fro111 thP. circumstance tbat the ir c lo<J.uence is (to
ren.dr·rs uf" r.111tivttll cl mind) n111rf' co ns11£c11.ous. That which affects
our own fi• el in µ;s is not, hy m , 1tl the time at least, perceived t.o bo
·~ l o11u<'n r.c.
See note t o the next section .
1

OF PEitSUASlON.

the character wl1i ch the speaker ought to es tablish of
himself, it is to be remembered that every one of these
is to be considered in reference to the opin ions and
h'.1bits of the audience. To think very diff~rently fr om
lllS hearers, may ofte n be a sig n of the Orator's wisdom
and \\"Orth ; but th ey are not like ly to consider it so.
A 11· iu~ Satirist" has observed, that "it is a sho rt w;iy
to obtarn the reputation of a wise and reasonable man,
whenever any on e tells you his opinion, to agree with
hin_i." Without go ing the full length of c ompl etely
acting on this maxim, it is absolutely n ecessary to remember, that in proportion as the speaker manifests his
dissent from the opinions and principles of his audience.
s_o fi.1r, he runs the ri sk at leas t of impairing th eir es tim a~
t1on o f his judgme nt. B ut this it is ofte n n ecess~1ry lo
do when any seri ous obj ect is prop0sed ; becau se it wi ll
commonly hap pen that the very E ncl aimed at sh:ill uc
one which impli es a change of sentiments, or even of
rrin cipl es and character, in the bearers. t Those indeed
ll"ho_ :iim only M. pop11lariry, are right in co nformin g the i1·
sentunents to thos e of the hearers , rather tk111 the contrary; but it is plain that though in this way they obtain
the greatest reputation for Eloquen ce, th ey deser ve it
" Swift.

noti on is far fro m being .in:;l ; for whe reve r tht~ rc a.re men, learne d
or ig norant, c ivilize d or barharous, the re are }HtS8 iOnti; and the
greatr r the difficulty is in affec ting th c~e, the more art is requisite."

III. § l.

I Th is must be very mu ch the case with any prea.ch<'r of the (:, ,"_
pc l, Uut rnu st have bee n muc h rnore so w ith i tH first pnnnu lgato r:4.
11

C hri tit c ru cified" WiLS " to 1.li e Je ws a. Mlun1bling-hl oek, nn<l 1.f1 ti ":
G rf'.e k~, fvoli ~ hne !'\s ." The total clrn nge req11in·d in all tl1c notion~,
haL1ts, and S}'tilcms
conduf: t in th e fir!'it converts, constituted a.n
obsto.clc lo the reception of the new rcli;;ion, which no other tliat hns
prt•vailed ever had to conte nd with. Th e striking con trast which
J\T t1hornm P rli ~ m prei:;ents, in lhis respect, to Christianity, constitn tel:!
tl1e ro.pid diffu sion of ti ..; two, hy no m PanH parallel ensPe

or

13*

150

BLEME.NTS OF RHETORIC .

PAn1

rr.

the less; it being much easier, according t:o the tale
related of Mahomet, to go to the mountain, than to bring
the mountain to us .* There is but little E loquence in
convincing men that they are in the right, or inducing
them to approve a character which coincides with their
own .
The Christian preacher there!"ore is in this respect
placed in a rlirricult dilemma ; since he rnay Ditlinilti-. of
be su re th at the less he compl ies with the de- a Preacltor.
prnvcd judgments of man's corrupt nature, the less acceptable is he li kely to be to that depraved judgment.
But he who would cfoim the highest rank :1s an Orator,
(to omit all higher considerations ,) must be the one who
is the most successful, not in gain ing popuh.u· applause,
hut in carrying his point, whatever it be. The preach•Little r.Jrce is necessary lo pu sh down heavy bodies placed on the
verge of a <leclil'ity; bnt mu c h force is requisite to slop the m in
their progress, 1111<1 pu!"h them n p. lfa rnnn should any, thnt because
the fi rst is 1110r<' frequently efft'ctcd than lite last, it is the ucsl trial
of strength, nnd llw only R11 it:tble use to which it cnn be applied, wo
•hnuld at lcnsl. n0l think him rcmark:tble for distinctness in his idcns.
Popularity a101w , therefore , is no test at all of the eloquence of tho
•pcaker, no more than velocity alone would be, of the force of lhe
cxl.ern;tl i1np ul~P or igi nally given lo the Lody n1oving. As in this
the di rec lion of the body, and othe r ci rc umstances, OlllSl be Luke n into
the acco unt; so in tha.t, you must consider the tendency of the tench·
in g, whether it favo rs or opposes the vices of the hean·rs. To hcn<l
a sf'ct, to infusr· party-spi rit, to mnke rricn arroga11t, unclmritable, und
mnlcv olenl, is I he eas ies t l:tRk imaginable , ;rnd to which almost o.ny
blor.khead is full y cqua.I. But to produce th<' contrary effec t, to subd ue th<' spirit of faclion , nnd that mon ster, spiritual pride, with which
it is invarial 1ly accoznpanicd, to inspire equity, n10<lc r:llion, a1uJ chnrity into rn e 11'F1 ~f'nt.imP nt.r-:1 and conduct with regard l.o others, is the
genuine test vf clu•1uenc<"" C.u11pbcll 's JUu;toric, ho<•k i . chap. x.
sec . 5. p. 2:!'.l .

CHAP.

I
J

IIT. § 2.

OF PERSUASION.

151

er, however, who is intent on this object, should use ;ill
such precautions as arc not inconsistent 11·ith it , to a1·oid
raising unfarnurable impress ions in hi s hearers. Much
will depend on a gentle and conci liatory mann er ; nor is
it necessary that he sho ul d, at once, in an abrupt and
offensive form, set forth all the dine renccs nf scnti·
111e11t bet11·ccn himself and l1is congregmio11, b11t win tlir111
01·er by degrees; and in 1diatever point, and to 11·Jwtf'l'!~ r extent, he may suppose th em 10 ag;ree 11 ith him, it
is :dlo11·aLle, and for that reason advi sabl e, 10 d11·cll on
i!m ngreemcnt ; as the AJh)stles began e1·cry add ress tn
t l1t~ Jews by an ;ippenl to the Prophets, " hose autl1ori11·
they adillitted; and as Pa11l opens his disr011J'se to d1.e
:\tlie11i:111s (though unfortunately th e words o( our tran shtion are likely to convey an opposite id ea) " by a co111menuation of their respec t for religion. And abo1·e all,
where censure is called for, the speaker should amid,
not merely on Christian, but also on Rhctoric:il princi ples, all appearance of exult:ition in his 011·n superiority) - - of c0n1c1np t, or or 11ncharit:1l•le triumph in tlie
dctec ti011 or faults; "in meekness, instructing them tlrat
oppose themst•lvcs. "

§ 2.
Of intellectual q11alifications, there is one which, it is
evident, sliould not only not he blazoned forth
' nani·er
11
but should in a 0,,.reat measure be concealed ) or f11r
,..1.,;,,lli..•
1• li> kcpt out of sight; viz. Rhetorical skill ; since 'l''""'c.
whatever is attributed to the Eloquence of the speaker
(1r

.. Lf P t a 10ur 1l UJJ 1 t <r1 lQOU~, not "too supe rstitious,'' but ( ns al·

most. nil commentators a.re now agreer!) "vt·ry mu c h di s poRcd to the
wor•hip of Divine bei ngs."

I

152

ELEMENTS OF rutETOlUC.

PAHTll.

CHAI'.

1s so rn uc: h deducted from the stre ngth bf liis c ause .
I Ience, P ericles is rei,resented by Thucydides as artfully
claiming, in his vindication of himself, the power of
explaining the rneasure5 he proposes , not, Eloquence in
persuading their adoption. .And acc ordingly a skilful
O rator seldom fai ls to notice allll extol the Eloquence of
his oppone nt , and to w:-?rn th e hearers against being mi sled by it. It is a pec uliarity therefore in the Rhetorical
art, that in it, more th:m in any other, vanity has a d irect
and immediate tendency to interfere with the proposed
object . Excessi1·e vanity may indeed , in va!·ious ways ,
proYe an impedime nt to success in other pursuits ; b11t
in the endeavour to Persuade , all wish to appear excel lent in tl1at Prt, operates as a hindrance. A P oet, a
Statesman , or a General, &c. though extreme covetousness of ap plause may mislead them, will, however, attain
the ir respec tive En r:s, certainly not the less for being
;id1nired as excellent, in Poetry, Politics, or War; but
the Orator attains his E nd the better the less he i:;
rr~ar d e d as an Onaor; if he can make the hearers believe that he is no t only a strang;er to all unfair artifice,
lrn l c1·e11 destitu te or all l' ersuasive skill whatever, he
will persu ade them the more effect11ally, * and if there
m·er co1ild Le an absolutely perfect Orator, no one
would, al the ti1n e at least, discover that he was so. t
ra m no orator, as Ilrutns is/' &c . Sha.ksp. J11lim~ Cmsar
pa.•sa~e frnm a review of" The Heart of M id- Lothian," coin c ides precisely with what has here b~cn re mark ed:" \Ve
cnnn ot bcstnw the same unqu 11l ified pmise on another celebrated
scene , Jeann ie 's inte rview with Quee n Caroline. Jea.nnie's pleac1ingn ppr. n.rs to ns much too rhelnri cal fnr the p~rson and for the OCC!lsion 1
and th~ quccn·s answrr, su pposi ng her to have been overpowered by
14

"

t The r.,llow in g

111. § 2.

OF PERSUASION.

153

And thi s c on sid ern1i0n may serve to ac count for the fact
whi ch C icero remarks upon (De Orntore, book i.) as so
inexplic able ; viz. the small number of persons who,
down to his time, had obtaiJied high reput~ion as orators,
compared with those who had obtained ex.cellence io
other pursuits . Few men are destitute of the desire of
admiration ; and most are especially ambitious of it in
the pursuit to which they have chi efly devoted them
selves ; the Orator therefore is continually tempted to
sacrifice the substance to the shadow, by aiming rather ::it the admiration of the hearers, than their ·convi ction ,
and thus to fail of that excellence in his art which he
might othe rwi se be well qualified to attain, through the
desi re of a reputation for it. And on the othe r band,
some may have been re~J ly persuasive speakers , who
yet may not have ranked high in men's opinion , and may
not have been known to possess that art of which they
gave proof by their skilful concealment of it. T here
is no point, in short, in which report is so little to he
trusted .

fl

l.
1

l

JE:"an ni c s ent rca.l.ic~ : 'This is t>lorpi e nce,' is Rti ll \\.'On1f•. Ilnd it brr n
cl nr111c ncP, it mu sl necessarily hav e been un pcrcciv!'d by the qnec· n
If there is any a.rt of which r.cla r c (lrfcni is the bas is , it is thi". T ho
in Rlant it pecp9 o nt , it dcfpat~ its own object, hy djvcrtin g o ur atten tio n
from th e subject to the speakt'r, and that witl1 u suspici on of hi s ""Ph
istry equal to our adn1iration of his inge nuity. A n1an who , in an
Bwer to nn earnest address to the foeling• of his henrn, is tol d,' you
have spoke n eloque ntl y ,' fe els that he has faile d. E ffie, wh en •he
entreats Sh:trpi tlaw to allow her to see her O:ster, is ~ loqn<'nt , and his
nnswPr acco rdingly hetrays pe rfec t uncon!cio11 s n 1'~~ th at she hnB heC" n

so,' You shall >ee you r sister,' he began 'if you·ll tell me;' the n
interruptin g himsel f, he added in a more hurried tone ,' no, you shall
oce y our si ster, whethe r you tell me or n o.'" Quarterly lkvicw,
No. Ji, p. 118

\

154

E L E MENTS OF IU-LETORIC.

PAR"f

II

If I \Yere asked to digress a little from my subject, and
to say what I should recommend in point of morality and
of prudence , to tbe speaker or writer, and to those_ whom
be ad rl resses , with respect to the precept just given , I
should, in reply, counsel him who wishes to produce a
p ermanent effoct, (for I am not now adverting to ~he case
of a barrister, ) to keep on the side of what he believes to
be trn th ; and, avoiding all so..phistry, to aim only at se tti ng forth that truth as strongly as possible, (comtating,
·of co urse, any unjust personal prejudice against himself,)
\\'ithout any endeavour to gain applause for his own al1il1ues. If he is himself thoronghly co1 ·vince.d, an d strongly impressed , and can keep clear of the seclucti~ns of
vanity, ho will be more likely in this way to ga111 due
credit for the strength of his cause, than by yi elding to a
feve rish anxiety about the opinion that others may form of
him . And as I should of course advise the reader or
]1eare r to end eavour, in e:ich case , to form his judgment
according to the real and valid arguments urged, and to
regulate his feelings and scnlimcnls according to what
the case justly calls for, so, wi th a view to this encl, I
\l"OUl cl s11g,; c"t these two cautions ; first, to ke rp in mind
that there is d:rnger of over-rating as well as of undorratin "' the eloq uenc e of what is said; and that to altrib ute ~ the ~kill or tho advocate what really b elongs to
the strength ol his cause, is just as likely to lead to error
as the opposite mistake: and secondly, to remember
that when the feelinS" are strongly excited, they are not
necessarily over-excited : it may I.Jc that they '.ire. only
';iro 11 glit into the stale which the occ;1sion fully y1st1fies ;
or even 1li:it they still foll sliort of this.*
" Sec part ii. el 1ap. l .

§

~.

C our. II[. § 3

OF P8RSUASION .

155

§ 3.

I

j
l

Of the tliree poiil h which Ari ~ totl e directs the orator
to claim credit for, it migh t seem at fir st si 0ht :\ clrn:1w·r
that one, viz. "Good-\vil1, '' is unn ecessary to ~.~:~ 11 ~::( 1 ~~--t·il
he mentioned; since AL>i lity ai1d Intcgriiy ;','. , :::'.·;,~:_''.!.
wo1ild appea r to comprehend, in 1110 ~ t rases at
lc::1st, nil th:-it is needed ; a virtuous man, it may be said,
n~u~t \1·ish well to hi s co untrymen, or to any per son~
whatever, whom he m:iy be addressing. But on a m o re~
attentive con sideration, it will he man ifest that Aristotle
had 0 oocl reaso n for mentioning this hea d ; if 1lic ,;pc:1ker were believed to wi-h well to his Conn I ry, and to
every in divid ual of it, yet if Jin we re ,;uspe('ted of hei 11;
unfri end ly to tho political or other Prirly to ;rhir h his
hearers belonged , they would li sten to him with prej 11 rl icc .
Th e abilities and the conscientiousness of Phocion seem
not to have been doubted by :rny; but th ey \\·ere so f:1r
from g;aini11g; him a favourable he;iring among tl1e Dcrno cratical party at Ath c n ~ , (who kn ew liim to Le no fri<'11cl
to Democ racy,) th;it they prolJal1ly di~lrusted lti11 1 tl1i:
more; as one wh ose p11hli c spi rit 11·ould ind1 1ce him, nnd
whose talents would cnahle him, to s11bvert the exist i11,i;
C onstitution.
O ne of the most powerful engines, accordingly, of 1lic
orator, is tbi s kind of appeal to party-spir'. t.
..
. .
.
· •
.
P:irty >:(1lrl 1.
P arty-sp1nt may , md eed , be cons1clerecl m
another point of vi ew, as one of th e P assions 1l" hicl1 imy
be d1:rcctly appenlerl to, when it can be l1rought lo
operate in th e directi on required; i. c. wli e11 tl1e con duct tlic \\Til er or speaker is reco m1 nencl i11g appc:-in
li kely to gratify party-spirit; but it is the indirect appc<il

1.-.(j

ELEMENTS 01' llll!CTORIC.

C '"'' · Ill. § :1.

l'A wr 11.

lo it whicl1 is now unJ er considerati on ; viz; . tlic favo ur,
ncdit, and weight " ·hi ch tl1 e speaker wil l deriv e from
nppcar ing to be of 1.he same party with the l1c,u·crs, or
at. lcns t not opposed to it. A11d Ll1is is a sort of credi t
ll'hi c li he may claim mo re openly and avo wedly than
any othe r ; and he may J;l<ewise throw discredit Oil 11is
{Jpponent in :l. less onen:-:1 ive , but not less effec tual mannr.r. A rn an cannot say in di rect tc n11s , " I arn a wi se
a11 d wurtl1y 111a11, a11 rl my adve rsary tlic rc\•crsc; b~1t
he is allowed to say, " I adhere to the princ iples of M r.
Pitt or of ~Ir. Fox;" " I am a friend to Presbyterianism, or 10 E11iscopacy ," (as the case may be,) an<l "my
opponeni, tlie reverse ; " whi ch is not regard ed as an
0 1ie 1H:C :it;uiust modesty, an<l yet amounts virtually to as
strong a scll~co m111endation, and as decid ed vi111 pcratizm,
in tl10 eyes of those imhu cd with party -s pirit , as if every
ki11 d uf 1ner i1. and or dr. 111 erit had bee n e11u1neratcd : for
in :1.n;d11u :-; llarly -m cn, Z<~al fo r 1l 1eir p11r1 y will v ery oftcu

kind of \\·urtl1 .
Ha rd, in deed, th erefore is the task of him whose
obj ect is to cou11tt:raf't party-spiri t nnd ~o soften the
vinlcnce of those prcj1 1diees whi ch spri ng from it. * II is

sions, sons to sa crific e th cii' own most im porta nt iut er ests

to tJ:eir present gratifit;alion; :1nd 11111ch m o r~ , tl H'rt forc·,

only rc-.on rc c 1n11 st lie to ta 1·: c care thnt he ~i ve no

grou11d for uei11g; snpposcd in1uued wi th the violen t and
u11j11sl prcji:diccs of the op posite p;1rty, - tli:1t lie !':i1·e
I'll'

1'f''Jl ll Htl i' :-iS i 1111 t-1

iu tlu-. 1flindn nf tl1 « h f' ilrPr~,

\\

!1 ir h

1•fl 1t l1' Pnl t.:t lflc d l• l'l i~ ll o f {Ji 1' 8JW!l k(' r 1 party - t4piri t,

WIJt •r1' it l111pp1 ·11 s t•• preva i l , i ~ the 111 <lrJl pt ·rt1 ic io1111 ; l1c i11 g ill on<'e
tl11· 111n ~ 1 i1 d!t· _'( i1.1 .. . and 111·· 1n 1H1t u11j u ~ I.. .. ~ " ~ Vi(•l•·nt 1111 rty- rurn not
on lr J,,._., all :<\'ln pa1h\' \\' ith 1li <1'.-J( ' • •ftl1 p o pp ,...~it.i' !lid, •, !nit CVf' ll c< •ll·
tra r t H ll rtn l i pa th .v l" 1h,.1 n . Th i:-:, n n 1-!0 lll(' flr.ra si•rns , CV{' ll ll 1e
:liv i11t.: 1i t <.: l111p1>·111.:c wil l 11•1 ! surnw un t."
C<1111pLc lJ':-1 Rh etoric.

157

he, t!io11 t.:;l 1 a man cnnnot be suspcc trd of wanti11g C 1J\Hlwill tnwards tu:msclf, )"i' l mnny ve ry al,Je 1n cn ~tl't 111nst
absurdly, cv 11 iu tlwir own aff.i irs, fur w :1 nt oC l\·lor:d
vi rt11c·; Ucing eit11 '. _J' blin ded o r O\' t.. rt'orn e liy th •· ir P .:::;-

eitlier i111 ply, or stand as a substitute for , e very otl1 er

" "Of 1111 lh1•

n: ttS UA:410:>1 .

hi s :i udience cr•,d it, (sin ce it rarely happens bu1 th :i t
each party has some tenets d1:1t arc rea so11al1l c, ; for
whntever tJ1ere may he that deserves pr:iise, - that he
proceed :;radually nnd ca uti ously in remov in g 1he Nrors
in which tlicy arc in fec ted, - and above all , th at he
studi ously di scla im nnrl avoid the oppearnncc of "nr tl1i llg
like a feel ing of personal hostili ty , or persona l contempt.
If the orntor's chanicter c nn be sufllcicntly est 1blislicd
in respect of Ability, and also of G oocl-ll' ill
11
towa rU s tlic lie:uers , it might :1l ftrst sight 11 p - i'~r"::~t~ :r\'~;
rt:11ul.s1le.
pea r as if thi s would Lie sufficient; since the
form er of these wou ld illlply the Po11·cr, and the h tter
Ll1e Tn clill'l ti on, to gi 1·e tl1c hc' l ad\'icc , wh·l\c,·cr might
Le his Moral char;1ctc r; but J\ ristotle (in his Polifi cs)
jus tly re1m rks that thi s last is also req11isill; to be insisted on, in order lo produce en tire: conii tlen('C ; ft )!', :.; 1ys

11

'.r nd lo i11qwd i·

<11'

l

J

may tli"y he cxpcet< ·d to 111' thus seduced by p1Tson:i l
temptat ions, in 1hc "dvice tl1 ·y give lo others. P cricli-s,
;1ccordingly , i11 tlic> sp :cc h wh ich Ji.is been :llrcndy referred to, is represented Ly Tl1ucy didcs as insisting not
only on his politica l ability and his pa1rioti sm, but also
on hi s 11 nirnpcad 1cd inlegrity, as a quali lic a1i on alJso lut c ~
ly necessary lo e111ii1c lii rn to tl1cir confid cnl'e; " fo r the
man," s:lys lie, " wlio possesses f'very other rc•<Ju isitc, 1J11 t

is O\' ert oJn C l1y thu IC11 1pl ;1tiu 11 oi' in te res t, \\'ill be ready
lO

srJI

C\ 'CI')'

thing for lhe t;nt1 ifi C' :1 tiOll of his ~l \'D r ic c . "
11

158

ELEMENTS OF RHETO!l!C.

PA.RT

11.

§ 4.
From what has been said of the speaker's recommeoc1tnrnch·r uf dation of himself to the audience, and estabor•JllJncni.

lis!1rncnl of liis autho ri ty with them, sufficient

rules may readily be deduced for the analogous process, - the depreciation or an opponent. Both of these,
and es pec ially the latter, u11der the offonsive title of
pcrsonnlity, are by n1any indiscriminately decried as
unra ir llhctorical ar1 ifices ; and doubi.less they are, in
the majo ri ty of cases, sophi stically employed ; and by
no11e more el1cctually th.111 by those who are peq,et11ally
<lcela.iming against such Fallacies ; the unthinking hearers not being prepareJ to expect any from tbos~ \\·ho
rep rese nt themselves as holding them in such abhorrenr.c.
But surely it is not in itself an unfair to pic of argument,
in cases not admitting of decisive an<l unque::>tioru1ble
proof, to 11rgc tliat the one pnrt.y deserves the hearers'
co11tidencc, or d1at the other is j 11 st ly an object of their
distrust. " Ir the measure is a good one," it has been
sa id, "w ill it become Lad because it is s upported by a
bad ni:u1? if it is bad, will it become µ;ood, because supported by- a good 11 ia11! lf the measure be really inexpedie nt, wi1y not at once shew lhat it is so? Your produc-

ing these irrelev:mt and in conclusive arguments, in lieu
of direct ones, though not sufficient to prove that the
n:casure you t.h us oppose is a good one, contributes to
J'l'nV e that you yourself regard it as a good one ."
Now
to iake thus fo r granted, that in every case , dec isi ve
arguments to prove a measure bad or good, independent
of all consi deration of the character of its advocates,
c.,1iJd be found, and could be made clear to the persons
addressed, is a 111anifest pciitiu princip ii . There is no

C1 I AI' .

l
a
,(

i

I

j

1i

}J

'l
'I

i

l

i?,

n
')''

il

~

1
f
\

J II.

~

Ur'

.t.

1•1..: 1l;-o;UA::;ION .

doub t that tlie i:.;c111•r;i!i1y of nH;n ;11·r· too 1~1w.J1 di spu:;; cd
to r.on ;-; idcr more, who propo•w.. ; a !111-"' ;1.:.;11re, ilian n·l1al i t
is t\1; 1t is pro posed ; and prol1aLly wo1ild ennti1n1 c to r\o
s0, (! \'f'll 11 nder .a sy s t.cr11 nr ;"Ull11l:l\ P :1 rl; a111c11rs and
univr r ~a l s11<frngc; mid if :-t W:"lrni11.c; lw g,i n· n :1; :1i n ·~i. :i.n
ex (' e .:- ~ i\· c tf'11denry to this wny uf jud g;in h, it. i:-: r•_o;1:--:o nal1lc, and rnJy be useful ; nor sho11ld n11y one c·...;r:q11~
ci~ nSlll'e wl10 con:fincs J1i rnself to these ropi c:--, or d\l"ci!...;
princip:1lly on them, in cases where " direr!." argornenis
nre to be C'\"pected; liut they arc not to l1t; CC'l 11dr>1 rn wd
in luto ::i s "irrf'levnnt :ind incon dus in.:," llec:1 use th(·y
arc only pr0Lal1lc·, nnd not ill t\1c11 1:--1 '1n s d c ci~ivc ; it j..,
only in rna1t c rs of st rict :- : r il:ncc, rind 11i:--it 100, in :ir,c,11in~~
to sL·ic1 11 iCi c 111c 11 1!1;1t 1lie ~·l::ir ;wh · r l)C 1iic~ :11h·i--.t·r...: (;:s
well as all otlier pro/){1/1/c Arg; imwin ~ ) ~J r,~uld lie wiic.J i::
1

1

;.,

)1

put ont of th e qu es ti on.
And it is remarkable that the nec c5'ity or nllo1nn~
!'lninc \n:it-; hl to tli is considcrniion, in political l!lilfl<~ r~,
i11creasc-; in proportion ns any c·rn1ntry 0njoy~ a fn:r..
gover nm ent . lf all the power be in tlie l1;-u1d s
a few
of the liie:li er ordf' rs, wl10 hnH' 1hr. 0 11port1111it:' :d le ;i q
o l ol11ai11ini; cd 11c :1 tio n, it is <'onceiv:1l1l(~, wlwllwr prni1;1

or

blc or nol, that. th ey nrny 1,e l1rought to try 1'ach proexc lusively on i1 s intrins ic ni f• ri t~ i l)y
~1bstrnt·t :.:irgumcnf."-; b11t cJn any rnnn, in lii s se nses)
rea lly hclicl'C that the great mass of the peopfr, or erc11
any eo11 siderahle portion of them, c:m C\'Cr pcisscss sn
1011cli poli1ic:il J.;nnwlPllg;c, p;itieiH'C in i11 vPs1i;a1 io11, :-ind
sound L o;.;i c , (to say noth ing of cando1ir;) :-is to he ::1J1c
.rosed rncnsurc

" Qu . Is every one chargc n.ble wtth w~·alrncsf' or n!•"urdity wh1)
bP!i c ves that th ~ ca rtl1 rnov1·8 round 1hc Sun, on tlw ;111 th<iri ty 11r
Astron orne rs, without havi n:; liit11 si ·lf RCif"n t ifif'111l y deriiorrntratPd it?

:-i:

11) 0

PAllT J l.

and willi11g 1.0 judge , and to judge correc tly, of every
prnposcd poli tical measure, in the abstract, wi :.hout any
fegard to tl1l, ir opinion of tlie persons who propose it ?
And it is evident tliat in every <:ase in which the bearers
arc not completely competent judges, they not only will,
IJnt must, take into consideration the characters of those
who propose, supp ort, or di ssuade any measure ; - the
persons th ey arc connected with , - the designs they mny
1,c s11p poscd lo entertain, &c .; thoup;h, undoubtedly, a11
excessive and e:r:clrtsive regard to Persons rather thw1
Argu1.1ents, is one of the chief Fallncies against which
men ought to be cauti oned.
Il 11t if the opposite mode of judging in every case
were to he adopted witliout limitation, it is plain that
cliilrlrcn cou ld not be educated. Indeed, happily for the
world, most or them , wl10 were rdlowed to proceed on
tlu s plan, wo11ld in consequence perish in childhood . A
piou!-i C lir i~t i;m nnai11 has tlie snme impli cit reliance on
hi s God, C\"C ll where llllHIJlc to judge or the renso:ouhleJlPS S of his coinmnnds und dispensaUons, as a dutiful and
nlTec tionate c hild has on a tender pnrcnt. Now 1ho1.1gh
such a m.01 is of cou rse regarded by an Ath eist ns weak
nnd ab"l!'d, it is surely on account of his bel'icj, not of
hi s conscr1ttcnt conrl11.ct, that he is so regarded. Even
A1l1cists woulJ in gen eral admit that he is acting reason :d.ily, on 1110 st1ppusition that there is a God , who lrns
revealed himself 10 man.

'f

OF l'£R>:;UASION.

C HA''· llf. § 5.

fro1n

E.~pcricnc e.

Not that Experienc e ou5lit not to Le

allowed to have g re at w eight ; but that men :ire apt
no t to conside r wi th suffic ie nt ntt cntion> w liat it is !l1at

J
r'

constitutes E xpe ri ence , in each point : so tl1at frcq11c111ly
one l!lan :lhall l1avc credit fo r unu.J1 Experi ence, in what
relates to tl 1e matter in l1a11<l, and another, who , JH. .: rlia p:-:,
possesses as muc h, or more, s lwll be und errated as

that many years may have passed over a m::m 's head,

I

t

,I
/!

l

witlwut his even having had the same opportunities of
acfp1iring it, as nnothe r, rnuch younger: secondly, that t\ ;c
longest practice in c onduC'ti n~ any bu sin ess in one wny ,
docs not. 1Jeccssnrily confer any E ~pcri c nc c in \ ondut tin g

it in a <lillCrent \vay ; e. ~· an expe ri enced 1-Iusbandman,
or Minister of State, in Persia, would he much at a loss
in Europe : and if t11ey had some tlii ngs Jess to learn than
:in entire novi ce, on 1he other hn nd they wo11lcl linvc
rnuch lo unl earn : anrl, tl1irdly , that me rely bring co nversant about a certain cl;" s of .rnl1j ecls, docs not confer
Experi ence in a case where 1l1c Opcralimis, :rnd 1he
T:1ul proposed, nrc dilTcrcnt. It is 'aid tl1at 1herc w:1s
an Arnstcrdam rncrchant, who had dealt largely in rorn
all hi s life , who had never seen a field of 1d1ca1 growi ng ;
thi s man l1ad do11l1t1css ri cqoired , l1y E:-:pcri e11c£', ;rn
au;uratc judgment or the qualities or each dcs•·rip 1iri11 or
cor n, - or tl1c

n1 Pre 11kt•k 10 111 ~ 1~1 i :-- l ed l1y thi :ir frn·otl!'nlile

11 nf:1 n11~r;ilil 1 •
•

ll 1a11 ll1

•

\\ li:1t

i11d !!1 111 1! ill
•

s to ri 115 it , - o:- tlw; :irts
it at prn11cr ti11u.~~, &f'.; b11t h 1~

IJP,S l rn c tl1o<l s of

wrn ild hav e bee n i:;rcatly nt a loss in i1~ ntl1i\·n1i r1n ;

5.

111 nn w:1y , pcrlmps, :ire mc11, not bi~otcrl to party,
nr

w ;.J111 -

i11g i1. The vulgar, of nil ra11 ks, need lo be warn ed
first, that l·imc alone <loes not constitute E xperience ; so

of bu y int; and SL'llinf!;

9

I GI

1

1lio11,l!,li lie had li ccn, in a ce rtain \\':l)', lrn1 ~ cmwersan l

.

about e.:nrn.

1

~f t!u~ ir :Hki :-;f! r~ t.:ll llf;:•l/P'it:l
:~~~ tlro•11
l

r1· l:1 1 ~· ..; lu tl1 c auth ority deri ved

Nc;1rly si 111 ilar is 1111 ~ l>qw ri !'llCC or a j rfi c 1

ti scd lAt\\)' Cr, (s 11ppos i11 .~ lii111 to),(~ no thing; mqrc, ; i11 a

:,)

li.q•<: rltrn ce.

\

I

H•

IG2

EL8MENTS OF Jllll!:TOllJC.

J'A!lT

()f'

11

la1ter p c rh nps are Jeducing conclusions from a wide

i11duction of fact s, whi le the exper ience of tl1e others will
often be found only to an 1ou11t to their having been long
conversant wilh 1.he dc1ails of office, and having all 1.ha1.
time gone on in a certain bealen I.rack, ii·orn whicl1 tJiey
11 cvcr tricJ, or witnesf:ed> or eve n imagined, a deviation.
So :dso the autJ1ority derive<! fro m ex peri ence of a
practic11l ,\ Ji 11cr, i. c. 011 c wl10 has \\Tu11 i;l1t all his lifo in
one 11Ji11c, will ~o rn ct im cs del ude a s 1H~c 11l:11 o r in1u a vai n
'"a rcl1 fo r metal or coal, against tl1e opi11ion perl1aps or
'J'/1 co ri ~· t,tt , i. C. pe rsons of C'.'lCnsi ve geo logical observation.
Th e considcr:it ion th en of the diaractcr or the ,peak
er, an<l uf his oppoJJcnt, bcino of so rnuch importance ,

1G 3

both as a l('g;iii1nate ~u urr.c o f P··r;:; uas ion, in nrnnr 111 :-..: ;i ?J Ct'!S, and nlso as a toi 1ic
F\.JlLH.: ies, it is evident!~- i1 1c:· wn bent on the orator to li e well \' Crsed in thi s bra111'. 1i oC 1lie
cirt , with a view bo1h to tli c j11 s1ifin1Jlc advan ef'rnc1:t nr
his own cause , an d to die ,ietertfo n and C?\jH;-;11 rc 11 /'
unfair artifi ce in an opponent. It is ncill ier po~~ild1:~ 1Hir
can it in j11stic0 be ex pcc t~t.l, !l:at th is m ode oC pcr;-; 11;1sion should 110 totally renounced and exploded, ~rcat :i-;
are tl1c ali 11ses 10 "'lii ch it is li ;i blc : but the spc:·1kcr is
bound , in c.onscicncc , to abstain frorn tl1ose ;Jl.11:'.)Cs l1iniself; and, in prudence, to be on his buanl aga inst tlie:11
in others.

case of Lcgislution; Lccause he has been long conversant. a~ont Law, the unrcllecting attribute grem weight
t~ lus judgment; whereas his constant haLits of fixing
hi s thoughts on wl1at the law is, and withdrawing it from
the irrelevant quest:on of what the law 011glit to be;lH s carclul oliser vance of a multitude of rules , (whic h
afiurd the more scope for the display of his ski; /, in proponiou as they are arliilrary , u11reasona!.ile, and unac
eo1 1J 1tal,/e,) with a studied indifference a.s to that \\'bi ch
is fo rci311 from his business> the r01u·cnience or inconi;en·ience of those Rules, -may be expected to operate un fa,·011rnLly on l1is j udg111 e11t in q11()stio11s of Legislation :
an d nre likely to counterbalance the ad\'antages of his
>uperior knowledge, even in such poi nts us do bear on
tl 1e· question.

Iii 111atters connected with Political-economy , tile e.Tpe·
1'ience Of ))l"ltCli ca / men is oCtcn appealed to in oppos ition
lo those \\'ho m·e ca lled Theorists ; even I.hough the

l'Elt::; tJA!'\10:-1.

or

·.r o

J
H:
.!

''

cr111 me ratc the variou s kinds of imprl's ~ions , f;n·ou rahl e nncl 1111frl\'nurnhle, that hr·:i rcrs o r n.' ad1:rs n1ny c11ic rtn i11 conce rning any rnic, would Le t('dirn1 s and s111H'r fl11 ous. Hnt it lll:ly he worth r1b sc r v i11 ~, that a d1ar!!.C 0f
in cf)ns£stcncy, as it is one of the rn0st di sp:u·a.:;i 11 ~ 1 is also
OllC that is pcrJinps the most rreq 11 ent /y urged \\' itJi effoct,
on in s11flici011 t h ronn d ~ . Strictly s1waking, i11 co 11si:.;tC'1H ·y
(s11c h nt least :1~ a wi:-;c and i;o1)d 111an is cxf' 1n11 1 frorn )
is tli e maint.ai11i11g al t/11~ sttll1f'. ti me two cc•111radic ·tn r\'
propo"' ir ions; wh('t.hc r cxp reSSf'd in ::1n ; 11;1g1· , or i111;ilic~i
in se11t irn ents or co11 J uc t. As, c. g. if' an a11tlHJr, in an
argumcruative wo rk, while lie represent s <•,·cry sy!Jn5i~m
as fut. iln and folbc ious reasoni ng, a{irnit:-; th:H nl! rra:-::on-

ing may be cxh ib itP.d i11 the li•rn1 ol' syl lo.t<is111s ; or, ir
1.he snme p erson censures and :i!)hnrs oppr"""ion, yet
practi ses it tow:1rds o thers ; or it' lie prP;;;;cri lws two 11wdi - '
c in es wl1icli 11 c111ralizc cncli ot!K· r 's L'il~·c· t,..:, $.:.('.
<:ens1ircd a ~

if lii•
any poiiiL 1\ nd
e0rtai1ily if' li e does thi s oft cni anJ l i ~ l1dy , that i ~ :.:;l)od
B11 1 a rn :rn

i:; of'ien

ch:mgPs his plans or his opinions

0 11

i rwon <.:i-;t <'n1,

.....

J (i. (

ELl-:Ml·:NTS

or

IUIJ~ TOl\IG.

f'A nT I I.

CHAP.

i;rou l1ll for withhold ing co nfidence from him. llut it
would be more prce is.. .: to charactc ri'.?.c him a-; fi ck le a11d
un steady , 1.han as inconsistent ; beca use this use of tl1e
1cr1n tends lo confom1d one fault with anothe r ; vi7.. with
holding two in compatible op inions at once .
But moreove r a man is often ch arged wilh in con ~ i st­
cnry for approving so me parts of a book, - systcm,cliar:i ctcr , &c . and disapproving o the rs ; - for being now
an ach-or ntc fo r peace, and now for war ; - in sho rt, fo r

ar commocl:11i ng his jui.lgment or his conduct to the cirrum sranccs befo re l1im, as t!ic marine r sets hi s Sl.l ils to
the wi11d. Jn this c ase tl1ere is not eve n any change or
mi nd impli ed ; yet fo r this a man is often tax ed with
irwonsistc ncy ; though in many instan ces there would
even be an inconsist ency in the opposite procedure ;
c. ::;. in not shif1ing tlie sails , when 1.hc wind d1a11gcs.
£11 the other case ind eed, - when a rnan does clinn ge
l1is mind, - lie i1npli c ..; some crr0r, eithe r lirst o r lnst.
H11t so 1111: errors C\·c ry tnrn is liuhlc to, wlio is no t infallililc. I I e tilt' re fore who priclt!S liim sc lr on Iris cnnsis1eney, 01 1 tlic gro1111d uf reso lving never to cl1a11gc lii.o, phws
or opin ions, docs virtually (unless he menns to proclaim
'1 !111:lel f either too dull to dc tec L his rni st ~JlPs, or tun oh~1i 11a1e to ow n tl1e111 ) lay d ri111 to i11folliuil i1y. And iC al
1he same tim e he ridi('ules (as is ofi cn done) the :1hs11rcli:y of u rlaim lo inf:il lilJili1y, li e is g11ilt y or a ?;ro"
i1won~i s t<'11r·y in tli c propf' r nntl primnry se nse of" th e
\\'()rd. U11L it i s 1rn11..:1 1 P:l ':i if~ r to boast of cnnsi stcnr:y
1'111 11 tn prese rv e it. ror, n ~, in lluJ dnrk ) nclve1·sc troops
may tak0 post. nr:ir Pa('l1 01\ic r, wi1lirn1 1 m11i11ill rcrogni ·
1i on, rn1d consrrp1 P1llly \\'id 101 1t r·nnt 0st, b111 as so011 :lS
d:1ylibl11 l'Otnc:-, tli C' \\'C;1k f· r c:i\·c pln 1·1 • 10 the strOrn!er;

I l l . § t: .

so> in a mi sty a11d darkened 111ind , the 111ost irwfJ 1n pa1 ili k
opin ions 11iay ex ist. tog;ctlierJ \\' ;i11()l_!l a11y pcn ' 1•p1itJll or
th eir discrcpa11ey ; till tt1e unJe rstan di n_s !Jcco rn es s1ifiiciemly e11lig;lit<' 11 ed to enaule die man l::> rej ect the Jes;
reaso11al1lc o pinions , and retain t11e Oj1po siw-. .
1t rn ay be add c J, ;liat it is a vrry fr1i r gro1111d fo r di s·
p:J.ra5ini:; any one 's judgment, if J1 e 1naimai11s ;rn_r doctrine o r systc1n, mtowc£lly for the sake of consistency .
That must always he a had reason. If the sys1e111 , &c .
is r ight , you sl 1ould pursue it /1 eca.use it is ri gh1, and not
because you ha\'C pursued it hitherto ; if it is \Hong ,
yo ur Jia,·ing once coir11niued a fault is a poor rc:lson to
give fo r pe rsisti 11 g in it.
It 011\y re11iains to olJsen·c , on d1i s head , that (as Aristotle teacl1es) tl1e 11lace for the disparagement of an opponent is, for die first speaker, near the close of his disco1>rse, to weaken the force of what mny he sai<l in reply :
and, for the opponent, near the opening, to le>sc n th e
inOuence of what has been already said .

§ 6.
Eithe r n pe rson;J prej udi ce, such as hns h~ i · n _j11<.1
m en tioned , or som e other pn5sio11 unfovonrrd1le 1·.. r:i1·,, 11r:•

to die ~ pcal<er 1 s ohj ect, may ;;ilready ex ist in ihc ~: .~,,r:;:;;;,i :·;::i
min ds of the henrers, whi ch it must Le hi s ,,, diiwr.--,1.
1

,.
1

busines3 to allay.
It is obvious that thi s will the most c!Tcc1u:illy hr,
don e, not by e nd ea,·ouring to prod1> ct) a sl:i tc ,,i· pcrfc1·t
calmn ess and apathy, b11t hy ex ci1i11i.; srnn."! ro11trary
c:111otin11. And heu.: iL is 10 be ol1:5crvcrl that some p:1ssio11 s may he , Rhc1orically s pc:iki 11t;, opposite 10 ,.,,.. Ji
other, tl1ougli in strict11 es:; they arc nut so ; \·iz. whc11cv

J 61.i

f:l .EMENTS Of llHf:TOJl!C.

P .l dlT

CHAP.111.§6.

JI.

,iccor<lingly, hav i n ~ no u1iliwry discipline, arc accustomwar- sn ni.;s anJ dnnC"es, in order to excite t!icrnselves to

c011ras" · •
Compass ion, likewise, rnny be rounlcrncted
either by Di snpprobalion, by J ealousy, hy Fear, or by

Dis,t;11 st. and Horror; and Envy, cit.her by Good-will, or
by Cu11tcmp1.
Thi,; is the more necessary to be attend e<l to in order
1!111t tl1e Orator may be o u his guard agains t inad1•ertent!y cl1:f't·nti11g hi s own ol1jer t, l•y exc iting feelings at vari ance wi1h those he is e ndeavouring to produce, though
not strictly contrary tu them. Aristotle acco rdingly
no1iccs, with tliis view, the diffo rence bet ween the
"Pitiable, " (11.""'o>•,) tmd the "IJonible or Shocking, "
(J,c d·•)1·,) which, as he obsen·es, exci te d;ffere nt feelings ,

(i

q

l

'"

~

~'.
I

• S<-e Ari~t. H/u,t . b. ii. in hi ~ TrC'ati~c!i on 'O(! j'~ 11nd 1/1U{Jor; .

l G7

destructive of ead1 1>il1cr; so that the Ora:o r 111 ust be
warned, if tl1e former i> his object, 10 keep cicar nC a11y
tl1iug that u1ay exc ite the Jauer .
It will of'1c n l1appc11 t11u t it wi ll lie e;c;icr w i;ivc a
new directio n. to tl 1e un favolu-aLlc pas::..ionl L.lian 10 su!1Juc it ; c . g . to Lum the indigna1iun or the la11shter u!'
t l1c beare rs ai;ainst a diflereut object. lnJceJ, 11J1cuc1·cr
the case will aciniit of this, it will i;enerally pro1·c il1c
more succes; t'ul expedient, because it Joes nu t imply 1! 1c
accornplishm c1 1t of so great a cnange m the minds of die
heare rs .

er they are in compatible with each other: e.g. tlie oppos ite, s trictly speak i11g, to Anger, would be a feel ing of
Good-will and approbation tow:i.rds the person in q11estio11 ; but it i:; no t by the exciternen t of tJ1 is, alone, that
A11ger may be ull:iyed ; for F ear is, practically, <;Ontrary
to it also ; as is re marked by Aristotle; who philosophic:i.lly accounL5 for th is, on tl 1c princ iple that A.nger, implying a de::; irc to innict pun ishment, mu3t imply also a
s11 pposition 1hat it is possible to clo so; and accordingly
men do not, he says, feel Anger towards on e who is so
much superior as to he rnn11ifcstly 011 1. of thei r reach ;
aud the olJjcct of their A11ger ceases to be so, ns soon as
he bcco111es nn object of Apprehension . Of course the
converse also o i' tl1is holds good ; Anger, when it prevails, in like manner subd11ing I•~ear. Savage nations
ed to wo rk themselves up into a phrcnsy of rngc by the ir

01' l'ERSUASI0:-1.

l

I

l

C' ll AI' . I. ~

2.

U I•'

l' J·:llSl'LCli l'\'Y .

vations 0 11 Styl e us have an cspec i<J rclcrcncc to Argumentative :ind P c r~ u as ivc works .

PART III.
OF STY LE

C H AP- I.

Of Perspicuity-

§ 1.
the co nsideration of Style has bee n laid down
as holding a place in a Treati se of Rhetoric
!"l! \•lf'! ll ()ltl)
•
'
'
~~~:,~~~ 1t;;~ , , 1t \\'Ould be 1.1 f' 1!l1cr ncc ess:iry nor pert inent,
to enter fully 11 110 a general discussio n of tl 1c
subj ect; wh ieh wo1ild cviu e11 1ly embrace lllll ch that IJy
no means 7ieculicirly belongs to ou r present e n~ uiry. I t
i:; rcrp1 isitc fo r an Ornror, e . g. to observe the ru les of
Gramrnm·; L11t th e snme mny be said uf the Poet, nn cl
die Hi storian , &c. nor is there any peculiar kin<l of
gram matical pro priety bclongi11g to P crsuasi1•c or Arg 11 mcntati vc compos itions ; so that it \ro u11l Le a dr'parture
frotn our " 'lijcct 10 treat at large, un der the head of
Rhetoric, of such rnles as e~ ually concern ev ery other
of the purposes for which Lang11nge is employed.
C onfonnalily to thi s view l shal l, 11ndcr the present
head, not ice h11t sl ightly sud1 principles of composition
as do 11 01 e\ r l11sivdy or pccnli nrly belong to the present
5ubj cct ; ron finin µ; my nllc nti on chiefl y to such ohscrT110UGH

§ 2.
It is sufticiendy el'idcnt (though the 111a xi1n is of1cn
pranically 1lisreg:11·dcd) that the fii»t re<j11isi1c
1
1
or Srrl e not onlv in Jtn ero l'ic:-d , hot in all com- ~··;'.; ~r1; ;~'. ;. '"
po:-: i1i.011s, -M- is ];cr:; pic11ity; s inc e: as Ari sto !lc •ii• uliry .
ob~e r vcs, l :m g;u a~c

\\ hich is not i1 1telliJ.;ibie, or not d<·arly a11d readily i111 clli gibl" , foil s, in the same propo n irn 1,
of 1he purpose fo r whic h lang11 :1ge is eniploy:· d. And
it is er1 11ally sel f-c vid c11l (tl 1011gl1 1his 1ruth is sti ll 111orc
fr eq uently overlooked) that P crs pirnily is a rc/11ti 1· e
q11 ali1 y , and consequently cannot properly be predi•.:a11·.l
or tiny work, without a iacit referen ce to the d:1 ~s o r
read ers or hearers for who1n it is dcsi ~111?d. l\Tor i:; it
c•nn ugh th:it the Style be such as they nre cap11 hh of
111Hll'l"Sta11Cling 1 if th ey bes tow their 11 ;111ost attt ·11tion :
th e degree and 1he kind of :i.llen1io11, wh:c· h they have
been accustomed , o r arc l·i/;ely l<• bestow, wi ll he :.i rnon s
tlic c irc11111 sta11 ces tli n.t ure to lie t:ik e11 in to the ar ~ ·q 11 • 11,
and provi1lcd for. I say the /,:iwl, as well as 1ho dcgrvc ,
of alle111ion, because some hearers and read ers will lie
fn 1111d slow of opprel 1en.- ion indeed, hut cap:iblc o f' 1:ik i11g in wliat is very f·opiously and gradually cx p1ai11 cd
lo them; while oth ers, on tho contrary, who arc """·h
qui l' ker at ca tching the sen se
wbat is e"Xprcc.;scd in a

or

sl iurt t·o mpiiss , :ire in capnble of lo11~ at!entin n , :ind :1re
"In Pm•t.ry, pe rs picu ity iA indr-f' d l•_y nn nit·:tn:-: 11 n imp1irlan t ; but
1l 1e 1110Kl p1·rt:·r:t d ~ · g r t•f! c,f it iii Uy uo 11 H· 01n s f' •) C'S :il'nlia! a:; i11 PP• st '\" 1,rlo L
;..;,.l. l ' 11r! 1i1. c- h. i ii. § :t.

15

170

El . l ·:~ H: N'l':-i OF

Ill l J::TO IUC.

1· .~ ltT

111

C 11 A P .

l. § :..!.

171

OF l'Ul:> l' IL:UITY.

may be ::illowed,) \rill occas:on 1l1 ~ att('11ti~1n to lnn ;1;i~l'. ;
ru 1d wliat is illl perCcctly ::Htc1tded tu, 110\Vc\'Cr clc:~:- 111
i1sel(, will usually be liut i111pcrfoc·t ly u11d crstoo d. I.n
nut an autho r, tl11~ ri.;fure, satis(y l1i n15dC l1y findin g
tlial he Jias c :-: pre::;sed l1i s meani11g so that, if at-

not 011ly 1rca ricd, but abso l11tdy bewildered, by a diffuse
S1yle .
\Vl1 cn a nurncrnus and \' ery mixed audi ence is to be
addresser!, much skill will he rcr1uired in adapting tlic
S1ylc, (bo1l1 in th is, a11d in otl1er respects,) and i11d ced
1!1e Argument;; also , and th e whole st ructu re l)f tlie dis<' Ot 1rsc, tn the! ,·:iri ons 111i11 ds wl1 ic h il is d esi~11 c<l to in1 11rc:;s ; nor cnn th e u11110:;1 art and Jili;c11cc pr<Jvc, al'ier
1
:i 1, 111orc tlinn partially s11cccssf11l i11 s11ch n case ; cspcc ially "'h r. n the diversities arc so many and so great,
:1 s exist in th e {·11 n;rcg:atio11 s to whieli most Serlllons
are addressed, a11d in the readers for wl101n popular
'rorks uf an :1rg rnncn1:itive, instru c l ivc , nnd liortat ory
rhnrac tC' r nrc intended . lt is possible , Jio\\'cvcr, to appn>a<"i 1 ind cfinitC'ly to an objec t which cannot be com pletclr auained ; and t.o adopt such a S ty!e, a11d lik ewi se
Sllt'!J :1. llHH!t. O f Jlca -; 011in g, :lS :-: !1;tl} be J e n~J 1.0 the CO lllJ1n'!H'11,ion of !lit• g r c a 1cr p;irt , M least, C\'C 11 (Jf a pro11 1i ::>< ·11011:; aud icncl' , without Lt~ing distas1cful to any .
fl is OJJvious , and Jias ortcn bqc n l't.!lllarkcd, lhat extre me rom·iseness is ill s ui1 c d to hc:1 rers or rc:uJcrs,
\\ hose in1.c.: llcct11 al powers aiul cultirati o11 nrc L11t s11 1all :
llic usuJI e'\pcdicnt, however, of crnp1oying a prvlix
Hr••\" 111' nncl Siy!e IJ)' way C1f accoinmoc\;uion to such min ds,
pr.. 1tdt y .
j:-; sel dom successful : 111 os t of those wl10 could
have co1nprchc nd ed the meaning, if more briefly C\ pn::-:.sed, a11d m;111y of those wl10 could not do so, arc
likdy to lie b1•11 ildcred hy ledio11s e\pa11sio11 ; and bei ng
rn1al1le to 111aintai11 a steady attention to what is s;~id,
li1 ey furf;Cl pnrl of wii;1t they have heard before the
whole is 1· oml'le1cd. Add to which, tl 13t tlic feebl eness
proJ11ccd by cxc ~ss ivc diluti o n, (i f such an expression

te nd e d to , he c an uot fail to be 1111dcrstcwd; he 111 11::'l
c uns i<le r aho (as was before rem;i rked) 1cltat atten1i o n
is likely to be paid 10 it. If on tl1e 011 0 liand 111 11,.h
mattC'r is ex pressed i11 very i"ew \\'Ords , lO llll u nr 1 ·(1cc~ ­
int; audi ence, or ii, on tile n1he r \1~11nl, tb.:rc i:S a Wi':tr1 s11.m e prulixity, 1l1e requi sit e ntle11ti u1 1 1nay \'(·ry Jiro1 1;1\i\y

not be bestowed . ·!f
The l1cst general rule fnr avoidin:; i.111 ~ di:--.~11._!r:.i1ll:i.;es

both of ('O\H.: i sc nc::-;:; a11d o!· prol ixit y, ls tu ,•111- n.. 1,·' tiri., n
pluy R.cpct iJion: to rf'pc::.1t, tl1at is , tl1c s 11~11e
scntim c 11 t and argument in many di:li: rc nL furrns o f ex
prcssion ; caeh, in itseli bri d ", but nli, t ogl!litc r~ afl(l rd i11:.;
s 1. ~ l1 a11 e~p ;m s ion of tlH~ sciise lo IH..: curn·cyed, a11d ~o
Uetaininb the 111i111.l upon it, a:-; 1lic case 111ay l"L'tl' iirc .

1

- - - - - ---- ------

- -· -

.. ft is reinark.._-d l1y J\n :lt11111i,.;l'l, tl1at 1h
th._· uni}· r"•1ni:;it .. i t1

r,,.,,J ;-

t!i;11

-----

0

•

~

1111t n\i \'" ' iq:,\ity i"' 11 "~·

a q·ft a111 d 1•i!ff"" •·I d: _,·f n i.l /o rr .. 1

tlw t<ti• l;rnd• i ~ n·•1nirt·d , loi f' J1;"t l1J.· it tn 11°·1. wi!h it ,.; !"11\I P" 1\"•'I""' ; a n d th<tt it is fiJ.r thi s re tu; .. 11 hay a11d ~ tr ;1w 1uu :; t lw ~ iv1 · 11 l 01 11,,r:<• ·,.;,
!l-'I C•Jr u , in ,1nh: r t<i supply the 111" '. ~ ·.i,.;;1:y lniik ..
:-; .. r1lt'!hin!J;
nna\ 0 , 101 1 ~ Iv tlii :; 1.ukc:ii plac e with n· ~1 •t•cl to 1he g "11i ·rn l 1t.v .,(111i11d s,
wliic l7 arc iucapublc of lh.iruuglily d i ~c.i l i 11 g- and a,.;~i ;nilati11 ~ wl1;tt

a .i w .. I\

j 8 presented to tl 1t;"m, h1m·t~ ver (·\t· ilrly, in a ~· t· ry . ~in:tl l {' 1 11n 1 ·a ~ .. .
1\lan)' n o m: j~ capaLl\! .,f th.·rivi11~ tlrnt i11:-1\n 1c \11>n 1r.,rn a r11 111h.:rak

whic h ht: t'l•HJtf 111 1\ l"l.'•'t'i\ 1: fr.,tll IL \'"f)' Sll1:i!J p:11 11pl;.l et, even rnn n• \W'""l'i 1·.11un:o ly w1i:ien , a11•! i·11n !:t i11i 11 !f ,.,·, · ry t 11ir1;.:1Jml is tn the pii rputii.:. tt jr! 111· r·1•s:-1ary tlrnl t\1(' 11!!(·11li~J ll ~]1.,uld.,! "1
d c lai 11 ~ .j f~•r a certiiin ti 1111 · v n tlic 1rnhj,·t:l : an d 1wrs•H1S 1 1 u1q•h1 Ji 1:-u1phicul 1 ni~1J 1 ,, 1 1 g- h 1lwy Cilll 11\.lt_•HJ \., wlcal t!wy r.C" .tJ. t1f lwrir, ~1r...:
nnupt t" Jw P ll u p11 11 it in 11 1· ~ way nf .-;u h s1' 11n r nt 11wd1lal i<> n

l!li"Jl•i_i volt inlt°i

1

l

'\

i72

ELl·::ll l:: NTS Of IUIE1'0ll!C.

P.tllT

C 11AJ> .

HI.

Our language being (with n :- ry trifling exc0pt1011:-. ) rn:1d~
up of these cle ments, it is \"ery easy r() I' any one, thrna.:h
unac<p1 ai11ted wi th Saxon, 10 o bscrY e liiis 1H·eccpt, if" 11 ·~
li;is l111 l a knowledge of Frc111"!1 or of' L:i1i11 ; and th<"r<' ;,
n rerna rkable scope for suc h a l'li Oi(·c ns 1 arn ~ pr'ak int;
or, from the multitude or ~ynnnyrnr;-; df'rin· d, r1·-.. rw 1:ti vcly, fro m those two so11rccs. 'rhc compilers nf' 011r
Li turgy being a n~ious 10 reach t11c 1111cl crst :rn di ngs of
all classes, at a time wl1 c n ou r lan g;ua~c \\·as in a ks"'
sett led state tha n at present, m·ailed tlwin,1•ln::-s o f
this ci rcrnn~t an c~ i11 c 11 1ploying rn ;.11 1y sy11n11ymoll"', or
1H:arl y sy no 11y mo u:3 , ex pn·ssiq11 s, Jllo st !ii' \\ lii 1· i1 :i re
.-,[ tlie <lc ~c r i p1i o n just a !l11 th·d to . T;1 ki', :·1, :rn 111 :-;1:1nc(', th r. E :-.lio rlati o11 : "a<"k1 10\'"11'dh•:,, nnd "1·011 -

Ciecro w11on g Lhe ancicms , and B urke among the
111ocJern writers, aJlunl, perlinps , 1hc most abundant pracllcal exe11'11lifica1i uns or tl1i s rul e . The lattci- someiimcs shews a <ldicicncy in correct taste, and lies open
to 1Io nu.:.c's censure of an aw hor, « Qu·i vari.arc cupit
rem ;n·1J(Lig inlilc 1· tt.1w. m :" b11t it n1usl be ad 1n iued tl1at
he scl do1n fai ls to make himse lf thoroughly undcrsLood,
and dues not

weary the atle ntion, even wh en he

0[1<·11

oflencb tl1e tas1c, of l1is readers.
Ca re must of eo11rse be taken thut the rcpetiLion may
not lie too glaringly apparent ; the var iation must not
c:on:-; is t in the me re 11::>e of' other , synony mous, wo rds; but
\vli:1t li:1s 11<.!t: n r·xp rf•sscd in :ippn1pr iate ter ms mnv he
rcpca lC'd i11 mt·1;1plioric al; tlic nntr:cedcnt nnd cc: n ~e
q11c 111 of :-111 nrgurnc nt., or 1/10 pnrrs of nn :m1ithcsis , may
lie trans posed ; o r sevc rnl tli fTi ~ r1~11t po ints that. ha\·c been
t·1111111 e n11 c d , pr e~ 1 · 111t : d i11 a vari1:d o rd e r, &c.
h i. . n o t rw cc·~,...: iry lo 1hY1.'I! 0 11 that obvious n :lu laid

~:. 1,'.:; 1 ~r;'.;;;

dow n hy Ai isl\~)tl1· , to avo id unco111m o n , nnd, as

~:.\~:;~'nnrl··r- tl 1cy arc vulf;arly C':Jlied, hard wo rds, i. c. tliosc
1
~~~~'. ;'.~ :,ri~~'.' wlii c.Ii arc sucl 1 1.0 tl1 e pe rsons addre~sed ;
hu t 1t n1ay lw won h remark ing, thn t to tlJOse
wl10 wioh I.Cl lie u11dersiood liy Ilic lower orders, one of
Ilic bco r. principb, nf s.,Jcction is to prefer l erni s of
Sa .r 11 n origi n, wliid 1 will ge nerally J ,,~ more forlliliar L>
them, 1k1.11 thosl~ deri \ ed frrn11 Il ic La~ (cit.lie r Jiree ll ) ,
o r through Ilic 111 cdi urn of t.lie Fre ncl1 ,) even wl 1en th ·~
la r.ter arc 111orc in use am ong pe rs o ns or educntin n. oti"
1

Of PEl1 S l' ICUITY

I. § 2.

I

Ir
f'
\
~.

f.

