Simon Kerl
A Common-School Grammar of the English Language (1874)

Essentials of
English Grammar

Robert Lowth
A Short Introduction to English Grammar (1775)

(1877)

Lindley Murray
English Grammar (1824)

By William Dwight Whitney

Alonw Reed and Brainerd Kellogg
Higher Lessons in English (1886)
Roswell C. Smith
English Grammar on the Productive System (1864)

A FACSIMILE REPRODUCTION
WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY
CHARLOTTE DOWNEY

Noah Webster
A Grammatical Institute of the English Language (1784)
Allen Hayden Weld
English Grammar (1858)
William Harvey Wells
Wells's School Grammar (1846)
William Dwight Whitney
Essentials of English Grammar (1877)

SCHOI.ARS' FACSIMILES & REPRINTS
DELMAR, NEW YORK

1988

AMERICAN LINGUISTICS, 1700-1900
Series Editor
Charlotte Downey, R.S.M., Brown University

Volumes Published in this Series

Caleb Alexander
A Grammatical System of English Grammar (1795)
bound with
Caleb Bingham
The Young Lady's Accidence (1785)
John Ash
Grammatical Institutes (1785)

Goold Brown
17ie Institutes of English Grammar (1853)
Peter Bullions
T11e Principles of English Grammar (1846)
William Cobbett
A Grammar of the English Language (1832)
Thomas Dilworth
A New Guide to the English Tongue (1793)
Samuel S. Greene
First Lessons in Grammar (1848)
Samuel S. Greene
An Analysis of the English Language (1874)
Thomas W. Harvey
A Practical Grammar of the English Language (1878)

SCHOl.ARS' FACSIMILES & REPRINTS<:: \ \ \
ISSN 0161-7729
() V \
SERIES ESTABLISHED 1936
\~ r::
VOLUME 431
<1 r?

i \-\

'

Published by Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints,
Delmar, New York 12054-0334, U.SA.

\

New matter in this edition

© 1988 Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints, Inc.
All rights reserved

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Whitney, William Dwight, 1827-1894.

o/61J

Introduction
A popular American text of the late nineteenth century was
Essentials of English Grammar (1877) by William Dwight Whitney
(1827-1894) of Yale University. The National Union Catalog Pre-1956
Imprints lists eighteen editions of this book from 1877 to 1903. And it
also lists Elementary Lessons in English for Home and School Use by
Whitney and Mrs. N. L. Knox (seven editions from 1880 to 1885) and
Whitney's English Grammar for Higher Grades, with New
Arrangement by Mrs. E. H. Lockwood (eight editions from 1893 to
1901). This introduction will discuss the 1877 edition of Whitney's
Essentials of English Grammar, the edition reproduced in this
volume.
A study of this book reveals some of Whitney's insights and
innovations. In the introduction to his book Whitney on Language
(1971), Michael Silverstein points out:
"Combination" and "adaptation" are the key terms in Whitney's
discussion of formal processes. When two forms are combined, one
always tends to become structurally subordinated to the other (p.

xvi).
Essentials of English grammar /
by William Dwight Whitney. A facsim. reproduction / with an
introduction by Charlotte Downey.
p.
cm.(American linguistics, 1700-1900)
(Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints,
ISSN 0161-7729; v. 431)
Reprint. Originally published:
Boston : Ginn and Co., 1877.
Bibliography: p.
ISBN 0-8201-1431-6
1. English language-Grammar-1870-1949.
I. Title. II. Series.
PE1111.W584 1988
428.2-dc19
88-13994
CIP

We see such a process taking place in Whitney's description of the
complex sentence in his Essentials:
A sentence which contains as one of its members a dependent
clause is called a Complex sentence; by this is meant that its parts
are more "woven together," made into one than those of the
"compound" sentence (Essentials, p. 193. All further quotes from
this text will be followed by the page number only.)
When the clauses are combined, the dependent clause adapts to the
combination, becoming dependent for its existence and meaning on
the main clause. And the "adaptation" causes them to be "woven
together." It is Whitney's perception of the adaptation that takes
place when elements are combined that makes his definition of the
complex sentence different to the ones given by other contemporary