I

Ccss;" ~c di~'il...' ! 11\,Je » and .c ,·Joke;" .c IH1111l111· " :n1d
'c lo" ly; " 'c g;ooJ11css " a nd 'c r11 1'r1·y; " '' ;i <.:~c 111lil1' .,
:uid <' 111 ec t. 1.0gcd1er." J\11d l11Tc it 111;iy l.Jc ol1~<'n· i·d,
that, as in tl1i s la ~t in st:ln('(..: , a \\" Onl of f." n·1wl1 ori::in \',iii

very o fte n no l L:ir e a si11 glc ·1cord o f Sa \on tkri\·:1ti 1111
corresponding to it, Lut lllay find an exact cq11i\·al1'n t
in a phrase or t wo or m o re word s : c . b· {( c- onstit·1:(',"
(c go to make up;" •< arranµ:r·," " p111. in order;"" ~tilJ ~
stitute," « put in the stc;id," &c . &t" -S:
.. I t i~ wo rthy of notice, tl1at 11 S1yi1· cv1 1 1 p11~··d rl1idl_\· nf th· · Wp r•::'l
of Frt·udi or ig iu , w! 1ile it iH l•.:HS tnk !li;.rili!1• !." 1\11• luw1'..;L !·\:. :-;•; •·:o,
i:-o d1 :tr a c:: teri~ 1 ic of' tl1 f•::l<J wl1u in cu\1iv:1li .. 1\ ,,!' t.a~l··

<tr•- !.,.\,,,\. 1\p··
!iig-li\"•:-;t. .Att in drPs~, furni lur•·. d··p,, r t 11 1.· 1il , ,\' ,· . !i " :il,.;o i 11 L111:_:11:. i._:, :·,
the Jr1•ad or n ilg1nity ('1!1ls!;tJ1t ly l•l'"' 1t i11 ~ 111 •..,,. wh r1 :1:·r li·il!' ('" 11 ·
i-.•--:io n ..., 1hnt .lwy ar e in dan~·· r 10!'11 , .~n·: •' -'" 111· ·01 ird'I tl1" 1·-.:'. r,.n1•' .. r
nll;·dPd li1 1l' ry. S n tl1al tl 1e pn., ·•·pt. wl1i ··l 1 !i n-: 1..- ··r: ;:in·n " 11 h a
vit•w to pl·r..; pie ui! y, ma y, to :1 c•·r1 ai 11 dcg:ri.:e, \,,. ,.11 :-:\"rn·d with an

111lr a 11 !11ge i11 poi nt nf ch·g-n nct.' a bo

1.J·

174

F. U :ME NTS OF flll l·:TOll lC.

i' AH T

Ill.

C .1 n . l. § :1.

111 LJolapting the . Style to the co n1 prl'i iension or tl1c
illrtcratc , * a ca111 ion is to Uc obscn f:d agains t
: 1·;~:1 , ~·~:~'1 111 the :1111liig11ity
the wo rd " I'lnin;" \Yl 1id1
or u:\iii eii t.
is opposed some times lO Obscttrily , and some1

0Lscuri1 v of m;.iny J o n ~

alon e ;

1

Perl'll'icmiy

or

11

L11t Ly 110 111ea11s a dry and unadorned Sty le ; on tl1c
contrary, 1hcy have a taste rathe r fo r the over-norid,
tawd ry, a nd l1n1nbas ti c : n o r are the o r11nrne11 ts oC sty le
by a11y means necessarily in cons iste nt wid1 perspicui ty ;
~ l et1 1 p li o r , which is among the princip:t! of them, is ind i~c d, in lllHll Y cases , 1he cleares t 111 0J e of e ~ pr css i o n
th at ca11 be adopted ; it IJ1:i11g usu:illy mu ch c:i>ic r !'o r
11nc 11 ltiv atc<l 1ui11tls to compreli e11 d a si1J1ili tude u r ana lfl!!';}, 1han ~ 11 al1:; tract tt;rrn .
And he nce th e l:11 :g11ag; \:
~ :nr n ~es, ns has a rt.en Ucen re ma rke d, i~ J1igldy 11 1L lapl1oric ;il ; a11<l such " l'l ""u s to hav e been the c;i s C'
wii!1 ;ii\ lang11agcs i11 the ir e arlie r , an<l conseq ue ntly
rude r :Olli 111o rc s:n·:i gc slnlC ; all terms relati ng 10 1hc

or

'' delibe rate, "

' (re fl ect , " and man y o the r

such, arc ev id cndy urawn l.Jy analogy from external sensil, Jc bodily a1.:ti ons.

f1

'1I. '
I

§ 3.
Jn respect to the Co nstr uc tio n o f sente nces, it is an
:;::::~'. (" c -

o b\l iu11. c a111ion to ahs tain fr olll sud1 as arc t.oo
long ; but it is a 111i s1:ikc to s11ppost: that tlie

• St~ e E l1.:ff11!n l.8 of Lo;:; ic, F nlluc ie:i,

n._,ok 1i i . § ::>,

p. 1:12.

::;cn1 e1 1ces

dcpcrhls on ilicir lt' li'.'.;li i

\rcll con:"lru:·tcd :::e11tl·111· c 1)f vc 1y ro 1i:sid1·r:iitl

1

:

Ie 11 c;t1 1 1ll<1)' IJt~ m ur(~ r c~i1di ly 1111 der:-, tood, than a ~ li11rt 1 ·r
one w \1i1·li i;;; more ;n\'k\•.;1rdly frt i11 11 ·d . lf ;1 ,.;(·n: l· ! 1•« ·
Uc so ('(Hl::i ll'lH: t e d tlittl di e 1n e: 111i11 ~
each p:1 rt (•;:1 1 lw
1;1k1 ·n in :1s we prol'eed, (ii111 ugli ii Le C\·idcnt tli: !\ 1111 :
sc11 sc is not l1roug;l1 t to a c; J . ,~, c ,) its lr11g1it wil l he lin!t~
or no illlpccf 111 cnt to perspicuity; Out if the fo rme r p:irl
of t !J C SC llt l;l H' C CO l\ \' l ')' no di ::; ti1w l ll1 C:lll i ll ,S 1i1J \'.-C i!!T i \' 1 ~
nca rh· at lile 1·n<l) ( hn\\c\'cl pl:t in it 111:1y tilf' n appr-:i r,)
it \\' iii he, 01 1 11 1<~ whol e, d1 •f°:c i1 :111 in 1)(' r~ 11i• · t 1i1y ; !'o r it
wi !! ll f' c·d to he n ·iul OV f' r ; nr l/1 r111glil 111 · 1' r~ a ~ ··1 ·ni 1 d
ti n ie , i 11 urdl' r to 111 · full y co m11r(·\ 1e1H:1 ·d ~ ,,]1i i·l1 i·.; \\l!:d
fC\Y r1';1d t•r ..; or Lt't1rer:-; :i re w i llin.~ to hi.~ li11r:hrr:(·d '.'. it !i .
T :1kc :i s ;111 in '::' ta1w e suc h a st.:1 i tc11r c :ts tl1i-;:
ft ;:;
11ot wid11111 l n d eg; rc t· o f pa1i c 11t otte111io n :nid Jh'!"-; 1· \·1·;·iHQ dilibe n<"c , ~ r en t er th:rn the genc r;ility :1l'c \\'illi11~ In
hcstow, 1li o11b\1 not greater l ha n the nl 1.J1 ·1 · t d· ·:-;c n ·r..;, tli :i t
i.l1c hahit C:t ll IJr~ :wquired o f eX; ulli11in ~ ;·1!! d j tl d;.'..ill .~ nr
our O\\ 11 conduct with tlit~ s:i11 1t• :in' u rc1 cy and imii;w1iality n:; or that of .-in ollier :'' thi".i hl 1nur:- und e r ti:e
defe<: i I a111 spr al\ i11 s o f~ wliic\ 1 1l1;1y L<' r r 'llH'~ !i 1 'r! 1 y
some sud1 alt c rn tio 11 as t\J e fol lo wi n::; : " 1lic Ji;il 1iL or
c:-:ami11i11g o ur ow n co ncl nc t a:-: U<'f·11r;1tcly ;-is tl1;1L nf
annther, :rnd j udgin_s nf it with 1l1 c sanw irnp:ir1i:di1_:· ,
1·:rnnot he :lC q1iircd \\·itlion t :i d l'bl'l' C (J i' p:1iicnt nttc11iiun
and pe rsev eri ng dili µ;c ncc, nnt h rea1e r i11\ked tl~a n the
ol 1 j 1-~ct de serves , li 11t ~rr:atcr t \ 1iHl 1h1: ~f'tH' r : ility :iri;
wi.li iu ~ 1< ) h 1 ~si0 W." T lu! twn !-l ! '\l l f'n< · ~~.;; :1r.-• 11r:1r 1y d1r"~
sam e , in kn~tl1, and in the wo rd::; t•111pl nycd ; !JUL di e
alt era tion of the arra11gcn11: nt a llows the la tte r to lH~ u11L\

rni nd and its o pera tions , I.w ing, ns appe ars fro m tlie e t.y -

" p o nde r,"

:~

J 7 .">

n:l\~l' I Ct:I TY .

or

1in1 es to Ornament ; th e vulgar re q11!re a pe rs pi c uous,

m,,Jogy of most of the m, originally metaphorica l, though
by long use they have ceased to be so ' e . g . the words

or

;

\

\

1

, i ..

t76

J.:J. l ·:~H:NTS

or

ll l il·:TO lll C.

C11 ., 1·. I

1'.1rn Ill

derstoorl, clause by cln use , as it prcwceds. ~ The caution
j11 st givt"'n is the morl necessary to be in sisted on , because nn author is t1pt to be mi sled l1y reading over a
!"(' lllf'nc e to lii1nsl' lt', and li1 ~ i ng sati :;fiecl \)II fiudin g it
perfect ly i11 1elli!,;ilile; forgetti ng tl iat he hi111 sc lf l1as the
advantngc , whic h a hea l'Cl' has not, of kno\\'illg at the
bcg;innin g of Ili c sen!Cllf'C \Yliat is c·ornint; in the close.

~

0 1.. n:1:,;1· 1curr1 .

I

ri1y of Sty le necessa rily sp ri11g;s from indi5t in ct11c>s ol·

CoJl[:c ption.

§ '1 .
'flic fo regoing ru le:; have all, iL is e\' '1dt;11l 1 \'l'nt ·t' \·d· ·d

'\

~/.c;~:.,i·:~~'~

on tlic supposition that it is the writer's ·i11lc111i1111. t 11 la~
tll"l~rstood ; nnd th is cannot but be die c:1 :-; e in t'\'Pl')'
Jegiti 1natc cxcn.:1sc o f the Rli c toric al art : a11d s •'1 1cr;d ly speah iuµ;, t:\'l!n \\he re the design is So ~> lii:-:ti 1· c d . F qr,

fi~~"r.!,r;a~~-

as Dr. Ca n q1\1dl lins juslly rcrnarke1\ the Soplii:-; t m;1 y

Un iversally, indeed, an unpracl ised ,,... iter is liahle to
l.1c mi~led by his own kno" ledge of liis own
rn ca11ing, into supposing tliose cxpre:;s ions
1m·;c .. lo 11 .
cleurly intelligible, which are so to li i11)sclf";
but whi ch may not be so to the reader, whose li1ousli1 s
are not in the sarne train . Aud lienct! it is that so rne
dn not wr ite o r s peak with so mu c h i. . e rsp ic ui iy on a
subj ec t \\'l1id 1 has long been very familiar 10 them, as
011 one, wlii<"li they undcl'slanrl indeed, but with 11 l1i<·h
tl ;::y :ire !Pss i11tiinarcly rwq 11ai111 c·d, :ind in wl 1if' l1 1licir
k nnwl1! dg,e has bee n 1no re recently ac·cprircd.
In di e
forme r ease it is a lll ill te r or som e diffi cu lty to kc,:p in
lllind rlic necessity of ca refully and copion sly cx1d ;.1ining jl l'inciples which by long habit have co111e to assume in onr mi nds the appea rnnc: c cil" sdf-ev ident trurhs.
So far is Bl ai,.'s notion f,.om being coJ"rect , that obscu • Cnrn nn1... l be 1a h<' 11 howf'\'N 1 in npplyiug t hi~ pn'l'. {'pl , not to
t he lx-ginn in g- of n l'il'lllf' ll<'f' ~n J(Jrt::>tull wl 1al f111!<1W!:! a11 to rC'ndf'r
it apl'nrC'ntly r.·,•h!t: nn d i111p1·rtirH"11l: c. ~- "SolnnHrn, one of the
11 11•sl cc lt·hmtt- d 111" 1nr n !~Jr wi1:1dom n.ml f<1 r p r o !'pt•rity," • •
" w hy w ho 1H:f·d"" (the hC'nrt• r will be opt to 11n y t11 hirn s<'lf) "to be
tol d llrnt ? " nnd p .•l it m ay fo p im1 )nrtanl lQ th e pnq•()SC in han d to
fix the ntt<•n tion o n tlu·~c c ir c um t1ln n cC'~: lt'l t he dt·t1c rip li on Ct1me
brfore ll11• 11 a 1t1{' 1 n.1 1tl th e i;enlt~n(·c, wl 1i le it n• 111 ai 11 ii N1 u nlly pt·n~p i c11 0 11~, will ht~ free froin the fa11Jt cn m !•l :1i u nl 11f.
lt~ t

!"1J l" l1i s p11rpf1sc \\ i1al arc in tl1 c1n : :. l'.hc s r j' ;1\ n:i tl
\;al id :1rguml'11h; si nce probabili1ics ru~1y lit..: on i>i'\ 10siic si des, ti1ollgh truth c:1.ll be L11t on one ; lti s f;d L1c.iuus ;1rtifli·f' co i1 ~i~1i n b only in kcl'piug; 011l nf :-:i f:,lil tl1r:
stronger proli:il 1i litics ,,J1ic.l1 r11ny he u rg;1!d ; 1 gai11~1 l1i111 1

cnqilny

r
r

I
r

;inJ in auril1uti nh :tll undu e " ·cigl1L to tl1osc \\ i1i(·li l ie
lias to a\l1:r;c. Or :·1gain lie may, eit he r dirc1·tly o r 111dirc~t~ y, •tss 111nc a:-; sdf-t:v idc11L n prc1r1i ss "l1il'li il11.'l'1~ j.,
n1) s1 1ffi<"ic nl gruu111l for aLlmitting; or he inay draw off
tl1c :H tc ntion of ti 1c \1carcrs to 1l1 c proof o f :;01nt• irn:\ evant poi n t, &c . af·cordi11~ to the c irions 11 ~ otl f'::. dt~ ­
scrihed i11 die Tri ·atisc 0 11 FALl.:\ CIES; 0111. i;1 :1li tl \1:-i
t\i e rc jg 110 c·aJI f'or i.111)' Jepartll\'C rn.1111 J'('l":-:11in 1i1y n (
Style, properly so c-allc d ; not even \\'li en Jie a\·ail s li:111sel f of an ::cHbis11t)!tS term . "For tl1ougl1, as Dr .
C::nnphcll say:;, "a Sophism can l·1f-! 1nistal.;r11 for :111 1\ r11

\

h11111e 11t unly whP. re it is not rig,li1ly 1m dc r..;\nnd1
liirn wlio empl0ys it, ratl11.;1' tl 1:1!, t!lf: rn;l1 -

is the ai m

or

te r should be "'"': ~iin,dcrslom!., th;rn 1111! undi·r~;tl 1 n d :that. hi :-; }a 11 ~w1~c shoul d lie ck:ceitfu l, r;-itlic:r t l1 :11 1 td1s('1:rc
or uuiiitellit; ilJlc.

The heare r mus l 11ot iild ced fonn a

178

E LEME NTS OF llilETOR IC.

P ,\l!T

III.

currcct, but he must fo rm sonic, and ir poss' ble, a
distinct, tho ugh erroneo us idea o r the arguments employed, in on.lcr to lie 1n isled by them . The obscurity
111 shon, if it is to be so called, must no t be obscuri ty of
S1ylc; it must be, not like a mi st which dims the appearance or objects , but like a coloured glass whi ch disguises them.

There arc, liowevcr, certain spu ri ous kinds, as they
''""'"'"
Orntory.

may be (:ailed, of writing or speaking , (distinc t
from what is strictly terrn ed Sophistry,) in

which obscu ri1 y of Sty le may be appos ite. The Object whi c h has all alo ng been s upposer!, is that o r convinc ing or persuading ; but 1herc arc so n1 e kinds or Orato ry, ir 1hey urc to be so nmnc d, in whic h so me diOcrcnt
End is proposed.

One of th ese: End:.; is, (wl 1cn til t~ <· ;u1sc is such L11at
A pp~•u rin1t it ('ann ul Im sidfo·ient iy s1 1pport ud eye 11 by
!~ .. :·; 1~~inic. spct:..ious Fall::(' i1·s ,) to a11 pc1u tu sny sonie-

thing, when there is in fa c t no thing to be
said : so :1s at leas t to avo id the igno111 i11y of being silenced . To 1his e nd, the more confosed and uninte lligible tl1e langu:ige , the better, provided it carry wi th
it the appearance or profound wisdom, and of be in g
sorncthing to th e purpose .

" Now tho ug l1 nothing (says Dr. Caio1j1bell) would
seem to Le eas ier than thi s kind or Style, where rm
Autho r fall s imo it naturally ; that is , whe n he dece ives
hi 1nse:r as we ll as his reade r, 11 o thing is niore diffic ult
when aucinp1.cd o r des ig n.

It is bes id e re11uisitc , if tliis

manner ll Hbl be conti nued for auy ti111 e , that

it

be an-

rul!y l1k: ndcd with 5011\C glimpses of IYI C anin ~ ; else , lo
pe rsons of d isccrnrn e1n, the c hann will at leng th be d is-

01" l'EJt :; l'f CU ITY .

179

solved , ::rnd tlie 11 ud1i ng11css of wl1:1t

lia:-; bee n spoken

CtHI' .

l.

will l;e

~

<1.

dcl CC' led ;

pcc1i11 g 111ulti1udc,

nay even tlic
y·;Jw 11

attent ion

of tlie

rn 1s11s-

no t rcli e\' ed liy any thing that

is le1·el to their cornprche11sion, will iufalli hl y f1a g. The
In vocatio n in 1he Duncia<l ndiniraLly sui ts the Orator
who is unh<1ppily reduced to th e necessity of taking shelter in the 11nin1.e ll igil.1le :
.
Of d urkne~s visi!1 )(' RO much lie lert 1

As half to shew 1 hlllfv <>i l the dN"p in t(' nt.'
C hap . vii i .

Sl' C.

1. p. 11 '. ).

This artifi ce is d istin guished fro m S o phistry , properly so called , (with whi ch Dr. C ampbell seems to con-

found it,) hy the c ircum stance 1hat its u· rHlency is not ,
as in Sopl 1i stry, to convin ce, lJUt to h:ivc the appearance of arg11i11g, \vh en in fact nothin g is 11r~c d; fo r in order
for m en 10 Uc conv ince d , on liowcver in s11nir. if'nt ground !-1,

th ey must (as wn~ rernnrkcd above)

underst:rnrl s1n11 c ~

thit1g from what is sai<l, though, if it be f;d!ariow•, th ey
11111 sl nol un <lcrstand it rightly ; but iC thi:-; cannot he
accrn npli sheJ , the Sophist's ne xt resort i' th•' unintel lig ibl e; whi ch indeed is very often interlll ixcrl " ·ith the
S o phisti cal, when the latter is of it scir too sr.anty or too
weak . N or docs t.lic adoption or tliis Style se rve rnr.rcly to save hi s c red it as nn Orato r or Au tl 1or; it lrcqucnl ly do cs more : ignorant and unrcllecting persons , 1lio11 .~ li
they can not he, stri ctly speaking, conv inc ed , J,y what
th ey do not understand, yet will very or1cn sup pose ,
eac h, that the r est uncle rstnnd it. ; and <'acl 1 is :1'hnm c<l
to acknowledge, even to himself, hi s ow11 dark nr.ss one!
perplex it y; so th at ir the s peaker ' "iil 1 a confident ai r
announces his conclusion as establi shed, th~y 1Yill ofrcn,

' .. ,!

J80

ELEMl':NTS Ot' JU I E'J'OH I C.

PART

<H' J'l:: HSl' I CU l'J' Y.

ll l.

aec.:ording to the rnaxin1 ' l om11e ignotum. ]Jro m'irifico) '
take for gra11tc<l that lie has a<lvanced valid arguments,
and will be loth to seem bchiud-hand in comprehending
them. 11. 11sually requires that a man should have
some coufidenr.e in his own understanding, to vcntirre
to say, " what has been spoken is unintelligible to
111 c . ''

A11 01l1cr 1111 rposc somet imes answered Uy a di sc o11 rstJ
or thi:-; ki nd is, that it serves to furni sh nn excu se , fl imsy
indeed, lmt Il Ot unfrccp1 cntly suffic ient, fo r men 10 vote
or ac t ac c:o rdi 11,; to the ir own irn:linntirn1s ; whi ch th ey
would pcrliaps liave been a:,lw rncd to do, if !:i irong :irg,umc.:lls liad l 1cc n urged 011 t 11e other ::;idc, and liad r emained crmfcsscd ly unanswe red; but they satisfy thc111sclves, if' som e1hing has bee n s:iid in fov o1 1r of the co11rsc
they wish lo n<l opt; thou ~h that somcthin;; be only foirsnund inh s£'nt e11ccs tl 1nt rom·py no di ~ ti n ct 111 c:111 i 11~.
TliC'y arc eon1c11 t 1liat a.n ans1oer lias lH~ e n mad e,
without tro1il 1l i11g tlicrnsclvcs to consider what it is.

§ 5.
J\ nother end, which in speaking is so1netnnes pron r r up_i i ng
posed, and whi ch is, if poss ible, still more
t ii u e .
rcrnotc fro m tlie le;.:.,ltimnte prov ince of H.11cloric , i:; to occnpy time.. l Vl 1e11 nn u11favou rable decision is apprchend uJ, <rnd the protrn ction of the debate rnay allb rd time Cur fresh voi ers to l ie s11111rnoned,
or 111:1y lead to an adjn1irmnc11t, wl1id1 will an<Jrd sco pe
for sniric otl ier 1nano:uvre ; - when !here i ~ u chnncc
SO w e:1 ry i11 ~ t ) 111 !lie HllL' lltio11 n f' th t.. : hearers, that th(~ \'
will li stt.: 11 with la11guor a11 J i111pat ic11ec to what slwll 1 1·~

or

\t'
t1

I

I

1

18 1

ur5ed on tlw other sid e, - \\'hen an advocate 1s called
upon to plead a cau se in the absence of tl1ose whose
opinion it is or U1e UtillOsl impnrlance l O influ ence, and
wis hes to reserv e all li is Argu1ne11ts till they arrive, but
till tlic11 , must app;irn11t ly proceed i11 hi s pleading; in
these and many sirnib r cases, wli icJ 1 it is needless to particulari 1.c , it is a val11;il,Je t<Jent to be able to pou r forth
wjth flu ency an unli mited c1uant i1y or \\'Cll-so1111ding lan gua5e wh ic h lias li tdt' or no meanin g; ;-which sl1all not
strike the hearers as uni11 tclli5ible or nonsen sical, tJiough
It convey to thei r mind s no disti nct itlc:-i .
Pe rspi cuity of Style, - real, not apparent , perspic uity , - is in 1liis cnsn neve r necessary, and srirnc times,
studiou sly nvoided. 1f any distinct meanini; were conYeycd, and that wl1icl1 was said '1:cre irrelcrnnt, it \\'011ld
J,c perceived lo be so, and would produce impaiience in
the hearers, or afford an advantage to the opponents ;
if, on the other hand, the speech were relevan t, and there
were 110 nrg11men1s of any fo rcn to be urged, cxc-c pt such
as either had been nlre.ndy tl11 Plt on, or were required
to he rcse1Tcd (as in the case last all 11ded tn ) for a !"uller
a111lience, the speaker w0ulcl no!. furt.her hi s cau se 11v
l ringi11g them forward . So tl1~t the usu:-il resource 0~ 1
tl1cse occasions, of s11d1 ora1ors as tl1orouglily 11 11 derstand
1.he tricks of their an, and do not disdain to ~rnpl ov 1l:cm ,
is co nmusc their <1t1diencc witl1 spec iou s «nip!in css . -l>·
1

--~---- ~---

-

-

---- - --~ , ----

' It is 1t1ris l 11n fr• r t nn11lc 1 llrnt in S.·r1n ons 1l11•1p ,.;h<·uld t.. • ~o inu cl 1
ti·rnp ta tiou l t) f;,Jl into tli c ti 1!< l two (1,) H:ty notl1i ng ,,f tlw third) 11 f
t!,,•sc ki nd~ 11( spu r iO U:-! ornfflry: whf'n it j ~ on1o intrd that a Sc rrunn
1<lial l J,, ~ prca c hc<l, and c 11 ~t•m 1 rcq11.irrs I.li nt it Mlia!I he of" n certai n
!.-.n;,.:lh, 1hf' H' c:i nnol. hut lie ll l•lrc• dan ge r thut. 1.lu· prP ~u.:hcr !; hould ch it>f'1.) ~· .i n:;id,,r him sP lf as h111111 tl to ~m y somr,tl1 i11:_:, a11d to ouupy th e ti me

lG

: ~·

182

ELF.Ml·:NTS O F llllC:TOlll C.

c .....

PART Ill.

§ o.
Ano1her kind of spurious Oratory, and the last that

n''"'"' ,,,.

will be not iced, is that whi c h has for its object
to gain tl1 c hearer's admirati on of the Eloquen<:e displayed . Thi s, indeed, consti tutes one of
the three kinds of O ratory enumerated by Aristotle,"
and is regularly treated or hy liim, ,1Jong with the Delib erate anti Judicial hrancl 1es ; though it hardly dese rves
the pince he has bestowed on it.
\.Y he11 this is the e nd pursued, perspicui ty i' not
indeed 10 be avo ide d , but it m:1y ofte n wi1ho11t de: rimen t
be disregardcd.t Men frequ e ntly admire as eloquent, and
so1ne1 irn es admire th e mM t, what they do not at all, or
do not li illy, comprehend, if elevated and high sounding
words be arra nged in grac eful anrl so norous periods .
Those o f unc ulti1·ated mind s especially, arc apt to think
meanly of any thin g that is brought clown perfc~tly to
the low level of th~ir capac ity ; though to do 1his with
respec t to 1•aluable Truths whic h arc not trite, is one of
the most admirabl e feats o f genius. They nd 111irc the
profundity of one who is mystical and obsc ure ; mistak ing the muddiness of the wate r for de p1h; and magn ify ing in their imaginations what is viewecl tl 11uugh a fog ;
and they conclude that brilliant language must r epresent
e1°•11 11.: 11 c 1'·

prcscrihed, without keepi ng in mind the objec t of leavin g hi s hcitrers
wise r or h(' lter, thnn if he were to pren.ch solely in co nseque nce of his
havin g such a specific objec t to accompli sh . See note , pnrt iii. ch11p.
iii . § ~. For he say11, thnt in each of the two other kind9 1 t11c hen.rc r is n.
11
judge ; " in the fin~t of the u ex ped ient ," in the other, of the" j ust;"
but in Lh e third kind he ie only 0Ftoi~1 1I'; , li ternlly , a Spectator ; tl.nd iB

ju dge me re ly (' 'I' JoJ'<~l' Et11 q } oftl w ability of Urn Orator.
I See AppcnJix [ G. J

ft

JI. § I.

O F E!'I EllG \'.

183

some brilfonl iJ eas, wi tho ut trouLling then1sclres lo in<1u ire wl1al those ideas m·e.
l\lany an enthusiastic admirer of a fin e (( discourse, " or
u piece of" fin e writing," would be fo und 011 examinat ion
to ret ain only a few sonorous, but empty phrases ; and
10 ot 011ly to har e no notion of 1hc general drii't. or 1he
Ar.s ument , but not even to have ever considered whc1l1er
1he Author had any suc li drift or not.
It is not meant to be insinuated that in every such
ca~c the r.on1position is in itself un mc:u1i ng, or that the
Author bad 110 othe r object than the credit ot' Eloquence;
lie may have had a h igher End in vie\\'; and he m ay
have expressed himself very dearly to some hearers,
though not to all : but it is most i111po:·1:rnt lo be fully
aware of 1hc fact, that it is poss ible to obtain the high st
applause from those who not only recei r c no edification
from what they hear, but absol utely do not unders t:rnd
it
So far is popularity from being a safe criterion of the
uselulness of a preache r.

CH AP. II .

OJ Energy.

§ 1.
T he next quality of Style to be not.iced is wha t may
by called Energy ; the term being used in a wider 'e11sc
than the 'E • lqye.~ of A ristotle, and nearly corrcspo11di11g;
ll'it.h what Or. Campbell calb Viv11city; so as to com prehend eve ry thing that m ay conduce to sti 1nula1c

ELEMENTS O F' Rll ETOR IC.

190

l 'ART

HI.

pari:-\ons are bot11 :~ 1e more frequent and the more strikinf!; .

T hey arc the more frequent, because almost e very oLjel'I
lias suc h a multitude of relations, of diffe rent kind s, to
many other obj ects ; mu! they nre the more strikini;,
because (as Dr . A. Sm itJ1 has well r emarked) tJ1e mo re
remote and unl ike in the mselves any two objects are, the
more is the mini! impressed and gratified by the pcr<'ep tinn of some po int in wlii(' h th ey a!;rec .
It has \,ecn al read y observed, u11dcr the head of Exam pJ..,, th at we are carefully to distingui sh between an
fl/11 slrat ion , (i. e . an .flrg11m w t from an alogy or rescmhlance , ) anrl what is properly called a Si mil e or Compa rison, in troduced merely to give force or beauty to the
c.rprcssio n. T he aptness and beauty of an Illustration
some times lead s men to overrate, and sometimes lo un -

C HA P.

vessel lay shaken by the waves, " meaning,, the wound ed
Chief tossing on the b e d of sick ness ; it is therefore necessary in such a c ase to st ale the resemblance . But
this is never to be do ne more fu lly than is ncccssnry to
perspicui ty ; because all me n arc more gratified at cat c hmg th e R csembbnce fo r themselves, than at haring it
pointed ou t to them.• And accordingly tile .~1:·t:ip1 i .. ri· ·u i
grcal cs t maste rs o f th is kin d of s1ylc, when the :-;u .. ilc.

cnse will not ad mi t of pure !\!ewplior, ge nerall y prefer ;i
mixture of M etaphor with S im"il e ; firsL pointi11r; out !he
simi litud e, and nf1e rwards employing metaplioril'al 1en11s
whi ch imply it; or, vice vcrs(1, explaining a l\ 1ct;ipho r i1y
n state ment of th e Comparison. T o lake exarnplcs of
both ki nds from nn Author who particularly excels m
thi s p oint ; (speak ing of mo rbid Fancy.)

dc r r::i~e , its force as ;u 1 Argument.""

"With rc." pcct to the c h. ~ i cc l•ctwccn the M ctaphnri c al
fo rm nnd that of Com pari son, it may l.u! lai1l dO\rn ns n
general rnic, that t.he former is always to be preferred , t
\\'herever it is sufliciently si1nplc and p lnin to be im mediately co mprehended ; but that which as n Me ta pho r
wouhl sound obscure anti cn igmati cnl, may be \\'Cll
rccei,·ed if ex pressed as a Comparison . 'V e may say,
e . g. with propriety, that " C romwell tram pled on the
laws: " it wo uld sound feeble to say that "he treated tl1 c
laws witJ1 the same contempt as a man docs any tl1i115
wt1ic h he tr:1rnples und er l11 s fee t. " On the other hand
it wonlJ uc lrn rsh nn <I o osc 11rc to say , " the str;v1d •:d
*

$ 1·t.:

Part i . c hnp. iii . § 2.
•) F/ x .~ 1 · ,11 e r • aro ~H'i., l 1mpl !.Jn 11au 7r~1nrrO/af1

t"r 11 111•
·~('l ,

t O.

0 11

1

,11 1tK~1111 l ~1111 c

x

1

A

A1uttntl.

1

IU1d.

- - Ii lee the lmt nr JnJi an lm1ke!'I ,

1I<' r pini nnri: fon th e wou nd 11 he m nkc~,
And l'IOothinl{ th us t.h4' drcrrnlt·r'" pllin,
S he J rinkH the li fo-hlood from the vein .

The word "like " makes this a C01;nparison ; but the
three succeeding lin es are Metaphorical. Agai11 , to take
nn instance of the other kin d,.
They n1 r.ltul from the lield, tu: P.now,
When it tr• ~tun e a re swo ln , 11. n d south winds Llro w,
Di~ ao l ves

Uook iii . cl 1111•

in Hi le nt dew. f

or tJ1e wo,·ds

here put in italics, the former is a !ll• ·taphor , the Inli er in troduces a Comp•u·; son . T t.ou;h
the i11stances here adduced are ta ken from a l'o et, ihc

- - - - - - - - -- -- - - - - -- -- "TOµ co10,~vE tJ1

,'in\ :1r -

19 1

OF' F. NER GY .

11. § 3.

C'!hnp. G.

t /fo lahy.
l ,M11rm ion .

(~''~fon;

,jJO <plia;; i.

- -

Ar istotle , l:J1 d . Oook

ii i.

I ()2

E L E:IH:NTS

or

11. ll ETOlllC .

Cu AP . II . §

P1twr 111.

pliij, is even more essen tial to a Pro~c - w rit e r, lo w\ 10111

Jess license is allowed i11 the employ ment of it. It is a
rc1nark of Aris1otlc, (11.het. l1oo k iii . chap . 'l. ) tl i:1t the
Simile is more suirnble in Poetry, and that Meta phor is
only ornament o f" langurige in whith 1he O rato r rn:iy

i'rf•0ly

indnl ~c .

i ~ an Energy in A bralian 1's

H e should tl1ercfo rr. he 1he more ra r0-

The following is nn example of 1he same l<inrl

o f expression : ((These me taphys ic riglit s cntcr:ng inio

common life, like rays of ligh t wh ich pierce into a dense
medium , are , by the laws of nature , refra cted fron1 1hcir
st rai .~ ht line.
l ndeed, in the gross ancl complicat~ cl 1nass
nf hrn11un pas sions and concern s, the primitive ri ght~ of
man un dergo such a \'ariety of rel'ractions, and reOec 1ions , 1hat it hecomcs absurd to talk of 1hern as if 1hr.y
<'nminn cd in th e simplicity of tl icir orif,;inal direc ti on."*'

M e tapho rs mny he t~ mpl nyed,
i':l •· 1·11t in i..: 1> r

~;:1r:,1 \'/1 : 1.~"·

1

:lS Ari ~ 1 0 1i1 '.

ei th er to cl c\'nt c or to de!!;rad c the
'"

oh-:cn·cs,
s11 hj er t 1
'

nccordi1~ to the design of the Auilior; bcin~

drawn from similar or co rres pondin ~ objects of
a hi gher or lower character. Th11s a loud and v<·hcn 1c·nt
!' pc' nker may be described either as licl/01eiJJg, or '" I./, 1111,/ ,,r in~
And in bo1h cases, if the i\ l cta phor is :ipl on d
<.;1 1itabl c to the pur po s ~ dt ~s i µ; n Pd)

:t

193

P eriplirD.sis

for

'' G ud ,,,

wl 1<en he is speaking of tl1e allolment nf Divine p11ni, h111ent: "shall not th e J udge of all the earth do ri gli1 ? ·'
l t' ac;ai n \\'C \\'Cl'C alluding to } I is omni,l\Cl:cnce, it wou ld
lie lllore sui1able to say, "this is known onl y tn the
Searcher of hearts:" if, 10 hi, po1oer, we sho uiJ spcr1k
of Jlnn a.s "t.hc Jllm·i ghty ," &c .
Of Metaphors, those generally con<luce mos t to 1l1 nt
Enert'.y or Vivac ity of Style we a.re speaking of, whi..! 1
illustrate an intellectual by a sensible object ; the l:r11 0r
J,0ing; anvays the most early familiar to th e 111 i11 d, and
generally giving tl1e most distinct impressio n to it. Tlllls
we spcaK of u unl1r·i dled rage)" " decp -1·ootcrl pr1·.iudice," u !flowi ng eloque nce ," a '' st.ony heart, " & r .
And a s1lllilar use may be mad e of Metonymy abo ; :is
when we speak of the '( T hrone ," or the " Crr111:11. 11 ro r
" lloyahy," - the "s1oord" for " military viole1wc,"
&r .
B ut. rhe highest degree of En ergy (nnd to whi ch Ari stotle r l1ie fly restri cts the term ) is produced hy ~~~-;~;:~;[;~·:
such Melaplior> as attribute life an d act ion to ''"""·
things innnimntc; and that , even when !Jy thi s rn ~ans

f1il tn hrin~ a Simi le a5 near as possil 1l c to tlic ~l c 1;i1il1nri ­

""I fonr1 .

OF E:NERGY.

whole , a cause fo r an ciTecr, &c .) admits of a sini ila r
variety in its app li cations.
Any T rope (as is remarked hy Dr. Ca1r1pl1cll ) add s
fo rce to t.he ex pression, when it tenJs Lo fix the mind on
tl 1at part., or c'ircum.sla.ncc, in th e objec cspoken of, wliicli
i.-; mcs t essenti al to the purpose in liand . T lius, 1hcre

judit:ious manage ment of Compa ri so n which they cxem-

ti 10

a.

is nli ke eo11 cl 11<' ive lo

Energy. lie remarks that. th e snrne holds 5c>oil \\'ilh
respec t l'> Epithets al so, which may be clrawn e itl1cr frn111
the hi ghest or the lowest attributes or t\1c 1hing spoken
oi'. t i\'ktony my likewise (in which n part is pul fo r a

1·t·ld•1 ,1l"

it

vi ctory in

ns.w~", (i1:tfo1·111.) n~

On 1/1.1; 1"rc11 rh R1·,•r1lutirm .
! /\ li ;q)piPr t•xa 111 11lt.: c:u1m• l he f1•t1nd lh un the fine' wliid 1 Ari stotle
ci t1· :'! fr•11i1 S i111 ••11irlt· A, wltn, when offored 11 1:111111 11 pri ce f'i1r nn Ode to
" lt11rl11',

fl

m.11lr.- ra cC', e:c:prc r>~NI lii H cont~mpt fr ir

th l'Y

were co n11no 11 ly cnllNI; hnt whrn

:i

lw!I

hi r!!'!' r

i- 111 11 wa~ nlTe rcd , nddr(" A~c d tllf'm in nn Od~· n" ' D:i ug btc rs nf:-i!1.,•d:J
1

ttwifl-as-t./1 f'·Slo rm . '' J:1.)J.0 1r1:'.,11(V J' ,? {'r'< f(;l f"' f ;f;l(•ll'.

1

I

Ji

c .. ...

PAnT l 11.

194

the la"i\-mc ntioncd rule i:-> \' iolatcd , i. c. wh<'n se nsiJ,l e
obj ec ts arc ill11 str:i1 c<l by intc llec tt1al. Fm die di s:id r a111 agc is o,·crbalanc.cd hy the vivid impress ion prod 11ee d J,y Ili c id ea o f 7JCrsmwlity or ttcli1 •ily; * as ,, Jtcn
we spc:lk of tlic rage of a torrent ) a fnrintts s torm, ..-i
ri,·e r disrl(f'ining t.o end11 rc it s liridoc 1 &c.t .~J any
s11 c l1 C'\jlrPs:-;io11s, ind eed ) are i n s1wl1 commo n tl ~f! as 10
lia ve lo:-> I all (he ir l\1t~ 1:1pliurical fort'C 1 since dtPf r. r· a -.: 1~
10 suggc~t the idea },donging: to tl1e ir priinary ~ i t; 11i iif'tt ­
tio n, and tl11 1s are Uccomc, prac tically, Prope r te rms . H11l
a new, or at least u11liack11ey cd, J\l cta phn r of this ki nd,
if it be not far -fetched and ol1sc11re , adds great ly to the
force o f the express io n . 'J'his was a fu\'011ritc fig11re
ll'ith H omer, fro m ll'iiorn Ari , totle has cited several cx :1111plcs of il; as "rhe rag ing arro w, " " the da rts cagr. r
In taste of fl esh," i: d tJ1e s/imnclcss
(or , as it. mig,l it.
11\: rC'1Hl0rcd with l!l o rc c-sac trn•s:-; , thrn 1gh with less d; t;_
nity , " tl1 c ]lro1·0/:i11g) stone, " ()Jiu . ; tt 11 ~wl1~<;,) whi ch
111tw ks th e c lfo rt s or Si ~ypl11.1s 1 &,._
Our lnng;11:1ge possesses one rcinnrlrnhle ndvan1:1 .~ ~'! ,
with a vi ew to thi s kind of Enc ··gy, in the co nstit 111i o11
of' its gcrulcrs. All n0t 111s in ·Engli sh, wl 1id1 C'.-:p rcss
obj ec ts that nre reall y neute r, a re r·o n s i dc~ rc <l as s trictly
of" the neut er gend er; the Greek and Latin , tho11gli
J)

"Th t· fi :;u n: c nl! c: d hy H. l11..' l Mici a11 ~ Pros1•po p{Cia (l iti·· m lly, l'1! t ·
l'l rtnifi 1·ati cm) i~ , in fa c t, n o othl' r than fl Mctil pl1 1i r of thi s kind: 11111 8 1
in D c m o!ithe rw:-1, Grcuc is rC' prcse ntr d llJI 1tddrc.<1si11g the A t heni&nrL
So nhlf) in the h'1ok of Genesis, (c hap . iv. \'C'r. 10,) 11 th e ·noice of thy
Lroth t· r'n blood cri olf, uulo me fr om th e g round. "
l l'1111lr11liml11[111lfu •., ,
t Th l' re i!!. a. 1wc 11lit1r uptituil c in ~0111e of t h<" i:w. t•xpff!l!~ion~ whi c h
tl1c ni ndNn gttult> nl iH Hry likt• ly to o vt' rhok; nn nrro w or dElrt ,
rrom its fl y in g with n .orpiw1i11,!! mut io n 1 qni?Jtrs violently whe n it iH
fi .H:<l; thu s ~111 gg 1· s t i n ~ tl1t' idea o l' n pe r sou lrtmUinl{ 1cith tagern cH.

11. § 3.

pnssess in_s 1'1c

i

OF I·: :-< t:llG Y.
a<.f r:inr;1se

(\\·lii cli is

w;111ii1 1 ,~

~) .)

in tl1•' hn-

b11a gcs derived fru111 il 1r!11i) ui' li:1\·i110 a n eut ~ ~ r ~~ · 1itkr,

ye'. lose tlie h c nc·fit or

it ) by fi:-. ing 1lie 1n;1-..1·tdi11c: I'['
fe1ni11i111.! b ''nd e r::; 111u >11 111;1uy n0t 111:-; cJ, · 111it i 11.t~ tl1i11.t.:.-" iii :ini m:H e; wlic rf'as in E11g,l ish, wl w1 1 w1· ~ i w;1k ()( :111y

in 1l1e 111 ;t-;r·1 dillt ! or fc1 11i11 i1 H' .~(·ndf'!', 1L:1 t
fo rm o f PXprC'~s i o n at on 1·c co11lrT~ prn nnnlity 1i ;1 •1 ; \ !1
VV!icn '<V irtue," c . .~· or our "Co 1H1 rry, ' ' <ire ·"in,. t, .. :1
of as fc lllales, or " O~ ·ea11 ''as a 111 ;:k~} &.~ ·. :: 11·y : i ; i · , L.,.
that Ytry t:irr 111 n:-.t:incP} p1'r.w11u)ir·d ; ;u 1d a ~t i1H u l 1 1 -., is
SUl'li olij ccl

\

{

thus given to the i111a g;i1 1;1ti( 1Jl} fr11111 1lie \"•'1J c it"·11rn slan<'c 1h:1t in c alm di scuss inn nr clcsc ripti u11> al! l )r 1hcs · ~
would be nru1 c r; w licr ~as i11 C re1_·k o r L;ttin, :1s in
Frc11d1 or I tal ian) 11 0 such di s ti11cti1111 co11 ld lJc 111 :ul1• .
'fli e em ployme nt of c~ Virl'lls, " and 1 ' ·_·l (lf 1 1', , " in l~ 1c
lcrnin inc gende r, cn n c rn 1triliii tf', ;wcurdi11r..,ly 1 1Jd :111H11;! tion to ihc Siyle) "!1c11 thry c ou1d 11 n t, " ·id u111t ;1 ~ul1 : ­
c1.-.rn , be c rnplnycJ otlicr\\'isn.
Tli 1~ r c is, li f 1\•:1 ~v1·r 1 \'1·ry liitlt ~, cn rnp ar:1ti\ · ~ · ly 1 ·if 1'::1 crgy p rodnccd liy a 11 y i\11:1:1p lio r nr Si111il e tl1:il .-.: .. ,., . 1 111
is in common 11:--c, and already !':l!liiliar tu tlw •11 ··1'1' 1" '1.
io

hc:.irer. l11d1•1•d , \\']1;1t \\'t•re ori bi11ally th e l1<dde ~l 1\it ·r nphors, a rc lJcecn nr., by lc11 1.~ u:..;ei \·ir111ally, Pni i wr
terms ; as 1s tlie l·ase \\ idi !lie \\·ord:-; •( :-;011ff~! ,"
"re fl ect inn, " &c . in ll1 cir tr:"11 is ll-rT1~d St'll<..'. t~-.: : an d frc fjlH~ nlly arc even nearly olislile1 e in tl1u liir·r: 1] sen ;-; c, ns
in die words" ardour)"" ar 11tc n e:-ls,,, u r11t1 n:1:1t(·)" &c .
If, ag;ain) a l\l i.: 1apl1or o r Sirn ilc dwt is 1iut su ii:l('k - ~
n<'ycd a~ to lJ1.: c o11 .-. id en:d con1111 0 11 prop erty, he 1:1!,:r-11
fro1n <"lll)' known :\utlior, it strikes every on e, as T\() l e~,:-;
a plagirrrism than ii an e11tirc 3-rt;1 1111 C'11l o r dl' s1-ri11tion
had bee n thus 1.ransl(:rrcd. And henc e it is, that, as

;~

,• ·,

ELEMENTS

!%

or

RIIETOR!C .

PART 11

r.

Ari st(Jtle rcnn ks, tl1~ ,k il!'ul employmen t o r these, n1ore
tl 1an of any othc r, orna111 e11 ts of language , 11 iay Ue regarded as u 111a rk of geni us : (8 1\pul'u; "'J/lf°i<JI') not tlnlt he
111c;ms to s:iy, as so me interpreters suppose, that thi s
}'OWer is entirely a ;;ift of nature , nnd in no degree to Le
learnt ; on the cnntra ry, he expressly ;iflirrns, th:i t the
" pe rceptio n o f H.cse111bla11ccs," ·14: on wl1itl1 it depend s,
JS tlic frui t of u J>J1ilosop!1y; "t b ut he 1u can s that :Me1apl1urs are 11 01 to be, like other worrls ;md l'hrascs, selected from co 111rnon use, and tra nsfe rred fro m one co n1pos ition to au o d1c r, t !Jut rnus t be fo rmc<l fo r ilie occasio n.
Su rnc c;u e is aceo rdi 11g;Jy r1:q11is itc , in oakr that tlH~Y

may Le readily ro 111prchendcrl, :111d may not hav<~ t1 1e appcara 11cc o f being far-fet c hed and ext n1va!:;nnt.

F o r th is

it i s U::iua l to co111bi ne with the j\l ~trqd 1 o r a Pr0p cr te rm wliir- 11 cxpi<Li 11s it; vir. . cithl"r at1 rilu 1t i11r; to the
term in its lrrw sfnTcd s1• 11 ~C', :-:H.i n1 1~ tlii11 g wli ir-1 1 dtws 11 ot

purpose

belong to it in it s li:tcnd ::l.!nsc; or vice ccrsii, denying of
it in it s tra11 sferred sense, soin e d~ing which rlvcs lJelo 11 ~
to it in its literal sense . T o call tl1e Sea the "wri/cry
b11l\\"ark " of our island, wo11ld be an instance of th e
fo rmer kind ; nn examp1e of the latt er is the C)qm ~s:-. iou
of a \l"rit er who speaks of the dispersion of some ho,li le
fl eet, by the \\"i 11ds and wavPs , "those anc ient and unsubsidi=cd allies of l::n gland."
It is harJly ncecssary to mcution the obvious and
hackneyed caut ions against mixture of Metaphors; § and
•

Ti~

o.'"HOI' Ur/j,P ..

Ar :~totlc , R/a;t.

f 'J'."j..11 11 /; x ql1).MT<1<rta~ .

boo k ii.

1\ris totle, Ultel. honk ii. n.nd iii.

I OUx F.111 ' 1111~> t:i lJ.011 Au f/ "i'' · lhi d. LonK iii .
§ Ur. J ohn son j u stly cc nttn n•tt A ddi!iO l1 fi,r ~p1.mki n ~ c. f" bridl ing
i.n h i~ mu se , who longs lo found& into a noble r 6Lrnio ~ " "which,"

C HA. I' . ll.

§

OF' ENl-:flGY.

4.

against any that ~u·e co m plex <1 11<l far· ;J11rsuc-d 1 so 3:, to

approacl1 to Allegory. In this last f lbe, tlie more apt
an<l striking is the Analogy s11ggcs1ed, t.lic more \\ ill it
l1~ffc of an artificial appcanmce ; a11d \\'i!l draw off die!
reader's attention from the suLj ect, t<5 a<lrnirc ll:c ir1 ~~,r·­
n11 ity displayed in tl1e Style . Y 011ng writers, of i;·· i: i11, ,
ought especially to Ue adrnon isJ 1cd to ask thc1n:-:ch (·s
fre qucndy, not whe1hcr this or 1/Jat is a striking c.rprcssion , lrnt wl1ctJ1er it mak t~s dte mean'iug more st ril..:ing
than :mot!lCr phrase woul d,- whether it impresses 111orc
for~ ib ly the sentimen t to lie conv eyed.

§ 4.
It is a co nimon prar ti cc with so me wri te rs to cnd1·<lrour to ndd fo rce to their ex pres~ iu11 s lJy ac - ,
1
cumulating high-so unding Epi1het s, • denotin,t:; ~1'\tl•"'"·
the greatn ess , bea11ty, or other ad 1nirablc q11:ilitics of the
things spoken of; but the effe c t is gencrnlly the rcr crse
or what is inte nded . l\l ost read e rs, excep t !hose
a
very n ilgn r or pueri le taste, are disg1Jsted at s111die<l
efforts to point out c:rnd fo rce upon the ir nttcn1ion \\ li;it-

or

s:1ys t he C ri tic , 41 i.:1 a n :11:t !11 :1t Wit!! ne \·er r('~truiiwd J,v a !1rid J,, . "
Some , how(' \' t• r , nrt: tno fa stitlinu:; rm thiH JH 1i11t. ,\.nrd~ 1 wJ 1j,./ 1 l·r

Jo ng- use in a transferred !iCIISC' , li ave l·J~ t nf' nrly nl! th eir rn<'l:il'li•iri·ca! force, nwy fairly be co m binf'd in fl mann e r w l1i (' h 1 tnkin1r rlwn i
[it.eral ly, wonld be in congruo111~. 11 W(1t il d HavQur of !t ~· p(·rc ~l.ici:-: 11 1
t r1 ohjt•c t to ~u c: h nn exp n~ !-!~ion !Ht " fortill' Rflo r ce."
•

" Bpit.l i e t~ , in tlie Jlh1!l.uric1d i;e nse, J t·n••tf·, n· ·•t r> Vf'ry :\1\ji•r· ;i \·r> ,
Lut thnse only which do n ot flcid to the st· 11 ~1· , hut ~i !,{ nif., ~o m • · lli i r 1 ..,.
ttl rt>:icly implied in til e no u n it~clf ; ltf! 1 if o ne s::i.p1, ".lll" £!.' orio 11:

1m n:" on the other hand, to tipenk of the 11 ri si,'1 1;'' or" mrriifi,m

s un " would not be com1ide re d

thet.

17 4

ll1' 1

in thi tt :-ic n ~(· 1 ('111 phiying

all

Epi

198

PAHT 11 l.

EL l" ME:N'J'S OF JUIETO Rr c.

e ver is remarknble ; and tlii s, e ve n when the ideas convcyeJ nrc the mselves striking. But when an atte mpt

is made to cover poverty or thought with mock sublimity
of lan;;uage, and to set oiT trite sentiments aod feeble
argun;c nts by tawdry mi.lgniiicence, the only result is ,

that a kind of indis nation is supcrad<lcd to contempt; :is
whe n ( to use Q 11 i1 1c tilian's comparison) nn atte mpt is
1nade to supply, by paint, tl1e natuni.I glow of a youtbful and l1calihy co111plcxion. ~
\V e e xpec t , indeed , ru1d exc ll SC in ancie nt write rs, ns

""'"'

a part of the 1111rcfinecl simplicity or a rurl cr
fon gungc, suel1 a red undant use
Epithets

or

St} le .

as would not be tol e rated i11 a mode rn, eve11 in a translario n of the ir wo rks; the' ~ wliite 111ilk , " ru1d ''dark ~o r e,"

&c. or 1Iomc r, lllllS L not Ue retained ; at leust, 11ot $0
fr equently as they occu r in th e ori!!:i11;1l. Ari sto tle, jndeed , ~iv cs us to uHdcrst:111d lii:1t in hi s time thi s lil.Jerty
was stil l allowed to l'o•,ts ; liut later tnste is rnore fa stidious.

li e

c:..e11suru':), IH1\\'CV1.! r,

the adoption, by prose-

wr iters, of this , and of e very other kind of ornaine11t that
might seem to border on tlie poetical; a11J he licstuws
01 1 s11d1 ::i. styl e th e appellation of "frigid," (1puz'.!1·,,.,)
which at fir st si::;lit ma y ;1ppl' nr som e what rcrnarktlJI •·,
(tl1u11hli th e sa11HJ exprcs~ i o n , {(frigid)" n1i hlit very propr;rly \,e so ;1ppli cd \,y us ,) because "wa.rm.," " glriw-ir1g,"
1\ prin c ip:ll dcvi r.c in th o lilhricatio n o f this St_ylP," (1l1e m (u·k f~ \111p11~ nt 1 )

"i!1 to 1nul ti ply (' pithct8 , - d ry e p itht:t~, laid o n tlie D1tt-

iutO W\1ic Ji ll •tlH..: Uf llJC vitality Of th e $(; HtinJ C' fll is fo un d l{!
y,,11 1nay lt•k<' n g-rc:tt n u m be r of t he v:or d~ nut flf e a<· h
pa!.!e , 1111 tl find th a t t h·~ :o1c 1h1t• ii'.! 11f'ithf' r mon· n or h• sf' for y1H1 r liavin J!
cl •·nre d tlw co1n pui<i tinn o!' th ·· ~t~ r:pillwl.s of c lmlk of vnri1, 11 ~ c«l•> Urr-t ,
wi t h \\' l1i1 ·li ! lw t 1111 w 1li1111 i! l1 t:i 111111 s ul 1111i tlt"•J to IJC rn Lhed ov1·r . in
urdt: r lo• 1,.. 1111t d c !iw·. " r .. :;tc r , £~.my iv.

11 i1h-·,

1t1Jtl

cir1:11lalt:.

C11A1'. JI. § 4.

OF ENt:H GY.

199

:ind sud1-likc Mctapl1ors, seem nat11r:iily ~ p1.Jical,l c

10

Tlii:-; ve ry circumstance, liO\\·e ,·cr , does in n. ::il ity account fo r the use of tl1c other expression . 11· 0

poetry.

nrc, in poetical prose , reminded oi", and for 1k1t rl':1 ~ u11
di sposed to m1:ss , the (( \\':trmil1 omd glo w
J•(ll'lry :
il is on the same principle that \\" C are di :-;po~ccl to ~ 1 1 ca k
oC culdness in the rays of tl 1c moon , bc c:ws.e tli t!)' rc111i11rl
us of sunshine , but want it!5 w:ll'mtl1 ; and that (10 w.:e
an hurnLk:r a11d more familiar instance) an empty fire place is apt to si1t,1;est an idea of cold .
The use of Epil11 t:: ts ho we ver, in p rose cornposition , is
not to be prosc rilied; as the jndiciot;s e111 ploy1nent of the1n
is undou btedly condn cive to En ergy . It is extrc111 cly
dinicul t lo !uy down any preci se r11les nn such a Jl"int.
The only safe g uid e in p r;wfi<' e must Le a ta <.;. \ C fonneJ
frmu a l:1miliarity with the be; l Authors, and fro1n the
rem;1rks of a skilful Critic on one's own compo':l i!i nns .
It mny , however, be laid do\\"n ns a t;enerJI caution>
flHH1 ! p;1rticulnrly necdfUl fo r yo 1111 g writl' rs:, d1 :H an 1·x cc s~ i vc luxurian ce of s tyl e , a11d cspeC' ially a rcdundanf' y
of Epithets, is the worse of the two extrem es ; as it is a
positi\·c fault, and a ve ry offen si\' (-! unc ; whil e 1'1 e op poJ)

or

si1 c i~ lrnt t!1c ;i l , sc ncc ~ of an cx1·r·ll1 ~ 1we .

l t is nl so an important ndc, that the b o l dcs ~ and most
striking, and :.i lrnost poetical, turns of cxprcs- •._ ,11 1 1., 11
sion, sliould be reserved (ns Aristotle k1s ~: ~;;;,·.\~/..
rmnarkcd, Look iii, chap. 7.) fo r the most 111 ' 11 " 11 "T
1rnpassio11 cd parts of a di sc ourse ; anrl that an Ai.1 thor
':ili nuld .~ n.ard against the vain ;m1lii tio n
express ing
crcn; lhing i11 nn c11nnlly hi 0 li-wro11ght, lirilli:J11t , nnd
fnn:ilJle Styl e. Th., 11 cg; luel o r th is caut ion (>flcn 01TJ s i111 1 ~ tiie i11 1il:lt i• 11l or thL' lw:-'[ llJ OdeJs, 10 jll'U \'t: d1• \ri -

or

i

I

200

ELEMENTS

l)!'

lll!ETO TU C.

P.AHT

Ill

m e ntal. \ Vhe n Li 1e adm iratio n o f som e fi1 le and ani u 1at cd p:i.ssages leads a J 'Jung write r to t ak~ those passages
for hi s g eacral 1n0Jel, and to endeavour to 111ake e .,.· c ry

sentence lie composes e~utu ly fin e , he will, 011 the contrary, 5ivc u Ila mess to tho whole, and des troy tl1e
c ilcct of those por1io11s whieh woulJ lia\' C been fo rcible,
if they had been ttllowed In stand pr o111i1iei1/ . T o
bri5!1tcn d ie dark parts of a picture, pruduccs much the
same ros ult ns if 011e had dark e n ed th e brig)1t pans ; in
ei th e r case there is a want of relief und cu 11 lr11sl; ano
Compos ition, as well as P ain ting, has its liglits an d
shad es , whic h must Le distribut ed with nu less skill , if
we would produce the desired effe c t.*
In no place, howe ver, will it be advi sable lo introduce
u,,. "'
any Epithe t whic h does not fulfil one of these
t' l'ilhi·Llf.

two purposes ; J :; 1 , to c1·plain a Jlfclap lw r ;

a us e which lias lice11 11(l ti ccd unde r 1hat head , and

whic h will j1 1stif)r, and e ve n req uire , the in1roduc 1i o n
ol' an Epi thet, wl1id1, if it had liecn joined to tl1c
!'rop er te rm, would have bee n g;laringly supe r flu o us ;
thus, Jl: schylus t Speaks of the " winged hound or,) O\' C,"
m eaning the Eagle : tu have said tl1e ' c winged ea;;lc,"
wo11ld hav e had a ve ry difle rc nt ellect ; 2 dly, wl 1en tl1c
Epithe t expresses som ethin ~ whic h ) though ·i mplied i11 tl te
s11Ljec t, would uot hav e been likely to occur at 011rc
spontan eously to the heare r's mind, and ye t is in1porta11t to Le noriced with a view lo the purpose in hand.
l11dcc1I it will ge11erally happe11, that the Epithets cm1doycd Ly a skilful Orator, will Le found to he, in fact,
• 01nnil\ Tmlt. f1cllt1 .~follw di r.er l! ; 1lic aliqua11tlo
f~t
1

tent:, die ntuln1.111 : die alifjrt(1.11do 11wle.
J1rm11f:lliri1!1

Cu j' "· If. ~ !J.

'.:!O l

lH' ENi':llG Y.

ub rii lgctl argu.111et1l s, ilie furce of\\ liid1 i~ st:ili c.ieu ily conv ey cJ Uy a 111t1rc l1i11t; c. O· if any 011c s:1~· ·: 1
" w e ou,s l1L to tak e war11irq; fro111 llio '11.oudy n.:\ olt11iu11
of Fninn:1" the .Epitl 1e t sunt;est.s one of die rcnsons
f01 0t 1r lH.:i ing wnr11cd ; a11U tl1at , not le :-. ~ clea rl y 1 and
rnore fo rc ilJly, than if tli t: m·gur 11e 11t haU Leen statcJ at
Je11 g,th .
so

11 i:my

§ 5.
\\ 1tlt respec t to the w;c or Antic1ua ted, Forcig;n, N cwcoiu ed , or N e w- co rnpo1 111d1..:<l wo rJ ::i,1" or words 1.
,,n
:.ippliccl in an L111u sual s1..:11 se , it m;ty lJc s11ffic icnt c 'l'r· ·~~ 1 " " ·
to oLsc rve , tl1:it all wr i1c rs, a11d prosc -\\'riters mos i, shou ld
be \ ' l!IJ caut ious and sparing i11 t!il! use of ll 1c1n ; not
only lJr dw :-.e in cx:cc:->s they prod11ec a harharo11s c\!~1 Jec t, hut bec ause they nrc so Jil;:1•ly tu su:;;c:-it tli c idea
of af"lijicc; tlic pcrce prion of wli icl1 is mos t c;.; p(•ci;1lly
adv erse to En ergy. The nc:c asio11 n! apt i11trod1J('ti11n o r
sucl1 a tcnn will so 111c tim cs pro d uce a pq \\'C r!ul dll·1·l;
!Jut whatever may see m tu sav our o f aliCciation, o r e ven
of g;rcat soli citude and stud y in the choice of ter:11,, "ill
ellcr:luC1.lly destroy the true eflect of eloc1ucncc . T he
la11guag;e whic h be truys art, and carri es 11ot ~m ai r of :-: i1r1 plici ty a11 J sincerity, 111ay, ind eed , br so 111 c hearers, be
thought not only very line , but e ven l' ery energetic ;
11

",,

111111

11

•.tis

il

curi o uii in ~ tnn co of wl1im si(• a \ i 1 1c ~ ·11 Aish• n cv, tl 1:lt

i1 1a.n.,-

who1 with j ust.neMs , CNIMU re o.." pedantic lhc fr (·q m'lll in~rodu c lio~l {,J·
Grcrk. nnd Lntln \VO rds , n<> ithc r f) hj ect V1 , nor re fr ain fo11n, a 1:1imil11 r
J·e d an try wi th res1lec t to 1F renrl1 n.n d fluliun.
Thi" kind of 11fft•ctation ii! on e of the •' <ln.n fr<> r ~" of H a lilllt lt'n rning: t.lws~ who are ren.lly good linguiPlUJ ar~ t>el<lo ni sv n11.ti oua Lo
displn y the ir knowledge .

202

ELEMENTS OF RH"TORIC.

PA!lT

I ll

Lhi s very circu mstance, however, may Le taken fo r a
proof that it is not so ; for if it had been, they would not
have thought about it, hut would have Leen occupi ed,
exc lus ively, with the subject. An unstudied and natural air , therefore, is an excellence to which the tru e orato r, i. e. he who is aiming to ca rry his po·i nt, will be
ready to sac rifice any other that rnay interfere with it.
Th e prin ciple here laid do1n1 will es pec ially apply to
r (• n - the choi ce of won.ls, wi th a vi ew to their I rni~~;~;;~_ a"
tati\·c, o r otherwise appropriate Sound. The
attcrn pt to make "the sound an echo to the
sense , " is i11d eed more frcqu elltly to be met witl1 in poets
than i11 prose \\Ti te rs ; bu t it may be wo rth remarking,
that an evident r.f!orl after this kind of excellence , as it
is offo11sil'C in any ki nd of composition, 11·cnilrl in pni;c
appear peculiarly disgustin g. Critics treat in g un tliis
s ubj ec t have go ne into op posi1c cx tr cnics ; some fau c if11lly : :i ttrihutin g; to word s , or co rnl.1i11 ations of wo rd s , an i111itativc po wer far beyond wlu1t they can really possess , •
and representing this kind of fu1i 1ation as deservi ng to
Le st udiously ai111 cd at ; and others , on the contrary,
co nsidering near ly the \\'ho!P, of this kind of excell enc e
ns no Lcucr than imnginary , a111l regard ing the cxa 111 pl e~
whi ch do occur, and have l.1 ec11 cit ed, of a con gruity between the so:md and the sense, as purely acc idental.
\, .

..,

0

111

• !-'ope has ncco n.l in l.('ly lJccn jul'ltly ce n11ured for hi~ in co n fl i~te ncy
m rnuking the A le:rnndr iu e repn~.,c nl lwLh 11 quick and n slow m otion
1. u F'lies o'c rlhe ui1 ~ ndi ng c orn , o. n<l 11~~irns alo ng the m a in ."
2. 11 \V li ic h, like a woun de<l snake , drag s its diow lt: ngth alo ng."
1n l ht} fi n1t instn.nce, h i~ fo rgot thnt an JJ/ua.adri n" is lo ng , fr• 111l con·
lnini ng- m ore J u l ll llln fl common VN:-J<~; wh(' re 1u1 11 Jong lttx1mtctt:r
l u h1 l1ut the sn m P nurnl>f: r o f (f.d Mn. Ml1n r t o n<' , n.nd the refore be ing
pro 11o u11ct.•U i n th e 1m111c tim r: , 1:1cC J11H to m o ve more rapidly .

It

C HAI'.

20 J

II .§ G.

The tru th proLably lies l.1cl 1rcen tlicse two c'trc111c 3 .
I u tl1c fi r.:; t place, that words <l cno l ino sorrnds, or em
ployed in dcscriUing them) may Le Imitative uf di11~e
sounds, must be admitted Ly all ; ind ccJ Lhis kind
1mitation is, to a ce rtain degree, almost unn1·oid nlilc, in
01 11· J;_1111;;1iagc at least ; whi ch abounds pcr11:1ps rno rc 1\rn11
any ot her, in these, as tliey may be c;i\\ed, natma ll:· c' pressivc terms; such as "11i.:;s," " raulc," (' clatier,"
(( splasl1, " and many others.'*' ·
ln the nex t place , it is al:>o ;_Jlowccl hy most, t li:1t
ci1 1ick or slow niot ion ma.y, to a ecrt:i.i n degree at- Jca::'t,
he imitat ed o r re prese nte r\ by words ; many short syllabi cs (1 111i11 c 11111hcrcd hy a c lash e ith e r ofvowP ls , or of C'O ll·
sonants c orni ng togethe r) l1eing prono11nced in tLc s:i rne
time with a s malle r n11m her of Jong ~yl!; 1 \,J,•" 1 al1<H1ndin ~

or

with the.:;e incurnbnmces, the form e r scc 1n5 to hiJv c a
na tural corresponde nc e to a q ui ck, and tl1c la nc r 10 a

slow mot ion ; since in the one a greater, and in the rn hrr
a less space , seem to be passed ov er in the snme 1i 1nc .
In the ~m c i e nt Poets, their hex::llncter verses Deinb
always consid ered as of the same leng th, i. c . in l' PS\Wrt
of the ti me taken to pronounce them, whatel' Cr propnrt.i on of dactyls or spond ees they contain ed, thi s kind of
Imitation of ~ ui c k or slow mot ion, is the more apparent ;
and after mak ing all allowances for fan cy, it seems impossi ble to doubt that in many instances it docs exist ;
ns, e . g. in the often-cit.e<l line whi ch ex presses the rolling of Sisyphus 's stone down the hill:

•!:foe

\\'nlli ~,

Gnim. An g1io

'I

l·'. l.f.MENTH UF IU 11·'.TOlllC .

PAHT

JIJ .

C11AP . II. §

T l1L: fulln win t; p nss ::ig1 ~ fr,un the JEneicl can li:trdly Uc
c.k ui c<l to ex l1iliit a correspondence with the slow and
q11ick motions at least, which it <lesc ribes ; that of tlie
Trojuns lahoriously hewing th ~ foundations of a tower
o n 1he lo p of Priam's palace , and that of its sudden nnd
l'i olcnt foll:
11

.lig,!!,T~.'~.'fl fiirrO

c: ·rc11m,

qwt .~1i mm a

lahaufes,*

.f1fud1i.r1is labulalo. dabat, divell imus ultis
Si;d1l1rui', i111p1'tlI11ius1pte, Cii lrrpsU 1·C1u 11/ € ruuwm

allowed th:i.t C'C rl i..1i11 tnt1 si1·al t0inl1i11:11ion...:

ly, nppropriate to tl1c e xprcssil>l l

ti oo,~.

\

l 11ci'cl1t.'' - -

l'<' ~ prc 1 i,· L'­

cited as lmita ti\·e in sound , were , on the ono h;.:nd, nnt
the result of accident, nor yet, Oil the otl:c r iJ<uiJ , of
study; but that the idea in the au 1ho r's mind spon rnn cously suggested appropriate sounds : thus, when Milton's
mind was occ upi ed wi1h the idea of tl1e opening of the
in fe rnal gates , it seems natural that hi s expressio n,
Allll

( '11

tl 1ci r l1i11 ge~ gra te li:i.rsh tl1u ndcr,"

should have occurred to him without m1y distinct inte n-

ti on or imitating sounds .
It will be the safest rule , therefore , fo r a prosc-w ri1 cr
at least, never to make any distinc t cf1or1 after tl 1is ki nd

motio1 1, at least, an Analogical nplitude. That there is
at ll!a:-; t an app:ircnt A1ial o).!;y bct\\' ccn thin gs sc 11sil1lc ,
:ind tl1in~s i11tel liµ;i l1l c, i:-; i111 plicd l1y 1111111 bc rl ess i\l et apl 1o r::; : as when we spoak of (t rou;rh, or harsh, snfl, or

of Energy of Expression, but to tnist to the ' Jl01Wu1cn 11 s
or;currcncc of suitable srnmds-on eve ry occas ion wh ere the

introd uction of tltem is likely to have a good effec t.

smooth , mann ers," '' l.a rlndcnl pass ions, " th e " slro/:c,
or tl1c slornis, of adv ersity ," &c. Now if t11ere are ~1nv
wo rd s, or cornhinatin11s of word s, wh ich h:n-e in tl1C'ir
soun d a congrui ty wi1h ccn ain scns il,le o bjects, 1herc is

§ 6.
It is hardly necessary to g i,·c any warn ing, gencr:ill;-,
~ g;aill !:.' t th e 1.m1wressary introd.11c tion of T ech- .1.,.,., k:, 1

no reason why tl1cy should 11ot have 1he same congruity

: !

:ire ' ,

grief", anger, {l!'ita·

a

11

But, lastly, it seems not to require any excessive exerc ise of fan cy to perceive, if no t, prope rly speuki ng, an
Imitat ion, by words, of other 1hings bes ides sound and

"Tiw ~ hnv move rncnt of tli i~ line would be m11 ch more P''rct'p1ih11·,
if" we pronounced (a.s doubtlc!jH th e L atin s did ) Lhe dv11Mcd w:1so11 1111ls ; "11g ·gre..'f·~·i. J~r-ro - - s1m1 ·mfl.:" !1ul in l·: ngli Hh, nod cnm1e <jH •· nlly in Lh e Eu ~l isli wity of' r.~llcl in g Lati n or Orc~k, the tl oubl inq
of a c<ni~n nant 011l y se r vt•::i I n lfx tf 1e pince or 1ht• llC C(' nt; tlit~ Jal h• r
(!f the two lx.·ing ll•'V<'r r•r ••l l11 llll ecd, l' ;(C<'Jll iti I\ v<•ry f~· W C" 111pOUt1d
,,·.-..nl:1 : l•d 11 iunitl C',"" cu nnntund," 11 puo r· nlle/ ' "ho p-polt.•. "

or

On the whole, the mos t probable con clusion see ms 10
lie, that many at least of the ecl chrat cd p~s sagcs that nre

C•oa siinrtu trii.hH, et D ii11ii,w11 sUpCr agmlni'i late

\\'iil1 1hose emotion s, a.clions, &c . to whic h 1hesc sc 11s ild e
objects arc analogo us. E spec ially, as it is uni vcrs~lly

(j.

111

I
I'

I

11ical langungc of any kind, when :he rne:ming

Jnn;.:ua :.:··.

can be adequately, or even tolerab ly, exp ressed in cn :11 mon, i. e. unsc ientific words .

The terms anfl pliras•''S

of Art have nn air of pedantic affoc ta1inn, for whi<·li t.l1<' Y
clo not compensate, by even the s11i:11lest ap peara nce ,;f
inereased Energy .* TI11t 1l1cre is an "i'rnrent exceptio n
• or c1 1urse U1i:c+ rule doca not ap1)ly to llV OWPdly technica l svslt'' l llH
1n StH'. h works the usu1tl n.nd tlw ])('st ruh~ iH,·tf) ern

of in st ructi on .

18

El.DH:NTS Or flHET O lll C.

~06

PART Ill ,

1n 1hi:; rul (', i11 tlic case of what may be call ed the
" Theolo;;ical Styl e ; " n peculiar phraseology, adopted
rnorc 0r le:->s l1y a large proportion of writers of Sermons
and 01he r religious works ; consisting partly · of pecul iar
terms, but chiefly of common words used in a peculiar
se nse or combination, so as to forrn altogether a kind of
di c1iun widely dilfo ring from the classical s tandard of the
language . This phraseology having been form ed partly
T h .... Jnstknl
from the style of some of the rnost crnincnt
1
" >1i:i .
Oi,•ines, p:n dy, and to a much g rcntcr degree ,
from that of the S c ri ptures , i. e . o f our V crsion , has bee n
s:1ppo,ctl 10 carry with it an air o r appropriale tlign i1 y
and :;;111c ti1 y, wl 1id 1 grea1ly adds to the fo rce of what is
said . Ancl this nrny, pcrlrnps, be the case when what is
,aicl is of li11l e or no in1rin -ic weight , anti is onl y suc:l1
nl('agrc common-pln.ce a!=i many rcliµ;io11s wo rks cousi:-it
of: t.hc associations whi ch s11f'h langunt;n will excite in
1lic n1ind s of those nccustomcd to it , supplying in some
d~gree the dcfi c ie11cics of the matte r. Bui tl1i s dic 1ion,
tho11gl1 it moy serve as a veil for poverty of thought , will
ploy as for na po.<1Rihle such lf'c hnical terms /'Is c.nst,;m h aioi a\n•a tly
f' St1lbl is hetl; de fining , rn odifyin();, rcstri cling 1 cxW ndin g, \~ C tht•t.;i•,
if n cce fl~mr_v , a>1 the occasion ma.y rc <jui re. Smnetirnci; how 1· ve r tl1 c
ir1lro1luc tion of r1"w 0 1w s will he cnllNl for,cilhe r in adJ ition to th e
ntlwn1, nr in th Pir slt'.'aJ, when
11 i.;:1in st

tlH~ rc

ore

\'('ry slrC'l ng ol 1jec ti or1s

tl11•J"(:.

It is n o un com m o n tri ck with ROnrn wril e rl'J. to invP nl 1u1d 1ul 11pt, •n1
th e- Hli ~ h t<>Ml prd1·xl, complr~ te n<·w f'le tri of krltnic11l 11-rrn ~ . th1•
111 nrf' 1-1lrang1• n11d u11 cond1, lht.• he l le r for thrir purpnse; and tl 1m1 to
[':l:-1:-l ntf \11 1lj! -kllnw n truths for prndi g- in11:-1 cli >1Cnvf•ri!'f4 1 1111d g-ni n ~ht!
rn•dit nf ll lliV•'r?'l:l\ originality hy the bnJdrH'6H nftlu•i r illllOV!lti1m~ in
lo111 l! Ullg" •l: Jil> t' H"llll' Vll)' ftg'l'nt o f diHCO Ve r_y , WIW tt1kr, flO.•!JCS.•imt or
co unlri• ·~ , wl11;tlit•r lwf.1r~ - vi:-1 i tcd or not, hy forn11tlly giving them

OF ENUlG Y

C11.r. II. § G.

207

he found to produce no less the e!Tcct of obscuring the
lustre of what is truly valuabl e : if it aci ds an appcarw1ce
of strength to what is weak, it adds weakness to whal is·
s1rong; and if pleas ing to those of n:trrow w1d ill-cultivat·
ed minds, it is in a still higher degree repulsive to per·
so ns of taste.
It may be said, indeed, with truth, that the im pro·/c·
ment of the majority is a higher objec t than the gra1ifica·
tion of a refin ed taste in a few ; but it may be doubted
whether any real Energy, even with respect to any class
of hearers, is gai ned by the use of suali a dic 1i on as 1hat
of whi cl1 I am s peaking . For it will often lie fo1111d that
what is received witJ1 great npprol;ation, is yet 1 c,· cn if,
s tri c1ly spr akinf;, understood, but rcry linle artm<l ccl 10 ,
or impressed upon the minds of the licar.·rs. T cn11s
and phrases which have Leen long famili ar to 1hcin, an ti
have certain vague nnd inJistinct nolions associated wi:l1
the m, me n often suppose th emselves tn und e rst and rnlicli
more full y than they do ; and sti ll ortencr give a son of
indoicnt assent to what is snit.I, wil110ul maki ng a:iy
effort of thought.
I1 is jus1ly obse rve d by ;\ Ir. Fosler, (F.ssay i,·.) when
treating on thi s subject, that "with regnrd lo a cousid •.!rnlJie propo rti o11

of

Chri=- tian reader:; and hearers, a

be excc~s i rcly str: mge to
thc111; " but that "its bei ng so st range to them, would
lie a proof of the nee cssi1y of aJoptin g; it, at least, in
port, and !.y degrees . For the manner in \\'hi ch some of
them would rcce i,· e this alt e re d di c tion, would p ro,·c 1l1:Jt
the c 11stomary pl1rn:-:enlogy had sr nrcC' ly t;iven iliem nny
clea r id eas. It would be fo und thal 1lie pec11liar plira:;es
had been not so rnurli the vehicles of icleas , as th e suh·
reform ed

fanguage would

:208

EL.EM l·:N'f S OF JUU:TO !t!C.

PART

Ill.

stit11tcs lo r them. T hese readers and hearers have been
accustomed to ch ime 10 the sound, without apprehending
the se11se ; inso much, that if they hear the very ideas
wh ich 1hcse pl1 rases s ign ify, exp re~sed e ver,~o s iinply in
other lano11nge, 1.liey do not r ecognise them.
Il e observes also, with much truth, that the stu<l ir d
incorporation and imitation or the language of the Scriptures in tl1c tex t11re of any D iscourse , ne ither indi cates
reverence fo r the sac red composition, nor adds to the
di"11ity of that which is human : but rather di111in ishes
th: t of such passages as might be introduced fro111 the
sacred writi11bs in pure :tnd distinct quotation, stantllng
CO lltra>ted \\'ili 1 the general S tyle or the work .
Of the T cd lllical terms, as they may be call ed, of
T heology, tl1ere are many, the place of which 1nigln
eas ily be s11 ppli cd Ly eo rrespo uding expressions in com11101 1 use ; there arc othe rs, doubtless, wli ic11, denoting;
ideas ~xd 11 s iv . . ly b e ln11 ~i11 g to 1hc subject, co~i\J not Le
avo id ed witl10 11t. a tedi o us cire11111loc111io11 ; these , thcre f<m,, 111ay IJe admi ucd as allow abl e pec uliarities of dic t=o" ; aJJd tl 1c otl .e1·,-, pcrhop5, JJced not be eJJ tircly disused : but it is hi gl1ly des irable 1.hat Doth should be very
frequently cx..J rnuged for wo rds or ph rases enti rely free
from m1y T ccl11 1it'ill ptxuli;1ri ty , c\·cn at the expense of
some c irc11mlo<·.11tio11. N ot that this should be done so
constan liy as 10 r<' nd cr the tern1 s ill quest ioJJ obsolete ;
b11L l iy irnrod1i1·in g freq uently Loth the term ) an<l a sentence c'.'\pla1w l1)ry of the sonic idea l the evil just mcntioned ,- tl1 e l1aliit ol' not thinking, or not thinking :ltten1ivel y, ul' di e 111 ca11i nb of what. is s;1i d, will Le, in great
m ea~un-, :;1ia rd•·d a~;1i 11s t , - di e T cd rn icnl won.ls tlicmsclvcs will 111ake :1 nH..1 rc 1~Jrc ilJlc iin11ressiou, - a11d the

C11Ar. JI . § 6.

OF ENERGY.

~09

danger of sliding into unmean ing cant will be m:iterialhessened. Such repetitions, therefore, will more tha; ,
compensate for or rather will be exempt from , any
ap pearance of ted iousness, by tlic additi on both of Pc~­
sp icui ty and E nergy .....
Tt may be asse rt ed, wit h but too mu<'h truth, that a
,· cry co nsiderable proportion of Christians Jia ,·e a lmb it
of Jnying as id e in a great degree their com mon sense , ::i:nrl
1cuing it, as it were, li e do rmant, when poin ts of Rel igion come hcfnre thein;-as if R eason were 11tterly at
variance with reli gion , and the ordi nary princ iples of
sonn d Judg ment were to he complctl'i}' snpcrscd ed on
that snbjec t ; and accordingly it will be found, that 1hcrc
• " It nrn st in ilee d he uc lu1 ow lcdgl" d , tlu\1. in 11utn .v c1t1;er;i in nnvat in ns hnve bee n introduced, port ly by Li 1e e1·ns i11~ to t·inpl"y the word:rt
des ig n11ting th ;),e d oc trirws whi c h we re- d f'~ii;ned to Ix.: rwt tl~ide:
but it j·,, p roJm!JJo tht•y mny Jmve hcc n HtiJJ THNC f'n'fllJ (•n lJy nntf 1rnr.C'Cssf111Jy in trodu ced unde r the advn.ntnge n fr et11i11irit; 1/11:lrr111.", whi l!!
the prin c iples w e re gradually suln•e rte d. An<l tl1nC'fort.', l!li n c t~ tllf!
p1:-culia r w or d~ cnn he k"pt. to o ne i11vari11.hl c 1iig11i iicottinn o n ly 1Jy
keepi ng t hat significatio n clearly in sigh t, hy 111 ••::m s nf Ro111(' \J 1ing
Rt' l>amte from tli('se wo rd s t h e m:rel ves. it might IJe wi!!-c in Ch rii:itian
fl11tlinrs and HJH'' flk t· rs so 1111: ti rn es l (l t'}(pr e~!J tl 1C' id eas in ('<1rn 01 i> ll
word s, ei th e r in co nn e xi on with lhe J){'tulia r lt•rn1:-c, o r roccasionally 1
instead of the m. Commo~ wr.rtl:f m ig ht Je:;s frc<1u·~ 11 tly he appli ed ,
as affoc tcd de nominati o ns o f thin gs, whic h havr"' thei r own <lircct and
~ o mm n n denomination s, nnd be leas frequ e ntly combined iu to un·
couth plirn-'e s . MA ny pt·<·ul inr and ant iqu e w n rd~ 111ight · be r ."\'.
rhange d fo r otl1N single Wilrd..; nf •·ipti ,•a l••u l s ig-11dkati1•n , itnd in
c11rn in on ufole. A nd th e 1rn1all nu111hC' r of p!'culi ar ten 11s •H·k 1111wl·
Nl;;1•d nrnl estal1lisl11•d 1 llfol of 1wr 111 anenl usP nnd n t""'cl's!!ity. mi g ht, "''(' n
si•parn l l'ly frn111 th e co n ~i di>rn l i on tJf IJ'l•)t!i(yin~ th" 1l idi •111 1 br 1 f•C
c asinnalty wi t h ad va n lHl{C l•1 tl 1e expli ci t dt""' r. laralio n nnd t:h.•a. r co 111JHt'i te n siun of C hri sti a n lrnth 1 111ad <! lo g in• l'laf'f' t (I r\ fnllt·r e x p r1 ·~­
!l i ,~ n,

in a n umbe r o f' co mmon word~ , of t h0:-:ie id('as f)f w:1ich they :i.r('
the Hing le i;:i g ns." F'o!: le r , E.•·s11y iv. p. :m'1.

1s•

210

E LE 1'H:NTS OF' llllETO l\J C.

erro r s wl1ici1

PAHT

C 11,u· . 11. § 7.

Ill

OF ENEHG Y.

or

211

adopted, - -- many truths
wl 1icl1 arc overlooked, o r no t clearly understood, - and

ccptible of this o rn an1cnt, are, the Descriptive, t.he P a-

""'"Y cliilic ulti es wl1ic h stagger and perpl ex them, - fur
w;u1t, properly spcaki11g, of die exe rc ise
their com -

thetic, th e D ec lam atory,~ especially tlic last. lt is,
hcsi dcs 1 much more suit:.iblc in writing than in spcakin,:.:.; .

sense ; i . c . in eases precise ly analogous to such as

A r e ad er has the co111111aud of his time; lie m:iy l'i ' ,:d
fast o r ~low, as he finds conven ient; lie c:m pen1~c :1
scntC11 (;e a second ti Ille wli en necessary, or L1y duwn
1he book and lhiuk. B nt if, in liar:rn511i11g: the .penjdt~,
yo u comprise ::t g reat den! in few \\·ords , t11c bearer niu-"='t
Ji avc lllH..:O l1HllO I1 IJU it.: kness o r ap prehension tO catch tlie
111c;rning, lwlUrc you IJ;n· c: put it out o!' lii:-; power, Ly
cns:-ig;i ng lii s ntt enti on to so rn e tl 1i11; clst~ ."
Th e mode in whiC'l 1 this in cu n\·enic·rn:c ~l 1 ould be {/l)~
viat c d, :-1 1u! in \\·liich the r cqui ~i te cx11:u1 :-: ion J11ny lie
g,i \'en to :Jll)' thi11g wl1icl 1 tlie pcr:::;on s add ressed c:nin ot
co mprel1c11d in a ve ry sm:ill comp::t s~ 1 i:-:, ;1s I ha\'C~ : ~ 1 rendy rem:H"k~d, not so r1111c11 l1y inr--: reosi11g the mrnil·~ ~r
words i11 which di e sc n1inw11t is conveyed iu (' ;1 1· )1
scntc11cc, (1l 10t1!!;l1 in this , so me v;iriation must oC cn11r:, c
hf~ ndniittl'd,) n-; hy rt'JH:ati-ng it in various form s. Th~
11n r ul1i\·;rtf'd and ~!11~ d11ll \\·ii} rPf] IIirf' ;realt-r cxpan~i1111,
a11 d 111or0 eop irn 1s ilh1 r..;t ra1 in:1 nf Ilic ~ :1m e 1l irn1t;li1, 111:111
the c d1w :11cd a1HI tl1r: ar tt!('; L1 1t tl1e_v arc even o.:1i1i
more li aLle to be wearie d o r !Jewildcrcd ),y proli\ity .
lf ilH~ 111atl·rial i ...; too stubbo rn to be :-:11 t~cdi!y clcll, \\ c
!n11st patiently (· 011ti11ne 011r ef1<-> rts fo r a lon s1:: r tirne 1 i11
n rd cr to rl('compli sli it; lrnt this is to be d(mc, no! l·y
111aki11:;; each hlo\\' fall 't!l(Jl"C slrn,.Zy, \':lii ch \\·oul d only
c 11ft ~cble !1 1e r11 , l111 t hy (~f/ r,n -r cpca t cd lilows.

;ire 111any

occasion .

are

or

lllOll

daily occur in the ordinary atfoirs of life; in wliich those

ve ry same persous woul<l f'urrn a correc t, elem-, prompt,
n11<l <lt!c isivc: j11dg1ne11t. It is well worthy of conside ration, liow far the tende ncy to this habit might he di11J in1shed by the use o f a d ic tion conformable to the sug~est i ons which hav e been li cre thro\.vn out.

.1

\.

§ 7.
\Vith r e >pcc t to the .N'tim lic r of words employed,
Enerc v

1

ri~

u

it is ccrtnin," as Dr. Campl1c1l observ es,
of whatever kind the ccnti 111c1~t b1..-! 1

~;;11 ~:~lr!ll

"lli~t

; ~:~ 1 ~:::·.:, ; ~'~

win y,

lit1111 oro11s, ~ rav e , animate d , or s ul 1l irn e,
Ili c inure {1t i1Jl!J it is exp ressed, tlie Eneq;y i~

the g rcutcr. ' ' - " .A s wl1e1 1 tl1c rays Qf tlic sun a:c collected in to tl 1c fon1s o f a lrnniinr;-gla::is, the s maller tl1e
sp0 t is whi ch rcc<! iv es thc111 , co rllparcd with tlie s111face
of tl1c ghi<s , tl1e g reate r is the s 1.Jc1n.lour, so, in c,liil1itills 011r se ntiu1 cnt :-; by spcc cl 1, tlie narro \\'Cr 1!1c comp: 1ss of' \\·,,rds is, w l i< ·ri·in d ie 1l1011sl1t is co mpri sed, die
1noro ~ 1 wrg,1; 1. i i...: i:-; tlir: 1! ~ p 1c . . sio11. Accnrdin_:;ly) we fi nd
tl 1;1t th e very sa1nc se111i rrn :11t ex p1cs...;ed di ll i1sely, will
be ad111i tted hit rcly lu lie j ust; -- 1·xpresscd co nf_'i .~ cly,
will lie nt11nircd ;-i o.; spi rit1 ·d . " Il e afterw:irds r c m;-irks,
that 1ho11~l 1 :1 bn:.;11id n ·d11n d:i1wy of \\'Oreb is in :ill cases
to Le nvoi tl cd , 1hc c11erf=,eli e l1re vi1.y whi ch is the 1n ost
t'Olltrary to it, i:-; nut rnhptcd ;ilike tu eve ry ~u l 1jecl ;1 11d

fI

I
I

"T l1c k in ds

writing \\·hi rli a re less

SllS -

or

"Thi r-: rP111ark is 111:.d .--. , 1111d ll w prirwi1 ·h· .,f ;l {ll'h ir h fh. C: tlilf •*
bcll l i; l K ornith·d ) ~ 11 l1j11i 11~ ·,I, i n l':irt ii 1·l1.1p . ii.~~. < • ftl1i~ Tr··a!i,.. ·

['

212

ELE:\lENTS

or

JUI ET O IU C.

It is neecllul to insist the more on the energetic effect
of Concisei.<!ss , because so man)' , es1)e cially
V e d 10!i=ity
n <1 1· , . , , , . ' "
young 1niters and Sj)Cakers, are a1)t to fa ll
p e r ~p ir u i tr
and 1...
into a style of lJompous vcrlio sitv,
not from
Eu eq;y .
J
negligence, but fro m an idea that they are
adding both Perspicuity and Force to what is s<!icl , when
tl1ey arc only incumbering the sense with a need less
load or \\"Ords . And they ;:re the mnrc likely to commit
tliis mistake , because such a style will often appear not
only to th e a11thor, bu t to the vulgar, (i. e. the v11lgar
in ·i 11tcllcct ,) among his hearers , to be very m;ijcstic and
i111p rcssi1·e. It is not 11ncornrno11 to hear a spea ker or
wri ter of th is class, menti oned as h:.11·ing a " very fi 11 c
command of langu::ige, " 1rhen , perhJps, it might be sa id
wi th more correctn ess, that "his bnguage has a com m::ind of him;" i. c. that he follows a trai n of words
ra t her tha n of thought, and strings together all the stri king; expressions that occur to him on the s11bjcct, 1n~ t e .1 d of first fo rmin g a clear notion of tiie sen~e he
ll"i shcs to co1wcy, an d then seeking fo r the mo st appropri ate v cli iel<~ in 1rliich io co nvey it.
If", indeed, any class of men arc fo un d to be tlie mos t
e frect1dly convinc .'d, p ersuaded, or ·i nstructed, by a
111rgid am pl1 fic:1tion, it is the ora tor 's busin ess, true to
hi s obj ect, not to crit icise or seek to improve thci1 taste,
but to accommodate hi1n ~c lf to it. But it will be found
tltat this is not ne ;1r so oft en the case as many s11ppose.
The or;1 tor 1nny often hy this kind of style ga in great
ad111ira.tion, ll'i tho11t Leing the nearer to his proper en d,
11·liich is to ca rry his point. It will frequently happen
that not only tli e ap pr0h:i1 ion, h11t tlte whole att en1 ion
of the l1e:ircrs \\·ill ha1·e been contineo to th e Style,

21 3

OF ENt:ll G Y.

C 11A1" . 11. § 7.

''hich 11·ill have Jra\\'n th eir minds, lH•t lo the sul 1jcct,
Lutfrom it. In those spuri ous kinds of oratory,' in deed,
\1hi d 1 have been above menti oned , (P. iii. chap. ii. § 1,
5, G.) in ll'liich tiie inculcation of the S11l 1jec t-n1a11er is
not th e principal oliject proposed, a redunJant:y of \\(n ls
rnay often be very suitable; but in all tl1at comcs 11·il11in the lc.:;itima te provi nce of Rlietoric, there is no faul t
to lie more carefully avoided."'
1t 11 ill th erefore be advisable for a tyro in composit.1011 to 100k over what he has writt en, and to strike out
ev ery word an J cla use 11·hi d 1 he f1111 b 11 ill lca1·c 1li e
pa~ s ;.i;;c 11citl12r less pcrspic11011s nor k ss forci lilc tkrn
it \\"<1 5 uefore ; " l]lirtm1:is invil ct rccc <fw 1l ; " l'Clll Clll bering th ::it, as h;1 s been aptly ohsc1T ed, " noli ody k111>11·s
wliat good things you leave out;" if the gc 11 cral efl"cc t
"' " Dy a rnul tip'··c ity o f worJs tlic sc ntiw e nt i:;
c omrnodate d, Lut like lJaviJ, in

Saul'~

11 01. Sf' l

o ff :111J ac -

nn uvur, it is incumbcrf'<l an<l

oppn'ssc•d.
' ' Y et this is n r1t th <"!

1, 1ily ,

or p 1..~ rl 1 a p~ th e WfJr st , c o n :-<C'qu c n cf~ re

i:; ultin g !"rui n thi s m :uinf•r oi' tn~ a.ting Sacred wr i t:''

[ p m"l111ltras i11~·]

tcild 0 f th e tqqwdt) 1 th a t it h :Li;:; t h •-~ w on dC' r f'u l m1;tlitr (•f"
11111 11 \,in g CV f'r y tfiiu ~ it l11 UcJH' ~;; a pa.rapJiraSi' i!'i a l"fJ"'d ;,_ riy i !~

'· w e arc

i11 [l u 1·J1 l: L' tl11·

JJ 1n:s t

vi vid Hi"Hli11 u·nts lwcome lif'elt' ss, ti lt'

m ost :-:11li-

l ir1w are fl atte n,.d , the llJ O::J l ii:r viJ c hi lled, tli P J JJ• J ~ t vi 1r<ir1ni s
vated .

I111 he w ·r_y ht"st cr11 11 p11:".!iti•l nS

oftlti~ k itJ d U 1a l c a~1

f 'lt1 'r ·

iie1·x jw<"t·

1·d, the Go ~ pel ru;1 y be c ompared to a ri c11 win e ,-d· a hi gh fi a v1 i1 i r,

dil u te d in s uc h a qnan tity of wat e r as rend e rs it e x t ren1 Ply v:q, id ."

CarnpLe ll, Rhetoric, Look iii. chap. ii. •ec . 2 .
I t s l1 ou ld be o hsPrvcd , ho weve r, !h at to su 11w pala k s o r st q u 1:1d1s
a dilutit)rl may he ne cessary. Nor dol'::. D r C cu11pl1d\ 111 c- ;u 1, l ;q 1pre he nd, that th C' re arc n ot n1any p;--.t~~ a ge s in Srripturc w!i icli rt~
quire cxpllnsion wi t h n vie w to th t.•ir be ing fully c 0 11!p n ·li (' nJ ed Ly
1u1 •)rdina ry rt>a<ll'r. But a re g ular paraphr:l~1 : g{' !l L·ra l ly t·x p:111 J s
cr cry pa ssag 1• 1 ("il SY or hard , nc·:uly to the snme <ll• g rrc : it :i ppl it· s a

nwg ni(yi ng -g lass o f ~ qulll po we r to the gnat and tu tl1e ca me l.

214

ELEMENTS OF RJJETOJUC.

PART

III.

is improved, that advantage is enj oyed hy the reader,
unalloyed by the regret whi ch the author ~ay feel at
the 0111ission of any thing which he may think in itseh·
excellent. But th is is not enough ; he must study conlr:ic tion , as well as omi:;sion . There are m;my sentences which would no t bear the omission of a sin;Ic word
:;onsistcntly \rith per>pi cu it y, whi ch y et may be much
ni ore conc isely exp ressed, "·itl 1 cq:1al clearness, by the
employment of diffe rent "·ords, and Ly recasting a great
part of th e exprc,s ion. Take for cx nrnplc such a sentence as the folio\\'ing : "A severe :ind tyrannic al exerc ise of po"·er must become a matte r of necessary policy with K ings , when the ir subjects arc imbued with
such principles as justify nn<l authori ze rebelli on ; " thi s
sent ence c ould not be advantageo usly, nor to any considcrahl c degree, abridged, hy the mere omission of any
of the word s ; but it m:-iy be expressed in a much shorter c ompnss , \rith equal cle:un css :ind far greater ene rgy,
thus; "Kings will be tyrants fr om poli cy, when subj ec ts
are rchrl s fro m principl e ."*
Th e hi11ts I have thrown out on thi 5 point co:ncidc
pretty nr arly with Dr. Campbell's remark o n" Vcrbosit!J," ns ron trnd ist ingt1i shed fro m " Ta utology," t nnd from
* B11rkf'.

t Ta11t ol 11!!y , wh ich hf• drf:r·r ibf.'s

aR

"eithf'r

a r<'pct.i t.ion o f

the

Ram (' sr n ~f' in difl; ·rc·nt w o n!:<, or a rrp re~ entntion of any thin g as the
cau sf'i co nditi on. or co n sr<p1rnr.c , o f itself," is, in m ost inHla n ces, ( of

t he latt.f'r kind :ll le ast,) accounted an offence mt.h er a~ain sl cor r r.cl ·
than hrr vity: the example he ~ iv e s from l3olini,:brok c , " how
nia11 y an. . tli f' rC by whotn these tidiugs of' good 11 e 1c& w e re ne ver

nf.<S

he ard ," w011ld usuaily Le r rr,ko nc d a Mun der rathe r tli;tn an in~tance

ofproli.rity .: like' th e expr es:->ion of" Si n r:r. urt plnce8 whi ch have no

dut v 1111rw .~ r· d

In

them."

c 'l'hf• P1 Po nasm ," he (J\i~erv<-•!iJ, "im plies

.,, c;~ly supnflu ity . Though the words do not, as in the Tautology,

CHAP .

11. § tl.

215

OF' ENERGY.

"The third an<l Li st fault 1 ~ ha ll mention
ag;ain st vivid Conc iseness is Verbo sity . Th is, it m:1y Le
tlioug;ht, coinc id es with th e Pleonasm ;ilready di sc uss ed.
One difference however is this; in the Pl eonasm there
arc words whi c h add nothing to the se nse ; in the VerLose manner, not only single words, but whole clauses ,
may have a me:ming, and yet it were better to omit th e111 ,
because what th ey mean is unimportant. Instead, therefo re , of enli ven ing the ex pression, they make it languish.
Another differe nce is, that in a p roper Pleonasm, a comple te correcti on is ahqys made hy razing . This will not
always nnswcr in the Verbose style; it is often necessary to alter as well as blot."*

"Ple onasm ."

§

s.

ft is of cours e imposs ible to lay down precise rul es as
to the degree of Conciseness which is, on eac h

Cnnci•en•••
1

occasion that may arise, allo\vable and <l es ira- ~~~ 1 ~ 1~ ;\~i~~n·

·
·
pe rspi cuity.
bl
· e; b 11t to an aut I1or w ]-io 1. s, ·111 j11s
expression
o f nny sentiment, waveri ng betw een the de rn :mcls of Perspicui ty and of E11c rgy, (of which the form e r of course
rerp1ires the first care, lest he should fail of both ,) and
douLting whether the phrase whi c h has the most forcible
brev it y, will Le read ily taken in, it may Le rccrn11 mcn<l!.;d
to use both expressions ;-first to expand the sense ,
~ufTiciently to be c learly understood , and then to contrnct
it into the most compendious and s triking form. This
expedi ent mi ght seem at first sight the most de c idedly

repeal the sense, they add nuthing to it ; e . g. They returned [back
agnin ] to the (s:ime] city [from] whe nce they came [forth.] "
C:imph . Rlicl. book iii . chap . ii. sec. 2.
• Campbell, Flhctoric, book iii. chap. ii. sec . 2. part iii.

'.!16

ELEMENTS OF IlHETOR!C .

PART

III

adverse to the brev ity recommended ; but it will be founJ
in practice, that the addition of a compressed and pithy
expression of the sentiment, which has been already stated at greater length, will produce the e_Dect of brevity.
For it is to be remembered that it is not on accou nt of
I he actml nmnber of words that diffuseness is to be condemn ed , (unless one were limited to a certain space, or
t in1e,) lrnt to avoid the fhtnc ~s and tediousness resulting
from it. ; so that if thi s appcarru1 ce can be ohviat.ed Ly
t!H? in , crtiou of s11 ch :rn abrid ~e d repet iti on as is here
recommended, whi ch add s poig11a11cy and spirit to the
'' hole, Conciseness will be, prat:tically , promoted hy tl1e
addi tion. Tl1e heare rs will Le struck by the forciblene ss
of the scu tcncc 1rhid1 they ,,-ill li:1v e li een pre pared to
comp rehend ; they \\·ill understand th e longer expression, :rntl remember the sl1orter. But the force will, in
µ;cne ral , Le totally des troy ed, or m1wh en feel1led, if the
order Le reversed; - if the hri ef e xp:·ess:on lie put first,
:llld aftcnnrds expande d and exph in ed; for it loses
m11ch of its fo rce if it he not cl enrly understood the momen t it is uttered; and if it be, there is n·o need of the
s11bseq11ent expnnsion. T he se n1c1we rec ently 'JllOt cd
fro1 11 "l: mke, ns an insta:we of Ener;c1.ic brevity, is i11this
11'.:11111cr 11ro11s ht in at tl1 e clo ~e of a more ex pand ed ex hibiti on of thr. sc111 ime111, as n co11clcnscd c' oncli1 sion of ilie
wholr? . "Po\\·er, of so me ki11d or other , will sun-ive th e
sl1oc:k in ,,Jiid1 manners and opinions peri sh ; and it \\·ill
f:ml other :111d \\"Orsc means for its support. The 11$urpa1ion \Yl1ieh, in order to subvert ancient instituti ons, lins
rl L?stroycd :mcient principles, will hold power hy arts simil:1r to il1osc liy "hich it ha s :wq11irr·d it. vVl1t ·11 the old
fct;rlal :rn d chival rous sp irit of fealty, whi ch, hy fr c Pin~

C 11 A P.

Ir. § B.

OF EN1':H.GY.

21. 7

king;s from fear, freed both kings and subjects from the
precaution of tyranny, shall be extinct in the minds of
rnen, plo ts and assassinations will be anticipated by preventi1·e murder and n1 reventive confiscation and that 10110' the pol itic al"
roll of grim and bloody maxims, which form
code of all Power , not standing on its own honour, and
the honour of those who are to obey it. Kings 11·ill be
tyrants from policy, when sulijec ts arc rebc,Js from
principle. " Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in
Prance 1Yorlr,s , YO!. v. p. 153 .
Th e same writer, in another passage of the same \\· nrk,
has a paragraph in like manner closed and su nnncd up
by a striking metap hor,* (11hich will often proY e the 111ost
concise, as well as in other respec ts striking, fo n 11 of express ion,) sxh as \YOu lJ not ha1·e been so readi ly t<1ke n
in if' placed at the Leginning. "To avoid thercfe rc the
evils of incon sistency and versatility, ten thousand times
worse than those of obstinacy and the blindest prejudi ce,
we have consecrated the State, that no man should approach to look into its defects or corruption s but 11·i1h due
caution ; that he should neve r dream of beginning it s reforma tion by its subversion; that he should :1pproacli to
tl1e faults of tl11; State as to the wo11nd ~ or a L11 ii<' r, 11·itli
*Thi~ howev er, bei ng an in s ta.ncc of what 111 ay In: called I.Ii ~
classical l'\'le taphor, no pre pa.rali o n or e.tplanation, eve n t lH 1U!.d 1 s ufficient to rnake it intelligible, coul<l re nd e r it very slri/:£ng\ t.o LiwtiC Il(J t

thoroughly and early familiar with the ancie nt faule s or ;>J cdca.
The Preacher has a corn;ideralJle resource, of an analn go u~ ki 11 d
in sirnil:ir allusions lo the history, description s, parnhl es, &~. or
SCRI PTUH.E, which will o!len furnish useful illustration s and for
cihle metaphors , in an address to those well acquainted with the Bible,
though these would be freq uently unintel!igiulc , and al ways compar.
atively feebl e to persons not familiar with S cripture. (See Appen·
<lix, fl·I.])
rn

1

~1 8

CHAP.

ELEMF:NTS 01·' HllETOIUC.

OF ENf.RGY.