5

INTRODUCTION
grammarians.
When studying the work of a grammarian, we are curious to know
which works influenced him. In the preface to his Essentials, Whitney
acknowledges "particular obligation . . . to ... the great thesaurus of
Matzner (Berlin, 1873-5); . .. to which ... [he] continually referred"
(pp. v, vi). Whitney may have been influenced by the English
grammar: Methodological, Analytical, and Historical (1874) by E. A.
F. Maetzner (English spelling) when he defines the sentence.
Maetzner gives:
The fundamental form of speech, the expression of a thought, is
the sentence, in which a predicate is put to the subject (p. 1),
and Whitney's definition is:
A sentence is . . . the expression of a judgment .. . . We cannot in
the nature of things, make a complete sentence without joining
together a subject and a predicate (pp. 8, 9).
Maetzner sees the sentence as an "expression of a thought" and
Whitney sees it as the "expression of a judgment." And both perceive
the sentence as a binary combination of a subject and a predicate.
Each grammarian gives a thorough explanation of the function of the
subject and the predicate. Maetzner states:
Every sentence has in its subject the firm bearer on which the
moveable predicate gains its support, although the latter, to which
the verb is essential, appears as the animating soul of the sentence.
In grammatical value the subject is equal to the predicate,
although, in its origin, it may, as a noun, proceed from the verb,
therefore from a predicate of something. Both are essential to the
sentence (p. 5).

INTRODUCTION
Subject and the Predicate (p. 9).
Maetzner says that the predicate, "to which the verb is essential

appe~rs as the a~imating soul of the sentence." Whitney, too:
perceives the predicate or the predication operation as the vital part
of the sentence. In his article "The Varieties of Predication," Whitney
defines the verb through its role in predication, saying: "There is no
other acceptable, or even tolerable definition of a verb than as a part
of speech which predicates (in Silverstein, p. 192). Simon Kerl,
another nineteenth-century American grammarian, points out the
significance of predication with: "The core of syntax in all sentences
is predication" (A Common-Schoo/ Grammar of the English
Language, 1865,1878, p. 240).
For Maetzner it is the type of predication, which determines the
mood. He explains:
By the Moods, the indicative, the conjunctive, and the imperative,
the speaker expresses his relation to the predicated notion of the
activity (p. 107).
And much earlier in his book Maetzner states:
With respect to the value of the judgment expressed in the
~entenc~, we distinguish the indicative, the interrogative and the

imperative sentence.
a) The speaker makes the validity of the indicative sentence
dependent neither upon the judgment nor upon the will of another.
b) The interrogative sentence, on the other hand, makes the
validity of its contents appear in various ways dependent upon the
judgment of another.
c) The imperative is one whose meaning and whose consummation
on the part of the person addressed acquires validity only by the
will of that person (Maetzner, pp. 3, 4).

And Whitney gives:
Whitney sums up Maetzner's distinctions quite succinctly with:
As the sentence is a combination of words by which we declare
something to be so and so, or assert that something is true about
something, there must be in every sentence two parts or members:
one naming the thing about which we make our declaration or
assertion, and one expressing what we declare or assert of the thing
named .. .. These two necessary parts of the sentence we call the

T.hese [the interrogative and imperative] are fundamentally
different forms of sentence, because they lack the assertion or
predication which is the essential element of an ordinary
[indicative] sentence (p. 228).