2 10

many ex c ellences, and did not disc over tl1at it \\·an ted
that n·ithout whic h all others are of small av ail, the
power of engaging attention and alluring curiosily .
Tediousness is the most fatal of all faults ; neglige nc es
or errors are single and local ; but tcdiou s nc s~ perv ades
the whole; other faults are censured and forgo tten, but
the power of tediou-5ness propagates itself. He that is
weary the first hour, is more weary the second ; as bodies for ced into motion contrary to their te nd ency, p;1 ~s
more and more slowly through every successive inte1Tal
of space. Unhappily this pernicious fail ure is that
which an author is least able to discover. 'ye arc seldom tiresome to ourselves ; and the act of composition
fills and delights the mind with change of language an d
succession of images ; every couplet when produ ced is
new; and novelty is the great source of pleasure. PerJwps no man ever thought a line supe rfluous when he
fo ~t wrote it; or contracted his work till his ebullitions
of invention had subsided."
It would not have been just to the author, nor even so
suitabie to the present purpose , to cite less than the
whole of this pnssage, which exhibits the cl1aract cri sti r,
merits, even more strikingly than the dcrcc ts, of tli e
writer. Few could be found in the works of John son,
·and still fewer in those of any other writer, more happily
and forcibly expressed : yet it can hardly be deni ed that
the parts here distinguished by italics arc chargeable,

pious awe :rncl trc111Lling solicitude. By this wise prejudice we are taught to look with horror on those children
of their country who are prompt rashly to back that
aged parent in pi eces, and put him into the kettle of mar; icians, in hopes that by their poisonous weed s, and wild
incantations, they may regenerate the paternal constitu tion, and renovate their father 's life." Burke, R~fl.cc­
tion s on the Rcvol1ition ·i n Prance, J¥orb, vol. v.
p . 183 .
So great, indeed, is the effect of a skilful int erspersion
~t1 l e of Dr of short, pointed, forcib le sentences, that eve n
J o.ilnson.
a considcraLle viohtion of some of the lorcg;oin g rnlcs mny b e, by thi s means, in a grc:1t <le::;ree,
concealed ; and vigour may thus ue communic:Jted (if
vigour of tho11p:ht be not wanting) to a sty le cli:irgcali lc
even with tautology. This is the case with mu ch of' the
lan;u age of Dr. Johnson, who is ccrtnin ly on the 11· ho!t~
an energetic writer ; though he would have ueen much
more so, had not an over-att ention to the rou1a!ncss and
majestic sound of his sentenc es, and a delight in balanc ing; one clause against another, led him so frequently into
a faulty redundanc y . Take, as an instance, a pa ssa?;C
in hi s life of Prior, which may be considered as a favourable spec imen of his style : " Solomon is the work to
whi ch he intrustccl the protection of his name, :md which
he ex pected succeeding ages to regard with veneration.
His affection was natural; it had undoubtedly been written with g;reat labour : and who is willing to think that
he has been labouring in vain ? He had infused into it
much knowledge, and much thought ; bad often polished
it to elegance, often dignified it with splendour, and
sometim es heightened it to su&limity; lie perceiv ed in it

II. § 13.

J
~

f

'

more or less, with Tautology.
It happens, unfortunately, that Johnson's style is particularly easy of imitation, even by writers ut- rmlrotinn of
terly destitute of his vigour of thought ; and J ohn,on.
sur h imitators arc intolerable.

They bear the same

220

ELEMENTS OF JUlETOillC.

PART

C11.H

III.

II. § D.

OF ENl::Jt<.IY .

221

Cicero ; but it must be acknowledg;ed , th:i t die ge nius of
the Latin language allows and requires a much snrnller
proportion of substantives than are necessary in our own;
especially such as express qualities in the abstract.

rese mblance to th eir model, that the arm our of the Chinese, as described by travellers, consisting of thick quiltP.d cotton covered with stiff glazed paper, does to that
of th e an cient knights; equally glittering, bulky, and
cumbersome, but destitute of the temper and firmness
\\'hi ch 11·as its sole advantage . At first sight, indee d, this
ki1Hl of sty le appears far from easy of attainment., on
accoum of its being remote from th e colloquial, aml having an elabora tely artificial appearance ; but in reality,
th ere is non e less difficult to acrp1ire. To st.ring together substanti ves, connected by conju nc tions, which is the

§ 9.
In aiming at a Concise · Style, however, c are must of
course be taken that it be not crowded. The Sti!.!:i;~5live
frequent recurrence of considerable ellipses, sty ie.
even when obscurity does not result from them, will
produce an appearance of affecte d and laborious compression, which is ofiensive. The author who is studi ous of Energetic brevity, should aim at what may be called a Su.ggcstive sty le ; :;uch, that is, as, without making a
distinct, toough brief, mention of a multitu de of particulars, shall put the hearer's mind into the same train of
thou.ght as the speaker's, and suggest to him more th an is
actually expressed.* Aristotle's style, which is fre quently so elliptical as to be dry and obscure, is yet often, at the
ve ry same time, unnecessarily diffuse, from his enumerating much that the reader would easily hav e suppli ed, if
th e rest had been fully and forcibly stated. He seems
to have regard ed his readers as capable of going a fJng
with him r eadily, in the deepest discussions, but not, of
going beyond !rim, in the most simple ; i. c. c! fi!!ing up
his meaning, and inferring what he does not actual!y ex -

characteristic of Jollllson's style, is , in fact, th e rud est
and clumsiest mod e of ex pressing our thoughts : we have
only to finrl names for our id eas, and then put the m
toget he r liy con nec tives , in stead o f int erweav ing, or rather felting them toge th er, Ly a tlue admixtu re of verbs,
p arti ciples, p rep os itions, &c . So that this way of writing , as contrasted 11·ith the other, rnay be lik ened to the
primiti1·e rude carpentry, in whi ch the materials were
united liy coarse external i111pl c111c 11ts , pins , nails , and
cr::unps, 11·hen compared with that art i11 its most improved ~ late , :ift.er the im·ention of dov etail-joint s, groo ves,
and morti ces , wlien the j1111r:tions arc effected by fonlling
properly the extrernit ics of th e pieces to b e joined, so a~
at onc e to c on solidate and conceal th e jun c ture .
H any one will be at the pains to compare a lew pages ,
.
taken from almost any part of Johnson's
V:tnous proportinn• or
"\Yorks with the same nuantity· from any othor
i:i11 1J..; ta n uvc!-I
'
'I
111 <1 111ere t of our admired writers notine; down the n11mb r r
stylef4.
'
-of substanl'ivcs in each, he will be struc k with

•Such a sty le may be compared ton good m:tp , wlaicn mark" distinctly the g reat outlines, setting down the principal rivcrs, town• ,
mountains, &r: . leaving the imagination to supply the villages, hillocks, and streamlets; wh ich, if they were nil inserted m their due
pr"rortinns, wnuld crowd the map, though after all thev coul d not
he disce rned without a rnicro~cope.

11

the di ~ pro po rti o n. Thi s would be still greater, if he
were to exami ne with the sam e vi e w an equal portion of

19·•

I

222

"

.I

ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC.

PART

CHAP. II. § IO.

III

press ; so that in many passages a free translator might
convey his sense in a shorter compass, and yet in a less
cramped and elliptical diction. A particular statement,
example, or proverb, of which the general applicatio. 1
is obvious , will often save a long abstract rul e , whicL
needs much explanation and limitation ; an.cl will thus
suggest rnuch that is not actually said ; thus answering
the pmpose of a mathematical <liagram, which, though
itself an in<lividual, serves as a representative of a class .
Slisht hi nts also respecting th e suuordinate branches of
any subj ect, an<l notices of the principles that will apply
to th e m, &c. may often be substituted for digressive
di scussions , which, though labori ously compressed, \rnuld
y e t occupy a much greater space. Judicious divisions
like\\ isc ~c11d classifications, save much tedious enumeration ; and, <is has been formerly remarked, a well-chose n epithet may often suggest , an.d therefore supply the
plar;c of, :111 entire Argumen t.
It \rnuld not be possible, \\·itl1in a mod erate compass,
to by do,n1 precise rules for th e Sugi:;es tive kind of writing I am speaking of: but if the slight liints here give11
arc suffi cie nt to convey an idea of the object to be aimed
at, pra c tice will enable a writer gradually to form the
habit recommended. I t may be worth wliile, however,
to add, th at those accustoniccl to rati ona l corwersalion,
will fi 1Hl in that, a very use ful exercise, with a view to
thi s point , (as well as to allllost every other connected
with Itlic toric ;) since , in conversation, a man natur:dly
tri1 ~s first one and then another mode of expressins his
tlioug;l 1ts, and sto ps as soon as li e J' l' r<.:<·ives that his co mpanion fully comp rehends hi s sc11t illlents, a11d is sufficiently un pressed \\·itb them.

OF ENERGY.

.223

§ 10.

hi··

I have dwelt the more earnestly on the head of Conc iseness, bec1use it is a qml ity in which young writers
(who are the most likely to seek for practical benefit in
a Treatise of this kind) are usually most deficient; a11 d
uccause it is commonly said that in them, cx uucran c e
is a promis!ng sign; without sufficient care being tak en
to qualify this remark, by adding, th at this over-luxuri
:m cc must be checked by judic ious pruning. If an early
pron eness to redun<lanr:y be an indication of natural genius , tliose wlio possess this genit1s should be the rnorc
sedu lo usly on th eir guard against that fault. And those
,vJ10 do not, should be adrnoni shed th at the want of a
natural gift cannot be supplied by l:opying its atten<la11t
defects .
The praises which have been besto1Ye<l on Copi1Jt1 D-

ncss of di ction, ha\'C probably tended to mis-

I.

r· < ,1111 . 11~''' '" ·"'

lead authors into a cumbrous verbosity. It .1 .. "" '"1""' ""
1 1r~ ci!'! 1 < 111.
should be rememuerecl , that th ere is no real
Copiousness in a multitude of synonyrnes and circumloc utions. A house would not be the better furni shed for
being stored with ten times as nwny of some kine!<.: of
articles as were needed, while it \Yas perhaps destitute of
thos e rec1uired for other purposes; nor was Lucull us 's
wardrobe, which, according to Horace, boasted five tho1 1sand mantles, necess<Arily well stocked, ii o ther :miclcs of
dr ess were wanting. The completer:css of a lihr;iry dor:s
not consist in the number o f volumes, especially if ma ny
of th em are d1l]Jlicates; but in its r:oninin ing; copies oi all
th e most valuable works. And in like manner, 1ruc
Copiousness of language consists in havin z at command ,

r A 1n·

I-: LE: MEN T S OF llll J::T ORI C.

1.1 ,

C 11 .r JI. § 11.

as l;1r as possible, a suitable expression fo r each dij}erenl
11 1odification of thoug'. _t. This, consequently , will ol'te n
save much ci rcumlocution; so that the grea ter om comman d of langu:1 ge, the more concisely we shall Le enabled to wri te . In an author who is attentive to these
principles , diffuseness may be accounted no da11gerous
fa ult of style , because practice will gradually correct it ;
Lut it is othorn·ise with one who pleases him self in sLringr well-sound inrrn words in to an easy, flowing,
in"b too-ethe
0
a11d ·(falsely-called) copious style, destitute of nerve :
and \YIJO is satisfied with a small portion of mat te r; seek!ng to increase , as it were, the appearance of his wealth
by ham mering out his metal thin. This is far from n
cmable fault . 'When the style is fu lly formed in other
r r.~pects, pre;n ant fulness of meaning is seldo m superadded; Lut when there is a bas is of energetic condensation
of tho urrht the faults of harsh ness , baldness , or even obo
'
scurity , are much more lik ely to be remedi ed. Solid
gold may be new moulded and polished : but what can
gi 1·e solidity to gilding ?

§ 11.
Lastly, the .flr rangcmcnt of \\·or<ls may be malle
·F.n cr!!v •le· hi ::::>rrhl)' con<l uc-i' vc to En er<"y
The im"o
o .
I rtance
!'"""'.;,,
"" of an attent ion to this point with a vi ew to
t he nrrnn g:e'"""t.
P ers pi cui ty , has been dread y noti ced : liut of
t1rn sentences eq11ally pcrspicuo11s, and consist ing of tl 1e
very sn me words, the one may be a fe eLie am! languid,
the other a striking and E nergetic expression, merely
from the diffe rence of Arra ngement.
l

(

'

•

•

.I
I

,J

OF' ENERGY.

225

Some, among the mode rn s, G.re acc11 st.<,mcd to ~l'cak
of the .1Y al nrr1l order of the words in a sen:'\at•ir:d
te nc0, and to cons ider, each, the establ ished "'\\· ,q""'d,.i...r
;irrange1nc11t of his 01n1 la 11g u ~1 ge as the nearr.s t
to such a n:itur:il order ; reg;ardi11g that 11·liich prc1 ·~1ils in
L1 tin and in G reek as a sort of deranged and ir n•;:11l:ir
struc ture. '.Ve arc apt to consider tl1at as ni o~ t 11;1t;11·;;J
and intrins;cally proper, " ·hich is the most fo1J1i li:ir to
ourseh-es; but there seems no good ground for ;1~!'er1 ing ,
that the customary stru \'.lure of sentences in the a1H'i ent
languages is less natural, or less suit able fo r tl1e purpo<es
fo r 11·hich langirnge is employe d, tha n in 11!0 111 011Pm .
S upposing the established orde r in Engfo;J1 or i11 Fri·11<' i1 ,
fo r instance, to be more closely confornwd 10 I Le .!.'. ra111matical or logical a11 alysis of a sen tence, tha n tliai 1i i' [ .:1 tin or G reek, because \\'C rh ce tlte S11hj P<'f. fir o<t, Ili c
Copula nex t, and tlt c l' rcrl irat0 last, &c . it do,•s not (ril low th at such an arra nge ment is neccss Jrily tl1c lll'st fi tted, in every case, to exc ite the atte nti on , -to di1·f'c·t it
to th e most essential point s, - lo gr;1tify 1lt c i111agina ti on, - or to affect the feelings . It is, surel y, 11 11" 11:1111ral obj ect of lani!;11agc to ex press as stro1n~J.1· as P""'ililr:
tltc spe:J<c r's sentiments, a11d to corll' r _1· 1111 ; s :i11H· l" 1/,..
hearers; and that arrangement of 11·ords may foi rly l1t: ;w CO l1nt ecl the most nat ural , by whi ch nil Jll C ll ;ire 11atumL\y led, as fa r as the rnl cs of their rrs pcc tivc lnn~11a .trs
allow them, to accom plish tltis ohj e<' t. Thr; ru /rs of
many of the morl ern languages do ind eed fr P'!tJC'nll _v r·o nfin e an author to an o rd er whi ch he would od1er11·ise
neve r have chosen; llllt what translator <>l any f ;i s 11~
wo uld e1'cr 1•olanla.ri fy alter the a r ran .~r 1 nr11t of the
words i11 s11c h a se ntence, as nrq,l, i. 11 1/ " -"'-!"."' ' 'F,rr o fr.11',

i.'

'.

226

ELEMENTS OF RHETORLC .

PART

III

'l

CHAP .

11. § 11.

OF ENERGY.

227

\

\\·hi ch om language allows us to render exactly, "Great
is D iana of the Ephesians! " How feeble in comp;n·ison
is the translation of Le Clerc, " La Diane des Ephcsiens est une grande Deesse !" H ow imperfect that of
I3 eausobre, "La grande Diane des Ephfricns'"
How undignified that of Saci, " Vive la grande Dfrmc

des Ephcsiens! "
Our language indeed is, though to a less degree , very
much hampered by the same restrictions ; it
Ad v:rnt:\CC in
being in general necessary, for the expression
poi11t (I f ~r­
ran~f'tnen t in
lh 1• ancit~ut
of the sense, to adhere to an order which may
lan;; ua gcs.
not be in other respects the most eligibk:
"Cicero praised Cresar;" and" C1csar praised Ci cero,"
would be two very diffe rent propositions; the situation
of the words being all that indicates (from our want of
Cases, ) tc hich is to be taken as the nominative, and
which as th e accusativ e ; but s:1ch a restric tion is far
from bein g an advantage. Th e transposition of word s
which the ancient langu~g:es admit of, conduces, no t
merely to variety, but to Energy, and even to Prec ision.
If, for instance, a Roman bad been directing the attention of his hearers to the circumstance that even Co:sar
had been the object of C icero 's praise, he would, most
lik ely, 11ave put "Cccsarcm" first; but he would have
put " C icero " first , if lie had been remarking that not
only others, but even he, had praised Cresar.
It is for want of this liberty of Arrange ment that we
are often compelled to mark the emphatic words of our
sente nces by the vo ~e, in speaking, and Ly itali cs , in
writing; whi ch would, in Greek or in Latin, Le plainly
indi cated , in most instan ces, by the collocation alo11e.
The sentence \Ybich ha;; been often brougl t forward as

I
1
i
i

'
t

·1

an example of the varieties of express10n whi ch n~ay be
given to the same words, "Will you ride to London to,. , morro\v ? ,, and 'vhich m(ly be pronounced and un<lerstood in at least five different ways, according as the fi , st,
second, &c. of the words is printed in italics, would he,
Ly a Latin or Greek writer, arranged in as rna ny different orders, to answer these several intentions. Tli e advantage thus gained must be e\'ident to any one 1d10
considers how important the object is which is thus accom plished, and for the sake of which we are often compelled to resort to such clumsy e xpedients ; it is like the
proper distribution of the lights in a picture ; which is
hardly of less consequence than the correct and lively
representation of the obj ects.*
It must be the aim then of an author, who would write
with Ener;;y, to avail himself of all the liberty Itali cs >nd
which our bnguage does allow, so to arrange ;';,·~dm cor­
his words that there shall be the least possible
occasion for underscoring and italics ; and this, of co1·trse,
must be more carefully attended to by the write r tkrn
by the speaker, who may, by his mode of utterance, <'onccal, in great measure, a defect in this poi nt. It m:-iy hr.
worth observing, however, that some writer~, ha1·i11:.;
been taught that it is a fault of style to requ ire many
the words to be in italics, fancy they avoid the fa1ilt, hy
omitting those indications where they are really needed ;

or

•The 4th book of Q. Curtiu" begins with a passage which afford s
a good instance of ~.he energetic effect produced by a skilful use nf
the license of the Latin arrangement: " Darius tan ti mnd o ~.u'rcit11s
~r, qui triumphantis magis quam di1n i.cf\nti~ more, curru sublimin
inierat prrelium , per loca q111e prope immen"is agminilrns complevernt, jam inania , c t in gen ti svlitndine vastu, fugi ebat." T ht"' <·flf:ct of
the conclutling verh, placed where jt is, is most striking .

Ij
J

,1

)

ELEMENTS OF RllETOIUC .

,('
;

l'At<T

III.

\\ l1i c h is no less abs urJ than to attemp t r emedying the
intri cacies of a roa d by removing the direction-posts.""
Th· proper remedy is, to P!"deavour so to construc t the
s1yl c, that the collocation of the words may, as for as is
poss ibl e, direct the attention to those whi ch are emphati c .
And the ge neral maxim that should chi e fly guide us,
is, as
Dr. Campbell observes , the homely saying,
" N carcst the heart, nearest the mouth ; " the iJea,
"'hich is the mos t forc ibly imp ressed on the author's
mind, will naturally claim the first utterance , as n early as
th e rules of the language will permit. And it will be
found that, in a majori ty of instances , the most Emphatic
word will be the Predicate ; contrary to the rule whic h
the na tmc of 01 1r lang1rnge compels us, in most instances ,
to observe. It will o ften happen, however , that we do
place the Predicat e first, and ob tain a great i;1crcase of
Encl':!:)' hy this Arrangrnwn t. or this li cense O lll" tran slators rif th e Dible have in many instances , ve ry happ ily
aq iJrd thcmsckes; as, e . ;; . in the sente nce late ly rited,
" Great is Di;111a of the: Ephesians ; " so al so , "Bl essed
is hc that co meth in th e name of the Lord : " it is e vident how much thi s would he cnfcehl ed Ly altc ri11 g; il 1e
Arrnn ?;cmcnt into " He that come th in th e name of th e
Lord is hlcs!'cd. " A11d , :1g;ain, "Silv er an d Gold have I
11 011 c ; lrn t \1·hat I have th at give I 1111to th ee ." t Anoth e r
pa~s a;e, in wl1i c h th P.y mig;ht advantageo11sly h ave ad
he red to the o rd er of the original , is , "., F rr mn" J',7m r,
"'Tlw C('n~ nrc of frr <p1('nt nnd }Q n~ Pare ntitf'~<'~ also ],.ads some
wriff•rs in to thf• l i ke prppn:-;trro11s (' :tpr·<li f' nt of lcavin ~ out th <' m arks

( ) by wh ich they are in dicntrcl, ond suhAtitutin g
of sn fram in!; rac h se ntence tlrnt they shall n ot be
curf' t0 n lnr ne man, to f. ttk e awn.}' his crutche~.

1 Acts v.

u.

c cmma~; in Atcnd
ne ed~d.

ft is no

C 11AI' . II. §

1~ .

O~'

EN l·: ll G Y.

229

il«1-iui. wr, :, flfi 11.i. 1, , " " wl1icl1 would ccrtai11ly hav e been

·rendered as correctly , and more forcibly, as well as more
closely , "Fallc11, fallen is Babylon, tha t great city,"
than, "13abylon is fallen, is fall en. "
Tbe word "IT " is frequ ently very serviceable in enabling us to alter the arrangem ent: thus, th e ,.,., or"'"
sentence , " C icero praised Cresar," \1·]1ic h ad- 11 ·.,,.i IT.
rnits of at leas t two modifications of sense, may be :il tcrcd
so as to exp ress either of them, by thus varyi ng the order :
" It was Cicero that praiscJ Ca::sar," or, " It was c ~csar
that Cicero praised." "IT" is , in this mode of using
it, the representative of the Subj ec t, t which it thus enables us to place, if we will, after the Predica:e .

§ 12.
1Yith respec t to Periods, it wo uld b e ne ither prac tically useful, nor even suitable to the presen t ob.
.
.
Pc: rirnls.
ject, to enter mto an examrnation of the different senses in which various authors have employed th e
\\'Ord . A technical term may allowably be cn1ployed in
a sc ientific work, in any sense not ve ry remote fro m cornrnon usage , (espec ially when conunon usage is not 1111i forrn and invariable, in the meaning affixed to it ,) provide d it b e clearly defined, and the definition stri ctly adhcr
"' Rev. xviii. 2.
1 Of whate ve r gender or nmnbcr the subject referred to rnay he ,
"IT" may, with equal proprie ty, be e mployed to represen t it. Our
translators •>f th e Bible have n ot sc ru pled to m al<e" IT " n :fe r tn"
masculine noun: "_It is I, be no t afraid ;" but they scC'm to Jn:u,.t",
th oug ht it not allowahle, as perhaps it was not, at th e tin1e w h ~n they
wrote, to make such a refe re nce to a plural n ou n. "Sc:trch the
S c riptnrcs-t!tr.y ore t!tey whi c h testify of Me; " we sh ou!J no w say,
without any impropriety, "IT is t!tey," &.c.

20

230

I'

ELEM ENTS OF RHETORIC.

PART

III

ed to. By a Period , then, is to be understood in this
piace, any sentence , wh ethe r simple or complex, which
is so framed that the Grammatical construction will not
admit of a close, before the encl of it; in which, in short,
the meaning remains suspended, as it were, till tl1e whole
is finished. A loose sentence, on th e conl,n(l~C
Se rot ences.
trary, is, any that is not a P eri od; any , whose
construction will allow of a sto p, so as to form a perfect
sentence at one or more places , before we arrive at the
encl . E. g. " We came to our journey 's encl - at last with no small di ffi culty- after much fatigue - through
deep roads - an cl bad weather." This is an instan ce
of a ve ry loose sentence ; (for it is ev ident that this kind
of strncture admits of degrees ,) there being no less than
live places, mark ed hy dashes, at any one of which the
sentence might li:n·e terrninated, so as to be gr:mi matically perfect. Th e same words may be formed into a
Period, tlms : " At last, :ifter muc h fati gue, through
deep ro:icls, and bad \1·eather 1 we c ame, with no small
difficulty, to our journey's end. " Herc , no stop c an
he made at any part, so that the preceding words sh all
Corm a sentence before the final close. These ;ire both
of them simple sentences; i. e. not consisting of several causes , but havin g only a sin gle verb ; so that it is
pl:iin \Ye oui!ht not, according to this view, to confin e
th e name of Period to complex sentences; as Dr. Campbell has clone, notwithstanding his having adopted the
same definition ns has been here laid down .
Periods, or sentences nearly ap proaching to P eriods,
have certainly, when other things are equal, the advantage in point of Energy . An unexpecte d continuation
of a sentence, which tb e reader h::id supposed to be con -

CHAP .

II . § 12.

OF ENERGY .

231

eluded, especially if in reading aloud, he had, under that
supposition, dropped his voice, is apt to protluce a sensation in the mind of being disagree::ibly balked ; analogous to the unpleasant jar which is felt, \v hen in ascending or descending stairs, we meet with a step more
t11an we expected: an d if th is be often repeated, as in
a ve ry loose sen tenc e, a kind of weary impatienc e re>uhs
from the uncertainty whe n the se111cnce is to close.
The obj ec tion however to loose sentences a11 d consequent tendency towards the periodic structure, must
have been greater among th e Ancients than the Moderns,
because the vari ety of arrangemen t whi ch the anr·ien t
languages permitted, and, in p:irticubr, tli c liberty of
resen ·ing the verb, on whi c h the whole sense d<'pend~,
to the end, made that structure nat mal and e:isy, in
many instances in whi ch, in our language , it 1,·oiil d ;ii'pe:ir fo rced, unn atura l, and affected. But the agreeabLness of a ce r tain degre e, at least, of Pe- T e ndrncv
riodic structure, in all lang11ages,
is a1)11arent 1Jl(•ri11dic
""°'" '1' '"•
.._..
._,
from this; that they all contain words wl1id 1 •truc ture.
may be said to have no othe r use or significations but to

suspend the sense, and lead th e hearer of the first part of
the sentence to expec t the remainder . He who says,
" The world is not eternal, nor the wo rk of chance ; "
expresses the same se nse as if he said, " The world is
neither eternal, nor the work of c hance;" yet tl1e latter
would be generally preferred. So also , "The v ine~ afforded both a refreshing shade, and a delicious fruit ; "
the word "both" would be missed, though it adds nothing to the sense . Again, " While all the P;igan nations
consider Religion as one part of Virtue, tl1e Jews, ou

)_·.

ELEMENTS OF RHETOil.IC.

232

PART

III.

the contrary, regard Virtue as a part of Reli gion;"* the
omissio n of the first wo rd would not alte r t.he sense , but
wou ld destroy the Period; to produce wl1ich is its only
w;c. The MEN, .dE, and TE of th e G reek are, in many
places , subserv ient to this use alone.
Tl1c mode rn langnages do not indeed admit, as was
observ ed abo v.e , of so Period ic a Style as th e ancient,
do: but an author, who do es but clearly unde rstand
what a Pe ri od i'>, and who ap pli es tl.ie test I ha ve laid
do\\'11, will find it very e isy, afte r a liu le practice , to
cornpose in Periods, even to a greater degree than, in
an Engli sh wri ter, good taste wi ll warrant. His skill
and care will be c liie fl y called fo r in avoiding all appearance of stiffness and affectation in the construction o.
th em, - in not dep:u·ting, for the sake of a Period, too
far from c olloquial usage , - and in observin g such rno<lc:ra1ion in the employment of thi s style, as shall prevent
any h e ~rayal of artifice, - an y thing savouring of elaborate statel iness ; wh ich is always to be regard ed as a
worse fault than the slovenli ness and languor whi ch accompany a very loose style .
~ 13.
It should be ohserved, howeve r, that, as a sentence
,..,.,, anrl
which i ~ not .~lri c tl!f a Period, accordin g to th e
1
~~;,;';:::~
fore~oi n t; dt:!fin itinn , may y e t npproach indd'..
init ely near to it, so as to prod uce nearly the
same effect, so , on the oth er hand, periods may be so
con strn cte<l as to pro du ce much o f the same feclir 1g of
wea1 i11 e ~s and impa ti t~ n rc whi (' h res ult s fr n111 an e x ecs ~
0

CnAP. II. § 13.

OF ENERGY.

233

of loose sentences. If the clauses be very lon g, and
contain an en umeratio n of many c ircumstances, though
the sen tence be so fram ed, th at we arc stilJ kept in e xpectation of th e conclu$ion, yet it will be an i1 J1patie11 t
expectation; and th e reader will feel the same kind of
uneasy un certainty when the clau:;e is to lie fini shed, as
would be felt resp ec ting tlie sentence, if it \\·ere loose .
And thi s will especially be th e case, if the rule for merly give n wi th a view to Perspic uity be not obscr\'ed, * of taking care th at each part of the sentence be unde rstood, as it proceed<;. Each clause, if it consist of
seve ral parts , should be continued with th e same attention to th e ir mutual con nec tion, so as to suspend the
sense, as is employed in the whole sent ence ; that it
may be, as it were , a Period·ic clause . An d if one clause
be long and ano ther short, the shorte r sho 1ild, if possible ;
be put last. Universally in deed a sentence
would often be 1 prac tically
too Jon"'
r' • e •
<
'
,::, '
w ill have a ted ious , draggi1ig effect , me rely

rreml<·nre
of<he loncc r

o r sll on er

c1 a

11

'" ·

from its c oncluding w ith a much lonc:er clau se than it
began with ; so that a composition \~hi c h most would
censure us aboundin g too much in long sen tence, , may
often hav e its dclccb, in grc:it measure , rc1 ncdi cd, \\' illtout shortening uny o f th em ; me rely uy re\· crsing tl1e
orde r of each. This of co urse ho lds good wi th res p ec t
to ali compl e x sentences of any con si derable lengt h,
whether periods, or not. An in stance of th e di fference
of effect produced by this m eans , m~y be seen in such
a sentence as the follow ing: " The State was made,
under the pre tence of serving it, in reality, the prize of
• Purl iii . chap . i . § 3.

20 ...

2 ~34

ELEMENTS Of JUIETOl.UC.

l' AH'I'

[

[I.

thei r contention, to each of th ose opposite parties, who
profcsseJ in specious terms, the on e, a prefere nce for
mode rate Aris tocracy, the oth er , a desire of adm itting the
people at l::irge to an equality of civil privil eges ." This
may be regarded as a complete Period; and yet for the
r eason jus t mentioned, has a tedious and cumbrous effect.
Many c ri tics might recommend, and perhaps with reaso n,
to break it into two or thr ee ; but it is to our prese nt
purpose to remark, that it might Le, in so me degree at
least, dec id edly improved, by merely re ve rsing the clauses ; a5 thus : "The t11·0 oppos ite parties, who professed in specious terms, the one, a prcCe rc ncc for moderate Ari stocracy, the other, a desi re of adm itting the
peo ple at lari!;e to an equality of civil privilcp;es, made
the State, whi c h they pretended to serve, in reality the
prize of their contention." *
Anoth er in stance may he c ited from a work, in wliich
any occasio nal awkwardness of expression is th e more
conspic11011s, on acco unt of its general excellence, the
Ch11rch L iturf!:y ; the style of ll'liic h is so justly admired for its rcm:irlrnhle 11ni o n of encr~y 1rith simpli c ity,
smoothness, and elegance : the following passage from
th e Exhor tation is one of the very few, whic h, from the
fault j11s t not ired , it is rliOic1tlt !"or a ;;nod read e r to deliv e r
1\·ith spiri t ; " And altho11gli we o ught at all times !111rnl1ly to <H.:!rnowl edgc our s ins before God, II yet ou 0ht
we most c hi efly so to do, II when we asse mbl e - and
meet toge the r - to render thanks for the g reat benefits
that we have received at his h;md s, - to se t forth l11 s
most worthy praise, to hear his most holy word, and to

CuH. IL § 1:3.

or

ENEHGY.

2 ~3[)

ask those things whi c n arc req ui site and neec ssary,- as well for the body as the so ul." This is c1·i cl en tly
a very loose sentence, as it 111iglit Le supposed to co11 c lude at any one of the three places ll'hic l1 arc ma1lf'd
hy clashes(-) ; thi s disadvantage, however, may cac;i lv
be obv iate d by the s11spension of voice, by wh;ch a "< 'c,"d
.
""
reade r , acquainteJ with the passage , n·mild incl ieatc tlrn
the sentence was not c oncluded ; but t!i e gre:it f:llllt j,
th e length of the last of the thr ee principal cl:i11scs , in
co mpari so n of the form er two : (the conclusions oi ll'liicli
!ire marked Ii) by which a draggin g and hca\')' crio'rt
is produced, and th e sentence is mad e to nppear long: f' r
than it really is. This wo11ld be more manifest to ;iqy
o ne not farnilinr , as most are, -. .-i tl1 the pn<«1 .~e ; hut n
i;ood read e r of th e Liturgy will find hardly any semencc
in it so difficult to deliver to his own sati:,fac tion. It
is perhaps th e more profitable to notice a bl e111ish orc11rring in a co mposition so well kn o wn , and so dese r\' edly val11ed for til e excclkn<'e, not only of i;s senti ments, but of its language.
1

It is a 11sef1il admonition to yo unf!; wri te rs, with a \·i cw
to what has lately bee n snid, tl1at th ey sho11ld al"·a1·s :1ltcmpt to reca st a sen tence whi c h docs no t plc:is;, ; alt er in ~ th e arr:ingenwnt nnd e ntire co ns trn c1ion of it, ins tr.ad of merely see kin [I; to d1:mg:e one word frir anoill('r .
This wiJl give a g re:it :.id1,antage in poict of C0pio urnrss
also; for there may be, suppose, a su/1stanlivr, 1 \rh:1·h,
either beca11se it does not f11lly express our meanin!!, or
for some other reason, we wish to remove , 1J11t can. find
no other to supply its place ; b11t the object may pc rh:ips be easily accomplished by means of a 1·erf1, ;iilverh , o r some other pan of speer·h, the substit111i11n <l

r

•.

236

ELEMENTS OF RHETOilIC.

PrnT Ill

which im plies an alteration of the constl\tction. It is
an exercise according./ which may be recommended as
hi ghly conduci\•e to the improvement of Style, to pracllse casting a sentence into a variety of different form s
It is evident, from what has been said, that in comp ositions intended to be delivered, th e Perio dDifff'rence
;·,~,~'~'.',~10
:, ;, d

';·,~;,' "'

• peakcr.

ic style is much less necessary, and th erefo re
much less suitable, than in those designed fo t
the closet. The speaker may , in most instan

t.:es, by th e skilful suspension of his voic e, give to a
loose sentence the effect of a Period : and though, in
both species of composition, the dis 1)lay of art is to be
gnarded against, a more unstudied air is looked for in
s uch as are spoken .
The study of the best Greek and Latin writers may
be of ,g reat advantage towards the im provement of th e
Styi e in th e point concernillg whic h I have now b ee n
treating , (for the reason lately mentioned,) as well as in
most others : an d there is this additional advantage,
(whi ch, at first sight, migh t appear a disadvantage,) that
the style of a fore ign writer cannot be so closely imitat ed
as that of one in our own language : for thi s reason th ere
will be the less danger of falling into an obvious and ser-

vi le imitation."'

§ 14.
Anti thesis has been sometimes reckoned as one form of
the Period ; but it is evident that, according
to Anllthetti1.
.
'
th e vie w here taken, it has no necessary con nec• J3oli n gbroke m :cy he noted as one of the most Pe riodic of Eng
li s h wr it"rs; Swi f1. a nd A ddi s0 n ( thnu~ h in oth« r rP"J>~ c ts very different frnm cac h othc>r) arc n.mo ng the most l0osc.

C HAP .

I L 9 H.

OF E.i\"ERGY .

2 37

tion with it. On e clause may be opposed to :mother,
hy means of som e contrast Let ween corresponding wonl,;
in eac h, whethe r or no t the c lauses be so connec ced that
the fo rm er could not, by itself, be a complete sentence .
Tac itus, who is one of the most Antithe ti cal , is at 11H~
same time one of the leas t Periodi c, of all the Latin
wrners.
There can be no doubt tha t this fig 11re is calcula ted to
add greatly to Energy . Every thing is rendered more
stri king by contrast; and alm ost every ki11d of sulijcc tmatter affo rds materials for contrasted e:-. pression s.
T ru th is opposed to e rro r; wise conduct to foo lish 1· diffe rent causes often produce opposite effec ts ; differen t circumstances di c tate to prudence opposi te cond uct ; oppnsite impressions m ay be made by the sa me oLject, on
different mind s ; and every extreme is opp osed hot h to
the Mean, and to the other extreme . Jf, th erefo re , the
language be so constructed as to contrast together tlie~ e
opposites , they throw light on each other by a kind of
mutual reflection, and the view thu s prese nte d \\· ill be
the more stri kin g. By this means abo 11·e may oht <1in,
cons istently with Perspicuity, a much gre ater d e~ rc c of
conc iseness; whid1 i11 itself is so co11 ducive to E nrrc:v ;
e . g . " \Vhen R eason is against a man, he " ·ill ' .be
against Reason ; "~ it would be hardly possible to e:-. press th is se ntiment not Antitheti cally , so ns to be clearly
intell igible, except in a much longer sentence . J\ " ai 1;
.....
0
'
"'Vords are the Counters of wise m en, and the ~1onr1'
of fools; " * here we have an in stance
the comLin cJ

or

e_'.'.:_'.:_t _ ~!--~~'.the~~~-~ 1'Ie~~11~0~--~~
• Jlobt..,.

prorlucing i11 -

f

p:

238

ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC.

PART

III.

creased Energy , both directly, and at the same ti~e ,
(by the Conc iseness resulting from them,) indirectly ;
a.rid accordingly in such pointed and pithy expressions ,
we obtain the gratification which, as Aristotle remarks,
result s from " th e act of learning qu ickly and easily."
The Antithetical expression, " Party is the madn ess of
many fo r the gain of a few," affo rds an instance of this
constructio n in a sentence wh ic h docs not contain two
disti nc t clauses . Frequently the same words , placed in
d ifferent rebtio ns with each other, will stand in contrast
to themselves ; as in the expression, "A fool with judges ; among fools , a judge ; " * and in that given by
Qu in ctilian, "Non iit ednm vit-o, sed iit vivam edo; "
" I do not Ji\·e to eat, but cat to li ve : " again, " PerseCLltion is not wrong because it is c ru el ; but it is c ru el
because it is wrong :" anll again, in the beautiful lines,
from th e Arabic, by Sir ·w. Jones :
O n Pare nt knees, a nake d ne w-bo rn child
Weeping thou sat'st wh il"' all around thee smil'd;
So live , that sinking in thy last long ,Jeep,
Th 011 t h ~ n may°•t smile , while all around thee w<·~p .

All of these are instanc es also o f perfe c t Antithesis ,
without Pe riod ; fo r each of these sente nces might, gra111mat ically, be con cl ud ccl in the n1 iddl c. S o also, " It is
[ indeed] a just maxim, that hon esty is th e b est policy;
but he \rh o is gov ern ed by tk1t 1mxim is no t an honest
man . " This anLithcLical se nte nc e is or is not a P eri od,
acco rding as the word " indeed " is in sert ed or omitted.
Of the same kind is an expression in a Speech of Mr.
"\Yyn<lham's, " Some conte nd that I disap prove of tliis
plan, because it is not my own ; it would Le more cor* Cowp<' r .

- --

C11.r .

II .~

14.

or

E1'EltGY.

rect to say , th at it is not my o wn, because I t! isapp: ore

it." *
The use of Antithesis has b een ce nsu red liy some, as
if it were a paltry and affected dccoralion, ui1suitalilc 10
a chaste, natu ral, and masc uline style. Pope, accord ingly, himself One of the most antithe ti cal of" Oitr \\Tit ers,
speaks of it in the Dwic·iad with conte mpt :
I see a Chief who leads niy c hose n Rons,
All a rmed wilh Point:-i , Antith eses, nu d P uns .

The excess, im!ecd , of this styl e , by b etraying artifice .
effec tually destroys Energy ; and draws off th e c'"'ion
attent ion, e\· en of those \\· ho are pleased wi th ;'. ~~;·;:,'X~
effeminate glitter, from th e matter, to tl1e sty le . •illoesi•.
Ilut, as Dr . Campbell obsen- es , "the excess i1self into
whi ch some writers have fall en, is an evid ence of its
value - of th e lustre and emphasis which Antit hesis is
calculated to give to th e expression. Ther,· i:J no r isk
of in te mpP.rance in using a liquor which has ne ithe r sp irit
nor flavour."

It is, of course, impossible to lay down precise rules
fo r determ inin g , what will amount to ex cess, in the use
of this, or of any other fi gure : th e great safogliard wi ll
be th e for~ation of a pure taste, by the study of the mos t
chaste wri ters , and unsparing self-correction . But one
rul e always to be observed in respect to the antitheti cal
constru ction, is to remember that in a true An ti th esis the
opposition is always in the ideas expressed . S ome writers abound with a kind of mock-antithesis , in whi c h
the same, or nearly the same sentiment which is express• G reat pointedness and force is n<l ded to the argument from r ontrarics (P art i . chap. ii . § 6.) by the antithe tical form of c:<1iression.
See note to Part v. chap . iv. § 1.

·~"".~"""'"""'"""';.· '_,.,_.,..._ _ _ _ _ _....._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __..lb,_ _ _ _ _ _ _~--------~--~-----·--

----------~"---

Ef.E,'vlt:NTS OF RIH:TORJU.

I

l'.\l\'r llL

ed by the first clause, is repeated in a second ; or ~
least, in which there is but little of real contrast Letween
the clauses which are expressed in a contrasted form.
T i:is kind of style not only produces disgust in stead of
pleasure , when once the artifice is detected, which it soon
mu st be, but also, instead of the brevity and vigour res11ltinF; from true Antithesis, labours und er the fault of
pro lixity and heaviness. S entences which might liave
been expressed as Jirnple ones, arc expanded into complex, b_v the addition of clauses, which add little or nothing to the sense; and which have been compared to the
false handles and keyholes with which furniture is decorated, that serve no other purpose than to correspond to
the real ones. .Much of Dr. Johnson's writing is chargea\,]e \Yi th thi s fault.
Bacon, in his Rhetoric, furnishes, in his commonplaces, (i. e . heads of arguments, pro and contra, on a vari ety of subjects ,) some aclmira1le specimens of compressed :rnd str iking Antitheses ; many of whi ch are worthy
of being enrolled among the most approved proverbs ;
e. g. "He who dreads new remedies, must abid e old
e vils." "Since things alter for the worse spontaneously,
if" they Le not altered for the better clesigneclly, what end
wili th ere be of th e evil'" "The humblest of the virtues the vulgar praise, the middle ones they admire, of
the highest they hal'C no perception," &c.
It will not unfrequently happen thnt an Antithesis
may be even more happily expressed by the
Antich esf s
w1111uut pcri- sacrifice of the Period, if the clauses are by
od
tliis means made of a more convenient length
and a restinf!;-place provided at the most suitable point:
e. g. "Tlie persecutions undergone hy the Apostles,

01" ENERGY.

1

241

furnished both a trial to lheir faith, and a confirmation to
ours:- a trial to them, because if human honour and
rewards had attended them, th ey could not, even themselves, have been certain that these were not tbei r
ohjec t; and a confirmation to us, bec;;.use they "·011ld
not have encountered such sufferings in the cause of impos ture." If this sentence were not broke n as it is, hut
compacted into a Period, it would have more heavines -;
of eOect, though it would he rather shorte r: e . g. '' The
persecutions undergone by tlie Apostles, furnished both
a trial of their faith, since if human honours, &c . &c.
and also a confirmation of ours, because," &c. Universally, indeed, a complex sentence, whC'lher Antithetical
or not, will often have a degree of spirit an d liveli ness
from the latter clause being made to lurn back, as it
were, upon thP, former, by containing, or referri ng to,
some word that' had there been menti oned : e . g. " Tb e
mtroducers of the now-established principles of political
economy may fairly be considered to have made a great
discovery ; a discovery the more creditable, from the
circumstance that the facts on which it was found ed had
long been well known to all." This kind of styl e al:'n
may, as well as the Antithetical, prove offcnsi\·e if carri ed to such an excess, as to produce an appearance of
affectation or mannerism.

§ 15.
Lastly, to the Speaker especially, the occasional em ployment of the Interrogative form, will often
•
f nfl':-rClr a
prove serviceable with a view to Energy. It <i o n cal!s the hearer's atten tion more for c i!JI}' to some important poi11t, by a personal appeal to each indi vidual, eitl1cr
21

242

ELEMEN TS OF RHETORIC .

PAllT

Jl J.

Cu 1r . Il l. § 2.

OF ELEGANCE.

243

to assent to what is urged , or to frame a reasonable objec-

pa.rt , conduce both to Energy and to B eauty.

tion ; and it often carries with it an air of triumphant defiance of an opponent to refute the argument if he can.
Ei ther the Premiss* or the Conclusion , or both, of any
nrg11111ent, may be stated in this form ; hut it is evid ent,
!Lat if it he introduced too frequently, it will necessarily
fo il of the object of directing a particular attention to
the most impo rtant points. To attemp t to mak e every
1Iiing emphatic, is to make nothing emphatic .
The t1t.ility, however, of this figure , to the Orator at least, is
sufficiently estalJlished by the single consideration, th at
it abounds in th(' Speeches of Demosthenes.

qualities however arc by no means undi stin- Eit'g., 11 ,., .
guishablc : a M e taphor, for instance, may be
1
:1pt, and strikin g , and consequently conduc ive •· """·
t.o Energy of ex pression, even though t.he new i111ag;r-,
introduced by it, have no intrinsic beauty, or be cvrn 1111 plca:;ant; in which case it would be at 1•nria11cc \\ iil 1 El egance, or at least would not conduce to it. Elcg:rnc e
req uires t.hat all hom ely and coarse words and phr0scs
should be avoided, even at the ex pense of circumlocution ; though they may he the most apt anll forc ible tli:1t
language can su pply. And el eg:rnc e impli es a srn 0oth
and easy flow of words in res pec t of the soun d of the
sentences ; though a more harsh and abrnpt mode of e xpression may often be , at least, equally energe tic.
Accordingly, many are ge nerally ackn o\\"l cd ged to he
forcible writers , to whom no one would gi l'c 1lic credit of
Elrgancc ; and many others, who are allowed to be elegant, are yet hy no means reckoned among th e vigorous
and energetic .

CHAP . III.
OJ Elegance .

§ 1.
ON the last qual ity of Style to be noticed, Elegance
or Beauty, it is the less necessary to e nlarge, both because the most appropriate and char:icteristic excell ence
of the cl.1ss of corn positions lien> treated of, is, that EnerSY of \\·hicli I have been s peakin;;, and al so, b eca11:;c
m an y of the rules laid down und er that head, are eq11al Iy applicable \\·iL11 n vi e w to Elegance ; th e same C hoiC'e,
N11mber, and Arrange ment of words, will, for th e most
• T hP i n!1•rro~ativf! 1')rt1' is p:l rtic ula.rly s 11 itahl1~ lo Ila.• min or pre•ni :-<::i nr fl Dilt'llllll il ~ l)(' Cfl lJ ~(' ll 1al dnf'S nnt cat,•gn ri<·ally as~wrt , hnt
l t~ :l \'t'~ 1111 nppo11r- 11 t li is clic)iCl' of ~t·veral ttl tt· rn at iw·~ -

.S •Jpp. tu Parf, iii.

~ G.

See Logie,

The t11·0

::::;\/;;wrp·

§ 2.
"\Yhen the two excellences of Style arc nt v nna n r .~,
the general rule to be observed by the orator r rr fer-nce
is to prefer the energetic to the elegant. Some- or Er.er•y.
times, indeed, a plain, or even a somewhat homely ex pression , may have even a more energeti c effect, from
that very circumstance, than one of more studied refin ement ; since it may convey the id ea of the speaker's
being thorou ghly in earnest, and anxious to conrey his
sentiments, whe re he uses an expression that can have
no othcr rf'co mmendation ; whe reas a strikin ; ly clcga111

214

ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC.

p ART J(J.

CHAI'.

expression may som etimes convey a suspicion that it
was introduced f or the sake of its E legance; which wili
greatly diminish the for ce of wlrn t is said .
Unive rsally, a writer or speaker should endeavour to
1mintain the appearance of expressing himself, not, as
if he 11'anted to say something , but as if be had something to say : i. e. not as if he had a subject set him,
and was anxious to compose the b est essay or declamation on it th at he coul<l; but as if he had some ideas to
\\"Ii ich he was anxious to give utterance;- not as if he
\\·anted to compose (fo r instance) a sermon, and was
desirous of performing that task sati sfac torily, 1ut as if
there was ~omething in his mind whi ch he was <les i~
ous of communicating to his hearers.* This is problt is :tn ad monition whic h probably w ill give offe nce to somt•,
a nJ excite the sco rn of othe rs, bul whic h I cannot but think may
Homcti 111es prove useful to a. young preac he r, th;it he should tu;k
liimsell'1 at the beg inning, and in the co urse, of his compositi on ,· · For
1rhril purpose am I going to preach ? \¥ he re in would any one Ue a
lose r if I were to keep silence ? Is il lik e ly that any one will IParn
so nwthing he wa.s ignorant o f, or be reminded fo rc ibly of so1n e thing
he had fors;nttc n, or that someth in g he w as f;uniliar w ith s l1all ht'.' :-w t
be fore him in a. ne w a.n<l strikiu g point of vie w, o r that snme dillic 111ty will li:tve hec n cxpl itin c d, or tW lllt.: c1mfuse <l jJe a:i rL· ndPn· d

c lear; or, in short, ~h<tt I Hhall al all have edi fied any one? Lel it
not be said, tlrnt l preachrt! b<'camc the re WlLS lo be a Se rmon , and
concl uded whl'n I had sai<l e nnng- li to -occ upy the re <J.ni s it.e ti11ie ;
ca re ful on ly to iwoid any thin g that could excite censure, a nd content lo l•"ve the heare rs just"" 1 found the m . Lel me be "ot satisfied with the lhousan<lth itcrn li on of common- places , on the ground
t h:tt it is all ve ry true, a nd thal it is the fa ult of lhe co ng rel!ation ii
they do nol believe <tnd practise ii ; fo r all thi s is equally the case .
wh ethe r l pr<"ach or not; and if 1tll I ""Y is w hat they not only knew
Lefo r<', but li;Ld heard in the same trite and gene ral state111e n ts an
hu ruln·<l tinH·~ lwfon•, l mi gh t a~ well hnltl 111y p1•at.:c. I ought n ot
to Lf' r.n 11 !'liil1· ri11 !..!" rnt'rPl.Y wh e th er these ar g- 11rn.~n ts -

rno tires- dor·

l

l

'

OF ELEGANCE.

Ill. § 2.

215

ably what Ilp. Butler means when he speaks of a man 's
writing "with simpli c ity and in earnest." I/is manll cr
has this advantage , though it is not only in el egan t, but
often obscure : Dr. Pal ey's is eq ually earnest, and very
perspicuous ; and though often homely, is more im pressive than that of many or our most poli hed wri ters.
It is easy to d isc ern the prevalence of these two <l iflc rent man ners ii! di tfo rent autho rs , respecti\•ely , and to
pe rcei ve the very different effects produced Ly them;
it is not so easy for one who is not really writin; "with
si mplir.ity and in earnest," to assume the ap pe;1ranr. e 0f
it.-* But certainly nothing is mo re adverse to tli is ;ip
pearance than over-refin ement. Any expression indeed
that is vul ga r, in bad taste, and unsuitable to the di gnity of the subj ect, or of the occasion, is to he arnirl ed;
sinc e, though it migh t have , with some hearers, an En ergeti r: effec t, this wo uld be more than counterba lanced
by the disgust produced in others ; and where a small
accession ot' Energy is to be gained at the expense of a
great sacrifice of Elegance, the latte r will demand a
preference . But still, the general rul e is not to be lost
si ght of by him who is in earnes t aiming a l the trne
ultima te end of the orator, to whi ch ail others arc 10
be made subservi ent ; viz. not the amusement of his
trines, &c . are t!tmnselus likely to produce an eff<"ct; but whether
my urging the m will be likely to make a ny d iffe rence as to tir e
effect.

Am I then al.rout to preach merely b?.cau se I want to say

some th ing, o r beca use I lHLve so me th ing to say?'

It is true, a man cannot e xpect co ns t<tnl su ccPs~ in hi ~ r n<le;ivnu r::i;
but he is n ot ve ry likely to s ucceeJ in nny thin g thot is not e ve n tire
ohjcct of his e ndeavours . See n ote Part iii . c hap. i. § :,,
"T hi~ may be o ne re n.sn n why n.n Auth or·~ not1=-s arc ofl.t· n mo re
sp i rit~<l un d more in te r~st in i:: tha n the re"t of his work .

2P

24G

ELEMENTS OF IUfETO RIC.

PART

111.

li ea re rs, nor their admiration of himself, but their Conviction or Persuasion. It is from this view of tl1e suLj cc t tli::it I b::ive dwelt most on that quality of style
\\'hi ch seems most especially adapted to that oLject.
Perspi c uity is req uire d in all compositions; and may
even be conside red as the itllirnate eml of a Scicnlijic
wr iter, considered as such; lie may i11deed practically
increase his utility by writing so as to exc ite c uriosity,
:rnd re commend his subject to general attention ; but i11
doi11g so, he is, in some degree, superadding the office
of tl1c Orator to his own; as a Philosopher, lie may
a s.r nme the existence in his re ader of a desire for knowlc cl0e , and has only to conv ey that knowledge , i11 language
that may l1e clearly understood. Of the style of tli e
01·ator, ( in the wide sense in \vhicb I have been us ing
thi s appellation, as including all who are aiming at Co11vi c tion,) tlic appropriate obj ect is to ·impress the meaning strongly upo n men's minds. Of the Poet, as such,*
th e ult ima te end is to gi11e pleasure ; and accordingly
Elegance or Beauty (in the most extensive sense of
thos e terms) will be the appropriate qualities of his lang 11age .

§ 3.
Some indeed liavc contended, tl1at to give pleasu re

t

'k""':·' nr is not the ultimate end of Poetry; not Ji s~1',;,;·~r'.~';';,te tinguishing betwee n the object which the Poe t
~~::~~\',~,'.?'of may hav e in ,·iew, as a man, and that wliicl1
l>i ctiun.

·

I

·

1s t 1e object o

f Poetry, as Poetry.

• Sec Dr. Coplcston ·s Lc-cturcs o n P oe try.
t Supported in 8ome dt>gree hy the auth o rity of llorncc
Jlut prm/,.,-.,.:c tul unl . f/11.l 1/dr.rla.re Pu cla.:.

Many,

CnAP . 11 l. § 3.

OF ELEG.\NCE.

247

no doubt, may have proposed to th c msch'cs the far
more important ohjec t of producing moral im[>rov e111 en t
in thei r hea re rs tl1ro11g l1 the m edium of Poetry; ancl so
have othe rs, the in c11lcation of their own political or
phih.;ophical tenets , or, (as is supposed in the case o f
the Gcorg ics,) tl1e enco uragement of Agri cult ure : h11t
if the vi clYs of the indi vid ual are to be taken into a<·count, it should be consid e red thJt the perso nal fan1c or
emolument of the author is ve ry frequently his ultima:c
objec t. The true test is easily applied: tliat which to
competent judges :iffords the appropriate pleasure of
Poetry, is goocl poetry, whether it ans\\·cr any other
purpose or not; that whi c h does not afford tlii~ 11lcasure, howev e r instrn c tive it may be, is not good Pnct1·!;,
tho11 gh it may be a valuabl e work,.
It mny be doubted, however, how far these rema rks
apply to the ques tion respecti11g B eauty of p.,..1,v n ot
•
, f
.fj
•
afl' d 0 b co n.t ,lnt•·•I
st'!} le ; smce
the due grat1 icatJon · or e
Y eurh 1> y the
.
,
f
J ]
th ought..
Poetry arises, it may be said, rom tie Jeauty
of the thoughts. And undcubtc1lly if these b e me an
and cornmon -place, th e Poetry will b e \\·orth little; but
still, it is not any fjllality of the thouµ;h ts that constitutes
Poet ry. Not1\·iths t:111 d ing, all tli::1t has hP.r n :1dv:1 1wrcl
by some French c riti cs,* to prove that a work, not in
me tre, may be a Poem, (which doctrine 11·as partly de rived from a misinterpretation of a passage in Aristoilc 's

t

Poetics,)
universal opinion has always giv en a <·ontrary dP.cision. Any composition in 1lersc, (and none
• S!'t> l'reface to Tl:/h11a.<J11<.
t l/t ,).ol }J 1 yni has been t"rronf"ou~ly int.t"'rpn ·tPd :ang_11;lrrc with?ut
11
mr.trl" ln a pa.ssrure wh <" rP.' il Cf>rtal nl y n1''<ln~ 11Jt' l.rC' w1.tkoul 11111 -' · ;
'( .
or, as ' liP calls it ..,1n a not l ler p a.Asage o f l I 1c sa 111t:~ \\.Or i1..: ' / ' l ).01. 11· 1 '''
..,
1

.'