6

7

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
So both Maetzner and Whitney make the speaker's or listener's role
in relation to the predication the deciding factor in determining
whether a sentence be indicative, interrogative, or imperative.
While both Whitney and Maetzner view the sentence with the
potential for being indicative, interrogative, or imperative, they still
see it as a binary combination of a subject and a predicate. Whitney's
understanding of the binary structure of the sentence links him not
only with Maetzner, but also with some of his contemporary
grammarians, for example, Samuel Greene, who states that "A
proposition is the combination of a subject and a predicate" (An
analysis of the English language, 1874, p. 15). The "proposition" is
equivalent to a simple sentence. Since the subject and the predicate
can form a sentence or proposition without the aid of other elements,
they are called the principal parts. Therefore the parts of speech
which form these principal parts are the principal parts of speech,
and both Whitney and Greene point this out. Whitney explains:
These three parts of speech-the noun and pronoun on the one
hand, and the verb on the other-are the principal, the independent
ones. They do not need to lean on anything else; they form
sentences without help from other parts of speech (p. 13).

of language (p. 5).
Whitney stresses the relationship when he explains that syntax "treats
of the combinations of words for use in the expression of our
thoughts" (p. 154).
Whitney differs from both Maetzner and Greene when he names
the tenses of the English verb. Unlike them, he simplifies the system
by dividing tense into present and past. He accommodates tht time
which does not yet exist by the auxiliaries "will" and "shall." Henry
Lester Smith, in his One Hundred Fifty Years of Grammar Textbooks
(1946), points out that of the books he studied, "Since 1850 all the
texts with the exception of Whitney's (1877) have used past, present
perfect, and past perfect in referring to the three past tenses" (p.
132). Perhaps Whitney was influenced by John Ash's description of
the tenses of the English verb. John Algeo (1986) points out that Ash
says there are only two tenses in the verb-the present and the past:
"The Verb itself has but two Terminations respecting Time: as,
love and loved" (1763: 47). ("A Grammatical Dialectic," p. 313.)
But Ash must have been describing only the tense inflections of the
verb here, for in another part of the book he says:

And Greene says:
The subject is always substantive .... The predicate is always
attributive . ... The subject and the predicate form the principal
elements of the sentence (p. 26).
The combination of the subject and the predicate form the
sentences which express our thoughts and judgments. Greene says
that "the sentence is the unit of discourse and contains a complete
thought" (p. 11), and he makes the sentence equivalent to language
when he says "language is the medium through which we
communicate our thoughts" (p. 11). So Greene perceives a close
affinity between language and the workings of our minds. Whitney,
too, sees the close relation between language and thought, declaring
that:

There are five Tenses, or Times: the Present, the Imperfect, the
Perfect, the Pluperfect, and the Future (1785: 39).
In describing the proper way to express future time, Maetzner, and
also Whitney, repeat the old formula used by Lowth (1762, 1775) and
by almost all British and American grammarians up to the present.
But Maetzner and Whitney manage to state the formula in far fewer
words. Maetzner states that

the literary language, like the cultivated conversational language,
reserves shall for the first, will for the second and third
grammatical person, where it is a question solely of the future
entrance of an activity (p. 80).
Whitney sums up the formula in even fewer words, saying:

as language is the instrument of the mind's operations, and the
principal means by which they are disclosed, we cannot study the
mind's workings and its nature without a thorough understanding

8

To denote simply something that is going to take place, we
ordinarily use shall in the first person, and will in the others (p.
0

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
119).
In addition to preserving the traditional rule for shall and will,
Whitney also uses the traditional method of parsing, explaining: "To
parse a word is to give a complete account of it, as it stands in the
sentence of which it forms a part (p. 62). And he further describes the
process with:

This account (or description, or definition) includes three parts:A. What kind of word it is ...
B. What is its grammatical form ...
C. What is its Construction: that is,
what part it plays in the sentence to which it belongs, in what way
it is combined with other words to make up the sentence (p. 62).

1880) by Thomas Harvey and Higher Lessons in English (1877 1886)
by Alonzo Reed and Brainerd Kellogg. An example from ea~h text
will show their similarities to Whitney's.
I like a horse that is gentle.
I

We first divide the sentence into its two clauses (or the two minor
sentences of which it is made up), and point out the bare subject
and predicate of each (p. 80).
He then illustrates the structure of the sentence visually by a system
of diagramming:
... the clause containing the relative may be put under the other,
and in such a way that the relative comes directly beneath its
antecedent; and then the two latter may be joined by a bracket, to
signify that their relation is what binds the two clauses together
into one sentence. Thus:

I

l
~of whom J
are the men

visited us yesterday (p. 80).