~'

ELEMF:NTS OF RIIETOR IC.

PAnT I [l

that is not,) is always calleJ, whether good or liad,
a Poem, by all who have no favourite hypothesis to
maintain . It is indeed a common figure of spc.cch to
say, in $peaking of any work that is deficient in the
qualities which Poetry ov.glit to exhibit, thut it is not a
Poem ; just ns we say of one wlio wants the characteristic excellences of the species, or the sex, that he is
n nt a man;" :rncl th;1s some have been led to conlound
tosctlicr the appropriate excellence of the thing in rp1estio11, with its essence; but the use of such an expression
as, an " ·i nd(/Jerent" or ''a dull Poem.," shell's plainly
that the tit le of Poetry does not necessarily imply the
requi site Bemities of Poetry.
Poetry is not disti ngui shed from Prose by superior
1Ji<1ine1ion
Beauty of thought or of expression, but is a
of pn t~try
nnot pro<c.
distinct kind of composition ; j- and they produce, when each is exce!lcnt in its kind, distin ct kinJs
of plensure.
Try the experim ent , of merely break ing
up the met rical strnc wre of a fine Poem, and you will
find it inflated and bombast-ic Prose : t remorn this de• I dare-• do all that m;1_v bccornc a rn.an;
Who Jarf's do more , is none. -.ftfu.ch1'lh.
t It is hardly necess:uy to ' emark , th:tt r am not defe nding or
s.f" ek in~ to int.rod nee any 1um~<::1uil or neio ~ensc of the word Poetry;
but , nn thr cnntr:uy, rxplrtining rtnd Yi11dicnting that w hi c h is the
1no:;i t r.11~l(l111ary :unong

all men who have no pa.rticu} 1u thf>ory to
'T' li c m:iss of 11u1uk in d oflen need, indeed, to have the
me:lning of;1 w11rd (i .e. thc iromn meaning) cTp lainedan d dcvclopt:d;
hu t not l'l hove it determined 1cha.t it shall mea n, since that iR detf'rmin<'d hy thP.ir use; the true sense of each word hei ng, that wl1id1.
ts understood by it .
t Jlrn r: f' t11t! ir:1propricty of the prnctice , by no 1nenns uncommon,
of lf.arniu!! rr la11g-1111'!r fro1n its p<1f'try.
Jt i:-:1 li ke lea rnin g Il o1.it1l.Y in,
a /lmccr·grmlrn ; which i • filled with what nre, to the 13otan ist's eye ,
~ u pport.

C nu. Ill.§ 3.

OF ELEG ANCE.

feet by altering the words and th e arrangement; and it
will be belier Proce tl1:in hefore ; th en, arrange thi s
a,;ain i11to metre, 1vithoul any other change, and i~ 11i !l
Le tame and dull Poetry; hut still it will he Poetry, as is
indi cated by the very censure it will incur ; for if it were
not, there wo ulrl be no fa11lt to be found with it ; sin ce ,
\\·Iii le it rcrnai11ed Prose, it 1Y:is (as we h :1·e supj>osed)
unexceptionable . The ci:·cumstance th:Jt tli e s~rne
Stvle which was even required in one kind of compo s1 uo11, proved offell sive in th e other, shews tli :n a different kind of language is suitabl e for a composition in
metre.
Another indication of the essential difference between
the two kinds of compos ition, and of th e supe- r ..!'lr,. ,,, ,,
rior importance of the expression in Poetry, tmn,iatnt. Jc.
is, that a good translation of a Poem, (though,
perhaps , strictly speak ing, what is so called is rath er an
i mitation,) * is read by one well-acquainted with the
origi nal, with equal or even sup P.rior pleasure to that
\\·hi ch it affords to one ignorant of that original ; 1rhereas the best transl at ion of a Prose-work, (at. lea'it of one
not principally vali1eJ for be:1uty of style,) will s•~ldoni
be read by one familiar witl1 the origi nal. And for the
same reason, a fine passage of Poetry will Le rcperuscd,
with unabated pleas ure, for the twentieth time, e1'e11 by
one 1vho knows it by lieart. i'
bca.utifu.l rnonstcr~ ;--eve ry variety of curious and o rnaml~ntal <levi-

nti on from the simple form s.
•A nd nccordi n i;ly it shou lil be ob"e rved, t hat , rw all admit, n one
but n poet can be qnalified to translate n poem.
I Hence it is tlrnt. the w:int of complete Pe rspicuity (siJ<:h i. e. as
puts the read e r insttLntl.y i11 posses.ion or the whole se nse ) is a far

;_.r

;. .

250

ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC.

PART

Ill.

Accordi ng to the views here taken, good Poetry might
be defined, " Elegant and decorated language, in metre,
c.r pressing such and such thoughts : " ;md good Prose
colllposition, "such and siich thoiights expressed in good
lang,uage : " that which is primary in each, being subordinate in the other.

§ 4.
'Vhat k1s been said may !Je illu strnted as fully, not as
it mit;ht be, but as is suitable to the present
A n:'l.l n t!Y hf'twe<·n i'ro;e occa~ion by the followin<r passa""es from Dr.
nu ~! Poi ~ :ry,
'
0
b
~J\~1,k;:;~;

and .:\ . Smith's adrn i:·able fragment of an

Essay on

~,i;~'~;i,;'glng. the Imitative Jlrts: " Were I to attempt to

Jisc r iminate between Dancing and any other
kind of movement, I should observ e, that thoug;h in performing any ordinary action , - in walking, for example,
ac ross the room, a person may manifest both grace and
ag ility, yet if he b etrays the leas t inte ntion of shew in~
ei th er, he is su re of offending more or less, and we never fail to accuse him of so me degree of 1'anity and affectation . In the performance of any suc h ord inary action,
e1' •cry one wishes to appear to be sole ly occupie<l ahout
th e proper purpose of the action ; if he means to shew
either grace or agility, he is careful to conceal that meaning ; and in proportion as he betrays it, which he almost
:ilw:1ys do cs, he offends. Jn Dancing, on the contrary,
every one professes and avows, as it were, the intention
of display ing some degree either of grace or of agility, or
of both. The display of one or other, or both of these
less fau lt in Poetry than in l'rnse. For Poetry, if it be worth reading at :i!l 1 i:; worth reading over and over; which it ·1.oilL he , if it be
Rtdllci~ntly intelligible, on a first perusal, lo excite vivid and pleasing
emutinn ~.

C11AP Ill. § 4.

OF ELEGANCE.

251

qualities, is, in reality, the proper purpose of the acti o11 ;
and th ere can never be any disagreeable vanity or affec tation in following out the proper purpose of an y act ion .
When we say of any particular person, that he gi,·cs
himself many affected airs and graces 111 Dancing, \1·e
mean e ither that he exhibits airs and graces un suitable to
the nature of the Dance, or that he exagg:,erates those
which are suitable . Every Dance is, in reality , a succession of airs and graces of some kind or other, whi c h, if I
may say so, profess themselves to be s11ch. T !1e steps,
gestures, and motion s whi ch, as it were, av o11· the int ention of exhibiting a succession of such airs and gr:1L·e.,,
are th e steps, gestmes, an:I motions \vhich are pec uliar
to Dancing;. * * * * * The distincuon liet1,·cen the
sounds or tones of Singin;:;, a11d those oi Speaking, seems
to be of the same kind with that l'etwce11 the step, k c .
of Dancing, and thos e of any otlier orrlinary ac tion.
Though in Speaking a person may shew a very agre eable tone of voi ce, yet if be seems to intend to shew it ,if he appeai·s to listen to the so und of his own voice, and
as it were to tune it into a pleasing mod 11btion, li e never
fails to offend , as g11ilty of a most disaf';rcc:ililc ali(, ,·tation. In Speaking, as in every o th er ordinary a!'tio11, \\( !
expect and require t\Jat the speaker should ali('11 d 01il:•
to the proper purpose of the action, - th e clear and di, tinct expression of what he has to say. In Sin:;ing;, on
the contrary, every one professes th e intention to plea5e
by the ton e and cadence of his voi ce ; and he not oniy
appears to be guilty of no disagreeable affe ctat ion in
doing so , but we expect and require tli:it he ~d1nuld do
so. To please by the Choice and Arrange ment of agreeable so unds , is the proper purpose of all music, 1·oeal, a3

-,

o I

'.~·~~~~\}:-:~·-·;~·~.~':,.·:

;.•"

Lo,
ELEMENTS OF RllE'l'OltlC.

PAllT

III.

well as i11strumcntal ; and we alway s ex pee l that e very
o ne sho uld attend to the prop er purpose of whatev er action ho is performing. A person may appear to sing,
aJ well as to dance, aifo cteclly; he may endeavour to
please by so un ds imd tones which are unsuitable to the
nature of the song, or he may dw ell too much on those
which are sui table to it. The di sagreeable affectation
aprears to cons ist always , not in attempting to please by
a prope r, b11t by some improper modulation of the vo ice."
it is only nec essary to add, (what see ms evidently to
have Leen in the author's mi11d, though the Dissertation
is left unfi nis hed ,) that Poe try has the same relation to
Prose, ns Danc ing to Walking, and Sing ing to Speaking;
an d that what has been said of tlte111, will apply exactly,
mutatis rnutand·is, to the other. IL is needless to state
this at length; as any one, by going over the 1-1assages
just c ited, merely substituting for" Singing,"" Poetry,''
- fo r "S peaking,''" Prosc," - fo r "Voice,'' "Language , " &c . will at once perce ive th e coinc idence.*
lV hat has been said will not be thought an unnccessa
ry dip·ess io n, by any one who considers (not to me ntion
tlie direct application of Dr. Smith's remarks, to Elocution) the i1nportant p rin c iple thus established in res pect
of the decorations of style : viz. that though it is possible
fo r a po e ti c ~il Etylo to be arlcc tedly and offensively ornamented , ye t the same deg;ree and kind of decoration
whi ch is not only allo wed, b11t required, in Verse, would
~n Prose be d isg11sting ; and that the appearance of at• T h is prnbnl>ly was in Aris tr>tle's mind when he reckoned Poe try
:! mo ng the im1:tative arts ; \•i z. lhat it is imita tive o f 1'rose~_c o mpo~ i­

tion, in tl1e ~ :l m P 111ann<' r is Singin g, of ordin :lry Speaking; n.nJ
D an cing, of ord in ary Action

C11AP.

Ill. § 1.

OF I::Ll:Gi\NCI·:.

() e n

,_ , ) ._ )

l cnl i on to th e Deaut y of t;1e ex press ion, and to tl 1e Ar-

ran ge men t o:" the wo rds, " ·hich in verse is essential, is to
be carefully avo ided in Prose .
And since , as Dr. Smith observ es , " suc h a desig n,
"hen it e xists , is almost always betra)' Cd ·' " F·.l Cl.;:tll t:t• 1>1.
tli e safest rule is , never, du ring the ac t of com- ~.',l,,1 '; ,'.'; .~""'"
po, ition, to st11 dy Elegan ce , or think a bout it :i:;;',':,~', 1°;;:
at all. L et an autho r study tli e hest models - ;::~_" .. ,_,,.,. _
ni:i rk tl ic ir b eauties of style , and dw ell upon
th em, that he may insensiLly catch tlie ha bit of e:xprc~s ­
ing; himself with Eleganc e ; and when he has co mpl e ted
;uiy composition, he may re\' ise it, and c aut iously alter
any passage that is awk ward and h::rsh, as well as tl 1ose
that are feeb le and obscure : but let him ne1·cr, 1chi le
1criting, think o f any beauties of style ; but content
l1i111self with such as may occur spontan eously. Il e
should carefully study Perspicuity as he goes along ; li e
m;:y also, though n:ore cautiously, aim in like mann er, at
En ergy ; but if he is endeav ourin g :i fler E leg;rn ce, he
will hardly fail to betray tl1at endeavour ; :md in pro por·
tio n as be does this , he will be so far from givin 0 pleasure , to good judges, that he will offend more t11a11 1Jy tlic
rudest simplicity.

22

CHAP.

PART IV
OF E LO CUT ION.

CHAP. I.
General Consideral'ions relative lo Elocution.

§ 1.
ON the importance of this branch, it is hardly necessary to offer any remark . Few need to be told that the
effect of the most perfect composition may be entirely
de,troycd, even by a Delivery which does not render it
unintcllig;iblc ; - that one, which is inferior both in matter and style, may produce , if uetter spoken, a more
powerful effect than another which surpasses it in Loth
tliosr, pr>i11t.s ; :ind that cvr,n such an Eloc ution as cloes
not spoil t.iie e ffect of what is said, may yet fall far sho rt
of doi11~ f1 il l ju<;t ice to it. " What would you have said,"
ol,srrvccl 1E~cliine s , when liis recital of bi s great rival 's
celebrated Speec h on tlie Crown was received with a
burst of atlrniration, - " what would you have said, had
you heard /rim speak it? "
The subject is far from having fa! le<l to engage attcn t'.on : of tlic pre;·ailing deficiency of this, more than of
any oth er ri11alification of a perfect Orator, rnany have
complained ; and several have laboured to remove it ·

I.§:.!.

OF ELOCUTTON.

L11t it may safely Le asserte d, that tlieir endcanrnrs J1: n e
l>cen , at the very best, entirely unsuccessful. Probal,ly
nut a single instance could be found of any one who
has attained, by the study of any system of instruction
that has appeared, a really good Delivery; but there
arc many, probably nearly as many as have fully tri ed
tile experiment, who have by this means been tot:tllv
s poiled ;-who have fallen irrecove:·ably into an ai1ec ;ed style of spouting, worse, in all respec ts, than thei r
original mode of Delivery . Many accordingly have, not
unreasonably, conceived a disgust for the subject altogether ; consid ering it hopeless that Elocution should lJc
taught by any rules ; and acquiescing in the conclusio n
that it is to be regarded as entirely a gift of nature, or an
accidental acquire ment of practice. It is to counteract
the prejudice whic h may result from these feelings, that I
profess in the outset a dissent from the princ iples gener'.11:1 adopted, anri lay cJ;_iim to some degree of originality
m my own. Novelty affords at least an opening for
hope ; and the only opening, when former attempts havP.
lllet with total failure.

§ 2.
The requisites of Elocution correspond 1r1 great
measure willi those of Style : Correct Enun- H1•qn i ~ir r- s 0 (
ciation, in opposition both to indistinct utte r- Ell• t:n ti.111.
ancc, and to ?Julgar and dialectic pronunciation, rn;iy
Le c onsidered as :rnswering to Pu 1·ity, Grammatical Pr~­
pricty, and absence of Obsolete or otherwi se Unintelligible words . These qualities of Style, and of Elocution, being eriually rcriuired in common conversation,
do not pro1,crly fall within the province of Rhetoric .

ELEMENTS OF RHETOlt!C .

f'AnT IV .

The thr ee qualities, again, which h;:ive Leen treated of
und er the head of Style , viz. Perspicuity, Energy, and
Elegance, may be regarded as equally requisites of Elocution : ll"hich, in order to be perfect, must convey the
mea1111~g clearly, forcibly, an<l agreeably.

{) 3.
Before ho1Ye1·er I enter upon aoy separate examinaH .. adinc nnd ti on of these requisites, it will be necessary to
~peakin g. premise a few r emarks on the distinct.ion between the two branches of Delivery, viz. Rcad·ing
aloud, and Speaking. The object of correct Reading
is, to convey to the hearers, through the medium of th e
c:ir, what is conveyed to the reader by the eye ; - to
put them in the same situation witlt him who has tlic
book before him; -lo exhibit ro them, in short, by the
voice, not only each word, but ulso all the stops, paragraphs, italic characters, r;otes of interrogation, &c .'"
• It may be s:ii<l, i11decd, that even tol~ rabl c Reading aloud, supplies
more tl1an is Px hihitcd by a book lo the eye; si nce thou g h italics
c. ~ · indi c ate whicb w 0rd is to r£>ccivc th e cmpliasi~, thr-y do not point
out I.lie lune in whic h it is to be pronoun ced; wl1icli may he Psse ntial

to the right und erstanding-of the sentence; r.. g. in l:'.ilJ.Ch u. senf.<"nct• a. 8
in Gern·s is i," Goel said, Le t th f" rc l.>c light; and the re was ligltt :"
hl'rt' w e can indi cate ind eed l.o t!H• <'ye

tha.t th e strces js to be 11prrn

but it nmy be prono11ncccl in diffi.·rc nt to nes; one of which
\vould alte r the sense, by implying that the re wa,s light a.lrcndtf .
Th is is true indeed; and it is also true, that the very words tlH,,;,_
!'.t~lves are not a.lwrLys pre sented to the f'JC with tlie sa1nc c_ll:-;t;nctio 11 s
ii

1r.11s; "

a~ :ire to be conveyed to the car; as, c. g." nliuse,"" rc·fu~e," '' projt'ct,' '
u r1d many others~ n.re pronounced differently, as noun8 anrl as verb~ .

Tlii~ arnhiguity howe ve r in our written tiigns, as w e !! as the other

n ·l:ll.ive to einl'lwti e worJs, are irnp p rfr~ctions whi ch will not misk~n.d
.l 1111·d~·r:1kly practis(•J r4 'ackr .

H .·ad; 11g-

as

I

l\.Iy meaning- in s:qrinrr that such

u:~1 :-;:)(•akin~ of puts the hearers in the ~mn;c situation as if

C11..r. l. § 3.

OF ELOCUTION.

257

which his sight presents to him. His voice seems to
indicute to them, " thus and thus it is 1uittcn in the
hook or manuscript before me." Impres~·ive readin;
sup e raclds to this, so me degree of aduptation of th e
tones of 1'oi ce to the character of the subject, anrl of
th e styie. What is usually termed fine reading seems
to convey, in ad<lition to these, a kind of ndmo11itirrn
to th e hearers respecting the feelings which th e colllposition ought to excite in them: it appears to say ," this
deserves your udmiration ; - this is sublime ; - thi s
is pnthetic, &c." But Speaking , i. e. natured speaki.'1 g 1
1vhen the Speuker is uttering hi s own sentiments, a11d
is thinkin g exclusively of them, bas something in it dis ·
tinct from all this : it conveys, by the so11nds 11·hich
reach the ear, th e id eu, th at what is sai<l is th e eff11sion
of tLe Speak e r's own mind, whi c h h e is d r!sirous of imparting to others. A decisi\'e prnof of wl1i ch is , that if
any one overhears the vo!ce of a11other, to whom he is
an 11tter stranger-suppose in the ne xt room - 1ri tli 011t b eing alJle to catch the sense of what is said , li e ,1·ill
l1ardly ever be fur a moment at a loss to decide whe th er he is Reading or Speaking; and thi s, tho11;l1 th e
hearer may not be 0110 who has ever paid any criti cal
att.ention to the various modulations of the b11man voice.
So wide is the dilforence of the tones employed on
these two occasions, be the subject what it may.~
tJ1e book were before them, is to be understood on the snppMition of
their being able not only lo read, but lo read so o.s to take in the full
sense of what is written.
* "At every sentence le t them ask lh<' msrl ves th is ~11 0sfirm;
How s hnuld r ntt.cr t}iis , we re I Sp('•tking it a.s my own im11H•<li :ll.c
6t' llt i rn t' nts
J have on.i~ n t.ri C".._: an ('Xp e ri1111·11t t•) ~!tC \\" the gre <Lt
J - -

2'2 ~

25S

ELEML'n'S OF RHETORIC.

I'ART

IV.

The difference of efiect produced is proportion:iuly
g reat : the l)ersonal s'ynipath·y felt towards oue
:\t H·nt ion
conne('!"' 1 wlio a1)1Jears to be delivering his own sentiWlth Sy mpath y.
rnents is such, that it usually rivets the attention, even involuntarily, though to a discourse which appears hardly worthy of it. It is not easy for an auditor
to fall asleep while he is hearing even perhaps feeble
reasoning, clothed in indifferent language, deliv ered exte mporan eously, and in an una ffected style ; whereas it
is common for men to find a difficulty in keeping themselves awake, while listening even to a good dissertation,
uf the same length, or even shorter, on a subject, nut
u11 in teresti11g to them, when read, though with . Propriety, and not in a langu id manner. And the thoughts, even
of those not disposed to be drowsy, are apt to wander,
llnless they use an effort from time to time to prevent
it ; while, on the other band, it is notoriously difficult
t.o with drnw our attention, e ven from a trifling t;,ilker, of
whom we are weary, and to occupy the mind with refle ction s of its own.
Of th e two branches of Eloc ution which have been
just mention ed, it might at first sight a ppear as if one
diffi·rc·n c0. hc twf'rn th e::iP. two rnode?:J o f ut.t1·rance, the rnLlural auJ
the artificial ; which was, tha.t when 1 fonnd a pe rson of viva r. it.y
dPli\'f.'Ting his senti1nents with energy, and of course with a.It that
varie ty of tones which nature furnir:;}ws, l have t:Lken occ;u~iou to
put somethi ng into his hand to read, us relative to the topic of conVC'r sat.ion; nn<l it was surprising to see wiJut an imrncdiate change
the re was in l1if' Del ivery, from the rnomeat he began to read. A
ddfo rcn t. pi tc h of voice took pi:ice of his natural one, and a te diou•
uniformity o f cade nce succeeded to a spirited variety; insomuch
that a blind 111a n could haruly co ncei ve •he person who read to bA
the •an1c who h<t<l just bee n spe'lking." Sheri1!.rn, //rt lf I/coding.

CHAP.

I. § 3

OF ELOCUTION.

259

only, that ol the Speaker, came under the province of
Rheto ric. I3ut it will be evident, on consideration. that
both must be, to a certain e.-::tent, regarded as connected
with our present subject; not merely becau5e many ol
the same principles are applicable to both, but because
any one who delivers (as is so commonly the case) a
written composition of his own, rnny be reckoned as belonging to either class : as a Reader who is the nut ho r
of what he reads, or as a Speaker who supplies the defi ciency of his memory by writing. And again, in the
(l ess common) case where a Speaker is deliv erin g wi thout bouk, and from memory alone, a written r,o mp osition,
either his own or another's, though this cannot in strict ness be calleJ Reading, yet the to ne of it will be very
likely to resemble that of Reading. In the other case, that where the author is actually reading his ow11 composition, he will be sti ll more likely, notwithstnn ding its
being his own, to approach, in the Deli very of it , to the
Elocution of a Reader; and, on the other han d, it is
possible for him, even without actually deceiving the
hearers into the belief that he is speaking ex tempore, to
apprcach indefi nitely near to that s tyle.
Tl~e diilicult.y however of doing this to one who ha.5
the writing act11:illy before him, is consiclerr1hle ; and it
is of course far greater when the composition is nnt his
0\\11. And as it is evident from wliat has been said ,
th;.it th is (as it may be called) Extemporaneous style of
Elocution, is much the more impressive, it becomes an
interesting inquiry, how the difficulty in question may
best be surmounted.

2GO

ELDIENTS OF RHETORIC .

l'ART

IV.

§ 4.
Little, if any, attention has Leen besto\\'ed on this
point by the writers on E locution ; the disArtifi ··i" 1
m1c .,,.
t:ncti01• above pointed out bet1Veen Reacl i11g
l :iu1;ut io n.
and Sp1~aki n g hav ing seld om, or never, been
pre<.:iscly stated and dwelt on. Several however hal'c
writt en cL1horat.cly on «good Read ing," or 011 Elocutio11, gc11cra /l y ; an d it is not to be denied, tliat. so lllc
i11sc11io11 s and (i n themselve~) valuable remarks hav e
li et; n 1hro1\·n out relative to such !]Ualitics in Elocution
as llli g;ht be classed under the three heads I have laid
do\\·n, of P erspicuity, Energy, and Elegance: but
thl're is one prin ciple rnnning through all their precepts,
\\·hich being;, ;1 cco rding to my views, radically erroneous,
lllllSt (if those vi ews be con-ect) vitiate every system
fo1 1ndcd on it. The principle I mean is, that in order
to ac,.p1i rc the best style of Delivery, it is re<]uis:te to
stlldy a1dytic:1lly the cmph:ises, tones , pauses, degrees
of loudnc:<s, &c. which gi\·e the prope r effect to each
pa:-:<;1y;e that is \\·ell del ivered - to frame rules found ed
" 11 tlie observati on of these - and then, in practice, deJil1crately and carefully to conform the utterance to these
rnlc ~ , so as to form a complete artifi cial systc::m of
Elocution .
That such a plan not only directs us into a ci rcuitous
and di ffic ult path, towards an object whi ch may be reached by a shorter and straighter, but also, in most instances,
c0mpletely fails of that very obj ect, and even procuces,
oftener than not, effects the very reverse of what is desi£;ned, is a doctrine for which it will be necessary to
o fi~~ r somr. re:1, ons ; e'pcrially as it is und eniabl e that

C1ur. I. § 4 .

OF ELO CU TION .

:2(i I

the system here reprobated, as elllploy cd 111 1! 1c r.n'e
of Eloc utio n, is precise ly that rccommcndcJ and tauc;lit
in tl:is very Treati se , in respect of the condu<.:t of .},._
rrumenls . By analyzing the best co mpositi ons, and oh o
!
.
ser ving what kinds of arguments, and 11·hat t ll ( •t es o!
arranging them, in each case, prove most sun:essful,
gener,1 1 rules have been frnmed , \d1ich an aut_li.ur 1:; reconi rnei•ded studiously t.o observe in Colllpos111 on : :ind
this is precisely the proced11rP. wl1icl1, 111 El1w11 tio 11, I
deprecate . The reason for making such a i:".,., 1,.,,""
difference in th ese two cases is this : wlioc\· er :;;,,\";',~ 1 ·
·
;. ti, ll\ •·n t o
(as Dr. A. S"1111· tl1 remar l-:s m
t}1 ~ pass:1c-:c
1.,. '""""h'
lately cited) -11 appears to \Jc attcnd11.1g to !11s :::"~~·_:'"';'"
O\~n utterance , which \\·ill almost 1ne\·1;al .l y
be th e case \\'ith every one \1·ho is <loin,; rn, is s11re to
(Ti ve offence, and to be censured for an an ;·cted dche ry ;
o
. I
because every one is expected to attend cx1· l1 1s11·e y to
the proper object of th e action he is eng'.lg;cd ill ; 1rliich,
in this case, is the exp ression of tl1c tlio 11 ;,;hts - not the
sound of the expressions. "\Vhoe\'Cr tl1ercfure learns,
and endeavours to :1 pply in practi ce , any artif1('i :i1 rules
of Elnc utioll, so as deliberately to mod 1ilat1' l1is \·t1in:
confonnably to tl1e prillciples lie has :1dn1 11,·ci , (l1t11\· ever just they may be in them sel ves,) \1·il l l1ardly l' ' 1·r
fail to betray his intention; 1rhich aka) s g in· ~ of\:1wc
when p erc e i~·c d. Arg;urne 11ts , on the co ntrary, 111.H1l I 1c
deliberately fram ed : whether any one's course o! r":1' onillg be sound and judi cious, or not, it i-; 11 c1·1''":1ry, :u1d
i~ is expec ted, that it should be the rc~ ult cf dioug;ht.
No one, as Dr. Smith observes, is cli:iq;ed with affect a-

'

r~:

r:

1

•See Part iii. ch. iii. § 4. p. 2:;0.

"

I.

,.,,

2G2

ELF.NI F~NTS OF IUIF.TOTUC.

Prn-r IV.

tiou tor giving his anention to the proper object of the
action he is engaged in. As therefore the proper obj ect of the Orator is to a<lduce convincing Are;uments,
and topi cs of Persuasion, there is nothing offensive in
his appearing deliberately to aim at this object. He
may in deed weaken the force or what is urged by too
great an appearance of elaborate composition, or by excni 11g suspicion of Rhetorical trick; but he is so far
from being expected to pay no attention to the sense of
\\'hat l1c says, that the most powerful argument would
lose much of its force , if it were supposed to have been
th rown out casually, and at random . ]Jere therefo re
the emp loym ent of a regular system (if found ed on just
pri nciples) can prod uce no such ill encct as in the case
of E locution : since the habi tual attention which that
impli es to the choice and arrangement of argu r.-ic11ts, is
such :is must take place, :it any rate ; whether it l1e
(;Ond ticlcd on :iny se ttled principles or not. Tl1c 011ly
difference is, that he who proceeds on a correct system,
1rill think and del ibera te con ce rn ing the course of his
R easoni ng to better purpose than he who docs not : he
wi ll do well and easily, what the other doeg ill, and wiib
more labour. Bo th alike must bestow their attention
011 the .JI foll er of what they say, if tliey would produce
any effec t ; bot h arc not only ullowed, but cxµcct c<l to
do so.
Tlic t11·0 opp os ite mod es of proceeding therefore
which arc rec om mended in respect of these two points,
(the Argument and the D elivery,) arc, in fact, both the
rc~ ult of the same circumst an ce ; viz. that the speaker
is ex pected to Lestow his whol e attc11iion on the proper

C11Ar. I. § 5.

OF !::LOC UTION.

2G3

busi:iess of his speech, whi ch is, not the Elocution , bat
the Matter."'

§ 5.
¥\'hen however I protest against a 11 artifi cial systems of Elocu tion, and all direct attention to
1
Delivery, at the time, it must not he sup- ~~",;":'.', ·
posed that a g eneral inattention to that point i-:i..c""""·
is recom mended; or that the most perfect Eloc ution is
to be attained by never thinking at all on the subj ec t ;
though it may safely be affi rm ed that ernn tl1is ncgatirn
plan " ·ould succeed far better than a stud ied modu l;ition.
Hi.:t it is evid ent that ii any on e wishes to assume the
Sp eaker as far as possible, i. e . to deliver a written co mposition with some degree of the manner and effe ct of
one that is extemporan eous , he will have a considerable difficulty to surm ount: sin ce though this may be
call ed, in a certain sense, the NAT U RA L M A1'i NER, it is
far fr om being what he will naturally, i. e . spontaneously, fall into . It is by no mean s n;1tural fur any on e to
read as if he were not readin g, but speakin g. And
;1g'1 i11, ev en \1·hen any on e is reading \1-h:i t he docs not
wi sh to deli1· cr as hi s own co111positi on, :is, for in st;111cC' ,
a porti on of the Scriptures, or the Liturgy, it is C \ i11' 11t
that this may be done better or worse, in infinit e degrees ; and that though (according to th e Yi cws li crc
taken) a studied attention to the sounds uttered, at tl1e
•St y le occupi es in some n ·!"l pects an 1n te r mPd iatc place hctw t•(· n
two; in what de gree f•ach quality of it sho 11l d ur slioui J no l
be made an objec t of atte ntion ttl llt e tim e of cnmposi.,,g, and how fo r
the " r. pea ranee of Huc h attentiou is tole rntcd , lice" ueeu al re au y : rl'a ttli i~se

e<l of in th e 1m'ceding Pnrt.

264

ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC.

PAnT IV

CHAI".

time of uttering them, leads to an affected and offensive
delivery, yet, on the other hand, an utterly careless
reader cannot be a t;ood O[ e.

CHAP. II.
.11.rtifiC'ial and Nat ural JJ[ethods compared.

§ l.
\Vi lli a vi ew to ~>erspicuity then, the first requ1:01tc
in all Delivery , v;z. that quality whic h makes
R earlint: .
the ·meaning fully und erstood by the hearers,
the great point is that the Read er (to confine our attentio:1 for the present to that brancl 1) should appear to
tmdcrstand \rhat he r eads . If th e co mposition be, in
i t s e~f, intelligible to the persons addressed, he will make
th em fully und erstand it, by so delivering it. But to
this end, it is not enough that he should himself actually underswnd it; it is possible , notwithstanding, to
read it as if he d;d not. And in like manner with a
vi e w to the quality, which has been here called Enero-y
t:> J
it is not suffo:ient tb:-it h e sho11ld himself feel, and be
irnpres,- ed with the fo rce o f wh::it he ntters: he may,
notwi thstand ing, deliver it as if he were unimpressed.

§ 2.
The re11ierly that has been commonly proposed for
these defects, is to point out in such a work,
Sher!.!;111
for ins tance, as the Li turgy, which wonls 01·1gln

l

j

i

j

j

l. §

~-

UF ELUCUTJUN.

265

to be marked as e mpliatic , -·-in what places tl1e vrnc e
is to be suspended, raise d , lo\\'ered, &c. On 0 of the
best \\Titers on the subject, She ridan, in his Lectures on
the .fl.rt of Reading ,* (whose remarks on man y points
coincide with the principles liere laid do,,n, th orn:h he
differs from me on the main question - as to the~ S\·ste m to be prac ti cally followed with a 1·iew to th e p·ropose<l object, ) adopts a peculiar set of m arks for dC'noti ug th e different pauses , em !1liases , &c. and applies
these, with accompanying explanatory observations, to
t11e grea ter part of the Litmgy, and to an E ssay subjoined ; recommend ing that the habit should lie formed
of r egulating the voice by his marks ; and th at after
wards re aders should "write out such parts as they 11·ant
to deliver properly, wi tho ut any of the usual sto pc; ;
and, after having considered them \\'ell, ma rk tlic pauses
and emphases by the new signs whi ch ha1·c been ;ui nexed to them, according to tlrn best of their judgmcr1t,"

t

&c .
To the adoption of any such artificial scheme tl1crc
are three weighty objections; first, that the proposl d
system must nec essarily be imperfect ; secondly, tl1at if
it 11·ere perfect, it would be a circuitous path to the
obj ect in view ; and thirdly, that even ii both those objections were removed, the object would not he effec t11ally obtained
• SPc n ote p. 2:)6. lt is to lie ohs<>rved, h owrv er, that nwst of
th e ol1jPctions I have au1luce<l do not apply to thi• or that systr·111 i11
pa rticu lar; l<J Slu: ridart':-:i, !Or inslnncc, ns diRtin gu isliPd fr111n \V :dKer'R; l1ut, to all s uch sy:;temR generally; ai;: may be i:wen frnrn w i1:tt
is said in the presPnt section.
f :ice Appendix, [ L]

23

2GG

ELEMF.NTS OF lllfETOJ: re.

i-'A R1'

JV.

First, such a system rnust necessarily Le imperfect,
''" Perf•:o bec::iuse, though the emphatic word in e::ich
li .. 11 11f lite
"'' ici .. ia l
sentence may easily he po in ted out i11 writinl'",
sp1te111 .
D
no rnriety of rn::irks, that co uld be inv ented , not even musical notation,- would suffite to in dicate
the diffe rent tones* in which the different em pkttic
words should be pronounced ; though on this depends
frcrp 1ently the 11·hole force, and even sense of the cx prcs:< 1on. Take, as an i11stance, the wo rds of Macbet h
in th e witches ' cave, when lie is ad dressed by one o.f
tlie Spirits wh:ch they raise, " .Macbeth ! Macbeth!
.:.\racbetli ! " on which he exclaims, "Had I three ears
I'd he~u· thee ; " no one would dispute tlwt the stress
is to be laid on the word " three ; " and thus much
might be indicated to the reade r's eye ; but if he had
nothing else to trust to, be might chance to deliver the
passnge in suc h a manner as to be utterl y absmd ; fo r
it is pos~ible to rronounce the emph::iti c word "three,"
i11 s11cli a tone a5 to indi cate that "sin ce lie has bu t two
ca1·s lie cannot he~1r . " Ao-a
in ' the followi110-a 1i-(1~os·i"e
v
· 'v '
( ,\Ltrk i1' . 21.) " Is a candle brought to he put under a
bushel, or und er a bed, " I have heard so pronounced
ns to imply that there is no other alterna.t·i'l!c : and yet
th e c1npk1sis was laid on the ri,i;ht words. It would be
ne;i rly as hopeless a tnsk to attempt ad erp1ately to convey , by any ll"rittcn marks, prec ise direc ti ons as to the
ralc, - th e degree of rapidity or slown ess,- with which
e:ich sentence and clause sho uld be deliv ered. Lon ger
and shorter pauses may in dee d be eas ily denoted ; and
m ark~ may he used, ~im i hr to th ose in music, to indicat e, ge1 ~ era lly, quick, s low, or moderate time; but it is

C11AP.

II. §. 2.

OF ELOCUTION.

267

ev ident that the variations wl1ich ac tually take place are
rnfini te - far beyond what any marks could suggest ;
and that much of the force of what is sa id depen ds on
the deg ree of rapid ity witli whi ch it is tille red ; chiefly
_on the r elati ve ra pidity of one part in comparison of
another: for instan ce, in such a sentenc:e as the follo\\·ing , in one of the P salms, which one may usually hear
read at one unilorm rate ; " alJ men that sec it shal l sny,
tlii s hath God done ; fo r they shall perceive that it is his
work; " the four words " this h::ith God <lone " tbmio-li
' time "'in
rnonosyllaLlcs, ought 10 occupy very little less
ulter.i nce than all the rest of the verse together.
2dly, Dut were it even possible to br ing to the highest perfoction th e prorosed system of marks, Circni to'l<it would still Le a circuitous road to the desired ~;,~~ c':,1: 1 '" 0
end . Suppose it c0uld be compl etely inJicat- •)''1"111 •
ed to the eye, in what tone eac h word and sentence should
bj pronounced according to the several occasions, the
learner migh t ask, "but why sho uld this tone suit the
awfu l, - ll1is, the patheti c, - this, tlic narrative :tvle )
why is thi s r.1ode of delivery adopted fo r a conm1a1Hi, this, for an ex hortation, - thi s, fo r a supplication ? " &1·.
The only answer that could be givP,n, is, that th ese tones,
emphases, &c. are a pnrt of the langu:tg ; - that natu re, or custom , which is a second nnt11rc, suggest spontaneously these diftercnt modes of givi ng expression to
the different thoughts, feel ings, and designs, \\'hich arc
present to the mind of any one who, withot.:< stt1dy, is
speaking in earn est hi s own sen timents. Then, if tl1i-;
he the case, why not lc<:x c natur1; to do her O\\"n work )
l1 npn:ss but the 111 i11 d fully 1vitl1 th e scntimc: its, f.a·. In
be uttered ; withdraw tl1 c attentio n fro111 the sound, and

268

ELEMENTS OF RHETO RI C.

3. L;t>tly, wai1·ing Loth the ahorn oLjcctions, if a person could learn tli11s to read and speak , as it Ap; "''"" ""'
\Y erc , &y nolc, \1·itl1 the same fluency and ac- ~'; "'~ '; ::~:;;;
. j j
• l
f · · er ill:! frnri1 l hr:
c 11racy as are atta111a
J e 111 tic case o smgrn b, "'"Ii' r:.i >) •·
still tl 1e desired ol 1jcct of a pc!-f"ec tl y na l:iral '"""
as well as correc t Elocut!on, wou ld never Le in tl1i~ \1·ay
at tai1 1cd. T he reade r 's au ention being fixed 011 lii s
own 1·oi cc, (1•J!iich in singing, and th ere only, i ~ allu11·cd
and expected,) the incv'1table conseri 11encc would be that
lie 11·ould Lctray more or less his studied and artifreial Delivery; and would, in the same degree, manifest an offensi1·e affectation. "'

fix it on the sense ; and nature, or habit, will spontaneously suggest the proper Delivery . That this will
be the case is not only true, but is the very supposition
on which the artificial system proceeds ; for it professes
to teach the mode of Delivery naturally adapted to each
occasion . It is surely, therefore, a circuitous path that
is proposed, when the learner is directed, first to consider
how each passage ought to be read ; i. e. what mode of
delivering each part of it would sponlcmcously occur to
him, if he were attending exclusiv ely to the inatter of
it ; then to observe all the modulations, &c. of voice,
whi ch take place in such a Delivery : then, to note these
down, by established marks , in writing ; and, lastly, to
pronounce according to these marks. This seems like
rccom!nending, for the purpose of raising th e hand to the
mouth, that he should first obsenre, when performing
that action without thought of any thing else, what muscles arc contracted, - in what degrees, - and in what
orde r ; then, that :;e shoul d note clown these observati oris ; and lastly that he should, in conformity wi rh these
not.cs, contract each muscle in due degree, and in proper
order ; to the encl that he may be enab: ed, after all, to lift his hand to his mouth ; which, lJy supposition, he had
alr·carly done . Such instruction is like that bestowed by
Molicrc's pedantic t11tor upon hi s Bourgeuis Gcntilhomme, who was ta11ght, to his infinite surprise and delight, what configu rations of the mouth he employed m
pronouncin.i; the several letters of the alphabet, which he
liar! been accustomed to utter all hi s life, wi thout know-

1

§ 3.
The practi cal nrl e th en to be adop ted , in conformity
with the principles here maintained, is , not 1,, 0 1,, " 1
only tn pay no studied attention to the voice, ;::" 1','~"~~.~:~~~·
but studiously to 1cithilrmo the th oughts from e d.
it, ::md to dwell as intently as possib le on the Sense ,
trusting to natmc to s11[!;gcst spo11t:111cously the prop er
cmplnses and tones. -f Ile who not only 1111dcr, 1and s
• Jt

,.

11

Qn 't•sl rr.

JJHU\\'

w1s, g1tve at

0 .P .Ala.is j~
which, if not savourin g of Philosophical u.nalyl\ good pnLcti cal soluti on of the problern.

qw•. 'Cnll.S .fn.itrs q11.111ul 1J011.S ]'TO'lumccz
~nswcr

lea~t

~ li o u ! J

lie ub ~wrvl'd , l1owc.·v1 · r , ll1al, in tlie rc;1din~ nf tli 1 • I.it

ur!!y f~ :"Jwt ial l_v, sn man y

in~ how . '~

dis, O ! " - /\rt

2G9

OF ELOCUT I ON.

CnAr. II. § 3.

P rn-r IV

'

I

g- rq s!i faults ar, . lu·co 111(' qu ilt· fo111ili ;1r tn

frn 111 w h at tl 11 •y ore 1u:c w;to111ed tu li c;..ir, i f n ot fr n 111 1.lit·ir own

prac~i~f', a.M to re nder it pcc11 li:irly <lifll cult to unl ear n , or f '\' •'!l df·t{·1 ·t
thoin i and n!! an aid toward s the ex posu rc ol su c h faul ts, the re 111 ay
he g reat advant11ge in study in g Sheridan's cbscrvations and dirl'c. tions res p~ctin g the delivery of it; provided care be take n , in prac!irr,
to keep clear of h is faulty prin ciple, by wi thdrawing the attentio n
from th e sou n d of th e voice, as care fully as he recomm e nds it to be
rlirecf.cd to that point.
t Mnny pe rso ns are so for impressed with the trn th of the doc trine
here incu lcated , as to acknowledge that "i t is a g"reat fault for n.
rr:1df' r to hf> too mvrh nr.. ~ 11 pird w ith tl 1nn["!it:-< rf':::prr i11:! Ii i ~ nwn
\ 'OJ Cr' ; '' and th ns tliry 1l1ink to s l •·e r a lflidd le l'.11 ur :-:L' i>"l\\'r1·n 11p1 •11
23"

270

ELEMENTS OF RllETOIUC.

PART

IV.

fully 11h:-it he is reading, but is earnestly occupying his
mind with the matter of it, will be likely to read as if li e
understo od it, and thus, to make others understand it;!!
and in like manner , with a view to the impressiveness of
the Delivery, he who not only feels it, out is exclusively
absorbed wi th th at feeling, will be likely to read as if he
felt it, :.md to communicate the impression to his hearers .
But. tliis c:-innot be the case if lie is occupied wiih tl1e
t!iout;ht of what thei r opinion will be of his reading, and,
how l1is mice ought to be regulated;- if, in short, lie
is thinking of himself, and, of course, in the same degree,
abstracting his attention from tl'.:::t which ought to occupy
it excl usively.
It is not, indeed, desirable , .that in reading the Bible,
for example, or any thing which is not intended to appear as las own composition, he should deliver what are ,
site PxtrcnH's. ]hit it should be n'mcmb~red that thi s middle course
entirely nulli fies the whole ad vantage prop0sed by the plan recom1uc1Hled. A rc;idc r is su re to pay too uiw;/L atte ntion to his vo ice, not
only if li e pays "'"} nl <Lii, but if he docs not s trenuous ly litbou r to
11)i/hdm.10 hi~ attrntiun frnm it altngcthcr .
... \Vho, fo r in8tance, that was really tlt.inhing of a resurrection from
the <le ad, would ever tell any one that our Lord" r ose again from the
<lead ;" (which is so common a mode of rc"ding the Creed ,) ""if He
had done sn rnorc than once ? It is to be obs1.•rve <l> howe ve r, tha.l it
is n ot c n nugh for n rend e r to li ;Lve his rnin<l fix e d Oil the s ulQcct;
without rc!;nrd to the occasion, &c. It is P°""ible to r end a prny1·r
well, with the tone and rnanner of a man who is not pra,ying: i.e .
addressing tl1e D e ity~ but addregsing the a.1ulicncc an<l reciting a. form
of words fo r their in stmction: :rncl such is generally the case with
t.ho :-w who art! cornmc ndcd a~" fine re1tders" of the Litu rgy. Ex t.empnrnr1eou s prayers are generally delivered, with spiri t indeed, but
(nfler the few first sentences) not as pray e rs, hut as cxlwrtritions to
the co11g-n·gation

CHAP

II.§ 1.

OF ELOCUTlON.

271

avowedly, another's sentiments, in the same sryle , as if
they were such as arose in his own mind ; but it is dcs1r
able that he should deliver them as if he were rcporti 11g
another's sentiments, which were both fully uncle . stood,
and felt in all their force by the reporter; ancl iii~ only
\vay to do th is effectually, - with such rn,.odula1 iPn s of
voice, &c . as <lre suitable to each word and pa5sa;e, is to fix his mind earnestly on the mean:ing, and lca 1·c
nature and habit to suggest the utterance.
t '

§ 4.
Scme may, perhaps, suppose that this amounts to 1hr
same thing as taking no pains at all; :rnd if,
1
1
with th is impression, they attempt to try the ex- ;~;'. ;,:.":, ,:~·.'..
periment of a nntural delivery, thP.ir i11- surrr~s r:ii riiann n .
;··,

will probably lead them to censure the proposed metl1od,
for the failme resulting; from their own misu1kc . In trufh,
it is by no means a very easy task, to fix the attention 011
the meaning, in the manner and to the degree now proposed. The thoughts of one who is readi nr, ai1y thing
very fnrniiicir to him, nm apt to w:rndcr to ot!1 cr ,t1hj1-.·i",
though perhnps sw:li as arc connected witl1 llr:11 11 hid1 I:'
before him; if, a;nin, it be someth ing ne11 10 him, he ,,
apt (not indeed to "·ander to another s11hjf'ct, b111) 10 ~ ·· t
the start, as it were, of his read ers, a1rd to he thinki n?; ,
while uttering each sentence, not, of that, hnt of the sc 11tence which comes next. Ant! in bo1h cases, ii he~ i·s
careful to m'oid those faults , an<l is desirn11s of rr·:1di1:c;
w ell, it is a matter of no sm;il l diffic11lty, :rnd c:1lls fc• ~
constant effort, to prevent th e mind from 11·anclering i11
11nother direction ; viz. into thou~hts rcsper·ting his own
voice, -

respecting the effect producect hy each sound , --

t··

'

27'2

ELCME'.'ffS OF lUIETOillC.

the approbati on be ho pes fo r from the hearers, &c.
And thi s is th e prcv:...:1 ing fault of tl1ose \\'ho are comn1011ly said to take great pains in th eir reading ; pains
which will always be taken in vain, with a view to the
true objec t to be aimed at, as long as the effort is thn s
applied in a wrong direction . \ Vith a view, ind eed, to a
rn rr dincrcnt object, the approbation besto wed on tl1e
r c::id i11~, tl1i s artificial dcliv·cry will often he more succ·c,s[ul tha1 1 the natural. Pompous spouting, :ind niany
other desrriptinns of unnatur:il Lone :ind rn~1smcd cadence, :ire frcri11cntly :idmircd by rn :my as exce llent
read in~; \\ lii ch :idmi ra tirrn i,.; itself a proo f that it is not
d··sc1Tcd ; for when the Delivery is reall!J good, tl1e
lie:1rcrs (~xrcpt any one \\·ho may deliberately set bim ~c lf to observe and critici se) never think about it, bu t are
exclus ively ocrnpicd 11·fth th e sen se it conl'eys , and the
fo elin p it exc it es .
Still more to increase the diffi culty of the method here
recommended , (for it is no less 11"ise than hon/\d \" :l n l :t t:• ·<.;
,.f 1111 1' :1\l nn
1•ri' •'l1i.l n l l•y est to t:ikc a fair 1·iC'11· of clinic11ltics,) thi s c irtll!' a1! 11J•lln n
C'11mstn nce is to he 11 oti ce cl, that he who is
t1 fll 1(· 11:1tu r:ll
cndr,;i,· our in ~ to hrin;!; it into pract ice, is in a
?:n·at dc~rC'c preclud ed from the advantnge of imitation .
A pcr~o n who hears :rnd ;ipprovcs n good rcarlcr in the
JViitural manner, rnn;', in deed, so far imitate hi m will1
acl vantagc , as to adopt hi-< plan, of fixing his attention
on the m:ittcr , and not thinkin g ahout hi s voice ; but thi s
very plan, evidently, by its nature , pn~ c·lud es any further
in,itat ir1n ; for if, while rcadillg, lie is thi uki11g ur copying
the man ner of !tis mocl<'l, li e 11 ill, for that very reason,
Le 1U1like that model ; the main prin ciple of the propo ~ P d mPthnd hr> in;-:, r·ardul! y to cxr-11lflc c1·ery s11ch

CHAP .

Ill. § 1.

OF ELOCUTION

273

thought. "\Vhere0s, any artificial system may 1s easily
be learned by imitation as the notes of a song.
Practice also (i . e. private practice for the sake o!"
learning) is much more difficult in the propos1nac 11ce
ed method ; because the rule being to use of
1• r1·r l 11ol •·d hy
l ll •· a.i !•Jl ll•·n
such a delivery as is suited, not only to the m at - .,( t lw \; 1! 11 ter of \vhat is said, but also, of cou rse, to the ral niaurwr.
place, and occasion, and this, not by ::my studied mod ul ation s, but acco:ding to the spolltancous suggcs tio11:; uf" <lie
matter, place , and occasion , to one whose mind is ft1 lly
an d exclusively oc cupi ed with these , it foll ows, that he
who \>'O tild practise this mctl1nd in Jlri1·o ! c, rnt1 s1, 1.:: ci
stro ng dfort or a vi1,id imag;ination, fi:;me to lii111'1 ·:1· a
place anti an occasion which arc not present; otherll'i sc ,
he will either b1! thinking of his deliv er!/ , (1d1ich is fatal
to hi s proposed objec t.,) or else will use a dcli re ry s11itcd
to the situation in w!tich he nctually is, and not, to tl1at
for whi ch he wo11lcl prepare himself. Any system, on
the con•rary, of studied cmpk1sis and rcg; ulation of t !ic
voice, may be learned in private practice , as easily as
s111gmg.
Ad\":l.rJT:t::-•: !-1

,.,

''

fl i ; alll !I'(,

;,·

"'
)

CHAP. III.
C onsiderations arising from the differences /;ctircc'I\

Reading and Speaking.

§

I.

Some additional obj ec tion s to the method I lt:l\·e rPcommeJ1ded, and some fui·thcr remarks on the co1111t crbal

.,

274

ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC.

PART

IV.

ancing -1dvantagcs of it, will be introduc ed pres.ently,
when I shall have first offered some observations on
Speakin:;, and on that branch of Reading which the
most nearly approac hes to it.
·when any one delivers a writteu composition, of which
he is, or is supposed to profess himself, th e author, he hus
peculiar d ifficulties to encounter,* J his obj ect be to approach as nearly as possible to the extempo ran eous style.
11

I l mi ht be a<lmitll·<l, lunve ver, lli:J.t (tu tli c 1nc ruUcrs uJ' our
Ch urc h) the diffic ulty of reading the Liturgy wii.11 spirit, and eve n
with prop ri ety, is sornething pPculia.r, on account nf (wha t. has Lee n
a lready remarked ) the inve te rate and long-established faults lo which
nln1ost eve ry onc·s ears a.re becollle familiar; so that such a delive ry
a~ wo ulrl shock any o ne of eve n mode rate taste, in any other compo-

~i t iu n , lie will, in this, be l ikely 't o tole rate, an<l to practise .

S o 11 "1.C ,

e. g. in the Liturgy, read," have mercy upon us, 1_
ni sc rabl e sinners ··
nnd othe rs ," ha.ve mercy upon us, misc ralilc: sinners ;" Ooth la.y in1;!'
thL• stress 0:1 n v-trong w ord, and mak ing the pau se in the w rong plaee ,
f:P)

as to disco nnect "us" :ui<l "miserable i:;inoc rs," whi c h the con-

h· xt requires us to c01nLinf'.

Everyone, in e xpre ssing his own natu-

ral r::P 11 ti nH· n ls 1 w ould say " h a ve ·uw rcy, upon n s-inisc rabl e-1'1.inn ers."
J\Ia11y arc apt eve n ~o co1n111it so g ross an e rror, as to lay tlJe c hi t:f
~tre~s on

the word s whi ch dl•notc

th ~'. ' 'J'l)ost iwportnn/ lh.ings; wi•.ho11t

:iny c 0 ntiiJPrati•) n of t.li c e mphatic 1.0or1L of each scnlf'nce: e.g . in

the AJ,:-1qJ utinn m:iny T('ad, ' : l<·t. us h cs('1 c h r li1n to g- raat u s lru r; r cJlfll.t a.nce ;" bce au sc frJ rsooth u true rc·pe ut~rnce" is an important
thing; not considering that, as it has !JL·cn just rnonti one tl , it i::i no t
the ncJD i•ff'fl, and that to w hich the <tll<: nlion sh0t:!J he dircct.e <l by
thP (' Jll plia sis ;· the ~f'nso hoin g, tlmt ~ i 11 Cl' 01 nl pard o ne th all th at
have true n'pcn tan c 1~, thf'rc·fi1re, w e ~hou l<l "beseec h Ilim to g rnnl..
it to -us."
1

Jn add ition to tl :e otlir r diffi c ulti f'!i of re•ulin g th e L iturgy well , it
Hhonld be mC'nti orwd, that prayer , thanlrngiving, an<l t l1e lik e , e ven
w lwn a v owedly rot of ou r O\VO c0mpositinn, shoul<l be delivered as
(what iu truth thr-y ough t to be) tl1 e g-cnuine i;e 11tirne nts of our own
111tnd~ at the rnnrn c nt of ulll'ran cc; which jg uo t the c;tSe with tlw

S1 :ript. 11n·!i: or \\·itl 1 any thi11 g d se tllilf. is r eaJ, not prufe;;sing to be
tlie Hpea ke r's own com posi t. ion.

C 11H·.

Ill . § I.

OF f:f.OCUT!ON.

275

It is ind ee d impossibl e to produ ce the full e ffe c t of that
style, while the aud ience are aware that the words he
utlers are b efo re him : but he may approriclt indefi nitely
near to such an effect ; and in proporti oa as he succeeds
in this object, the impression produced will lie the greater. It has been already remark ed, how easy c""'I'""';""
1
it is for the bearers to keep 11p the ir att en- :'.; :;·;;;:'. ",'.''
tion, - indeed, bow diffi cu lt for them to with- ;:;:;:,;·;",:::·_,_
d r c.~:.-1 .. -1 .

draw it, - when they are add ressed by one who
is really speak ing to th em in a natural and e arn est man n er; though pe rhaps the dis course m 1y b e in cu1nh ercd
with a good deal of th e repetition, awkwardn ess of P.X
p;·essinn and other faults incident to externl'oraneous
lano-uarre
·' and thouo-h
it be j)rolon 0"'ed for an hour or
t> ( b
u
two , and y et contain no more matter than a good writer
could have clearly expressed in a discoti~e of kilf <' ll
hour ; which last, if read to them, would no t, witlltlut
some e ffort on th ei r part, have so fully detai11 ecl th e ir attention. The advantage in point of sty le, arrangement,
&c, of writt.e n , over extemporaneous di sco ur se~, (s1 l('li
at least as any but th e niost accompli shed orators c::m produ ce ,) is s uffi ciently evident : ., and it is e\'id cnt ab u t\i;1t
*Practice in public speak in g, generally , -

the parli c ul a r snhject in hand, -

prac ti ce in speakin g

(HI

nnd (o n each occasi• m) prcmeJ;ta-

tion of the matte r and arrangement, are all circum:-;l:l.nces of gre at
c on sC' rp1 e: n ce to a speaker.

sede th e!-te adva.nt:lgc s.

Nothing hut a. rniraculou.s giji can super-

The Apostles accordingly wPre f;1rbiddr- n to

use an.y prcrn. rditntion ~ be ing assu re d that" it siH1nld h.- gi. rrJL tlwn1,
in that s:une hour, what th ey should say:" nnd when tlwy fo und , in
effect, this promise fulfill ed tn them, the y had experienc<', within
thN11selve s, of a sens ible miracle . This circumst:tn Ge m:i_v furnish n.
person of Rince rity with a nsefu l t<'st for disting-uishin i; (in his ow n
cnsc) the emotions of a fe rvid imagination , from actual inspiration.

;2/fj

EL Ei\'ll:;;'>l'l'S OF RHE'IOH.JC.

ut!ier advantages , such as have been just alluded to, belong to the latter . ·which is to be prefe ,red on each
occasion , and by eac11 orator, it does not belong to the
present discussio::i to enquire ; but it is evidently of the
highest importance, to combine as far as possible, in each
c as e , the advantages of both .
A perrect familiarity with the rules laid down in the
lirst part of this Treatise, would be likely, it is hop1:d, to
giv,~ the extemporaneous orator that habit of qui clcly
mcthodizing his thoughts on a given subject, whic h is
essential (at least where no very long premedit:ition is
allowed) to give to a speech something of the weight of
argument, and clearness of arrangement, which characterize good Writing.* In order to attain the corresponding
advan tage , - to impart to the delivery of a written disc'>urse , something of the vivacity and interesting effect of
real, earnest speaking, the plan to be pursued, conformably with the principles I have been r.iaintaining, is , for
1.li, ~ reader to draw off his mind as much as possihle from
tli c tl10 11gh t that he is reading, as well as from all thought
It i~ eviden t t: 1n.t llll in.<>pi.rcd preacher cnn h(LVC nothin g io gain from
prnclicc, or study of nny k ind: he the refore who finds hirn$e lf .;,,. ..
prn·oc by practi ce , either in Arg ume nt , Style , or D elivery,-or who
obse rves tllilt he speaks more fluently rtn<l uelte r on subjects on
whic h he has bee n w;cu.st.nm.rd to srwak, ~ o r be tte r, with pr t:.'1110'-t.ilttlion: than on a sud de n, 1nay indee d dece ive his hearers by a pretence
tn in spirati on , but can hardly deceive ki1nself.
• Accord in gly, it mety be rcm:trkc <l, that , (contrary to wlint might
al. fi'"t sight be supposed,) though the preceding parts, as well as the
prese nt. are inte nded for ge n ~ral :ipplicatio n, yet it is to the cxtem7Jo·
ntr'} ·'11ca!.-cr that the rules laid do wn in the formor part (supposing
tiu'lll correct) will be the most peculiflrly use ful; while the suggesti ons uffered in thi s las t, respecting £1ocution, arc 1Hor c espec ially de0.ii,:ned fo r the use of the rmder.

CHAP,

III § 2,

OF ELOCUTION.

277

respectiug his own utte rance : - to fix: his m111i.i as
e;m1estly as possible on the mailer, and to strive to adop.
as his own , and as hi s own al the moment of uttcraJJcc,
every sentiment he delivers; - and to say it to tho
audience , in tho manner whic h the occasion and subject
spontaneously suggest to him who has abstract ed his
rniu<l both from all consideration of himsc~f, and fr u:n the
consideration that he is reading.

§ 2.
The adv an1age of this N ATUTlAL

MA0?\r.R,

(i . e, the

manner \\'hich one naturally falls into wlio ~ 1 .. ,, "'" "
is really speaking, i11 earnest, and with a mind ~,1 ," ;; ~ ,,~:;:;,1,
exclusive ly intent on \vhat lie has to say,) n1ay 11 1"cuur1'e
be estimated from th is con sideration ; th at there arc few
wh'"J do not speak so as to give effec t to what they z1re
say ing .
Some, indeed, do this much better tkrn
others : - some have, in ordinary convcrsatioJJ, an i11di stinct or incorrec t pronunciation, -an embarrassed and
hesitating utterance, or a bad choice of words : L11t k1rdly any one fails to deli\'e r (when speaki11g earn es tl y)
what he does say , so as to conv ey the se nse and tlw
for ce of it, much more completely than c1·c1 1 a ~ o nd
reader would, if those same words were wr itten do11·11
and read.* The latter might, indeed, be more approv.. T'l1 c re is , indeed, a wide diffe re nce between diffi!re n t n1en, in r1 · i;pect of the <kgreeR of impress ivf'uesR with which, in PaTl\ <'~; t c< •nn·r-

sation, th ey deliver th e ir se ntimen ts; but it may safely hf• bid do\\' II
th at he who <le livers a writte n cornpusition with tlie s:1me ckrrn·f· (1(
spirit and e nf'rgy with which he would naturally speak 0;1 rl~h~ :3arne
subject, has attained, n ot indee d , nPcesRarily , a.hsolute p{"rfr·ctin;i, b 11t
the utm ost ~ x celle nce att.itina.ble by him.. Any at1P1npt tn 011 1i!o ):;'l
own Natural manner, will inevitably le ad to aomethin g wnrse than
failure .

24

278

J.::LE'.MENTS

Of RHETORIC.

J'AllT

j V.

CnAP. !fl.§ 3.

OF ELOCUTION.

279
,

...
..

~·.

ed ; 11ut that is not the present question ; wltid1 is, con-

cerning the impression made on the hearers' minds. It
1s not the polish of the blade, that is to be considered, or
the grace wi th which it is brand ished, but the keen ness of
th e edge, and the weight of the stroke .
On the con ~rary , it can hardly be denied that the eloc11tion of most readers, wh en delivering their own co mpositions, is such as to convey the notion, at the very best,
not that the preacher is expressi ng his own real sentirn ents , but that he is making known to his audience what
is written in th e book before him : and, wheth er the
compoc;ition is professedly the reader's own, or not, the
usual mode of delivery, though grave and decent, is so
r emo te from the energetic style of real Natural Speech,
as to furni sh, if one may so speak, a kind of running comment on all that is uttere d, wh ich says, "I do not mean,
think, or feel, all this; I only mean to recite it with propriety an d decorum : " and what is usually called fine
Re:-iding, 011ly superadds to thi s, (as has been above remarked,) a kind of admoni tion to the hearers, that they
011ght to believe , to fe el, and to admire, what is read .

§ 3.
It is easy to anticipate an objection which ma11y will
N:11.1lr:il
urge against., what they will call, ::. colloquial
;::~:::'~'.'. ,;'."t sty le of delivery; viz . that it is ind ecorous, and
1
;;;~·~:~~: ; 1 ;~;~'. 11 un suitable to the solemnity of a se;·iou s, and espec ially, of a religious discourse . The obj ecti on is founded on a mistake . Those who urge it, derive
all tl1•·ir notions of a Natural Delivery from two, irreleva nl, i11sta1wcs ; that of ordi nary conversation , the usual
~ubj ects of \\'hi ch, and consequently its usual tone, are

comparatively lit;ht ; - and, that of the coar5e and extravagant rant of vulgar fanatical preachers. Hut to con clude that the objections against either of these styles,
\\'Ould apply to the N <itural Delivery of a man of s-=:nse
and taste , speaking, earnestly , on a serious suhject, an d
on a solemn occasion, or that he would naturally aclopt,
and is here advised to adopt, such a sty le as tho;;e ol1jected . to , is no less absurd than if any one , being; reco111 mrnded to walk in a natural and un studied manner, rath er than in a dancing step, (to employ Dr . A. S111 iti1's
illustration,) or a form<Jl march, slioulll in fe r tliat the
natural gait of a clown follO\\ ing the plough, or of a ci1ii d
in its gambols, \Yere proposed as niod els to lie i1nit;1tcd
in walking across a room . Shoul d ::my one on 1Jei11 ;
tole! that both tragic -acti11g and comic-actin g rn1ghl to he
a natural repre se ntation of man, interpret thi s to mean
tliat Tr:igedy ought to be pe rfonn ed cniclly lil:c CorncdJ, he would be tbou 0 ht very ::ilisurd, if he \\·ere suppo« ed to be speaking seriously. It is evident, ti.at \\Ital is
na.tu ral in one case, or for one person, m:1y bc , i11 a
difTcrcnt one, very unnatural. It \You'.d not lie l1y <Jn_::
nwans natural, to nn ef!:wated ;u1d solicr-1nind1·d 11w1 1 1..
speak like an illiterate ent husiast; nor to di ~ c o1 11"'C <>11
the mos~ important matters in the ton e of famihr r-011 rersatio n respecting the trifling occ111Te1 w e~ of the da_\·.
Any one who does but notice tlte style in \\·l11clt a rn;111
of ahility, and of good choice of words, :rnd ua era ncc,
deli ,·ers his sentim ents in pri1•atc, when he i ~, !or ins1ancr,
earnestly and seriously admoni:diing a friend, - defen ding tl 1e doctrines of religion, - or sp e;1king 011 any odwr
!;rave $11lijrct on which he is intent , may easily 011,rr\' C,
how difli..:re11t hi s tone is fro111 that of light and C;1111ilior

,·

I

~·.

~ '.

~

:'/

'

'280

ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC.

PART

JV

conversation, - how far from <leficien~ in the decent seriousn ess which befits the case : even a stranger to the
language might guess that he wa~ not engaged in any
frivolous topic ; and when an opportunity occurs of
observing how he delivers a written discourse, of his own
composition, on perhaps the very same, or a similar subject, one may generally perceive how comparatively stiff,
languid, and unimpressive is the effect.
It may be said indeed, that a sermon should not be
Natu rnl nian- preached before a congregation assembl ed in a
""' ;, au.<> 111 • place of worship
in the same st Jvie as one
Jl)Ptl:tlt! tl
th«·placc,
would
employ
in
conversing
across a table,
511hJ~l'l, anti.
<•ccas io n .
with equal seriousness, on the same sulijet:t ·
tll1s is undoubtedly true : and it is ev ident that it has
been implied in what has here been said ; the Naturalmanner having been described as accommodated, not
only to the s·ubject, but to the place, occasion, and all
other circumstances ; so that he who should preach ex actly as if he were speaking in private, though with the
11t11;ost earnestness , on the same subject, would, so far,
be departing from t!-ie genuine Natural-manner. But it
may be safely asserted, that even this would be far the
less fault of the two. He who appears unmindful ,
indeed, of the place and occasion, but deeply impressed
with tl1e subject, and utterly forgetful of himself, wou 1cl
produce a much stronger effoct than one, who, goi11g;
into the opposite ex treme, is, indeed, mindful of the place
and the occasion, but not fully occ upied with the suoject,
(though he may strive to appear so ;) being partly
en.,.ao-ecl
in thourrhts
respecting his ow11 voice. Tile
0;:,
b
latter would, indeed, be the less likely to incur censure ;
but the other would produce the deeper impression.
t i)

'

Cuu. IlI. § 4.

OF ELOCUTION.

;;s1

The object, however, to be aimed at, (:md 1t is not
unattainable,) is to avoid both faults ; -to keep the mind
impressed both with the matter spoke n, and 1\ith all
t!.e circum 3tances also of each case , so that the voi ce
may spont:meously accommodate itself to all; carefully
anJiding all stud ied modulations, and, i11 shor t, :ill
though ts of Eelj; which, in proportion as tli0y intrmk,
11·ill not foil to diminish tlie effect.

§ 4.
It must be admitted , indeed, th:-it the di fferent kinds
of Natiin1l delivery of any one individual on dil·- A r,,,,,;1 ;"
•
•
.
}
d1·l 1n·1 \' "110
fc- rc11t subjects :m d oc casions, various as t wy , 1,.., ,. .. -..r1 1..,
arc , .lo yet be:-ir :1 mllch !';reater resem11> :i 11c c to
L:ac-h other, tl 1an any of them d:1es to the J\ nificial -styl e
ll '> t1ally 01nploye<l in rcadi11g ; a proof or wliir·h is, tha t a
person r:1111iliarly acr1unintcJ with th e speakc 1·, \\ill :c;cl Jom fail to recogn·ise his t'oicc, amid st a11 li1c 1·;iri;1ti(l11s
of it, when he is speaking naturally a11d e:\l"lll' " tl)' ;
tliot1g;h it 1Yiil often h;:ippen that, if he have ne1·er lwfnrc
heard him read, he will he at a loss , when he l1a11pP11 s
accidently to hear witliout seei:1g him, to lrnO \\. \1\10 it
is that is reading ; so wid ely docs the artifiri:il r ~1d 1 • 11 d;
:111d into11 atio;i differ in m:rny i11st.anr es fnHll 111 1 ~ 1::1 lm:ii.
And a conseq11ence of this is, that the Natural-manner,
however perfect, - however exactly acc ornmod atcd to
the suhje;t, place, and occasion, - will, eve n \\·hen tll<'.~C
are the most solemn, in some degree remind th e hea rers
of the tone of conversation. Amidst all t.he <liilcrcnr0s
th:it will exist, t11is one point of resc11il.ia11cc, - th;1t or iiw
delivery being unforced and unstudi ed, - will be likely ,
in some degree, to strike them. 'fho;;e who ;ire good
!211 ~
11 :1t11r:\l.

282

ELEMENTS OF IlHETOIUC.

PART

IV

judscs will perceive at once, and the rest, after bei ng a
little acc ustomed to the Natural-manner, that there is not
necessarily any thing ir.everent or indecorous in it; but
tk1t, on the contrary, it conveys the idea of the speaker's being deeply impressed with that wliich is liis proper
business. But, fo r a time, many will Le disposed to tiud
fau!t with such a kind of el ocution; and, in particular,
to complain of its ind icating a want of respect for the
audien ce. Yct e\'en while this disadvantage con tinues
a preacher of this kind may be ass ured that the doctrine
he delivers is much more forcibly impressed, even 011
those who censure his style of del ivering it , than it could
Le in the other way.
A di scourse de!i\'CTed in this style h:is been kn owr, to
elicit the remark, from one of the lower ord ers, who had
never been accustomed to any thing of the kind, thr1t" it
was an excelle nt sermon, and it was great pity it had not
been p reached : " a censure which ought to have been
ve ry ~atisfactory to the preacher: had he employeJ a
pompous spo 11 t, or modulated whine, it is probable such
an aud itor would have adm ired his prcach'i ng, but wo11ld
have know n and thou;ht little or nothing about the m atter o r ,,·Jiat was taught .
Whi c h of the two obj ects ought to be preferred by a
Ch ristia n M ini ster, on Chris tian principl es , is a q11estion,
not in deed hard to decide, but foreign to the present di scuss ion : it is impo rtant, howev1' r, to remark, that a11
O rator is bound, as such, not merely on moml , but if
such an expression may he used, on rhetorical prin ciples, to be mainly, and indeed exclusivdy, intent on cr1r""yi ng his pninl ; not, on gaining approbatio n, or e\· cn
U\'oiding ce11sure, except with a view to that point. He

(_,,AP.

III. § :;.

OF ELOCUT!ON .

28~)

slio11ld, as it were , adopt as a motto , th e reply of Themistocles to the S partan commander, E urybi adcs, \\'l:o
lifted his staff to chastise the earnestness with 1Y l1ich his
own opinion was controverted ; " Strike, h.it l1ear nw . "
I would not , in deed , und ertake to main tain (l ike
Q11inctilian) that no one can be an Orator who is not a
\·irtuous man j but there Certainly is a kind or moral C '\.criJcnce implied in that ren ullciation of all effort :iflr r
di-< play, - in that forgetfulness of seif, - which is ah-.;o
lutely necessary, both in the manner of writin;, and in
the delivery, to give the full force to what is said.

§ 5.
Besides the inconvenience just mentioned, - tlie ccllsure, whi ch the proposed style of elocution will be folilc
to, from perhaps the rn:ijority of hearers, till they shail
have become somewhat accustomed to it, - thi s circumst ance also ou~ht to he 111e11tio11ed, among whai m :1ny ,
perhaps, wo uld reckon (or at least feel) as the di sadv:111 tag;es of it ; that, :ift er all, even ll'hen no di sapprobatiu n
is i11curred, no 71ra.isc will Le bestowed, (cx- i'\a1 nrn :
crpt , by observant criti cs ,) on a truly natlll'al ;:;;::·::: 1' '""
deliv ery: on the contrnry the more perfect it
is, the more will it withdraw, from itself, to the an;wncnts
and senti ments delivered, the atteni.ion of all hu t 1liosc
\\'lio are studiously directing th eir view to tl1c mode "r
utter:mce, with a des i.\!; n to criticise or to learn. TLc
credit , on the contrary, of having a very DliC cloc1Ji !<Jn
is to be obtained at the expense of a very modc;·atc
sh<>re of pains ; thou,eJ1 :it the expense a!so, inevitably,
of much of the force oi what is said.

;.,;

~·.

i-··.

ELE~ lf..'ITS

OF RflETO lllC .

l'A!<T

IV.

§G
One inconveni ence, 1rhicli will at first lie ex perienced
nashru Jne,. by a person who , after having been long aeft"! < o n tir8l
. J <.:e
I 1·
beg111s
. 10
ad
ul'ting i lio C llS lOrne rJ t 0 tJ IC A rlJ"fjJCJU
IVery,
1
' "'""' "'""" auo
.J pt t!1e N atura l , 1
.s, t]lat ]ie w1"ll b c J"l1<e ly
""'·
sudd enly to feel an embarrassed, bashful, and ,
as it is frequently cal led, nervous scns;;.1ion, to which h~
!J:Hl IJefo1·e been comparatively a strange1·. Ile will fittd
hi1n scl t" in a new situati on, - standing before his audience in a di.ffcre nt character, - stripped, as it were, of
the shel tering veil of a conventional and artificial deltvcry ; - in short, delivering to them his thoughts, as one
man spenkin:; to other men; not, as befo re, merely r eading ·in p ublic. And be will feel tliat he attracts a m1wli
greater share of thei r attention, not only liy the novel! y
uf a manner to which most congregations are little accustomed, but nlso , (even supposing them to have been accustomed to ex te mporary -discourses,) from their perceivin,;
tliemseh-es to be personally addressed, and feel ing that
lie is not merely reciting somethi ng before tliem, Lut saying it l o them . T he speaker and the hearers will thus Le
l>rought into a new and closer rebtion to each other : nnd
the incrrnsed inte rest thus exci ted in the audi enc e, \rill
ca11se tl te Speak er to feel himself in a ditle ront sitt1ation, - in one whic h is a greate r trial of his confidence,
and w!i ich renders it more difficult than before to with
draw his attenti on from himself. It is hardly necessary
to observe that this very change of feelings experienced
by the speaker, ought to convince him the more, if the
causes of it (to which I have just alluded) be attentively
cons idered, how much greater impression this manner is
lik ely to µrod11r.P. . As he \\"ill be likely to feel much of

C u H. Il l.§ 7.

2SS

OF ELOCUTION

the bashfulness whi ch a really extempo rary ~pc :ke r has
tO struggle against, SO he may produce IIlLH; ~l or a sitt1 ilar effect.
After all, ho\\'e\•c r, the effe ct will never Le rom pleiely the same . A co rnpos i ~ion delivered fro111 \1Titing, and one ac1 11:1lly ext enipo rnneou ~ , " ill ah1·ays
produce fee lings, both in tlie J1earer and the spc;1ker,
cons iderably different ; even on the su pposition of tl1eir
lJeing word for worcl the same, and delivere d s·J exactly
in th e same tone, that by the c:i.r alo ne no di 1Terence
r.ould be detected : sti ll the aud ience will be di fforc 11dy
affected, accordi ng to tlieir knowledge that ;lH! ,,·cmis
uttered, are , or arc not, written dJWll and before die
speaker 's eyes : and the con~c i ou s n ess or tl 1is \\ill pro d1 1ce a corrcspont!it 1g effect on t.l1e min d uf tlie ~pcakc r.
Fur we e this not so , any one who, on any su bj ect, can
spc:i k (as many can) fluently and co1-rer·tly in 11ri1·:ctr'
cu n vcr ~ ation, would fi nd no greater diniculty in say inc;
tlie same thi11g;s befo re a large congregatiou, than rn
reading to tl1crn a written discourse .

.,,'

§ 7.
And here it may he worth whil e bri efly to c1111« it«' ;,~ ­
to the causes of that remarkabl e phenom eno n,
l 'nq uiry r1· ~L5 it may j ustly be accounted , t.l1at a }H 'FO n r.:1wc:filll! tl1c
J. ;1..:l1f11 !r .. ·:--;
who is abl e with facili ty to ex press hi s ~ l ~ 11ti- •1l tr
·''"''~" i" : . '.
ments in private to a fri end, in such la1 1~ t1a ~c Ian:··"""'
an t! in such a manner, as would be perfectly
sui table to a certain audien ce , yet find s it e'drcmc ly
difficult to address to that audience the very same worri , ,
in the same manner ; and i ~, i11 ma11y in stances , e11i1er
completely struck dumb, or greatly embarrassed, \\ hen
f~

I · 1' ~

;l

~

','

286

ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC.

l'ARTJV.

he attempts it.* It cannot be from any superior deference which he thinks it right to feel for their judgment ;
for it will often happen that the single friend, to whom
he is able to speak fluently, shall be one whose good
npin ion he more values, and to whose wisdom he is
mere disposed to look up, than of all the others together
The speaker may even feel that he himself has n decided :m e! acknowledged s •Jperiority over every one of
tl1e audience ; and that he should not be the least
abashed in aclclressin;; nny two or three of them, separately; yet still all of them, collectively, will often insp ire him with a kind of dread.
Closely allied in its causes with the phenomenon
I am considering, is that other curious fact,
T'11wcrfui
PX Citc 111 cnt
that the very same sentiments expressed in
produced in
lar;.:e a u the same manner, will often have a far more
clit:uce .
powerful effect on a large audience , than they
would have on any one or two of these very persons,
s~1nrately . That is .in a great degree true of nll men,
whic h was said of the Athenians, that they were like
sheep , of wliich a flock is more ea~ily driv en than a
si11:;lc one.
Another remarkable circumstance, connected with the
n irTm'n t
foregoing, is the difference in respect of the
:::::~ ; ::~~~ 1
style which is suitable, respectiv ely, in ad··
:\';::·~:::::~"'; d r8ssing a multitude, and two or three even of
addresse d.
the same persons . A much bolder, ::is well
:1

as less accurate, k ind of language is both allowable and
advi sable, in speaking to a considerable number; ns
• J\l ost 1wr:-;1111s an~ so jftm,iliar with the fact, as httnlly lo linve

it rf''1uir c:s explanati on : but attentive co nsidcrntio11, r.;li('\\'s it to be n very curious, as well n.s important one.

CHU.

111. § tl.

01·' !::LOCUTION.

287

Ari~Lo tlc has remarked,•· in speaking of tltc Graphic
and .flgunislic styles , - the former, suited Lo the closet,
the latter, to public speaking before a large asse rnlily.
And he in ge niously compares them to the different ~tylcs
of painting; the greater the crowd, he says, the more
distant is the view ; so that in scene-paiming, fo r instanc e, coarser and bol der touches are required , and tl 1e
nice finish, which would deligh t a close spec tator, wo uld
Le lost. He does not, however, account for the pl1enomena in question .

§ S.
The solu tion of them will be found by attention to a
very curio•1 s and complex pby of sympal11ics
The ph e
wlii cli takes place in a large assembly ; and, nofll e na
n· fe rrr d to
(within certain limits ,) the more, in proportion rc il<>x !!)'mpat liy .
to its numbers. First, it is to be observed tlrnt
we are di sposed to sympathise with any e111otion whi c h
we believe to exist in the mind of ;my on e present; and
hence, if we are at the same time otherwise disposed to feel that emotion, such di sposition is in consequence hei ghtened. In the next place, we not only
ourselves feel this tendency, but we are sensi ble that
others do the same ; and thus, we sympath ize not ollly
with the other emotions of the rest, but also, · \1·ith their
syrnp::it hy towards us. Any emotion accordin g'y which
we feel, is still further heightened by tl1 c knowl edge
thnt there are others present who not only fe el the s::i rne,
but feel it the more strongly in consequence of their
sympathy with ourselves. Lastly, we are sensible that

ov0r con:-;i<lc·n·d that

• /Vietoric, book iii.

ELE:VTENTS

or

ltHETO!UC.

PArtl" IV .

those around us sympatl1ize not only with ourselves, but
11·ith each other also : and ~·s we enter into this heightened feeling of tl1Pirs likewise , the stimulus to our own
minds is thereby still further increased.
Tile case of the Ludicrous affords the most obvious
iilustration of these principles , from the circumstance
that the effects produced are so open and palpable. If
any thing of this nature occurs, a man is disposed, by
the character of the thing itself, to laugh : but much
more, if any one else is known to be present whom he
tl1i11ks likely to be diverted with it ; even though that
other should not know of the presence of the first ; Lut
much more still, if he docs know it ; because his compani on is then aware that sy111pathy with his own emotion heightens that of the other : and most of all will
the disposition to laugh be increased, if many arc present; because each is then aware that th ey all sy111patl1izc with each other, as well as with himself. It is
hardly necessary to mention the exact correspondence
the 1:1ct with the above explanation. So important,
i11 tl1is case, is the operation or the causes here noti ced,
tlrat l1ar<lly any one ever laughs when he is quite alone:
or if he docs, he will find on consideration, that it is
from a conception or the presence of some companion
11·bom he thinks likely to have been amused, had he
l1een present, and to \vhorn he tliinks of desc ribing, or
repc:Hing, what had diverted himself. Indeed , in other
cases, as well as the one just instanced, almost cYery
one is aware of the infectious nature of any emotion /
excited in a large assembly. It may be com pared to
the increase of sound by a number of echoes , or of light,
l1y a numuer or mirrors ; or to the blaze of a heap of

or

C HAP .

..'

I [J. § 8.

or

l·:LOCUTJON .

f.rcbrands, each or whi ch 11·o uld speedily ha1·e gone out
if kinl:~ ~ d separately, lJu~ which, when thrown to; ct.her, help to kindle each other.
Th e application of what has be en saicl to the case l1eforc us, is sufficiently obviou-<. The speaker who is
address ing a large assembly, knows that each of thc111
sympathizes both with his own anxiety to acquit himself
11 ell, and also with the same fe eling in the minds of ii re
rest. He knows also, that eYery sl ip he may Le guilty
of, that may tend to exci te ridi cule, pity, disgust, &c.
ma l'c~ tl1e stronger impressio n on eac h of tl1c hc;:ircr3,
from thei r mutual sympathy, and their crn1 s!"i ousncs s uC
it. This augrnenl s his ~u1x.icty. Next , l1<: kno11·s tl1:1t
\':t('lr l1 c an~ r, p11iti11:; lri1n self, mc111all y, i1: the spc:1kc1'~
!'lace, .J! syrnp:Hhises 1Yith this augm ented anxie ty ;
\1·lii ch is by this tho11ght increased still f11nh cr . And
if lie becomes at all c1nbarrasse<l, the lrnmdedge dr:it
there arc so many to sympathize, not only with that
embarrass ment, but al so with each other's feelings on
the perception of it, heightens the speak er's confusi(,11
to the ut111ost.
The sa me causes will account for a skilf11l orator ',.;
being able lo rouse so much more easily, and 111 01-e
powerfully, the passions of a multi'.titdc : they inflam e
each other by mutual sympathy, and mutu:il conscio11sness of it. And hence it is that a bolder kind
of lan~uage is suitable to such an audience : a p;is sag;c which, in the closet, might just at the flr~ t glan ce
tend to ex.cite awe, compassion, indignation, or any
• H e nce it is lhctl sh 'I pcrs0ns arc, as is matter of common remark,
tl11· m<•re distressed by tlii" infirmity when in company with those
who are subj~cl lo the same.

25

·':., .

290

ELEMENTS OF IWETOHJC.

CuAP. ill. ~ 10.

P.<n-r IV

T he

11

1

1

~ lt

i:; nn t m e:t nt by thi :-; lh :tt :tn c xte mporary speaker ll CCC!'-'s:\rily
(in res pect of h is nwttt"' r) exte mpore, or tliat he profo~:iPS to
do ~n : b ut only 1 that if lie .frwm.es f (l.C!t. senlr,ncc at the 1110ruent. he
1uust 1 at tl111t n1otnen t , h;tve the se ntiment which is c xpn-'sl'ied 1n it,
strongly prese n t to l1is mind.
com pOsf' ....

2'..ll

remitted efforts , witliout having any IJook lO n{,_·r to :
they view him as a swimmer supported l1y hi s 011" 11
constant exertions ; aud in every such case, if Llie fe:1t
be 11·ell accompli shed, tlie surmounting of the difficulty
afford s great grati ficatio n ; es pecially lO those who are
consciou s that tlic_v could not do the sa 111< ~ . An d 011 e
proof, that part of th e pl easure conv ey ed do e~ ari "<!
fro m thi s source , is, that as the spectators of an exli ihitio11 of s11pposed unusual skill in swimming , w01 ild irist antly withdraw iuost of their iri te rest and adrnir·atio11,
if' they perceiv ed that the pcrforr11er was supported li y
corks, or the li ke ; so would the feelings alter of the
hearers of a supposed extemporaneous di scourse , as soon
as they should pe rceive, or even suspect, that th e orator had it written down before him.

ot her such emotion, but whi ch would, on a moment's
cool reflection, appear cxtra1'ag;111t, may be very suitabl e for the .flgonistic style ; because before that moment 's reflection could take place in each hearer's
111ind, he would be aware that every one nround him
sy m.pathized in that first emotion ; which would thus
:1ecome so much heightened as to preclude, in a great
deg;ree, the ingress of any counte1\1c ti11g sentim ent.
If on e could suppose such a case as that of a speaker, (himself aware of the c ircumstance,) addressing a
mul ti tud e, each of whom believ ed himself 10 Le the
so le he;u·er, it is probable that little or no emLa rrassme nt would he felt, and a much more sober, calm, nnd
fi ni shed style of language would be adopted.

§ 9.
imposs ibility of bringing the delive ry of a
" ·""l'"n'l'
1nitten composition com plclely to a level with
wi1 11 th !'"' l
I·
(I
J
' '""'" ''"'"" r(':l e xt empor:iry s pea (lflg, 1 llrn; i, as 1 1 :· ~
~1 1 : 1 ~;. :'a k i' r been said it rn:1 y npproaeh indefi11 itt:!ly ll<';1r
J1 1n1111t in!!
.
1. ;.• .i;11ito sue h nn efTiect , ) 1·s exp lmned
on the sa11 1e
·cuity .
prin ciple.
Besides that the audi c n c~e ilr e
more sure that th e thoughts they hear expressed, are
the gen11i11e emanation of the speaker's mine! at 1]11!
1110 111 c11t, •· their <1tte11tio11 an d interest are the more <!Xf'i te d by the ir sympathy with one whom they percei1·e
to lie ca rri ed fo rward solely by liis own 11n :1ided and 11:i-

OF ELOCUTION.

~

',

•'
~

"
I

~-

§ JO .
The way in which the respective inconveni ences of
both kinds of di scourses may best be avoid ed, H" " "' d i·.
1
is evident from what has been alread y sai d. 1""1'"""'
Let. both the extemporary S11caker, a1 1J the R eadi:r
liis own compositions, stud y to av oid , as Car as po ~~ il, J, . ,
all thought s of self, earn estly fixing t.he niind 011 tlru
matter of what is delivered; and tlie one \\'ill feel die
less of that embarrass ment which arises from tl 1c tlrousht
of IVh:tt opinion the hearers wiJl form of' him ; \\']1 ilc the
other will appear to be sp eaking , because he actuaily
1vill be speaking, the senti ments , not indeed which at
that time first arise iu his own mind, but, whi ch arc theu
really present to, and occupy, his mind.

or

't

:r ..

ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC.

PART

IV

C 11AP .

2!JJ

OF ELOCUTION.

his discourses fo r the press , lie will li11d it expedient to
reverse this process, :111tl alier tlte st yle afresh.
A 111 ere se rmon-r eader, on the contrary, will avoid thi s
111con \'enience, and tl1is l:tl1011 r ; he will be able to preach
anotl1er's discourses nearly as well as his own ; and m::iy
send his own to the press, witl1out the necessity of any
i:;reat preparation : but he will purchase these adra111 ascs
at tlie expense of more than half the force wl1ich rni;;iit
h:wc Leen given t.o the se11ti111euts uttered.* And lie
11·ill have 110 right to co111plain that his discourses, d1ousli
replete pcrk1ps with good se nse, learning, and eloq11c nr c;
are rece ivecl with languid apathy, or that many arc
seduced from the ir att endance on his teach ing;, liy the
vapid rant of an ill iterate fanatic. J\fo l'.11 or these C \· ii~
n111 st, inclced, be expecte d, after all , to remain : in1t h•:
docs not give himself a fair cha11L'. e for di111i11ishino; them,
unless he docs justice to liis own arguments, instruc tion s,
and exhortation s, l.Jy speaking thc1n, in the only effect ual way, to the hc:1rts of hi s hearers ; that is, as uu ered
natmally from hi s ow n.
Ti1e principles here laicl down may help to explain a
rc 111 arkahlc lar·.t wl1i c lt is 11s11ally auributcd In otl11:r 1li:in
the trnc causes. Tlte powe rfu l e lli~e ls oft"" pn1 d11<Td
l>y some fanati cal preachers, not s11pcrior i11 pious and
since re zeal, and i11'..crior i11 learning, i11 good sense, and 11 1
taste, to men 11·ho a1:c li stcnccl to with co111pa~1 1_~ ~I';~-

CHAP. IV.
I'raclica.l deductions from the furcgo'ing views .

§ 1.
One of the consequences or the adoption of the m0de
of elocution here recommend ed, is, that lie
~;';,',','~·~~·;~.
\\ho endeavours to employ it will find a grow~~:~11:1;:·1·1ti. e
ing reluctan ce to ll1c del ivery, as bis ow11, of
d el i very .
any but bi s own eornµosit ions. Doctrines ,
indeed, and arguments he will freely borrow; but he
\1 ill lie Jed to compo~e bis own di scou rses, from finding
that he cannot deliver diosc of anotl1er to his own sati ~ t:1 ction, 11·ithout laboriously studyi1 1t; tli em, ns an nctor does his part, so as to make thc111, in some measure,
liis own . And with this view, he will generally find it
advi sable to in troduce many alterations in tl1c expression ,
not wi th any thoug;,t of improving th e style, absofotely,
uut only with a view to his own delivcrv . A11d indcecl,
even bis own prev ious compositi ons, li e will be led to
:ilrcr, almost as much, in point of ex pression, in orde r
to accommodate them to tl 1e Natural manner of delivt>ry." :M uch that would please i11 th e closet, -- much
of 1hc Graphic style desc ribed by Aristotle , will be laid
a ~ id c for the .flgrmistic ;-for a styl e some what more
ulu nt and homely, - more simple ru 1cl, apparently' unstu(J: ed in its structure, and, at the same time, . more
rl:1ri11 0crll'. P11crcretic
. And if ::igain he is desirous of fittmg
"
.. f 11 rna11 y inst:i.nrf's accordin g ly, the pe rusal of a manuscript ser~
inn 11 wPu \d a f1(1 rd , frnrn tllf~ oh:-wrvation of its style, a. to}Prahly 1!'nnd
ground of cunjc·cl 11rc a~ to the author'i:; custon1arv e locution.

1V. § 1.

* I have

SCC H

sorn~ ~l~~.--: ,- ;:11~~~~ li 1te

1._ 1f'

~0111e

cr·kl;r:i.\cd <1cl 11 r

hc ir 11 r asked l1y a. divin e ," I l ow is it tha t p<' o pl ~~ l l ::-;h~n \\'ith :">< 111 11 c h
rmotion to w};,1t you say, whi ch they know to he ali fi ctitio u:.: i he:-;iJ C's
tlml it \Voul d Ue no concern of theirs, 1 ~ vpn if tru t· ~ \vhil e th(' y hPar
wit h comparative apath y fr0111 us , tru th ~, lla~ mos t sul1lirnc·, a1H·I· Ll ie
Jilo:->l irnport;u 1 L 1.u tl1 c 111 ? "
Tl11~ ;u1 swi-'r wa:-; , '·Because WL' d. : ltv\·r
1

l

lictio n lik..:: lrHLh, illld yo n dt·li v1 ·r truth lik(· lil'linn."

25 ..
~.;

294

ELEME:NTS

m' lUIETOJUC.

PAHT

CaAP. IV.§ 2.

IV

thy, are frequ ently considered as a proof of superior cloqHcncc ; though an elorp1ence tarni shed by barbaris111,
and extravagan t mannerisru. But may not such cffocts
res ult, not from any supe ri or powers in the preacher, but
me rely from the intrin sic beauty and sublin1ity, and the
measureless importance of the suojecl ? Y\' hy then, it
may be replied, does not the other preacher, whose subj ect is the ve ry same, produce the sa1ne effect? The an s1Yer is, because he is but haif-atte1uled to. The ordinary measured cadence of reading, is not only in itself dull,
but is wlrnt men ::ire Jami harly accustomed to : Religion
itself· also, is a subject so familia r, in a certain sense , (Carnilia.r, that is, to the ear,) as to be trite, even to those
who know :rnd think little about it. Let but the attenti~n
be thoroughly roused, and intently fix ed 011 such a stupendous subject, an d tl1at subject itself will produce the
most overpowering emotion. And not only unaffec ted
ea rn estn ess of manner, but, perhaps, even still more, auy
uncouth oddi 1y, and· even ridic:1ilo11s cx t ·avagance, will,
by th e sti111u lus of nouclty, lia1·e th e effec t of thus rousing the heare rs from thei r ordinary letl1argy. So th:it a
p reacher of lit.tle or no real eloq uence, will sometiu1es,
on snch a suoject, produce the effects of the greatest eloquence , by merely fcrci ng the hearers (o ften, even liy
the excessively glaring Jcmlts of his style and deli ve ry)
to attend, to a subj ect whi ch no one can really attend to
un moved .
It will not of course be supposed that my int ention is
to recomm end the adoption of extravagant rant. The
~o ocl effects which it undoubtedly does sometimes produce , inci dentally, in some, is more than counterbalanccJ
liy the misch ievo11s con:;cq11cnces to others.

OF ELOCUTION .

§ 2.

j

On e important practical maxim resulting from tlic vi(.]1\"S
here take n, is the decid ed condemnation of all 1.,,,. ,i··· .. r
rc citali·1 n or
,.,
'J s;1ecches Ii)' sc: hool-boys ·, a prac- ~·'"'.''"
1, .. ,,."""
,.
l l •Jil

ti ce so 1n1 1c h ;ippro\·cd an d rcc on1nlc ndcd

J

by

ri to H -'

many, 11·i th a view to preparing youtl 1s lor publi c S 1wa ki1 1g in after life . It is to be co ndemned, ho 11·eve r, (sup posing t)JP, foregoing principle correct,) not as U!' clc< s
merely, but ;1bsolutely perni cious, with a view to tk1t oi 1jert. The jusl ncs~, indercl, of thi s opinion "·il l, cl• >1 11· tlc·>>, lie disputed ; but its consislrncy with th e pb1 l
li;i 1·e l1 een recommending, is almost too oln· iou ~ to !JI~
insisted on. In any one wl10 should think a Natur; d
dcli 1·ery desirable, it would be an ob1·i ous ;~ l.h11rdi1y t<1
Llii11k of att:-iining it by pract isi ng that 11·l:icl1 is tire
1 ~1 ost completely artifiC'ial.
H tl1cre is, as i,; c1 irlt:11 t,
1111 ff'. h difTic 111ty to be sm111ounted, even Ly 011e \1·lio i·'
d eli veri11.~, on a se ri ous o<' <·:ision, l1i s 01111 co111 po:< iti<>11 ,
lHJo rc lie can co mpletely succeed in ;iii s tradi n ~ l1i s 111 i11d
frofll all thoughts of his own voi ce , - of the judg;rn\~ 11t of
the audience on liis pe rfon11ance, &c. and in fixi 1 1~ it t>1 1
t.h e i'>Jauer, Occasion, an d Place, -011 cn·r:· ci1T1111 1stanee " ·hic h ought to give the charac ter to )i; , clorntion, - how m11ch must this dilTicully be e11han1·1·d , ,,·!1:• 11
11Pi thcr the sentiments he is to utter, nor th e char;1ctcr hr•
is to a;;s nme , are hi s own, or even supposed to he so, "r
anywise connected with l1im : - when neither thr j>hr·r"
t}Jf) oreasion, nor the a11di enc e, whi ch are acl11ulf!J pr cs rnt , l1a1· c any tl:ing to do with the substance oC 11 !1:1t i•.
said
It i:. there fore almost inev itabl e, llwt he will stu

ELEMENTS OF IUIETOIUC.

l'AHT

I \I.

rliously form to himself an Artificial manner;~· 11hirh,
if he succc ··d in it, will proba!Jly cling lO hin 1
tliroug;h iiCe, even when he is delivering his own co1 11positions on real occasions. The very Lest that ca11 l1e
expected, is, that lie should becollle an accomplished
acto1-, - possessing the plast·ic power of putting himse' f,
in i1nagination, so completely into the situation of hi111
ll'hom he personates, and of adopting, for the mo1ne111,
so perfectly, all the sentim ents and views of that clnracter, as to express himself exactly as such a person 11·ould
li:1 ve done, in the snpposed situation. Few are likely to
:1ttain such perfection ; bu t he who shall have succeeded
in accomplishing this, will have take n a most circui tous
route to his pro poserl object, if that object be, not to
qualify himself for the Stnge, but to be aLle impress ively
lo del iver in public, on real a11d important occasions, l1is
own sentiments . He will have Leen carefully lea rning;
to assume, what, when the real occasion occurs, need not
lie assumed, but only expressed. Nothing surely can be
1nore prepos terous than labouring to acquire the art of
11rclcnd ing to be what he is not, and, to feel, what be docs
11ot , in order that he may be enabled, on a real emergency,
to pretend to be and to fe<Jl just what the occasion itself
requires and suggests : in short, to personale himself. t
e~ i;cc ially

"::; l11nc

a con.scions manne r," ti, de· ~
(1. . itl1e r in conversation, - in thC' ordinary

have used the expression of"

11 olt ~ Urnt which rPsults

:u:ti11 ns of life,- or in publi c s peaking) from the anxious u.tl.P11l.i 1) t1

whic h snme persons feel f.o I.he opinion the compa.ny may form uf
then1 ;- a consciousness of beirig watched and scrutinized in e vt·ry
word n.nd gesture, together with an extrerne anxie ty for approLtttion,
and drcnd of censu re.
I The Barmecide, in lhc Jlru.uinn Nig!tts, who nmused himself by
Hcttjng down hi!i guest tu an imaginary 1Ca::;l, and trying his skill in

CHAP.

IV.§ 2.

OF' ELOCUTION.

297

Let all stud ied recitation therefore, - every kin<l of
speaking which from its nature mu st necessarily be artificial, - be carefully avoided, by one whose object i~ to
attain the only truly impressiv e, - the Natural Dclil'cry.
It should be observed, that the censu re here pronounced on school -recitati ons, and all exercises oft lie like
nature , relates, exclusively, to the effec t prod uced 011 1l1e
style of Elocut·ion. With any other olijects that may
be proposed, the present work has, obviou~ly, 110 concern. Nor can it be douhted that a familiarity ll'itli tl1e
purest forms of the Latin and Greek biiguages, 11 1ay be
greatly promoted by com mittin g to me1n ory, a11d s111 d:· ing, not only to undcrswnd, but to recite with propric1;·,
1he best orations and plays in those h111 ?;11:igcs .
TiiP
familiar knowledge too, and tcmpor~1ry adoptiu11, of Ilic
cha racters and sentiments, for instance, of T ercn ci: 's
1ilnys, can hard ly fail to prod t1ce a po11·erft1l effect on tli e
moral character. If the spectato rs oC a play 11·lii cli
stro1l"ly interests them are in anv degree di:<posed (:-is
the Poet expresses it) to" live o;er each sce ne, ai1 Ll be
what they bel1old," much more may tl1is lie ex pt'ttccl i11
the actor, who studies to give the full est effe ct to his pcrform:ince, by fancying himse lf, as far as po:'sibl c, t!1 e
person he represents. If any one, there fo re, is n1ore
anxious for hi s son';; proficiency in the Latinity, and in
the morality, of Terence, than for hi s excelle11ce in pub lic speaking, he is right in e ncouraging; such exerci ses .•:
imitating, al an empty table, the ar.tions of eat in g and drinking, did
not prnpost' this as nn advisab le mode of instructi ng him how lo pe rform those actions in reality.
•To those who do wish their sons lo imbibe the morali ty of Te
rence , I havf', nf course, nothing more lo sny. But if the re arP :u1y,

;•.

2~S

ELEMENTS OF TU lETO lUC.

l'AnT JV.

But let no one seek to attain a natural, simple, and forcilil e
Elocutiun, by a practice which, the more lie applies to it,
\\·ill carry him still tl1e farther from the oLj ect lie a· 111s at.
·what has been said may perhaps be conside red uy
some as applicable only in tli e case where the <l csig;11 i:
me:ely to qualify a man fo r extemporaneous ~p e11ki11;;;
not for delivering a written discourse \1·ith the efil:l' t of
oue that is actually extempo1 aneous. For it may Le
u:-1 l 1nust hope there a.re n ot a fow, who woul<l deprecate such a rP-

Hui t, nncl \vf10 yet patronize th ~ prac tice in que stion, I cann~ : t liul
express my unfeigned wonder at their clui ng so . Chn tiil'y duul1t
that some errt.. ~t is likely to be prod uce d on il y o un ~ and \111li.11·111 c d
111iud , f~Jnvar<lcr in passions tha.n in re ason , by - n ut r cod i11 g rncn·ly -· not learning by !tC£Lr l n1crely- but stu dy ing- ns an ac tor , u11d

striving to <leliver with cfiCct, the part of an accomplir,h1.:J cldJn 111 ·lw<'?
And tliis too, such n.cha.ra.cter as T'~rence 's pneticul ju ~ t i cc 11er1·r foil~
tu crown wi th success and applau se . The foult•st obHCl' 11:ty , HH« h Htt
would create d isgust in an y de lic1.1.tc m in d , w ould prolmbly he l ct1~ lik1.:-

ly to corrupt the principles , thnn the more ge ntleman-like pr u llii.;a ~y,
whiclt is not 1ne rely reprcse nte <l., hut rccornrncndc d in Terence; and

w hich ap1iro,1 chcs but too nearl y to what the youth mny fi nd exc11>pli
fi t·d among the hi g he r classes in thii; country.

'Will it be an swered that because these same !Joys nre ta11 i.;ht tu ""Y
t.ln:i r Catech ism -- are sent to Chapel - nnd are g ive n tu u11J1·r::;l:111d
tlt ;Ll they arc not to take Pt.unphilm; ns u. m odel, a sufficien t safeg11;i.nl
i:-; thus provi de<l, against the e ffects of an a."! ~ i<lu o us effo rt to grLin npplau sc by a lively and spirited re prcsentlltion of' such a c h aracte r ' I
can on ly re ply , in the words of T hucydides, MA /CA I '/'/. 0 N '/'IC::.·

Y .1/!l!V TU A flEll'OKAJ{()N,

OY Zlf'A()Yil/H N

'J'U

A ,,, I'() 1V.
l a111 aware th:it 1 run a risk of giving offence by these rc11rnrks;
Lut a sense of duty fo rbids their suppression If the prac tice is capa·
blc of vi ndica.tion, let it receive one : if not, let it be abol ished .
L<·t th e expe rimen t be tried, of' placing in the hand s of the M o T11FH.; of the boys , when they come to witn cs~ tlie exhibition , a cloRe

,,r the pl ay their so ns lll'C actinp: . I w ill be snti;fj,·d lo
'1bidc by the (iL· c i~ion fl l' the ri~lit-n1i11ded aud judiciom.t urnon g llww.

1r1uiol <Lt ; v11,

C11A I '.

IV. §

~

OF ELOCUTION.

ur;cd, that he: w110 attem11ts this, 1111 hl lie, to n ccrt :1 111
extent, an Actor : lie tnay indeed really tl1i11k, aud
strongly feel at the 1uoment, all that he is say ing ; but
though, thus far , no disguise is needed, he cannot, without a disti nct effort, del iver what lie i ~, iu f<ll·t , rcadi11g,
with tl1e air of one who is not reading, b11t l'rarni11g e:i<·h
sentence as lie del iv ers it : and to learn to do tl1 i ~, i1
111:iy Ge said, practice is requisite ; 11 ul ~u cl 1 pr:t(:ticc i11
deed as that of ord i11ary school-recitations, wl1ich lias n
directly contrary tendency ; but such as might be ad opted, 011 the prmciple above laid down. And it 111ust Le
acl 1nittcd, (indeed the remark has bee n t'r e~ue utly 111adc
in the foregoing pages ,) that the task of" hi 1n 11·! 10 cleli1 ers n written discourse, is very <lifTerent t'rn 111 tl1at or il 1e
truly ext.cmporary speaker, supp n;;in g; thee ol1jcct lie to
produce at all a sim ilar effect. For, as I l1a1·e f'o rn1 cl'iy
observed, what h:is been !Jere called tl1e JVi1tur11l Deliv ery, is that wliicl1 is natural to the real Spe ak er
al one ; allll is by no means what 11·ill spo11::111eo us'y
s11gg;esl it self LO one who has (eve11 l1is 01111) 1ni 11<':1
composition before him. To at.lain the delivery l l1a1t•
been recomrnend i11g, he mu st rnalw a s tron:~ :111d ('"1 1tinual effort so to ll'ithclraw hi~ mind , 11 ot 01dy i'ro: 11
studied 111odulat.ion of voic e, but from t.lie knoll'l edgc 1l1: rl
he is read in g;, - and so to alisorb himself, as it 11·1' 1·1 ~ ,
not only in the general sentim ents, hut in eac h sc i'" r;1tc
exprc~s io11, as to 1nake it thurouglily hi s mrn at tl 1"
moment of utterance. And I am far from S11ppo - in~
th:1t in doing thi s he will not improve liy practice ; i11dc (~ d
I have all along; illlplicd, tli:-lt no on e C"an expect ;1t 01 1C "
to at1.ai11 pe:foc t.io11 i11 it. I311t 1vlrc:thl)l' :1ny ~ udi sp tem c,f reci! atio11 as would nfl(lrd ben efi1; ial pracci 1· e co1iid

300

ELEMENTS OF RIIET\JlU C.

PAllT

Iv

be auoptcu at schools, I am lllOJ" C du 11lnfu1. Suppos i11g the estaLli -bed mode or spouting to be totally
exploded , an d every effort used to make a boy dcli 1er
a Spce<.;h of Cxsar, for instance, or Le:1r, in tlic natural
manne r, i. e. according 1.o the J}fastcr's view of wkll i;;
natural, the le::irner hirnsclf will be reciting in a m:i.11ncr:
to !1i n1, 11·holly artificial; not merely bec a11 sc lie is ri ·:idi11; , or repeating from memory, what lie is endeav ouring
to utter as if extempore ; - nor again, merely because
tlie co mposition is another's, and tlie cir<.;urnst.ances ficti tious ; but because the composition, Lhe situation, and
the c ircumstances could not have been his own . A
S cliool-boy has no natural way of Iris own to express
him sel f on the topics on which he is made to rlec la im;
heca1 1se as yet those topics form no part of the furnitur t:
or hi s min d. And thus t.he obj ect propose d, viz. to
q11al ify him for delivering well, on real occasions , hi s
own, or such as his own, written composition:;, will have
l; een dcCcatcd ; and we shall have anti cipated , and co rrnptcd, by a studied elocuti on, what would have Lee11
!ti s own natural mode of expressing himself on such occ:1s1011s.
T1011·ever serviceable practice may be, thcrP. is none
I thi nk that will not do more b::irm than good, ex ce p1
tl1e prac ti ce of recilint;, either on real occasions, or 01.,
s11 ch as one can fully co nceive and enter into, ex:p res
sio11s either actu ally hi s own, or at least s-uch as he \\·mild
nalmally have uttered on the occasion. Should the
S chool-boy be limited to the reci ta1io11 of compositions
of liis own , or of a fellow student, and that too, composi 1ion s not \\"ritten a3 a task on a givt n subject, (on such

CHAP.

l

11' . § :\.

UF J-:1.0 C tJTIU;\'.

:]I)

I

subjects at least as are usually se t fur e~err · i , ,--; , ' ) IJ11 1
on some real occasion i11tcres1i11; to a youtlif'1d 111i11t! , (:i
nar«ati1·e e. g;. of so me rec ent occ urren ce, or 1l1 c lil;c,)
a ~ysu.:111 of practice mig;ht perhaps be adopted 1,·Jiich
1\ ould pro1·c beneficial.
Sucl1 exe rcises as these , however, 1\·ould make h11t ;1
sorry display, in compari son of the cus 1 on 1 ~rr d1·cL1matio11s. T he "pomp and circ1m1s1:mce " of ;1111111:1!
]'Ui>lic rec itati ons h::is m11 ch that is attract i1·e to l\f ;1,1c rs,
Parenh, and Scholars; and it is easily beli eved , by tl11:'1'
wl10 wi sh to belie ve it, that for a lioy ,,·Jio is 1k.; ii 1wd
hereafter to ~pc;tk in 11ublic, tl11; prac tin: of 111;1kinc; ,,, ,J,_
lie speeches, and of taking great pain s to del:r c r I! 1c111
,,·el l, must be a \'ery beneficial exe rc;se.

I;.:,

§ 3.
The last circumstan ce to be noticed a11101 1g tlie rcs11lts of the mod e or del ivery rccommencleJ, is, '"" 11 ,,."1
1hat the speaker will find it mu ch easier, in ::::'.: ::;~,,.
hi s Natural manner, to make him se lf heard : h · 11 '"" 1c1
he will he heard, tlwt is, mu ch more di s1inc1ly, - -:it a
s rcatcr distance , - ;ind with for less cxn1i11n :.i1d C1tig;11e to him self. Tl1is is the more neecss:iry tn J,,,
mentioned, because it is a common, if nor. a pre 1·:1ili11s
opinion, that the rev erse of this is the fact. TliL·r1; ;H·•)
not a few who assign as u reason for their ad Pp! io11 ol
a certain unnatural tone and measured cade nce, tl1at it
is necessary, in order to ]J c heard by a large c1i1 1:,;rc!.".ation . But tho11gh such an artificial voi ce and ultcr;111("c
will often appear to produce a louder sf)!rnd , (,1·liich 1s
• See I ntrod . § 5.

26

,.
~.

302

ELEMENT3 01•' llHI::TO!UC.

!'All,. JV .

the c ircumstan ce that probably deceives such pe rso n ~,)
yet a natural voice an d del ivery , prov ided it be clear,
though it be less laboured, and may eve :1seem low to th ose
\\-ho are near at hand, will b e distinctly heard at a nwch
~ reate r distance . The only dec isive proof of thi s musi
lie so: 1ght in experience ; which will not foil to convi nce
nC the truth of it any one who will fairl y make th e tri :il .
The requ isite degree o f loudness will lie best obtained , conformably with the principles here inculcated,
not by thi nki ng about the voice, but by lo olcing at the
most di stant of the hearers , and addressing one \ self
e.,pecially to him . The vo ice ris es sp ontrmcunsl!J, wh en
we are speaking to a person who is not very near.
rt should be added, that a speaker's being we ll hen rcl
dor:s not d epend near so much on tlie lourlncss of tl H!
s01111d s , as on their dist·i nctncss ; am! es pecially on the
cl ear pronu nc iation of tlie consonants .
Tli::it the organs of voice are much less strain ed and
fot ig11ed by the natur::il action which takes place in r;i:il
speaking , than by any oth er , (besides that it is, wlwt
mi sht be expected , a priori,) is ev id ent fr olll d:iily ex per ience .
An ex:temporary Speak er will us11ally lie
111uch less exhausted in two hollrs, than an elaborat e
re c iter (though less distinctly h emd) will b e, in on e .
En~n the ordinary tone of reading alo lld is so much
111 nrc fa tiguing than that o r conversation, that reebl e patir11ts are frequently unable to continue it for a quarter
of an hour wi tho ut great exhaustion ; even though th ey
111:iy feel no inconvenien ce fr om talking,' with few or no
pau ses and in no lower voice, for more than double that
1i Ill!~ . ..;

- - -

-- - - - -

"' " \ Ve ca n n.t will enlarge or

dim i!li~h

the area of the clwst, and

C1ur. lV. § 4.

OF ELOCUTION.

303

§ 4He then who shall dete rmine to aim at the Natural
manner, though he will have to contend w ith
C(>nsiderable difficulties and discourage ments,

Hccapi1Uia-

lion uf "d·
va 11t:l !..'. es

will not be without corresponding adv ant :ig;es , ~-~::'. ,'.'. ~:'~1 1 in the course he is p ursuing. He will be at
first, indeed, r epressed to a grea ter degree than another
by emotions of bashfulness ; hut it will be more speed ily
and more completely subdued: the very system pursued ,
since it forbids all thoughts of self, stri king at the root
of the evil. He will, indeed, on th e outset, in cur censure, not only c ritical but .moral ; - be will be blamed
for using a colloquial d elivery; and the censure 11 ill
very likely be , as far as relates to hi s earlie st effo rts ,
not ,1·holly und esen ·ed ; for his manner 1ci ll probably at
first too much resemble th at of conversation, t.11ou;h of
serious and earn est convers <1tion : but by pe1·severance
he may be sure of avoiding deserv ed , and of mitiga ting,
and ultimately overcoming, und eserved, censure.
He will, indeed, never be praised for a "very frnc
delivery; " b ut his matter will not lose th e approbatio11
it may deserve ; as he will b e the more sure of b ei ni:;
heard and attended to. He will not, indeed, meet 11·ith
many who can be r egarded as mod els of the Natural manner ; and those h e does meet with, he will Le precluded,
by the nature of the system, from minu tely imitating ; but
stop, nccelP.rate, or retard the ac t of respi ration. \V hen we attend
to our breath ing, and regu la te its rrs.tc , it quickly beco mN1 fati g uin _!:; ;
but the same h appt·ns with nny vo lunta ry nnd hnbit ua.J actio n , tf we
ntlt'mpt to perform it analytically , !)y directi ng the ultculiun to e ve ry
•~pin its progress ."

.!tfttyo's Plo1siology, p. 107.

),

304

ELEMENTS OF

CuAr. IV. § 5 .

IlHJ~TOllIC.

he \1·ill have the advantage of carrying within him nn
fnfallible Guide, as long as he is careful to follow the
sugges tions of natu re ; abstainin g from all thoughts respec ting his own utterance, and fixing his mind intently
on the business he is engaged in.
And though he must not expect to attain perfection
ut once, he may be assured that, while he steadily adheres to this plan, he is in the ri ght road to it; in stead
of becoming, as on the other plan, more and more artificial, the longer he studi es. And every advance he
makes will produce a proportional effect : it will gi\·e
him more and more of that hold on the attention, the
u nde rstanding, and the feelings of the aud ience, whi ch
no studied modulati on can ever attain. Others indeed
may be more successful in escaping censu re , anrl ensuring admiration ; but he will far more surpass them, in
resp ect of the proper obj ect of the Orator \rhi ch 1s,

lo cw·1·y his point.

§ 5.
Much need not be >-aid on th e subjec t of .!Jct io11,
which is at present so liitle np11rovecl, or, deAction .
si;nedly, employed, in thi s c o untry that it is
hardly to be reckoned as any part of the Orator's art.
Ac tion, ho11·ever, seems to be natural to man, when
speaking earnestly: but the state of the case at prcqc nt
seems to be, that the disgust excitec.l, on the one h:1 nd,
];y a11·kward and ungraceful mo~ion s , and, on tl1e other,
J,,· studied ges ticulations , has led to the ge neral <li:use
of Act ion altogethe r; and has induced men to form
the lial1i t (for it certainly is a Jornwl li:ibit) of keeping
tlie n1 se1'·cs quite still, or nearly so, when speak ing.

i

'

OF ELOCUT10:"I

30;)

This is suppo·ed to he, anc.l perh aps is, the more rational
and dignified way of speaking ; but so strong is the tendency to indicate vehemen t internal emotion hy so111e
kind of outward t;est ure, that those who do not enco urage or allow themselves in -any, frequently fall un co11sciously into some awkward trick of swinging the uody ) ..
fo lding a paper, twisting a string, or tJic like. H11 t
when any one is reading, or even speakinf!;, in the Artificial manner, there is little o r nothing of this tendency ; precise 1y, because the mind i3 not occupied by
that stron g internal emotion which occasion.; it. And
the prevalence of this (the artificial) manner may reasonably be conjectured to have led to the disuse m "· ncti .m
·
·
k is c-ent:rallv
of al gesticu lat1on, even m extemporary spea - d«u ><·<l. ·
ers ; because if any on e, whose delivery is
artificial , does use action, it will of course be , like
his voice, studied and artificial ; and savourin g st ill more
of disgusting affectation, from the c ircum stance that it
evidently might be entirely omitted .t And hence, the
practice came to be generally disapproved, and ex plod ed.
It need only be observed, that, in conformi ty \\·ith the
print:iples maintained throughout thi s Book, no care
should, in any case, be taken to use gracef11 ! or appro"Of one of t.li P ancie nt Roman OnLl tff::J it wa.s satiri c ally n•111 arhrd,
(nn accnunt of hi:i l1avin!{ thi:o: ha.hit,) that he rnu st h :tv 0 !t~an1f'd to
~peak
r i~i n g

in. tL honl. Of:-to1nt.. o tht •r Oralnrs, whnsL' f:1\'•1rif<" artin11 i~
on tiptnc, it ''"·1 1uld pC'rhaps have hec n saiLl, that th1"'y lrnd bePn

accu:stomeJ to addn:.'!-18 th (· ir auJiPnce ove r n high wall.

t - Grulas inlcr uunsas s1pnplwni" discors,
El crass111n u.ngurntum,, rl Sar do cum nu~llc popar:er

0.JTcnrlunl; potcrat du ci

1j11ia

crena sine istis.
llorace, /lrs Poet.

306

EL EM ENTS OF ltHETOlllC.

p ~i

1tc action ; which, if not perfectly unstudi ed, will
ah1·:-iys be (as has been just rema rked) intolera ble. But
ir any one spontaneously f:ills into any gestures that are
w1bec0ming, care should then be taken to break 1lie
hab it ; and t.hnt, not only in public speak ing, but 0 11 nil
occasions. The case, incl eed, is il w same wi th utterance : if any one has , in common disco urse, an indistin ct , hesitating, dialectic, or oth erwi se faulty, delivery,
11i ; N atural manner certainly is net what he should adopt
m puL lic speaking; Lut he should end0avo ur, hy care,
to remedy tl1 c delcct, not in public s1)eaking only , but
in ord inary conversation also. And so also, wit.h res pect
lo attitudes and gest ures. It is in these points, principally, if not exclusively , that the remarks of an intelligent friend will be Lenelicial.
lf, <Jgain, any one find s himself naturnlly and spout:mcously led to use, in speaking, a moderate degree of
action, which he find s from the observatiou of othe rs
not to be ungraceful or ina ppropriate, th ere is no renson
tliat he should study to repress this tendency.

S- G.
It would be incon sistent with the principle just laid
Arti n n nnl - down, tO deliv er any ]Jrcce pls for gesture : be~·,;:;:~;· .\','.~ - ca t.tse 1he ol-servancc of even tli e Les t con "'""1<.
ccivaLle precepts, would by des1roying the
nritu ral appearance, be Ltal to th eir object: hut th ere
is a remark , which is worthy of attention, from the
illi1s1ratio11 it affords of the erroneousness, in detail, as
wrll as in pri nciple, of the ord imll'y systems of instnwti nn in 1his point . Boys arc genernlly taught to employ
the p1-. ,;; nih(~cl artion eith er r!fler , or during the utter-

CnAr. IV . § G.

0 1" ELOCUTION.

ance of the 1rnrds it is to enforce . The best and most
appropri ate action must, from this circum stance alonr~,
n·2cessarily appe :1 r a fcel1le affectation . It su;gl'sb tii <)
idea of a pe rson speaking to those wlio do not fully understand the language, and stri ving by si gns to e -.; phi n
the mean ing of what he has Leen saying. The 1-c ry
s::imc gesture , had it come at the prope r, tiiat i~ , ti1 c
natural po int of time , might perhaps ba1'e added g; rc ~tly
to the eD~· c t ; v iL.. had it prc :edcd sorne wli at Ll i c utterance of the word s. That is alway s tlie nalmal order of
action . An emotion ,* strugglin g for utteran ce , produ ce;;
a tendency to a bodily gesture, to express that emot io11
more quickly than words can be fra med; the 11-ords fol luw, as soon as they can be spoken. An d this bci n;
always the c;ise with a real , earnest, unst udi ed speaker,
thi s mode of placing th e ac tion for emost, gi\· es (i f it lie
otherwise approp riate) th e appearance of earn es t emotion
actually prese nt in the !llind. And the reverse of thi s
natural ord er would alone be sufficient to conve1·t tile
action of D emosthenes himself into unsuccess fu l and
ridi e11lous mimic ry.
- ------- - -- - - - -- - " ForU1 nl 1·11 in1. ...Yn l uru j1Ti11s 1ins i11t11s rul mnnr,r11

Fo rl11nar•1 1n h1d1ilu m.; )uca l, aul i m1u:./lit arl iruui

./Jul all luuw1 m ma:rore grani dcd1Lcil, cl ruzgil :
l'ost r_D'crl animi 11wlns inlr. rpr t:.lc lingntl.
Horctce, / !rs f'oct.

APPENDIX.

Page 29, lA.]
. there is a distinction to be ma<lc betwee n the
unnal'.l.ral an<l the mere ly improbab:e : a fi c tion is unnat ural
wh e n th e re is some assign a ble re ason a g aiast the eve nts
taking place as <l esc ri bc<l,-whe n m e n iire reprcsl: nt c<l as
acting contrary to th e charact<;r a ss igue d tli e lll, or tu li u111 an
nature in g e neral; as wh e n a young lady of ~e ,· e nt ec n,
brought up in case, luxury , au<l retir e me nt, with no coin pani ons ~ut tl1e narr ow-minded and illite rat e, <li ~ play s ( as a
heroine usually du e s ) und e r the m ost tryin g circum stanc es,
such wisdom, fortitude, and knowledge of th e world, as th o
best instru ctors an<l the best exampl es can rare ly produ ce
without the aid of more mature ag e and longe r e xp erie nce .
- On th e other hand , a fiction is still imp rob able, t hough
not unnatural , when there is no reason t0 be as;: ign c<l why
things should not take place as represented, e xce pt that th e
overbalance of chanas is again st it; the hero meets i.1 hi .~
utmost Jistrcss, most opportunely, with the very person to
whom he had formerly done a s ig11al se rvice, a11d who happens to communicate to him a piece of int elligenc e whi c h
sets all to rights. 'Vhy should he not mee t him as well as
any one else? all that can be said is, that the re is no re aso n
why ho shou ld. Tho infant who is saveJ from a wrec k, and
who aft erwards be comes such a constellati0n of virtues and
accomplishm e nts , turns out to he no other than th e nep he w
of the very gentleman, on who!"c est::ite tho waY cs had cast

31 0

3 1l

AP PENDIX .

A P P ENDIX .

!Jim, and whose lovely daug hter he had so long s ig hed for
in vain: th e re is no reaso n to Le g ive n, e xcept from the
calculation of ch an ces , why he shoul<l uot have bcc 11 thrown
on one part of th e coast a s well as an oth e r. Nay, it wo11 Id
be not hing unnat ural, though the mos t determined novcl1 cader would be shocked at its iniprobability, if all tho
he ro 's enem ies , while the y we re conspiring hi s ru in, we re to
be st ruck dead tog ethe r by a luc ky flas h of lig lit11iug : yet
ma ny deno uements whic h are dec idedly unnatural, a rc be tte r tole rated th an this would be. W e shall , pe rhaps, best
e xp lain our meanin g liy e xa mples , tak e n from a nove l ol
g reat merit in ma ny respects. \Vh cn L or<l Gl e nth orn, iu
whom a most unfavo urab le ed ucation has acted on a m u~ l
u11farnurable d isposition , afte r a life of torp or, li roke n 011ly
by short sallies of fo rce d e xe rtion, on a sud de n re ve rse of
fortune , display s at once the mos t pe rse ve rin g diligc11cc in
th e most rep uls ive studi es, a nd in m idd le li fe , with out any
pre vious hab its of exerti on, any hope of earl y bu siness, or
the e xa mple of fr iends , or th e stimulus of actual want, to
urge him, outst rips every comp etitor, though e ve ry competito r has eve ry advantag e against h im; this is unn atural.W he n Lord G lenth orn, t he inst ant he is stripped of his estates, meets, fal ls in love wi th, and is co nditionally acce pted by, t lie ve ry Jady who is re mote ly e ntitled to th ose
estates; whe n, th e instant he has fullill cd th e conditions of
th e ir ma rriage , the family of the pe rson possessed of the
est ates becomes e xtinct, a nd by the co nc urrence of circ umstances, against eve ry one of which th e chances were e normo us, t he hero is re-instat ed in all his old domains; this
is me rely imp rob able. The d istin cti otJ whic h we have bee n
pointi ng out may be plainly pe rceiv ed in the eve nts of re al
! iii~; wh e n a ny thi ng tak es place of s uch a nature as we
8houl d call , in a fict ion, me rely im pro bable , liccause there
a rc many c hances against it, we call it a lucky or unlucky

a cc i1lc11t, a s iug ular co inc id e nce , somc tl1in g Y Pr)" "x tra n rclin a ry, odd, curious, &c .; wh e reas a ny thiD g which , in a
fictio n, would be calle d unnatur a l, wh en it ac tua lly occ urs,
( and such th in gs do occ ur, ) is still c all ed un natural, in e xpl icabl e , un acco unt able, inc onceivabl e, &c . e pi th ets "·h id1
a rc not appli ed to e ve nts that hav e me re ly th1' balance ,.:·
c hance;; again st them . " Q11aderly R .:-vi.:w , J'fo . .\ h· iii . !'
:15-1 , 3.'.i5.

1
1

l

j

P op;e 5 1, [B.)
" A nalogy docs not mean the simila ri ty of two //1111p:.•, 1.11t
the s imi larity, or same ness , of t wo relations. Th e r<: 11111~t lie
more th an t wo things to g iv e rise to tw o rela tion ., : the rf' 111\l•l
he at least th ree; a nd in most c as es th e re ar c 1; ,11r. Tli1 1s
A mav Le like D , but the re is no analogy h c t wee n A and H :
it i~ ,;n ab use of the word to speak so, an d it li-a ds I• • 1n 1w.h
co nfus ion of thoug ht. If A has th e same n ·latin 11 l •> B
whi ch Chas to D , th e n th e re is an anal ogy . If the first relat ion be well kn ow n , it may se rv e to e xp laill tl1 c scco nJ ,
whi c h is less k nown : a nd th e tra ns for of name from one of
th e te rms in the rel ation best known to its co rr espo ndi ng
t e rm in th e othe r, cau ses no con fus ion, but o n th e cont rary
tends to re mind us of th e simil a rity that e xists in the,-e ri: lati ons ; a nd so assists th e mind in stead of mi s leading it.
" I n this m a nn e r things m ost unlike an <l di sco rd ant in
th eir nat ure may be st ri c tly analog ous to on e an oth e r. T: 1 u~
a ce rtain p rop osition may be c a ll ed th e basis of a system.
T he proposition is to th e sy ste m what the basis i,; to a building. It se rv es a similar offi ce and purpose; a nd thi s last
re lation be ing we ll kn own is of use to ill ustra te the othe r
whi ch was less kn own. E. g . T he sy stem re.•ls 11 po n it: it
is ns1:fr ss lo proceed with th e a rg um e nt t ill this is we ll cst al 1li shcd: if th is we re remo1;ed, th e sys te m must fa ll. The
only caution s rcquisit.c in th e use of this kind of a nal ogy a rc,

~:

3i3

APPENDIX.

Al'l 'ENDJX.

r r H>T, nut to procee d to n co mpariso n of the co rr c~p o ndin g

" ·it.h equal in gcn 11i ty , i11 1; asc s wl1 c r e; 11·o rd s ha re n ot y e t

trrin s as they arc in tr in sically ·i n th emse lves or i11 th e ir ow n

[1(' Cll

n;i t m <', but merely a s th e y :ue inrelal·i on to the o'her terms

nw ta plwr 1Yh c n s pc aLing nf"the s ame suhj cc t , a s a p r(' Sf'r -

do1\'l l

\\'Orll

le)

th is

ll S C,

th e exped ie nt () [° 1'll r !Jillg ou r

r e sp ec t iv e ly; and, sr.cor<oLY, not to p resu me that because

vati1·c a ga in st thi" dangcro u ~ an1l c 11 c roach in g error.

t!10. relation is the sarnP. or similar in one or tw o point~,

th e 1Hility o f thi s pract ice I l1avc n o <louht: and I think it

th ercfr, re it is the same o r s imil a r in nil.

may be rega rd e d as an a dv a nt.:1ge of th e s a me kind , th<lt

Of

of these e rrors ca1<no t be c ommitte d in th e

the parables of th e i\ cw T e stam e nt are drawn from ~ u l'!1 a

in s tance before u s , be c au se the t w o things n re or su c h di{~

great di \'C rsity of objects, a s lo ch e c k t!Jc prop c n;;ity in

"The

FlllST

fercnt nat ur es t hat they have n o one point of r csc 111\J la11cc.

man , c;;pcc ial ly in matte rs of religion, to attach s o m e mys-

Hut when the first a nd the t hird te rm are no t o nly co rr es -

ti ca l charac t e r to the images so employed , and to look

po nding in relation, bat chance also to be of a ki nd re d

upon thcm as e mbl ems possessing an intrin sic virt11 c, or

nature , o r when, fr om the c irc:.!mstan ce of one be in g vi s ibl e

at least a secr e t aflinit.y with those spiritu a l truth s, to t!1e .
illu stra t io n of wh ic li they are mad e subs c n ·icnt.

and t he o ther invisi ble, t h e ir discre l'an e ies do not st rik e us,
it vfi c n happ e n s that a co mpari so n is pur s u e d b e tw ee n the

" \\'h e n the points in whi c h this si111ilari ty of relatinn

tl1i11g s tl1 cmsclvcs, and thi s is one cause of" th e promiscuous

hvlds arc of" ;.;cc. ondary itnp o rta11 c e -wh cn i11 st<'ad o fh c in g

A s for e xampl e,

esse ntia l and cha ract e ri s tic , they a r c sli g ht an1l superficial

when L ocke, having once cstab li ~ h ed the compariso n, pro-

-the ana logy is o ft e n c all e d a metaph o r , and oftr·n a ~ i 111-

11 sc of the terms simililuilc and annlog!J.

c e rd s to talk of Itleffs as if' they w e r e r eal I y images in tho

ilitude , as being addressed rath e r to th e fa11 cy t han to t he

min d, o r /n1 ccs in the brain .

j11dgmcnt, and i:1tl'nded rather t o ad o rn and ill11strat <' , th,1n

"It is from ob serv in g t hi s te ndency in m e n to reg ard the

B11t it wo u ld perhaps be b ette r to a.rnid tl11~

to c:-:pl:iin .

rn c tap hori c al o r analn g o 11 s name as bring in g along with it

name si111i/i/11rlc in th e se c as e~, and to rega rd them ;1s hc in{.!,

so 1ndh ing of the nat ure of the thing it originally sig 11iti c J,

what th ey r ea ll y a r e , an11/op;ies , a!th o u g h s ub s isting m
point~ nf in fi •ri11r mnment.

tlral. J\f r. Stewart is led to m a ke the remark not less origina l
th an just, that it is w ell for the unders tanding, though it mny
h e a loss to the fancy, wh e n a m etaphorical w o rd has lust it::1

"Th 11~

wh e n tl,c sw all o w is called t h c lr c rnld nf s11 111 -

ped ig ree *- t h a t is, wh e n it no l unge r e xc it es th e pr im ary

mcr , 0 r a s hip is s a id t o pl o ug h the wa ves, it is easy t0 r•>
~ c .J v e the phras e into the fo rm of anal(lgy o r p rop o rti o n : 1.lw

idea d e noted by it , an d is r educe d by c ustom to a plain and

~wallow i~

dir e ct appellation in its secondary sense . He suggests alsot

Le a11nn11n c e s hi ::i approac h.

to the summer what th e herald is to hi s pr i;1r.e;

tl. c se a , what the a c ti o n
it

Phil o~ oph i c al E :;s~y~ ,

E:;s . v. c. 3.

f Ibi d. Jn the :u1;LlyRi s here· g iven of arutloj,!!J, it will be pe rceivc<l
hy I.h ose wh o ;-ire conversa nt with l\1r. Stewart's writin gs , that I hn.vo
vcntun·d to d•'JHHl wid ely from his U8e uf' the word . Indeed M. PreY<1l·~ ety111nln!.j_\', as g iv rn in a pu:isngf! qnotcd with approbati on Uy
:Hr. ~lewart 1 \'1)1. ii. c. iv. sec t. 4. appe ars to inc quite erroneou~,

or

So th e a c ti o n

or a

sh ip i ~ tn

a pl o ugh is t o the lan J.

H11t

li::c«ur::e in th ese c a ses the relation is fcm ci{u l ra t h c·r than
n ·al , that i~, it cn n si s ts o o t in e ss e nti al poi11t s but in 1111!re
' l. e 111 1.;l J\nalngi<· ,

Tl11 •

r1·v<'r~1: nf

dun~~·

l'ori:;inr , 11'1 ·xpri1111· que hL

\\"li i•·l1 l take lo

iJl'

th e fact.

f;,r f'nkrin g f: •rlli •'r i:1tn the di s c11 -,~ i r 1tL

{27

n ~ ~s l' 111 U la11 c t' .

But thi s is not the place

315

Al'f'E1\'DlX.

APPENDIX.

«ircumst.an ccs ofinfcrit>r importance, we le ave such things
to the• pnwincc of taste or amusement, and no considerate
r11<in eve r attempts to reaso n from them.
'' ' I am not of the mind of those speculators, ' said ~Tr.
Burke, ' who seem assured that all states have th e same
period of in.fancy, manhood, nnd decrepit11d o, that arc
found in individuals. Parallels of thiH sort rat.her furni~h
similitudes to illustrate or to adorn, than supply anal0gi es
from whence to reason . The objects which are attempted
lo be forced into an analogy arc not found in the same
classes uC existe nc e. Ind ividu al::; are phy s ical be ii1gs ';oinmo1111·calt.li,; arc 11ot physical but moral essences.'*
" A rcmu.rka!Jlc example ol" this kind is that argum e 11t
of Toplady against free-will, who, after quoting the text,
Ye also as lir1cly stones arc built up a spiritual house,t trit11nphantly exclaims, ' This is giving free-will a stab undn the flf1.h rib: for can stones hew th emselves, and
h11ild thcmsclvc's into a regu lar lio11sc)'!
" Even when we attribute to inanimate things the quali ties of ;rnirnals, the same analysis may be adop~ed ns befo re. Thus the rage of the sea. denotes a sim ilarity of
clll,ct to the effect of rage in a nim als. This is eve n more
tlie wurk of fancy than the ex ample before given: fur in
rcd 11 e i11g it to the form of a proportion, one term is wholly
""l'J>lied by the imagination. \Ye <lo not really believ e there
j, :c prin t; ipl c in tli e sea produc ing these effects , a nswcri•1g tu rage in a11i111als, hut the im aginat ion suggcHts such
ll pr1nr;iplc , and transfers the name or ~age to it.

s ubject:; we ar e comparing arc of a kindr"c(l nature, so that
the things spo ken of not only stand in the s ame relation, liut
also bear a close resemblance to e ach other, th e n it is we
arc most apt to confound them together, and to sub~titute
re:;c mblance for analogy . Thus liccause the heart or the
r.ooth of an animal not only se rves the same o!f1cc to the
animal that the heart or the tooth of a man docs to him, hllt
1$ also an ohj~ct very nearly resembling it in structure
and outward appearance, we arc apt to imag in e that the
same name i~ g iv en to it ;iolcly on thi~ last account. B1it if
we pursue the e nquiry throughout the auimal creation, we
shall iind that the form of" the corresponding parts is infin itely varied, although the analogy remains the same; till at
length we arrive at such diversities, that it is only pcrson::l
conversant with comparative anatomy who can readily detect the analogy. And long before the difler cncc has reached this length, in popular discourse th e analogi cal name is
dropped , and the scientific use of it i11 sueh cases sou nds
p _Jant ic to unlearned ears. Thu<i the beak of a bird an s •s e rs to the to : th of man , and the shell of a lu!istcr to the
bon es of other animals. H the use and ofTicc rcm :1i11 t he
same no diversity of form impairs the anal ogy: but we
rn1ght from suc h example s to learn, even wh e n si111ilit11dc
nff;mn does ex ist, not to n'ganl it as the tru e grou11d nf tl1c
co111parisun we make, and of our allix in g the s ;1111 c na111c .
"Thus too when we spt>ak of qualities of things whi ch
arc not cognizable by our senses except in their cfTcct~,
we bestow th e same name on account of a real or supposed
analogy, not on account of any similarity in th e q11alities
themselves, which may o r In<ty not exist, acconlin~ as the
things we spcalc uf (tre mo1· ~ ur less ff u l.:indrcd nu.lure. Sa-

31 l

" Jn th0sc c<bCS where tlic analogy is traced between
things 711'1fcct1.'j hclero[!:cncons there is little dang e r of con1; •t111d i11!.!; t.hc idea with that of s imilitude. Ilut when thn

J

gl1city, Cf•U ra gc, fid el ity, loV('. , jeal ousy , r e venge, ar c ali

"' i ,f't.1 P r!'1

on a R~·!!irid1~

Pf•:1<'e, p. 1.

I i Pct.. ii . :, _

; Clir !.-;:ian and l'h il o:.: •1pl1ic.:al l\cce;-;:;; ity A~scrte<l) p. GG

l'redi,.ated uf hrutc a11irnal:; [II)( ks:; than ur 111a11, alt.li<o11glt
they arc nut things or cxistc ut:cs in tl11;m scl \"cs, ou t ce rtain

. .·. ·~

316

APPENDIX.

APl'ENDJX.

uttrib11t cs or affections in them, exhibiting symptoms und
producing effects co rrespondi ng with the symptoms and
effe cts attundant upon those qualities ia oursclve::i. Iu
these in stances, still mo re than in th e form er, we arc prone
to confound analogy wi th resemblance- because as these
things have no fo rm or exi ste nce of th ei r own-as the wh olo
esse nce of th em cons ists in th e,ir relation to somethin g
else-if the relations be alike, th e lh-ings arc necessaril y
alike, rrnd we nat urally slide in to that fo rm of speaking
which makes no distinct ion betw ee n analogy a nd r e~e m­
l>lnncc: hut even then we rega rd the qua lities as id entical,
o nly in propo rtion as the nature of the respective s ubjects
to wl1ich they belong may be reg arded as th e same.
"The SECO;-i D error above noticed as carefully lo be
avoided in the use of analogy is, wh e n we do not indeed
t re al th e co rresponding terms as resem bling one anolhn- in
the ir own nature, but when we pres um e that a similarity
,,r relation subsists in other points besides th ose wh ic h arc
t.lic f(111n dati on of analogy .
'' \\' he n the analogy consists in slight o~· s up P.rficial c ircurnstanccs, stili more when it is fanciful only, no attempt
\\'hat.c 1'<'r should be made to reaso n from it; as was cxe mplifi,:d i11 1h c passage produ ced fr om Burke 's writings: but
•·1·c n ll' ill' n the a nalo-:;y is solid and we ll-founded we a rc
liable 10 tiill in to e rror , ifwc suppose it to extend fa rth er
1ha11 it n:.il ly <lncs. Erro rs of this nature a re o ft c 1~ co mrn i11<' d by 1111 :n of livP, ly fan c ies, or of ardent minds , a nd
11,.,_,. are the mor e seduc ing becaus e they set out not only
with a shew of reason, but with reason and truth actually
un th!' ir s ide .
' ' Th11s ii eca use a ju st anal ogy has bee n discern ed be111"""' th e metropolis of a cou ntry, and th e h eart in the
a111111 ;iJ 1,,,,1_1-, it has bee n s•>1net i111 cs conte nded that its
i11 c rca.• 1· d ~ize is a disease- t hat it may impede some of its

most important functions-o r even be the means of its dissoluti on.
"Ano th e r freq uent e xample of this second erro r is found
in the use of the same titl es of offi ce or dignity in d iffe rent
n ati ons or in distant tim es . A lthough the relation denol<'d
by th e m be the same in one or in seve r al important p:ut. icubrs, ye t it scarc ely ever holds through ou t; and th e mn~t
fal se not ions are in co nse quenc e e ntertain ed hy people <1f
the nature of th ese co rr espo ndin g offices in eve ry coun try but the ir own. \Ve have known what mischief h ag
bee n prod uc ed by th e ad option of the phrase, ' ~crvant nf
the people, ' although it cannot be de ni e d that in some
po ints th e duty of the magistrate is the same as th e duty
or a se rvant- that his time , fo r instance, his tli ougli ts, h i ~
ah ilitics , shoulJ be J e voted to the benefi t of th e peo plea nJ again, on the othe r hand, b ecause tli c duty of a s ub ject towa rds his sovere ig n co inc ides in man y respec ts with
the duty of a child towards his pare nt, some specu lati rn
write rs have hastily co nclude d that th e inst it ut ion of mona rchy is equally fo und ed in nature, and possesses th e "a111c
inh e rent authority with th e pare ntal." Cop les Ion's Four
Discourses on the Doctrines of N ece ssity and Prcdcslination ,
note to Disc . III. p. 122 -1 30.

317

Page 83, [C.J
·•Theirs" (t he N c w Testam e nt write rs ) " is a histc-ry of
mir acles; th e histori cal picture of th e scen e in whi ch the
Spirit of God was poured on all fi e:< h, and sign s and wonder!', vi sions and dreams, we re part of the ess e ntia l~ of th e ir
narratives. Ho w is all this re late d? \Vi th the same alJsc nce of hig h colo urin g an d e xtravaga nt d<=>'cr iption with
which other writers not ice th e ordinary occurrences of the
27 ~

:31 s

819

APPENDIX.

APPENDJX.

" ·orl <l: partly no doubt for the like r e ason, that they were
r•'aily familiar wi th miracles; partly t oo because to th e m
the~c mi raclcs had long been co nte mplated only us sul.r,-;e nicnt m e asures to the g reat object and businc s:; of their
111ir1i ,;try-tlie salvat ion of men\; soul,.. On the subje ct of

sib ilities of human nature? Read such pa sq ges as St.
Paul's parti ng a dd ress to the e lders of l\Iil e tu s ; th e same
apn,tl e' ~ re co mm endat ion of th e offe ndin g m embe r of the

111iracl e ~, the m eans to th is great c od , t hey speak iu calm,

unimpass ioned language; on mau 's s ins, cl1ange of heart;
on h ope, fa ith, and charity; on the <•hjccts in short to be
1;1l'ccted, they exha ust all the ir foel ings and elo quen ce .
Tiil·i r history , from the narrative of our Lo rd'::; persecut ions
to thos e uf Paul, the abomination of .the Jews, emhracc~
s c e nes and personages wl1i e h claim from the o rdi nary read e r a co ntinual effusion of so rrow, or wond e r, or indig nation.
Jn wri te rs who we re friends of the part ies and adh e rents or
ti re cause fo r whic h th ey <li d and s uffe r ed so g reat thin g s,
th e ab~ e n c c of it is 011 ordinary grounds inconceivabk.
Louk a t the acco unt ev e n of the c ru cifix ion. Not one burst
of indignat ion or sympathy mix es with th e lleta ils of the
n:1rr at i\·e. Step he n the fir s t martyr is stoned, and the acc<rnnl comp ri se d in th es e few words," they stoned Stephe n
c;rlli11g u pon God , and say ing, Lord Jesus, receive my
~j•irit." The varied an<l immense lab o urs and s uffe rin gs o.f
t Ire apo s tl e s a rc slightly h inted at, o r e lse relat e d in this dry
and fri g id way . " And wh en th ey had called the apostles,
and beaten them, th ey comma nd e d that they should not
~p1·;ik in t he name of J es us, and let th e m go."* "Anll
1lr l'r•' c :111w th it he r ccrtni11 J c ws, f'rorn A n ti o ch and Iconi u n r,
wh .. ;> <' rs11adcd the peo pl e, and ha v in g stoned Paul, d rew
l1iJ11 out of the city, ;.;up posing he had bee11 dead. Ho w licit,
as th e di sc ip les stood ro und ab ou t. him, he rose up, an<! eame
inln the c ity; and the next. day he d e parte d with Barnabas to
Dnb c . " i' H ad thc::; e authors no fce liug? ll ld their mod\•
of li fe hC'rcavcd th e m of the common symp athies and s e n
• A c tsv.10 , 41.

t A cls xiv.] !), 20 .

Corinth ian Church to pa rd n n; and , mor e tha n all, t he
occasional bur"ts of' con fli c t in µ: feel inµ: , in whi eh anxi ous
a p prc l1 c ns ion for the fai th and g ood b e havi o ur of h is conve rts is 1nixe <l wi th th e pleasing reco llect ion o f their c onn·r~i cn, a nd th e minist e r and the man arc alik e Etr o ng! _v
display ed ; and it will b e pbin th a t Christ ianity c x erc i ~cd
n o ben u mbin g influc.n c e on the heart. 1\o : their wh ole
soul wa;; occup ied with on e object, whi c h predomi nate d
01·cr all th e m e an s subsc ni c nl t o it, h o w e \'i~ r grrat th ns e
me ans 111ig ht li e . In the stonn, th e p i lot'.~ cy.: is Ji:rccl on

the hcncl/01111 ·1chich m11st be weatl1 crcd ; in th e crisis ~(
victory or d<f cot , the gn1.cra l stes only th e positivn lo be
can·icil; anrl !he dead anrl th e ins/n1.mrnl s of denth fall
rll'oimd him unhccdccl. On th e salva tio n of m e n, on tl1is one
point, the witn esses of Christ and t he mini~ tPrS or Iris
Spirit, expended all th e ir energy of feC'l in g ;rnd e xpr cs" ion .
All that occur rcd- misc h anre, pc rse c 11 tion , an<l mira clc w e re g lanc e d at by the ey e oCfaith on ly in suh sc n·i c nc:· t•>
this mark of the prize ot' th eir hi gh call in g , as wo r king
toµ:cth c r f'11r good, and all exempt from t.lic assoc iati ons
wlrich would att;u :h l o s u c h e vent s a11d s ee n<'~ , wh e n c ontc mplut c d by tli c 111~ clvcs, a11d w ith tl1 c "'liort-s ig htc1l11<'ss
uf u11 i11 ~pir c d 111rn . .lHir:Jcl c ~ we re n ot to th em obj ec ts uf
wonder , no r mischan ce s a s uhj cct of sorro w ullr.l lame n tation. They did all, tlrcy s 11trer cd all, to t he glory ,,r
God." Lv11don R cv i.:v.> , No. 11. p. 3 .J.).

Pap;c 1:'3 1, [D. J
'' F irst, a~ to prvrimity

(f time, CH' ry o ne knows, that

any melan c hol y incid e nt i,o; lh c more affe ct in g that it is r e c e nt. Hence it. is liccr•:11 e c" 1111111rn with story - tel lcrs, that

320

321

A P PENDIX.

Al'Pl·:N DTX.

t hey m ay make a de e pe r impress io n on t he h eare rs, to
in t rodu ce r e marks Ii~ c these: that the tale whi c h they
r e late is not old , that it happ e ned but lately, or in their
vw n t ime, o r that th ey are y e t living wh o h ad a part in it,
or we re witn esses of it. Proximity of time regards not
on ly t he pas t , but th e fu ture . An e ve nt that will probably
soon happe n, hath gr eat e r influ e nce up o n us than what will
proba bly h a ppen a long time hence. 1 hav e h:th e rto
pro cce <lc <l o n the hy poth es is , that th e o rat or ro uses the
passions of hi s hear e r s , by exhi b iting some past transaction;
but we mu s t acknowl edge that pi~s s ion may b e as strongly
e xc ite d by his r easo nings co n ce rning an e ve nt yet to co me .
In th e j udic ia ry orati ons th e r e is gre a te r s cope for th e form e r , in the del ib e rativ e, fo r th e latte r; though iu eac h kind
th e re may o c c asionally b e s co pe fo r !10th. All th e se ve n
c ir cumstances e n umerat e d a re ap plic abl e, and hav e e q ual
w eight , wh ethe r they rela t e to the futur e o r t o th e pas t.
Tlie only exception that I k no w o f is, I.hat pro babi lity arid
]'la us ibility a rc scarcely d is tin g ui sh ab le, wh e n used in refe re nce to CYe nts in fu turity . A s in th ese th e re is no a cCC'~ s fo r test im ony, what co nstit utes t he princ ipal dist in ct ion is qu ite e xcl uded . In co m pa ring th e influ e nce of the
p ast u po n ou r minds with th at o f th e li.iture , it appe ars in
g e neral, that if" th c e vi de nc e , th e impo rtan ce, and th e distance of the objects, be equ al , th e latte r will be g re ate r than
t he for me r. T he reason , I imag in e, is , we arc conscio us ,
t h at as eve ry moment , the lutur e w hic h see m s plac ed befo re u>i, is a pproachin g; and th e pas t, which li es, as it
w e re , be h ind , is r e tirin g ; o ur nearn ess or relation to the
one co nstantly inc rc aseth a s th e othe r de cre ase th. The ro
i:'! sm nc thin g lik e a ttr actio n in th e tirs t case , and repul sion
in th e scc0 nd . ThiR te nd s to interest us mo re in the futur e than in the past , a nd c o n;.;cq 11 c11tly t o th e prese nt ri c w
a ;:g r:in cl izes the o ne, and d imini s hes tl1 c oth e r.

" " 'hat , ncvcr thclC'ss, g ives the p a ~t a 1·e r_1· cr·n~i .1n:1lii1 ·
11dvant:1 ge, is its be in g ge ne ra lly f' Usccp t.i hlr;oi "11 111 c li :'[1"<>11;;c r e 1·id encc t.han th e ft1 t ur e. T he lights of the· rn i11d an.,
i f l may so e xpress myself, in a n oppnsitc s il11:1 t i11n to tl:c
lig hts of t he h od y . T hese di scover clea rl y tl1 c prus;w ct
ly ing !icfo re U!'', but n ot t he gro un d we hal'e :drP atly pa,-;;1·d .
By th e memo ry, 011 t he con t rary, th at g rc:it lu11J111 ary nf' ti1e
rnincl , thin gs pa ~t ar c e xhi bit e d in r el r o~pect; 11· c iia1t· J1'>
C•J IT<>pu 11 <le 11 t fa c ul ty t o irrad iate the ll1lurc : :1ll <l t:1«·11 11 1
n1;l1.tc rs whi c h fall n ot within th e r eacli ot· uur n1 <.: 11; <>ry ,
pas t e ve nts a rc ofte n cl e arly <li sco 1· c r;d,le hy (1:-,-ti1J 11 ·11y ,
anJ by clfrc ts at ]'rese nt c xi ~t iu g; whe reas ""'" ha"'" 11.,thin g e q u ival ent to fo und o ur arg u1n c 11 ts up1111 iri n·a :-:11 11111~
ab o ut thin gs lo C•.> lll C. It is 1;1 r thi s r e;i s r•11 t l1: it tl1c h 1lu rc

I

i

t

i::; co11s i<lc r ed as thc pro 1·in cc ., f co 11j e ct11n.: a11d 1111u·rtai11: .' .
"Loc a l Cu 1zne.c ion, th e fi f"tli in the ali t•l'l: 1· n11m<.·1-:1ti .. 11,
hath a mo re po we 1f"ul c !li.:ct t han pr t1.\ i1n i1y (>[' t. iine . .D11rati on and space ar c t1·.- o t hin gs ( ca ll th C' m entitiC's, o r :ill ri bu tes, o r 1·.-l 1at yon ple a se) in so m e r espect s tl1c rnnst. lik t',
a nd in snrnc r espec ts th e m ost u 11likC', to r>1ir ann 1l 1<·r.
Th<' y rc s(· m!ilc in co nt in ui ty, cli r is il. ilily, infi11ilr, in tli<·ir
b eing <lce m r. d cs~<' n t i a l t o th e e xi stence of ut hn tl 1in;c:.' ,
and in t he d o111Jt,1 that ha ve l)(o<'ll r:ii s.- cl a s tn t h \·i r ha 1·111!.'.
a rl' a l (l r indepe n de nt e xiste nce o ftli1·ir o w11. Tlll'y d: Ji; ·r
in t ha t th e latte r is pe rman e nt , wh e reas the 1·c-n· ,.,,,.,, ,., ;
of thc fo rm e r co nsi.~ t et h in tnrn sito ri11 c:;s : t he 1•a rts ut' 11,,,
o ne a re a ll s uccessil'c , of th e oth n all c•1-csi,-1 1· 11l. Ti11;
g reat e r po rti ons oC l im e ar c a ll c.li s t ingu isheJ by the 111 c 1norabl e thin gs whi c h hav e b ee n tra11 sa dcd in them, tl i•c
sm alle r po rt io ns by t h e r e 1·o luti o nR of th e h eal'f•n ly bod i1· .;:
th e portions of pla ce, £!;rc at a nd s mal l, (fo r we do n Pl li c re
co ns id e r th e r eg ie> ns o f' th e fixed s t a rs a nd pl a n e t ~, ) :ire
d i~ t i11 g ni ~ h c d hy t l1C' 1·ari o 11 !'< tra cts nf' land and 11·atcr, 11Jlo
wh ic h t he ca rtl 1 j, d ivid ed a nd s ub d ii· idNl; the nnc dis -

!. ;

;.,

td'l'ENDJX.

Al'l'ENDIX .

tin ct inn intell igib le, th e other se n siule; the one chiefly
kn o wn to the inquisitive, the other in a great measure
ob\· ious to all.

" 11 c nc e pe rhaps it ari ses, that the latter is cons idered as

or

re lation than th e fon~1er. \¥ho is not
rn o rf! c t1ri o us to know th e n otabl e transac tions which have
h: q>jJencd in hi s own co untry fr o!n th e ea rli est antiquity,
t 11:rn to be ac qu a int e d with those wlii c h hav e happen ed in
t it. ~ n·111otcst regions of th e globe during th e ce ntury
wher e in he lives? It must be o wn e d, how eve r, that th e
t'u r111 e r ci rcumsta nce ;~ more frer1u c ntly aided by that of
per,.;onal relat ion tlian the latte r. Con ne xi o n of place not
<111 ly in cl udes vi cinage , but e very o th e r loc al relation, such
a,; be in g in a province und e r the same governmen t with
11,.:, in a s ta te that is in alliance with u s , in a country wcil
known to us , and the lik e . Of the influ e nce of this conn r: xi on in operat ing on our passions we have da ily prooi.'3.
\V ith h ow much indifference, at least with h ow slight and
tran s ie nt e motion, do we r ead in ne wspa pers the accouats
ol' the most deplo rabl e acc idents in countries distant and
u1drn ow n? I-lo w much, on th e contra ry , are we al a rmed
alld agitated OH being informe d that any s uch ac c id e nt
hath ha ppe ned in our own n e ighbourhood, and that, even
tlt <> ugh \\' C be t otally unacqnainte d with th e persons concc r111.:d )
a firm e r g ruund

" S till g reate r is the powe r of relation to the persons
.:"11cc r11 8d, whi c h 11·as th e s ixth c irc um s tance mentioned,
11 ,.: t hi :' ti c is m o re direct than that. which attachcth us to
t l 1t~ "''"lie of a ct ion . It is th e persons, not the place , that
art' t h<' imm•'d iatc ol>,iccts uf th e passion s love o r hatred,
l'ity <>r :1 ng<'», e nvy or contempt. Relation to the actors
r.0111111""1 .'.- p :· <> d 1w <'s an e ffect co ntr a ry tu that produced by
n •l:tti ., 11 1.., t ;1c :; 11 !li.! rcr,;, tl10 Ji rst 111 exte nu at ion, th <' >jC(.;'.J lld
m a gg 1·a va t iun, o f" the crim e alleged .

T he first makes

323

J.n th e apologi st, th e second for the ac c user. This, I s ay.
Th e re mote r e lati o n to
the actors, wh e n the offe nce is he in ou s , especially it' tl:r:
suffere rs be m o re ne arly re late d, will sometimes ra the r
aggravat e than e xte nuat e the guilt in our estimati on . Bu•
it is im poss ible with any precisi o n to r e du ce t.h csc effec<:-i
ti) rul es; so m uc lt depending on the diffe r e nt temp e rs an n
se ntim e nts of ditl e re nt audiences. Perso nal r e lations arc
of vari ous kinds. Some have g e ne rall y greate r innu encc
than ot he rs; some again have g re at e r influence wi th one
perso n, ot he rs with an otl1 c r. They ar c co 11 ~a n gu i n i ty,
affini ty, fr ic n<l s l1ip, ac r1u a iutau cc, be in g f<.; ll o w-c it:zcns ,
co un t rymen, of' the same surname , lunguil gc, re ligio n ,
ol:c u pati on , and innum c ral.ile ot h e rs .
'' But of all t.h e co nncxive c ir c umsta n ces, the most powcrf'i il is inl c r ~s l , wh ich is the last. Of all relations, pcrs rrnal relation, liy bringing th e object very n ear, m 0st enliv ens that sy m pathy whi ch attaches us to t he co ncc r is "f
others; interest in the effects brings the 0 lij cc t, if I may
say so, into contact with us , and mak es th~ mind c ling to
it, as a c0 ncern of its o wn. Sympathy i::i l1u t a reflect ed
feel in g, and t her efo re, in o rdinary cases , mu st be weake r
than th e origina l. Though th e mirrnr he 1·v1·r so trur:, a
i<J vc r will 11<>t be oblige d to it for prc >1 c ntin g hi111 wi 1It tht:
1igurc of hi s rnistrc s!:l , wh e n he hath an oppo r tunity of gazing on lier pe rso n. Nor will th e o rato r place his ch ief'
c on ii<lGnec in th ~ a ssistance of the social and sy mpath e ti t'
afil; ct iuns, \\·hen he hath it in hi s powe r to arm th e scl lisl1.
".!\Ten univ1~ rsally , fr om a just co1~ccpti o n of t he cliffcr('nc~, hav e, when self is concerned, giv e n a d ifTcrcnt name
to what seems o ri ginally the same pas ~ i ·m in u h ighe r
d1' gr ce . Injury, to wh omsoe ve r offe r ed, is to every man
that oli~ c rv e s it , an1! who se seu se of rigltt i~ not debauc !1 cJ
liy vi c iou s prar:t icc , the natur a l objec t <>C ·ind1'g 11atio11. In-

is commonly th e case, n ot alway s.

324

APP E ND1X .

APPENDIX.

tlignat1on ahrays implies r esenlmenl , or a desire of retaliati ng on the injurious perso n, so far at le ast a~ t o make him
repen t th e wro ng he hath committed. This indignation
in t he person injured, is, from our kno wledg e of mank ind ,
suppose d to be, not indeed u nive rsally, but gene rally, so
much stronge r, that it ou g ht to be di stingu ish ed by 1rn oth<'r a ppellat ion, an<l is acco rdin g ly de nominat ed r evenge .
fn like man ne r, lie nefi cence, on whomsoever exe r cised,
i ~ tl1<' natural obj ect of o ur lo ve; love always impli es ben crolcncc, or a d esire of promo t ing t h e ha ppiness of the
henclicc nt person; but t hi s pass io n in the pe rson benefi ted is co1 H.:cived to lie so mu c h g re ater, and to in fe r so
st rong an ulil igatio n to a r e turn of good olliccs to h is be nefacto r, th at it m erits to lie tli st in g ui sh c d by the titl e g mtitudc. No w by this c ircu mstanc e o f i nterest in the cffoc ts,
tl1c speake r, fro m engag ing y ity in h is favo ur , c an proceed
t•i ope rat e on a mor e powerfu l prin c ipl e , sclf-p1·cscrv11 Lion.
The bcncrnfrncc o f !t is Ii carers he c an wo rk u p into g ratif 11dc, tl1c ir i11dip:nolio11 in to r evenge.
" Tl1c (11«> l:1st- mcnt io n <!d c irc nm ~t nnc cs, p r, rs ona l relati on and interest, a r c not without influence, as was hin ted
i11 the c1n•meration, though they rc ga rJ the sp eaker o nl y,
:i nd not tl1 c: hea r•' rs. T he: r<' ason i ~, a perso n prese nt with
11>', 11·ho111 we sec an.! h e ar , a nd wh o by wo rd s, a nd loo ks,
:in11 gcst mrs, g ives the live li es t s ig ns of hi s fe e li ng~, has
1111· ~Ill' <!"( ;ind mo st imm ediat e claim np on o ur sy m path y .
\\'t: li ccn n1 e i1ilcc tcd with hi s passions . W e are *-11Tic d
;:]11ng by tl 1f'm, :rnd not allow ed le is ur e to di stiug ui slt
l1t'twcen h is r<:lat i1> n and o ur r e latio n , his interest and our
i 11 t r r l'~t." Campbe ll's Rhcloric, p. 184 -1 90, ( b i. ch. 7.
~ :} . pa rt s 4, 5, G, 7 .

Page

~
j

I

J ;J j

325

[ E.]

A gnod illu strat io n o f what has b ee n said is s uppli ed l1y
t he fo ll ow ing e xtract from l\T r. l\Tilrnan's Bampt on Lec tur es, ( Lec ture V I. p . 2G9.) " C o ncei ve th e n the a post les
o r Jesus Chr ist , th e tcnt m ak c r o r th e fi she rman , entering,
as strungr:rs , into o ne of the spl e ndi d ci ti es of Syria, A ~ i a
l\T in or, o r Greece. Co n ceive th em, I m e an, a s 1111<:' 1H.Jo w,.d
wi th mirac ul ous powe rs , having a d <)p ted th e ir it in c r;i nt
system of teac hin g fr om hu 111an m otive s , and fur hu 111a11
pu rpose s alo n e . A s they pass al o ng to tli c re mot e and
obscure qu art e r, wh e re t hry e x pec t to meet \\'it h preca ri ous
hos pitality am o ng th e ir cou ntry m e n, th ey ~un cy th e
st re ngt h of tlrn es tablish e d r el ig ion , whi cli it is t l11· ir
avo \\' ed purpose t.o o verthrow . Every wh e re they b ehold
te mples , o n which th e utm ost e xtrav agan ce or CXJH' ndit ll re
h as bee n lavished by succeed in g generations; i dol~ of t lie
lll ()S t e xqui s ite wo rkman shi p, to whi c h, C\·cn ift l1e rl' i i gi•Hl~
fi:l'li ng of a do rati o n is e nfe e bl ed, the peopl e a rc st rn11 bly
attached by nati o na l or local van ity . They med proc ess io ns, in whi c h t he idl e find perpetual occ upation , the
y o un g ex ci tem ent, th e voluptu ous a. co ntinual st imulant to
th e ir pass io ns. Tii<'y h ehold n pri estho od, nllin c r• 111,.,,
sn111 ct i1nf' s we althy; nor ar c th ese alon e weddl'd b y i1Jtcr<"~l
to th e est;blisheJ fa ith; many of th e trad es , lik e. th o~ c of
th e mak e rs o f silver s hrin es in Ephesus, arc pl e dged l o
the s upp ort of th at to whi ch th ey owe their maint e nan ce .
They pass a m agc!fice nt theatre, on th e spl enclo m a nd
s uccess o f whi c h the popularity o f th e e xi stin g a nthr,ritic·s
m a in ly d e pc ncls; and in whi c h th e sC' ri o us C'xh il,itin:1s
are e sse ntial ly r e li gio us , th e li g ht e r, a s in timately cnn nectcd with th e indu lge n ce o f' th e baser pass io ns. Th ey
behol d ai:iot.h e r pu b lic b u ilding, wh e re e ven wo rse feelings,
the c ru e l and th e snn g 11inary, arc pamp e red by the animat -

28

3'2G

A PPEND IX.

APl'EN D IX .

i11 g C < 1llt 1 '~b or 11·il J Jicasts anJ or glad ial or;i , in which they
th e mselves m<i y 8ho rtl y play a dreadful part,

ficulties, of wl1i ch it wo uld be imp o ~ ~ iuk to ove rl ook tl: e
importan ce, o r elude th e f(H·cc ; whi c h r e q11in:d 1w s(JlJC r
c a lc lliati on to csti1nal e, no labo ri o us e nqui ry to di s..:o \' t•r;
which met and confronted them wh e re ve r they wen t, and
whi ch , e ither i11 despe rat e pres umpti on, c,r dclil.J e ral c reli anc e on thei r o w n preternatural powers, they mu st have
cont e mn e d a nd defied.
T he com m e n cement of th e ir labo urs was u~ually dis heart eni ng , and ill calculated to ke ep al i1·c t he :Jain e .. r
un gro und ed enthu siasm. Th ey l.J cg in th<:ir o pc rati o11s i1 1
th e uarr o w and sec luded synagogue of' tltl'ir ow11 c•H1JJ try111 en. Th e novelty of their <lo ctrinc, a nd c uri os ity , sec ur e
them at firs t a patie nt attenti o n; I.Jut as the 111ore ofi'e11~i1e
ten et;; ;i r e devel oped, th e m os t fi e r ce and l'iokut. pa:;siolls
a rc awak e ned. S c um and hat rc J ar c see n working i1 1 tl 1e
cluialed l1rows and agitated countenances of the lcudns:
if her e and the re one is pricked lo th e hcrrrl, it rcq n ircs
consid e rabl e moral courage to a c kn o wled ge !tis co nv ict ion;
a ·d the new tea c h e rs ar e e ithe r cast fo rt h from tl1c iJJd ign;rnl as ~c rnbl y of th ei r own peopl e, liahlc lo all tltl!
p r llli.~l un c nts whi c h they arc permitte d to in flict , Hconr gf'd
a nd bea te n; or, if th ey s ucceed in fo ru1ing a pa rt y , tlir:y
g ive ri se to a furiou s schi:;m; a!ld thus appear l1 ef0rc the
heat he n with th<J dan ge ro us noto ri ety of' ha viJJ g cau sed a
vi ole nt tumult, and l.Jroken th e p ublic peac e hy their turl1ulc nt <u1d co ntentious harangu es : at all cvc11l:;, d iscL1i111 cd
by that ,·cry people on who se tra dit i.,JJ:> ll " 'Y prufl'sS to bni !J
th e ir d octr ines , and to whose Scr ip tur es th ey app e al in j1 1sti:icati o n of' th e ir prete ns ions. T hey e ndure, t hey pcr~c ­
vcrc, th ey co ntinue to s ustaiu th e cu lltest ngai ust Judai:' rrt
a nd paganism . It is still their dc li hc ratc , ost e nsil1l e , aud
a\'owc,-J 0bject, to ove rthr ow all thi s vast systc rn (>f id1.J atry : t<• te ar up by tlt c rn <Jts all a ucicnt prej11 di 1 ; 1 ,~ ; lo
:;il e ncc shrines, ,;~tn ct ifi e d uy th e ve ncra t iull
ages a ~

ilutcl1l'r '<l tu 11ialte a lluman lwlid ay !
Show and spectacle arc the c haracterist ic e nj oyments of
t ht: whole people, and every sho w anJ s pecta c le is ~ ith c r
~anc<l to the re lig ious fcc iin gs , o r incen tiv e to tl 1c lu sts
or the flesh; th ose foe lin gs whi c h mu st be e ntir e ly cratlicated , those lusts whi c h must I.Jc brou g ht into total subjccti Pn to thl' law of Christ. T h ey e ncounter lik e wise itinerant
jugglers, divin ers, magicians, who impose up o n th e crcdulirns, a nd e xc ite t he conte nipt of th e en li g ht e ned; in the
ft'.'St case , dangerous rivals to th ose who should att empt to
prPpag atc a ne w fa!th by im postu re and tl cccpt.i on; in the
latte r , natur a lly tend ing to pr ejudice th e mind against all
mi1· ;1c ulo11s pretens ions whateve r : h e re, lik e E lymas, c ndl';n-.1uri11g to outd o the s ig ns a nd wo nders of th e apostles;
thl're, t11rowi ng f'Usp ic ion o n ull asse rt ed s up e rnatural
ag t:ncy, by the frequ e ncy and clumsiness of th e ir de lu~1ons.
They m eet phil osop h e rs , fr e qu e ntly itine rant like
tl1(' 111"' h ·cs; o r teach ers of 11 e w religion s , pri ests of Isis
<i nd S c rap is, who hav e brought into equal di scre dit what
rni g ht 11thc rwise have appeared a proof of philanthropy,
th e pcrfurmin g labo r io us j ourneys at the sacr ifice of p er~onal case and co m fort fo r the moral and r e li g ious imprnv e rn e ut of mankin d; or at le ast have so a cc ustomed
t he publ ic mind to sim il ar pret e nsi ons, as to take away
f' l'!'ry attract io n from their boldness or nov e lty. T here
arc abn the teac h ers of th e differe nt myst eries, whi ch
ll'nu ld engross all th e anx iety of the inquis itive, perhap s
<' xc ite , c·1·c n if t hey did not sat is fy, th e hopes of the more
p11 rc a nd J., f'ty mindt '. tl. S uc h must hav e IJCe n am o ng the
,, J, ~ tacl· ·~ "'h ic h wn 11l 1l f\1r c c th e mse lves on the calm e r
111 nmic nt s of t he m o~ l ardent; s uc h th e overpowering dif-

327

or

32S

A P PENDIX.

32~)

APPENDIX .

orac ular; to con s ign all th ose go rg eous te mples to de cay ,
and al l thu sc images to c ontempt; to we an th e people from
cyc ry b ar bar ous and dissolute amus ement."* * * * * * * ·..
"But in o ne re spec t it is impossible n ow to conceive
the ext ent, to whi ch the apos tl es of the crucifi ed J csus
sh oc ked all th e feelin gs of ma nkind. The public cstabfo;lun ent o r Ch ri stia nity, th e ador a tion of ages, the r e ve ren ce of n at ions , has thro wn ar o und the c ross of Chri ~t a n
im.lc li i.J lc u11J inali e nable sanclit •v. No clfort o f th P.. im a"iua ti o n c an diss ipate the illus ion of di g nity wlii c h h;s
gath ered ro und it; it h as bcmi so long di sseve red fr o m all
its coa rse and humi liating associations , t h at it cannot be
cas t bac k a nd desec rated into its state of opprobrium and
Co ll te rn pt. To t h e most darin g unbeli e ve r am ong oursclve:;, it is the sy mbol, th e abs urd, and irrati onal, h e may
co n ceive , but still t he an cic ut and ven e ra ble symbol of a
powe rful and infl u enti a l r el igion: what was it to t he J e w
a nd tu th e h eathe n) the basest, the must <l egradi11g punislunc nt of t lic lo west crimin al ! th e pro ve rbial terror of
tl1e wretched sl aY e! it was to the m, wh at th e m ost d es]' ic alJI C an d re voltin g in strum e nt of public execution i.3
to 11s. Yet to th(" c ross of C hri st, me n turn ed from d e iti es
in wli ic h we re em bodi e d e very attribut e of strength, powe r,
aud J ig 11i ly ; in an in cr ed ibly s hort s pacP. of tim e , multit u de s gave up the sp lendour, th e p rid e , and th e powe r of
pag anism , to adore a B eing, who was thu s humiliated beneat h th e m ean est of m a nkind, who had be come, accordrn g t o ~ h e li teral inte rpretation of the prophecy, a very
scorn oj inen, and an outcast of the people." Ibid. p. 279.
~

Page 110 , [F.J
" S uch is our yo ke and 0 111" burrl e n ! Let him, wlio has
th o ug ht it to o ha rd a nd too he a vy to be ar, he pre pared to

st ::t c it liohll)", whi: n h e shall a l'pe a r s id ..~ by si.k "i t!1 t! 10
pn "r a nd 1 11 i~tal\l : ll Ind ian l1 d~H C the th r .. ne uf (; ,.J at tl1c
day of judgmcnL

Tlic poor h ea th e n m ay cu11 1c 1'11 1·" :nd

wi t h hi s wo111Hle d li mb s a11d W(' lter i11 g hociy, s; 1 _1· i n~', ' l
th u 11 ght thee a!·1 a~l s f crc n1a ~ tt.' r ) d 1:lig h ti n .~

1 11

the 11 1i :--cr i<' .'

o l' th y c re atur e ;:, and r ha\'C a·cco rdiJ1gl y Lrou g1it t h l' C tl1c
turn r c 111 nau ts ot' a lwoy whi c h I have tn rt 1: n ·d i11 th.v >'•· r\'i cc. 1

~'\nd

th e Cl ni:-.: t i~1n will cu i ne f~ •n\'an !. and ~a\' .

lu1 cw t hu t I hq u d1d :·.;t d ie to

:--: :lv c

Ill' ' i ·r ,1 111

1

1

:--:1 H· !i :--: 1 dl ~ ·; 11 1:,:....:

torracut ~, a:1 d that tl1 f) u 111:! .\ · cu1111 11;1 11dt · d-.:.t 11H· l q k~ ·1 · : 1
rny body in te mper a nce , sulicrncs", an d c ha,;I ity, aml l
thought it too ha r d fo r me; and I hayc a cco rdin gi y liru 11;,:ii t
th e e t h e r e fuse ano s wee pin gs nt' a body that !1a,; l1n·11
cn rru pte <l an d b rutal ized in t he sen· ice o f l'r•Jlii .~;u: y <lll•l
druu kcnnc~~, - evC"n t he body " ·liich th11t1 di t::--:.t d 0i:< :1 !· i :
slin uld b e th e [P mpl c or thy J Inly S pirit.' The poo r l n<! ;,,11
will pe rhaps , she w hi s hand ;, , reck ing with the !ilood .i1·
lt is t:hil dr c n , s ay in g, c I tl 11 )ught th is \\· a~ tlic ....;~1t · rifi(·1• ' ri t!i
wh id t G .. d wa s we ll ple ase d: ' and yn u, th.: C!1ristian, ,,,! l
co in e fu rwar d wit h hinod np o11 ti1 y i1a11 d ,; ;tl,o, · l k11c\\· ti1;it
t h o u g -.:. vc:-'l thy son fr1r 1ny :o.;acrificf~, nnd c on1111a11 d 1, d:->t 1111 ~

an J

ti)

lea d 1ny otl~p rin g in the way of c\·c rlu s tiri g li fi · ; 1 )~!~ flH:

C<) llllllan d

wa~

to<> l1a1d f',,r m e,

[q l<:ac;h t JH ' lil

lhv ,1:1:>1t""

;u 1d t o ~ ( ·t the 1n 1ny hu111 \i\ 1; <' .\ ; 11n p\c : i ILt\"~· ), ·1 1lwr11 , . ,,

the br ua d way to dest ru ct ion , and tl1cir J,j,),, .J j ,- 111'" " 1'1y
hand - a!ld my hea rt - and rny he ad. ' T l1e I 11 di ;11! will
c oni c f~1rwar <l, and ~a y , • ·Beho!J 1 i a111 cc111 H ~ 1·rni1 1 1i 1, '.\\"<nHl ,
t h e J t~ s c rt , ;u1d t l1c \\'ildern c ss. \\"h e n.~ l llt'd 1·r,) 1 1 11lt~ · 1·l11"!' rf1d s11 c i e t. y of 111 y l~ :l low-111 o rtal s , b e cau:-' e l t. hu 11 g l1 t il \\ ; i:;
ple<tsing in thy ~iglit.' Aud th e C hri ~ tian wi ll cu 11 1c 1; ,,._
\\'ard, and ~ay, 'Beh old, I come frum rn y c o111 !; >1-t a l>l c !1<> 111 <'
n nd th e co mm u ni o n of my b re th ren, wh i1·!1 tho u ha ,;l grac io us ly pe rmitt e d rn c to e nj<))' ; bu t I t.lw ug-h l it t rio li:1rd
t.n g iv e the m a sh a re
1.ho:;e l1 l c ss i11 g~ \\' hich 1Ji ., 11 h a,(

ur

~;-)I.·

380

AP P t:NDIX .

3 31

A PP ENDJX.

bestow<'<l u po n me; I thought it too h a rd to g i1·e the1u a

human voice; you must reco ll ect that you arc n rm

p o rtion of rny time, my trouble, my fortune, o r my int erest;

up o n th e earth; o r, if you \\·a11 t society, y o u haJ b<:lter

ul01it:

l th ou g ht it to o hard to k eep my tongue fr om c nr::;ing a nd

louk for it am o ng the lJcasts of the ficlJ than arnn11 g t lie

rc"· ili11 g , my h e art from hatr e d, and rny h a nd from vio le nc e
and re venge.' What will be the ans we r
t h e Judg e to

Al rn ighty, in pity to you r desolatiuo, should send !u :-;

t he poo r l n dia n , n one can pr es um e t o 8ay .

angels befo re the nppoin tcJ time, tha! you migiit learn to

or

Th at he was

rui1wd species t o wh ich yo u belong; un less inde c J tl1 c

sadly mistak e n in th e m ea n s of salv at ion , and th a t what h e
l1ad d e> ne could never purchase hirn eve rl astin g li fe , is beyond a doulJt; but yet the Jud ge may say, 'Corne un to

for g et in their soc iety the

rne , tli() u he a vy -l ade n, and I will g ive th e e th e r es t 1~ h i c h
thou cou ld ~t n ot purchase fo r thy s c ll'.' Bu t, t o th e Chr is -

c re a lu rl! S, - to fe e l the char ity of yo 1:r co 11 11nqn n:ll ur e
r ising in your hea rt, and to have to c ru sh il wirl 1in y rn1

tian, 'Thou, who had st my easy yok e , n1H] my light liurd c n; thou, for whom al l was a lready purc hased ,' - -

like a s in , - t o reach forth your han d to p erl orm one ri r
the colllrnon kindnesses of h u manity , and to ll11d it wi the r-

T!ta11k G od! it is n ot y et pro n o u nced : -

ed by the r e colkc ti o n, that howeve r you may 111 it 1gate a

begone! and fly

for thy li fe ' " TVolje 's Sermons , ( R ema·ins, ) Sermon
p. 371 - 3 73 .

X

" S11ppose it w e r e s uddenly r e ve al e d l o any one amo ng
yo u , that he, a nd he alone of all that walk up on the face
of th is earth, was de st ined to r ece ive the be ne fit o f Iii ~
Jlnl e ern c r's aloncrncnt , and that all tlic rest of m a nkind
"·as lu ,., t - anJ lost lo ull clcrnily; it is harJ to say wh a t
1\· 01ilJ be th e first se nsat ion e xcit ed in th at man's m in <l h y
tli " i11 tl' llig e 11 ce . I t is ind ee d p roliulil e it w ould bejoy - t~
th i11k that al l his fear s r c,;pecti ng hi s ete rnal d e s ti!I)' we re
nnw no m orn; that all tli c foreb od ing s of th e mind a11 J
llli,., g i,·i11 gs ,, f t he h e art- al l th e sol e n11 1 st ir whi c h we fod
ri,.,in~

\\"ithin us whl'nc1• c r w e loo k f{i rw ard to a dark

fu t 11ri ty , -

tu fe el that al l th ese had n ow s ub s id e d for

e r l' r, - to kno w that he s hall stand in the e ve rlas tin g
s1 1n s l1i11 e of th e lo 1·e of God 1 It is perhaps im pos~ i hle tlmt
all t l1 is sh o 1dcl not c nll forth an i1nrn ed iate fe e lin g of
d<:li ~ ht: but if yo u wish th e sc n sati <!l l to co nt in u e, you

111 11,;t g'• t" the wi klcrn e s s ; }" ii mu s t IJewa re ho w you
C tlllH : w it l1i 11 ,_,j g ill t>f u hu 11 1<11l iJl·i11 g, (ir w ith in so 11nJ of a

oute a ~t

obj e ct" of .' ·"nr \(,rn ir·r

~y111patl1i e s .

But to go ab ro ad int o human s" c icty , - to
wal k alll o ngs t Beings wi1 0 a rc now n o long<; r your 1·l'l inw -

pres e n t pang, the e verlast ing pan g is irreversible; tu t u rn
a\\'ay in despai r from t!ie se childre n whom y u u l i<~Y c now
c olli e to liks:; and to sa ve ( we h ope a nd trust li uth l1r; rc a nd
lvr eve r ) !-pe rli aps it would be too n111 c h f;Jr you; a t all
e1· c nls, it w ould be h arJ to s tat e U d e gree or \' .\ Cl' ll Ol r \\' 1!it i n th e utrnost rang~ of hu1nan e nergy , or a dPu rcc r1t" p:!1n

" ·ithin t l1c fart h est lim it of human e11d11ran«P, l•• " ·lii ,-h
you would n ot sul nni t, that you rnigli: ha ve u 11 e cu 111 l'a11 i<>n
011 yo11 r lonel y w:iy i'ro111 thi~ wurlr\ t.) th e rn: ui.•ions <>I.ha ppitlf· ~~ ­

B1it s 11 p pn sf · , a ! t.l1~ 1 t :111111H'lll., t !i:t1 I i i <' ;t 11g 1· \ \ \

li o

bruugl1t tl 1c lir"t i11t e llige 1we r ct 11r11~ tu tt-11 y ou tl1at tl 1.. rc
a re Be ing s L'l " lll thi s ea rth who may y ('l li e ,,; 1\· .. d , - tl i: 1l
he was !. cll1rc mi stak e n , no m atter ho w,-p<>rh'q•s lie """'
yr, ur guardian a ngt·l, a nd <lartc(l fr on1 tl1e

tl 1r •H1 f;

11:· ~r:H·';

" ·ith the i11 1.<'ll:g e n c c uC yo ur :<alvat io n with ..., 11 t w ui i1 11g tu
llC' a r the fate o f th e rest o f maukind, -

n o matt er how, -

l111t lie eu111e s to te ll yo u th at th0.re arc Be ings "l'"n t h e
e ar th who arc wi t hi11 the rea c h o t' y ou r Hcdccmer's lnY P,
a11d of .vnu r own ,- t. hat some of th e m :u<' no w be for e v ou ,
and th ei r e 1-e d;~·.; t i11 g d c s ti11 y is placed in your ~t:r 1 1d ~ ; th ('n,

. ...
I.,.

332

333

APPENDJX.

APPENDIX .

\\'hat wo11k1 ti rst occur to yo ur mind ?-privations, -dange r;;,- ditlic:.dti cs? NJ: b~ t you would say , l.ord, what
::<hal l I <lo' s hall I trave rse earth and se a, through mise ry
a11<l tnn ne nt, that of th ose whom thou hast g iven me I may
11 ot lose one? " Ibid . Sermon XI. p. 3f.l I - 393.

pho r, as to talk in lllf'.liiphor, or rath e r wh r n from mC'~a ­
phor he runs into all ego ry, a1 1d then ce in tu e ni g11ia, !:i s
wo rd s are not t he immediate s ig ns of his t houghts; tii <' y
arc at I.Jest but the s igns o f the s igns of his thought. J fi s
wr iting may th en be called, what Spenser n ot unju~1ly
sty led hi s Fairy Qu N· n, a pe1pd11.a l allt'gor:J or dm·k cr111 ceil. l\'Iost readers will acco unt it mu cl 1 to bestow a tr a nsie nt g lan ce on the lit e ral se ns e, wh ich li e:; nearest; li11t
wiil nev e r th ink of that mean.ing more rem ole , win ci1 the
figur e:; th e mselv es ar c int e nd ed to s ign ify. It is 1tr> wondl' r
th e n that thi s ::;c nse , for the d \::;covcry of whi c h it is ne cessary to sec thro ugh a dl!Ubl e ve il, sh o uld, wher e it i~, n1ore
read ily escape ou r obse rvati o n, and that where it is wan ting
we should nut so quick ly m is::> it." " .. "' • " " " " " "
"The re is, in r es pect of t he two me anings con s idc ra!Jle
var ie ty to lie fo un d in th e tropi cal Style . In ju st al lrgory
an<l s imilitude tl1ere is always a propril"ly, or, if yo u ch o•)SC
to c all it, co ngruity , iu th e literal sense, a s well a s a <lis
tin ct meaning o r se utime nt suggeste d, which is cal led the
figurative se nse .
E xam ples of th is ar c unn cc rs~Gry .
A ga in, whe re the figurative sense is un e xcep ti on able, th e re
is som etim es a n incong ruity in th e expression of th e lite ral se nse . T hi s is al ways th e case in mixed m etaph or , a
thin g not unfr eq11e 11t even in good wri te r~ . Tl 111 ~, whrn
A<l<lison remarks that ' th e re i::> nut a ::>ing lc view o f hu rn;m
n ature , whi c h is n ot suffic ie nt to exli11g1iish the seeds of
pride,' h e expres::>es a tru e s entim e nt ::>on1cwhat inco ngru ousl y ; for t he ter ms extinguish and seeds her e mctaphuricully used, do not s uit each oth e r. I n lik e manner , th e ;·e
is som ethin g inco ngr uo us in th e mixt ur e or tro pe~ employed in t he fo ll owing passage from Lor<l Bulingbrukc :
' N ul.h ing less than th e hearts o f his people will c0ntcnt a
patr iot Prince, n or will h e tl1ink h is throne e stablished, t ill
it is estab lished there. ' Y c t th e th oug lit is e xccl k nt. But

Page 182, [G.J
In Dr. C a mpbeli's inge nious dissertation (R hetoric,
bnok ii. c . v ii.) "on th e causes th at nonsense often esc ap e s bei11g detected, both by the write r and the reade r,"
he remarks, (sec . 2 .) th at "there are particularly three
sorts of wri ti11g wh ere in we are liab:c to be imposed upon
l1y w(Jrds \\'i thout meaning ."
" T he fir st is, wh ere th e re is a n exub e rance of metaphor.

J\" othing is m ore certain t ha n that this tropr., wh en tem pe rate ly and app osite ly use <l, se rves to add li g ht to th e
On the contrary,
wli cn vagt1e ly and intemperately used, n oth in g can se r ve
rnore ctl"ectually to cloud t li e se n se, where th e re is se nse ,
aml by con~eq u e nce to conceal th e defect, wh e re th ere is
n n sr n~ e to she w. And thi s is the case, no t only wh e re
I he re is in t.he same sente nce a m ixture of di sco rdan t metll j>lt" rs , hut also wh ere t he metapho ric style is too lon g
co nti11uccl , :-ind too far purs u ed. [ Ut m.odints wulem alqtte
"Jlporl nn11s /ransla tionis usns i lln.~lra l orationcm.: ila Jre'f " l'! IS , l'i obscumt cl la:dio com7Jlct; conlinuus vero in a.llep:n rirrm cl rr:uigmoln exit. Quint. li l.J. vii i. c . vi.j T he
n ·a s.111 is ohvi" us.
I n comm on s peec h th e word s are the
illlrn ed iate s ig ns of the tho ugh t . But it is n ot so h ere;
li•r wh e n a pe rso n, instead of adopting m etap ho rs that
<:orn e naturally an d opportune ly in !:is way, rurr11n ages th e
wh , ,J c wnrld in quest of th c111, a nd piles them one up on
:in<>t lwr , wl1c u he caun ot so prope rly be said to use metae x p r c~~ ion , and ene rgy lo the se ntim e nt.

j

·l

:.

,,.

034

APPENDJX.

Al'PI·'.:\ DIX

in n e ith e r o f th es e examples docs the iuco ngruity of the
c x prc;-;,;iCJ n l111rt t he pe rs pi c uity of the sentence . Some! !in c,; , ind eed , the literal meaning involves a direct
ali ,; u rdi ty . \Vh c u thi s is the case, as in the quotation
fru1n, Tli e Principles of Painting giv e n in the preceding
chapte r, it is natural fo r th e r e ader to suppose that
the re must be something under it; for it is not easy
t o s ay how absurdly even just sentiments will sometimes
b<: c xpr c~ s e d . But when no such ltidden sense can Le
di,; c o\·c rcd, what , in th e fir s t Yicw conveyed to our minds
a g larin g a6mrclity, is ri g htly on r e fl e ction denominated
nonsense. \Ve arc sat isfied that D e P iles neither th o u"ht
0
'
nor wan ted hi s readers t o think, that Ruhcns was re ally
the o riginal pe rformer, and G od the copier. This then
was nut hi s mean ing. Bu t what he actually thought and
want e d th e m to think, it is impossiulc to elicit from hi s
\YO rd s. His words then may justly be sty led 6old, in res pect uf their literal import, uut immecin·i ng in respect of
t l1e a11t ho r':; intention.
"I t may he prope r here to obse rve, that some are apt
to co n fo und t h e terms abrnrdily a 11d nonsense as synonym ous ; l\'h ic h th ey ma nifes tly are not. An absurdity , in
I lie s t ri ct acce ptat io n, is a prop0sitio11 e ither int11itively ur
demon s trativ e ly fab e . Of this kind arc thes e : 'Three
and tw o mak e sc ,·e n.' 'All the an g l e ~ of a trian g le ar e
g rc :-ttc r t ha n tw o ri g ht ang le s.' That the form e r is fal se
w e know by intuiti on; that the latter is s o, we are ahle to
de monst rate . B11 t the term is further e xte nd ed to d e note
a noto ri ous fals e hood. If one s hould a!Tirm, that ' at the
YCrna] C<] uinox the s un ri ses in th e north and sets in the
~ 1 ·u t h,' we sh q uJ<l not h esit a te t o say, that he advances an
a '. 1s 11rdity ; bu t <still what h e affirm s has a m e an in g; inso111111· h , tl·.at on h e arin g the ,;e 11l e 11ee we pr u11ou11ee it:;
1;, J,..: it y. X <•W nun.sense is that whereof we cannot say

eit li1: r th a t it is t ru e , or that it is fal,; c . Tlws , \1·h ·: n the
T c ul,oni c Theoso ph c r c uo un ces, t hat' al l t h e Yoi 1:f's nt' t!i e
ce lc sti;djnyl"ulue s;; , qua iif)· , eo imnix, and h a rn '" " ' '~c i11 th~
fir e whi c h \\' as from cl< :rni ty in the g oo d q11:ili :._v,' l ,; li f, ;: !d
think it c qna lly impertin e nt to av e r the fa lsity a s t!i f: tru ili
of thi s e nun c iation. Fo r, t ho ug h th e wo rd s g ra 1n1nat i<: :tlh' Curm a se ntenc e , t hey e xhibit to t he umlcr~t:u Hlin:.; " ''
j.mlgm e nt, :-tnd co nseq u e ntl y ad m it n c iL11 e r a c: ::cnt 11 •>r d 1:'se nl. I u th e form e r instance s I say the mc a11i11 g, o r " ·i1a l
t liey a f1inn, is absun.l; in the last in stan c e I 'a;· tlic•"~ ts
llO 1ne:inin g,

;..uuJ therefore properly nothing i ~

a lr1 r ll 1t· l l.

In pn puli.lr lan g ua~c , I own, til e t e rms a bs ur d i1y a nd n•1 il se 11 :;c ar c n ot so acc ur;i l<-iy di s liugui ~l i e d. :\.'.1 :; urd p<J..:i ti o11 s arc so m e tim e:; ca!lc d no nsensi c al. It i ~ 11 1Jt co :n m o n, o n the o t he r ha nd , to s ay
d ownri g ht ll • Jl l ;.;c 1 ~ s c ,

or

tliat it co1nprisc s an ahsurdity.
"Furth e r, in th e lit e ral se nse there lll:l_v li e nut!ii ,ig
u :h tt ita»J.:, and ye t the re ad e r may be a t a los s l •1 find a
f"w nr utive m e aning , to which his c:xprc ss iun;.; cu i w:t!1
b
j 11 sti cc be appli e d .
rite rs immoderatc ly attached lo the
fl o ri d, or h ighly figured di cti on, arc o ft e n 11\1 , JciJ by a
<l e ;.;irP of"!lourishin g on th e se veral attributes oi" a nH:l•'l ih<> r,
whi c h they hav e pompou,ly u s her ed into th e di,c cm ir ~ •',
wi th out t:tkin:.; th e troulik l<> e xamin e wli• ·illl' r t. l1t· rc \,. :
anv qualities in the subj ect , to which th e se altri l>11 l"" c;111
with ju sti c e and pcr:-<pi c uity be applied. This i1 n1111•deralc u se oC metaphor," Dr . Campbe ll ob,;c rvc,;, ' ' is t he

'V

.;,

or

princ ipal ~o urc e
all th e nonsense or Orat1Jrs a11<l l'nds
" The s eco nd species 0f" writing wh e re in we a rc k\\,le
to he imp os ed un by word s without m e anin g , is that l\'h n cin the t e rms m ost fr e qu e ntly occurring , <l•·not c th in;.::-1
whi (; h a rc o f ;t c 11mpl ic. atcrl natur e , and to whi c h th e mind
is not s u ffic ie ntly familiariz ed. J\fo11y
th nsc n nt i " n ~
whi ch ar c c all e d liy Phil osophers lllix cd mode s , co me un de r

or

-l

336

APPENDIX.

APPENDIX.

animal, an imal than being.

But there is, m wh at a rr>
call ed ab str act s ubje c ts, a still greater fund of obscunty,
than that ari sing from the freque nt mention of the m""t
.,.eneral te rms. N amcs mu st be ass igned to tho se: quaiit it:s
conside re d abstracte dly, whi ch never subsi;;t indepen dently, or by th emselves, but which consti t ut e th e gcnc ri e
chara cte rs and t he specifi c diffe r e nc es of th ing;: . A nd
th is le ads to a mann e r which is in many in stan ces r emote
from the common u se o f s peech, and therefore m11 st lie 11 1'
m ore diffi c ult conception." ( Book ii. sec. 2 . p. l 0'2, l 03 . )
It is truly to be r eg rette d that an author who has wri t! e n
so ju stly on this subj ec t, sh ou l<l within a fe w page~ so st11i< in gly e xemplify the er ror s h e has been treating of, by in Logic, w h ich could not
<lltl 0rri nrr0 in a decla111 ation acraiu:;t
0
CYCn to himself have co nveyed any distincl me1wi1ig. \\'iicn
he savs that a man wh o had lea rned Logi c wa s" 'l u ;dillr•.\,
w ith;ul any oth e r k in<l ofknowledgc, to d e fond any po~iti on
whatev e r, howev e r con tra dic to ry to common s ense; " ;ind
th at "that ar t obse rv ed the m ost absolut e indincn'nr.c l<>
truth an d erro r," h e cannot m ea n that a false conclus io n
c o uld be logically proved from tru e premises; since, ig no rant a s he was of' the subject , he \\· as aware, an d has in
another plac e dist inctl y ack now ledged , tha t this is not th·~
case ; no r c o ul•l h e m cn n m e re ly that n false c<> 11 cl11si• 1 11
co uld h e proved from a false prem iss, s in ce tl1at 11·011 !.J
evid ently he a nu g at o ry and ridi culous ohjPctinn . l [c
seems to hav e had, in truth, no meanin~ al all; though ,
like the au tho rs h e had been so ably c ri t ic isi ng, he was
perfectly unaware of the e mptiness o f what he wassay :ng .

this denomination. Of th ese th e in stan ces are num erous
i!1 e very to ng ue; s uc h as g-ora nmcnl , church, slate, constitution.' polity, p ower, commerce, legislature, j .irisd·iclion,
7n uportwn., symmetry, elegance. I t will cons i<l e rably incrl'a~e the danger of o u r being dec e ived by a n unme au in•Y
u se of such t erms, if they are besides ( as ve ry often the;
are ) of so inde term inate, and co nse qu e utly eri uivo c al, sirrnifi cat ions, that a write r, un obse rv e d e ither by him se lf ~r
liy his r eade r, may sl ide fr om one se nse of the term to
anot he r, till by degrees h e fa ll into such applications of it
as ""ill make no sense at all. It dese r ves our notic e also,
that we arc in mu ch g re ater dang er of te rminating in t his,
if tl1e d ifferen t m ea nin gs of the sam e word have some
afii nity to oue anothe r, t ha n if' th ey have no ne . In tho
laao r case , when th ere is no affin ity, the t ransit ion fr om
o ne meani ng t o another is takin g a ve ry wi de ste p, and
wh at fe w writers are iu any dan ge r of; it is, besides, wh a t
wil l not so re ad ily escape th e obse rv atio n of' the r eade r.
s., rn11 c h for the second cause of deception, whi c h is th o
c hi l'i' snurcc of all the no nse nse of w ri te r" o u politi c~ an d
criti c i ~ rn.
"The tl 1ird an d last, and, I may add , th e prin c ip a l spe<:1f:s of co mpo s ition , wh er e in we ure exposed to thi s illusion
by th e ali 11 sc of' word s is that iu whi c h th e terms employed
ar c ve ry ab st ract, and conse quently of ve ry c xt c nsi\·e s iglll ficat1 1m. It is a n obse rvati o n that pla inl y ari se th from th e
n at lll" C a nd st ru cture of la ng uage, a nd may be deduc ed as
a cnrolla ry fro m what hath li cc n s aid of the use of art ificia l ~ ign~, t hat the more ge ne ral any n a m e is, as it co mprehP nds t he more individ uals un de r it , a nd conse quent ly re(jll ires tho more extensive kno wl e dge in the mind that wo uld
r i"!t tl y appre hend it, the more it. mu st hav e of indistinct ness
and nl"c 11 r it\· . Th us th e wo rd lion i ~ rn n rc d istin ctly appr1•hcnd ed by th e m ind than th e w<> rd bwsl, beast than

337

:s

Page 2 17, [H.]

l

",l\Ioscs ,;trctche d for th hi s hand, and the waters \\·crc
di \'i Jed, and lieca r11 e a wa ll unto the child rc!l 11 1' L:racl, 011
1h e ri g ht hand a uJ 0 11 th e le tl. J\'Io~es s1n ute tl 1c r1t<: k \\"ill ;

20

J3S

!\l ' l'l~i'IDJX.

Al'l't-::'>UIX .

Iii ~ rod , n11 <l lh e wa ters fl owe d witlial, and th e children ofI~­
ra\'I we re rc fr cs h e cl in tli e wild erness , and we re s av e d fr om
d e al h. B 11t what was th e re in th e arm of Mos es, that th e
''<: a should obey it a nd stand st ill ? Or what in the rod of

ung• >d lin ess , which, with\lul his c 11ntrolli11 g arrn , wo 1d.! h:nc
dn>wn c <l y o ur so 1il s in perditio n and d c,; lnl<'lion. Hr y e
ne ve r s o fa iut and we ary in th e wild c nH' ss o f ~ in , yet ii' in
l1ulllility yo u s mit e u pon y our breas t , a nd ~ a y, (;< >d, 1,c :11nc iful t o m e a ,;inner! h e will m e lt t he sto ny lu:;ut "· ith in
you, and t11rni11~ it int o a fou n ta in o r piety and l1>\·c - of

Mo ses, that it should turn th e flin ty roc k into a living fountai n ' Le t me freely , th o ugh r e vere n t ly, spe ak to you o !'thc
p: 1t ri are h I\'Ioses. H e was ind e ed g re at, b e cause he was

lov e t o man and lo ve to y o ur ""\Ta k e r - rcfrcsli Y"" wi1 ii
t lw Ii ving water,; of" th e co mi'ort o f" ll1 c Sp iri t, a11(l :-;t.rcn;_'.t li -

indeed good, in hi :> gene rati o n. B ut e x ce pt in th e m atte r
ot' h is good ness- e xce pt in h is s u peri o r faith a nd tru s t in
his l\I ak e r - e xce pt in bis m o re r e ady ob e di e n ce to the
h a ly d es ir es whic h the S pirit o f th e L ord in s pire d into his
so ul, he was no more than th e re st o f the I s rae lit es, and

J

the rest o f me n. L ik e th e m, like u s, lik e e ve ry hum a n
Licing that is bo rn of woman , h e was comp asse d with infirmi t i e ~ , and tr ied \\' ith afllict io ns, and s uhj c ct t o t e rro r, and
s ur ro u nd ed w ith s orrow. O f him se lf he was abl e to do
n ot h ing, but a ll t he mi g h ty a cts whi c h he did, lie did Li e c aus c ' it w as Go d whi c h wo rk e d in him hot !1 t o will and to
d o of his good pl e a s ur e, ' aml be ca use ]\lo ses did n ot r esis t
t he wi ll of God , o r ne g lec t o r abu s e th e power with whi c h
he was <!11d11 c tl. If to tl1c J e w, G o d wa s ve ry lib e ral, we
hav e th e p ro mi se o f his be lo ve d S o n, that to Chri stians,
in ull Hpirilual und ne c essary thingH, h•J will he ,,;till m o re
so . Ov e r t he wo rld with out us he will pe rhap s give us no
po we r-lic c a11sc we a rc not c all e d 11 po n to s av e a peo pl e .
B u t we arc calicd u po n to sa ve our:;c lv cs , and he will give
u:; a po we r o ,·c r the reh 1!ll io us wo rld that is within us.

./

S tr e tch fn rlh Lut y ou r hands in faith and s inc e rity to Goel ,
a nd s ur e ly he w ill se parate be tw ee n y o u and your lus ts .
ITc will d i vi d c the tumultu o us s ea o f y o ur pass io ns, a nd ope n
fu r yo u a w;,iy to esca pe fr o m y o ur e n e mi es into the land of
ete rnit y . I Ic will c ause th e wav es th e re of to st and s till and
nann ies:; u n }'J ill ri g ht l1 a\.ld and 0 11 yo ur ldl , and mak e y ou
tC> wa lk in safety uncl unhurt through t he o ve rll o wi11 g s of"

I

en yo u by its po we r fo r y o ur pil g r i1 11 a g c th ro ugh litl.-."
l fr11so 11's F irst Course of ll11ls ca11 L ect un:sfor 18'20. Leet.
Xl V . p. 34-l - 34G .

Page 2 G0 , [ I.]
" F o r the b e ne fi t o f th os e wh o ar e d esirous o f g etting
o,·er th e ir b ad h a bits, and di sc ha rg in g t hat impo rtant part
o r th •! Sac red ofl·i cc , the R e a d ing th e L it u r1:_:y wit Ii d"c deco rum , I sliall fir s t e nt e r into a minut e e sa1 n i11a t i<Jn ofso1nc
parts of tl1c S c rvi1;c , and a fterward s de liv e r t he rest, ac c o mpani e d hy s uc h mark s as will e nab le th e Itc ad er, i11 a
s hort tim e , and with m od e rate pa ins , to make him se lf mas ter of t he wh ole .
" B ut fir s t it will be ne c essary to c x ph in tlt c mar k><
whi c h you will h e re afte r see thro ughout tl1 c rc;;t oC t his
c ourse . They a rc of two kind~; one , t o P"int oul t.111 : e 111 p h,tli c words, for which I shall use the Grav e ac1:c 11t o r
th e Gree k , [ ' ].
"The ot h e r, to poi nt out th e d ine r ent pau ses or sl. np,;,
for whi ch I sh all use the following m a r ks :
" F or the s hort e st pau se , marking un in compl<:tc line
thu s '.
"Fo r the s e cond, dou'>le th e time o fth r~ fo rm e r , t wo" .
" And for tho third or full stop, thr ee "'
" \Vh c n I w u ul \l mark a pau s e l nn~rr than any belonging t o th e u s ual stop s , it s ha ll
line~, a ~ thu s=.

ue

liy tw o ho r iz o ntal

k.

340

A PPENDI X.

"\Y'J1c:n I would point o ut a Sy llable that is to he dwelt
on some tim e, I shall u:;e this-, or a short horiz ont a l over
the Syllab le .
"vVh en a Sy llab le s hould be r apidly uttered, thu s ·, or
a cur ve turned upwards; the u s ual marks of Jon,,. and
0
short in Prosody.
" T he E xhortation I have oflen heard de liv ered in the
follow in g manner:
" ' Dearly beloved brethren , the Scriptu re m ovcth us in
;;undry pl aces to ackn owledge and confess ou r manifold sins
a 1Jd wi cke d11 c:~s . And th at we sho uld not dissembl e no r
clokc the m before th e face of Almighty God our Hea ven ly
Father, but co nfC:ss them with an humble lo wly pe nite nt and
olied ic 1Jt heart, t o the end th at we may obta in, Co rgiver.c ss
qf t he same, by h is in fini te good n ess and m e rcy. And
'1lt ho ugh we ough t at all tim es h umbly to ackn6wleclrre our
.
0
sms before Goel, ye t ought we m os t ch ie fly so to do,
whe n we asse mble and mee t togeth e r. To render tli:u1k s
f.1r t he: gre a t b('ncfits we have rece iv e d at hi~ hand $, t o S•' t
lorth hi ~ m o~t worth y prnisc, f•J h eu r hi s m os t h olv wo rd
a nd to ask those t h ings that arc r equ is it e and nc;cssary:
as well fo r t he bod y as th e soul. \ Vhc refo rc I pray a:id
hcsccr.h yo u , as many as arc he re prese nt, to acco mpany
me "·i t li a ptir c he art and humb le voice to the thr one of
the hcav<'nly g race , sav in g after m e .'
'' In the latte r part or th e fi rst peri od, 'hut con less th e m
w ith :in lrnrnl.J c lowly penitc ll t and obedi e nt he art, to the
c lld ll1at \IC may ob tain , forg i vcncs~ of th e sar1H' , by his
infin ite go'J dnc~s and me rcy ,' t here are sev e ral faults co mrn itt cd. 11 1 !l ie Jirst place , th e four ep ith e ts prec e ding th e
wo rd ' he ar t,' ar c huddl ed toge th e r , and pron o un ced in a
mo n oln 11 c , disag re eable to tl1 c e ar , and e ne rvatin g to th fl
s ense; wlwr ras ead 1 wnrd risi ng in lnrcc nho vc th e oth e r,
011g ht tn h e nw rk crl hy a propo rti on a l rising of the n ot es in

.

I

J\l' l'L\IJIX

:.; t \

th e voi ce ; alld , in the last, th en~ sh <,tild he "11 cli a ll <> lc
usNl as would declare it at th e same tim e to l>c tlic last' with an humbl e' low ly' pc nit eut and oi> l: .Ji c nt hr'art,' ~'-<.c .
At first vi ew it may appear , that the wor ds ' l1111n hJ,, ' ;11Jd
'lowly,' arcsynoaymous; hut t he word' lowl y,' c c rt:1inly
i111pli es a gr e ater d eg ree of humi liation tha n tl1c wu r<l
' liurnblc .' The word 'pen it e nt' that fullo11·s, is of stron ger impnrt th an e ithe r; and the wo rd ' obcd icllt,' sig1 u1)·in ;; a pe r fect r cs ig n ati<>n to th e will of Cod, in c u11,.:equ e ncc
of ou r humiliat ion a nd repe ntan ce, furnish es the cl i111 ax.
H ut ii' Lhc cl irn a x in th e words he not a ccompa nied hy a
suit<il> lc cl irnax in the notes of the vo ice , it c:urnnl lie ;; i:•<le
manifest. In the following part of th e sc 1J tenc •.: . 'tu 11 10
c 11d that we may obtain' fo rgi veness of the <11i1 e'' th <:: re a rc
usuall y three e mphases laid on the wor ds, mil, n/,/nin, srwu.,
wh e re th e re sh o uld not be any, and the o nly emp hat ic word,
fo rgii·eness , is :;ligh tly passed ove r; wh ereas it sh t> til1l be
re ad-' to the end that we may obtain forgiv .'- ncss of the
sa me ,' keeping th e wo rd s, obtain , a nd Jo1·gin:ncss, clos1·ly
togethe r, a nd 11 ot disuniting them, both to the prcj 11 t! icc
of the Se nse and C a de noe, &c. &c.
" I shall no w read the wh o le, in the mann er I ha ve reco mm e nd ed ; a nd if y o u will g ive altcn t iu11 to t he marks,
y o u will be r e minde d of th e m a nn e r , " ·llf' ll Y•>11 •· 0111 1: to
practise in your private reading. 'De arly belt)ved brethr e n! = The S c ri pture movcth us' i11 s u1Hhy places' to ;lck nowl edge and co nfe ss our manifold s ins and ll'ic kc d ncss"
and that we shou ld not d iss<': mhl e no r c l..1kc thf'lll' before
t he fa ce oj;AJmi g l1ty Cod' o ur l l c :tv e nl y Fatl 1er" l,;1l ''" :rf,':ss th e m' with an humbl e' lowly' pe nit<·n t' ~1Hl ol1i:di <·nt
heart' to the CiIll th at we may obt:till forg lv cncs,; vfth c -; :u11 c'
by hl:s lnfinit (l good ness and mer cy'" Aoo nlthot 1gh we
oug ht at :di ti111 cs' h11111bly to ackn oll'l d .:.:e our !o'i11s iicl;Jt.C
Goel'' ye t ought we 1n ost c hi c f11' s o to do' w hen we assrm-

20'

',,

'> ,

APPENDIX.

APPENDIX.

blc anJ meet together' to rcnJcr thanks' for the great benclits we lwvc rcceiveJ at his hands" to set forth' his most
wo1 th_y pr;\ise" to hear' his mo:;t holy word and lo ask
th ose thing s' which are requisite and necessary' as well for
t he body' as the soul"' \Vhcrefore I pray and beseech you'
as many as arc here present' to accompany me' with a pure
heart' and hiimblc voi ce' to the throne of the heavenly
grace' sa y ing ,' &c." Sheridan, Jlrt of Reading Prose.
T he generality of the remarks respecting the way in
whi ch each passage of the L iturgy sho uld be read, are corre ct ; th ougl1 the mode recommended fo r attaining the proposed e nd is totally diffe rent from what is s uggested in the
prese nt treatise. In some points, however, th e author is
rn i~tak c n as lo the einphatic words: e. g. in th e Lord's
Praye r, he d irec ts th e foll owing passage to be read th us;
"thy wil l' be done' on earth' as it is' in Heaven," with the
emphasis on the words" be" and" is;" th ese, however,
a rc not the emphatic words, and do not e ve n c:i:ist in the
01-ig inal Greek, bu t arc suppl iC' d by th e translato r; th e latter of th e m inig ht, ind ee d, be omitted altogether without
any de trimc11t to the sense; "thy will be done, as in Heaven , so al;;o o n earth," whi l: h is a more li tera l translation,
is perfectly i11tell igib lc. A pass age in the second Cum rnandme11l ag ain , he directs tu l>e read, according ind eed
to th e usual rnn dc , both ofrC'ading and pointing it, - "visit
the si11s of" thr: fathers' 11pon the c hildren' unto the third
and fourth g<'11cratiu 11 ol° them that kl.t c me;" which nH1dc
of" readin~ destroys th e sense, hy 111aki11g a pause at" c hildren, " a llll none at "gt:iH:rat iou;" fo r thi :; i"1pli c:; that
the thi rd and li1url h g e ncratinns, who suffer these jud g rn e n1s, arc If. ;mselces s uch as hate the Lord, in ~tcad of
being mer c :_y , as is meant to he expressed, th e children of
!:'uch; "of th em that hate me," is a gen itive ~0vcrned not
by "generati on," but by " child ren:" it sho uld he read

accorJing to Sheritlan's marks) "vi,;it the :;ms ol· the
fatl1 c 1·:;' upon the eh ildrea unto the thirtl and fo urth ge nernt i.. 11' uCthcm th at hat e Ille:" i.e." vis it the sins ot"th e
fath e rs who hate me, upon the tltird a111.l fo urth g e ne ralwn li
of their descendants. " The same sanction is given t•i i. n
e qually common fault in reading the fifth C ommandme nt ;
"that thy days' may be long in th e land' whi c h the L •r d
thy God give th thee :" the pause should evidently be at
" long ," not at " land." No one would say in ordinary
conversation, "1 hope you will find e njoyme nt in the garden' - - which you have plan ted." He has also st ran ge ly
omitted an emphasis on th e word " cove t," in the tent h
Commandment. He has, howcv<'r, in the nq ratiYe or
prohibitory commands avoided tl1e common fau lt of accenting the word "not." And he re it may be worth whi le to
re mark, that in some cases th e C opula ought to be made
the emphat ic word; ( i. c. the" is, " if the propos ition be
a ffirmat iv e , the "not," if negative ; ) viz. where tho proposition may be considered as in oppos ition lo its conlradiclory. H, e. g. it had bee n a qu esti on , whether we ought
to steal or not, the commandment, in ans wer to that, woulJ
have been rightly pro nounced, "tho u shalt not steal :''
liut t 1ie question being, tchat thing" we a.re forliid<len to do,
tnc answer is, that "to ;;teal" is one or them, "th ou
shalt not steal." In suc h a ca;;e as this, the propositi on
is cons id ered as opposed, imt to its conlradiclory, but to
one with a d~lj~rrnl Pndicn/e: the questi on be in g , n ot,
which Co7rnfo ( negative or aflinnative ) shal l be e mpl oyed,
but what sha ll Le affmncd or dc11i e d o!' the subject: e.g .
" it is lawfu l to beg; hut not t o steal: " in suc h a case ,
th e Predicate, not the Copula, will he the emph atic word.
One fault worth noticing on ac count of its comrn o nne s~
is the placing of the e mphas is on" neighbour" in the nin th
;rnd tenth C o mrm1ndmcnts; l:IS if there mi ght be some per-

344

Al'l')':NllJX.

sons pre duJ e <l from the Lene fit o t' th e prvl1il,iti.,us. One
woulJ :lii nk the rnan tc whoni our Lo rJ aJJresseJ the parable ot' the good Samar itan, had been used to tlii,; m oJe
or delivery, by his asking" and who i'I my nrig !1h rmr?"
The us ual pronunciat io n of one pn rt of th e "Apostles'
Creed " is rrobabiy founded on so me misapprehens ion of
the sense of' it: -if- '' 'f!te hnl~y Catholic (~hurch, the Communion of Saints," is commonly read as if these we r e two
<list in c t arti cles; instead of the latter clause be in g merely
an exp lanat ion of tlw former: "The holy Catholic
Chu rch , [v iz.. J the Communi o n of S<J.inls."
• See Sir Pl'll'r (aftl'rwanls L ord) K ing 's History of the Apostle•
C reed; " I\ work much m ore valuable· (in propor tion to its size) than
most that a re studied by th eolog ians.

I>

INDEX

",.(-

TO SOME OF THE PillNCIPAL ·woilDS.
i.

A cT10:-: , part iv. ch. iv.~ 6.
Analogy, p. i. c h. ii. ~ G.
Antithesis, p . iii. ch. ii. ~ 14.
A priori, (a rgument,) p. 1.
ch. ii . ~ '2.
Approach, (argu m ent by,)
p. i. ch. ii . ~ 5.
Argument, (d istin gu ished
from proposition,) p. i. ch.

i. ~ 3.
Arrangement,
(o f arguments,) p. i. ch . iii.~ 4 .
- - - - - of wor<ls, p. iii.
ch. i. ~3. and c h . ii. ~ 11.
Ba s lifulnes~,

(i n
public
speak in g,) p. iv. ch. iv .~ 'l.
Burden of proof, p. i. ch . iii.

Climax, p. ii. ch. ii. ·~ ·1.
Comparison, (use of', inc:-:
citi ng any feeling,) p. 11
ch. ii. ~ '1 .
- - - - - or Simi le , p. 1;1 .
ch. ii . ~ 3 .
Compos ition , ( fallacy of,) p.
i. ch. ii. ~ 4.
Conciseness , p. iii. ch. ii. Ej7.
C<>nclusion , ( when to come
fir ~t), p. 1. clL 1i1. ,~ 5.
C onsc io us, (rn:irrn<'r ,~ ;1. IY.
ch. iv. ~ :2 . uu:e.
Convicti on , ( Jisting:u i ~ licd

'·

.i

from P"rsuasion,) p . "·
ch . i. ~ 1.
Crowded (styln , ) p. 1n. ch.
ii. ~ 9 .

~ 2.

Cause, (arg um e nt fr om ,) p.
i . ch. ii. ~ 2.
Cl :ances, (calculatio n of,)
p. i. ch. ii. ~ 4.
Charact1:r, r of Speaker , ) p .
ii.ch.i. ~~3 .::rnJch.iii. ~ i.

Direct (Argument ,) p. i. ch .
ii. ~ I. and ch. iii. ~ G.
Dividiug ( a q1wstion,) p. 1.
ch. iii. S '1.

.. 0

Ent: ct, ( A rg1111w nt Crom,) p
i. ch . ii. ~ :1.

f"

Ei c::; :1111;c (ul Style, ) p. 111.
cli. iii . ~ J, 2.
Einpha;;i~, p. iv. ch . ii. ~ '2.
Encrg-y (of Style,) p. iii. ch .
ii.~ I, &..c.
L1•i1! ... ts , p. iii . ch. i i. ~ 4.
L\:unplc, p. i. ch . ii. ~ G.
E .u:r c i ~es, Intro<l. ~ 5.
E'11cr ic nc <',
( Argum e nt
fr1Jm, ) p. i. c h . ii. ~ G.
- ------Authority d e rived Cr um, p. ii. c h. iii . ·~ 5 .
F eel in g~ ,

(apt to fall short
of" hat the occasio n calls
fo r, ) p. ii. ch . i. ~ 2.

Cc:11cral te rm s, p. iii . ch . ii.
~ 1.
<; nu d- wil l, (essential to the
Speaker's ch aract er, ) p.

ii . c h. ii i. ~ :3 .

Interrogat iun, p . iii . c h. ii
~ I::J.

Iro nical

q 7.

a11d ch. iii. ~ '2.
l 11L1gi11:1tion. p . ii. ch. i. q'2.
l 11di rcct ( Argument ), p. i.
.-11. ii .~ I. a nd c h. iii. ~ 7.
l 11du.-ti nn , p. i. c h. ii. ~ (i.
J 11 ~l ru d ion ( di~tingui,hcd

t'i •>Ill Co ll\·i c ti nn stri ctly
"'' c a lkci, ) p . 1. c h. i. S 1.
! 11tr·grity ( of" the ~ rc a kcr·~
cl 1aracl c r,) I'· ii chap . iii
~ :J

Pt1ctry, (c harac te ri st ic of,)
p. ii i. c h. iii. ~ 3 .

f(mn;

p. i. c h . iii. ~ 7 .

l'racti c c (in composition,)
Introd. ~ 5 .

Loose senten-:cs, p. 111. c h
I'.! .
ii.

q

Pr esn m pt i o n ~ , p. i. ch. iii.

~ 2.

Prol ixity, p
Metaphor , p. iii . c h. ii .~ 3
l\I etu nymy, p. iii. c h . ii. ~ 3.

iii. ch. i. ~ '2.

an<l ch . ii. ~ 7.
l'rnper t e rms, p . 111. ch. 11.

q I.
J\a tu ral deliv e ry, p. iv. c h
ii. iii . &..c.
Number of word s, (ene r gy
d e pendent o n ,) p . iii. ch .
ii .~ 7 .

Obj ecti o ns, p. i. c h . iii . ~ 7
Oratory, (spu ri ous,) p . iii
ch. i. 4 , 5, 6 .

q

Par a d ux, p. i. c h . ii i. ~ 2 .
Parity of reaso nin g, p . i. c h
ii .~ (i .

11111~1 r:ili•rn, p. i. ch. ii.

34 7

IND EX.

3iG

Pa rty-S)' iril , I'· ii . cli. iii .~:')
P a ss i nu~, I'· ii. c h. i. ~ :'! .
l'c ri•><i :', p. iii. c h. ii. ~ 1'2.
Pc rsp irnit y , I'· iii . c h. i. ~·2 ,
&.. c .
Pc r:·«Hti lic ati on, p . ii i. c h.ii.
~ :1 .

P e rs ua s io n , (analys is o'',)
p . ii. c h. i. ~ I .
Plu in , (:11 11hig-<1 :~y of the
word, ) I'· iii. c h . i. ~ :'!.
Plaus ible, p. i. c h . ii.~ 2

Prop os iti ons, (to find,) pa rt

i. c h. i.

~ 3.

q :3 .

!le ad in g, p. iv. ch .

1.

and ch . iii. ~ l.
!{ec al' itulati on , p.

c h. 111.

~

1.

s

ii . 5 .
Sp eak ing,
(d isti ng uished
from R ea ding, ) p. iv. ch.

i. ~ ~l. a nd ch . iii. ~ I .
Substantives, ( cx c es~ivc use
of,) p. iii. ch . ii. ~ 8 .
Sugges tive (Sty le,) !'· 111
c h . ii. ~ '.J.
Subjec ts (for learn e rs,) I nt ro d . ~ 5 .
Sy m pathy, ( re fl ex , ) p . iv.
8.
c h . iii.

q

Taut ology, p.

s.

l~cc it ation, p. iv. ch. iv .~ '1.

Rcf«1t ation, p. i. ch. iii . ~ 7.
l{t"pctiti on, (conduc iv e t o
p('rsp ic uity ,) p . iii . c h . i.
~ '2.
Rheto ri c, (w hy in g re a te r re p<1te :unoug; thP. An c i e nt ~ ,)

Introd. ~ :J, 1.
ltli<."t<>ric ia n (a rt of, p racti sed by a wi se man o n hi111scl1;) p. ii. c h. i .

S ign , p. i. ch. ii. ~ :'3.
Simi!<!, p. iii. c h . ii. ~ :3 .
S n nnd, (irn itativc,) p. iii . ch.

q2.

S erp1e ncc, (physical and
log ical, ) p. i. ch . ii. ~ 3 .

11 1. c l1.

11.

q s.
T cc hnic:.al tnms, p. 111. ch .
ii .~ G.

T cst i1n•my, p. i. c: h . ii . ~ ·\.
Thco l ui-( i •~ : tl Sty le , p . ii i. d 1.
ii. ~

1.:.

Ton<\ I'· iv . «h. i. q ~\ . n•1tc ,

and c h . ii. ~ '!.
T rop es, ri. 111. ch. ii. ~ '2.
V e rb os it y, p. iii. ch. ii.

S8 .

Waiving (a 'lucstion, ) p.
ch. iii .~ 4.