He then proceeds to parse the individual words.
Whitney's system of diagramming resembles the ones used in two
other texts of his time: Elementary Grammar and Composition (1869,
10

horse
lthat is gentle. (Harvey, p. 54)

They that touch pitch will be defiled.

17ie{
that \

When Whitney gives an example of parsing, he begins with an
analysis of the sentence although he does not give it the label
"analysis." An an "Example of parsing pronouns" in the sentence "So
these are the men, some of whom visited us yesterday," he gives:

like

I

I

will be defiled
touch

pitch. (Reed and Kellogg, p. 105).

Whitney and Reed and Kellogg may have taken the idea of the
diagram from Harvey, whose text was first published in 1869. The
first editions of both the Whitney and the Reed and Kellogg books
appeared in 1877. Whitney gives the date of January 1877 at the end
of his Preface, so his may have preceded Reed and Kellogg's. Reed
and ~ellogg are often credited with introducing the diagramming of
English sentences. Perhaps the linguists who do so are unaware of the
Harvey and Whitney grammars. Or perhaps it is because the Reed
and Kellogg diagrams so closely resemble the diagrams used in many
English grammar texts of today.
Whit.ney based his approach to the teaching of English grammar
on reality and good sense. In his Preface he says that he has "for the
most part avoided the use of set rules, lest they should come to be
applied mechanically" (p. vi). And near the beginning of the text he
describes the role of grammar:
[it] does not at all make rules and laws for language; it only reports
the fa~ts of good language, and in an orderly way, so that they may
be easily referred to, or learned, by any one who has occasion to do
so (p. 4).
Instead of listing many cumbersome rules of syntax, he describes the
process of the expression of thought through the combinations of
subject and predicate and their combinations with their respective
modifiers.
11

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

Whitney made important contributions to the study of English
grammar in America, some of which he may have taken from his
mentor, Maetzner. He focuses on the "combinations" and
"adaptations" that take place in sentences. His views resemble those
of Maetzner in his definition of the sentence, in his method for
determining whether a sentence is indicative, interrogative, or
imperative, and in his understanding of the binary structure of the
sentence. Unlike Maetzner and most English grammarians, however,
he perceives the English verb to have only two tenses. And he is one
of a small group who brought the diagramming of sentences into
American school books. Since Reed and Kellogg improved and
further developed the system, their name has been attached to this
method of illustrating the structure of the English sentence. John
Algeo sums up its value:

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Reed and Kellogg diagramming has continued in use for over a
hundred years because it serves its purpose well. It is simple, it is
clear, and it highlights the aspect of grammar that is still central to
most contemporary descriptions-the elements of syntactic
structure, rather than class membership (p. 316).

CHARLOITE DOWNEY
Brown University

Algeo, John. "A Grammatical Dialectic," in The English Reference
Grammar: Language and Lingustics, Writers and Readers, ed.
Gerhard Leitner. Ti.ibingen: Niemeyer, 1986.
Ash, John. Grammatica/ Institutes: or An Easy Introduction to Dr.
Lowth 's English Grammar, new ed., revised, corrected, and
enlarged. Worcester: Thomas, 1785; rpt. Delmar: Scholars'
Facsimiles & Reprints, 1979.
Greene, Samuel S. An Analysis of the English Language. Philadelphia:
Cowperthwait, 1874; rpt. Delmar: Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints,
1983.
Harvey, Thomas W. Elementary Grammar and Composition, rev. ed.
New York: Van Antwerp and Bragg, 1869,1880.
Kerl, Simon. A Common-School Grammar of the English Language.
New York: Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor, 1865,1878; rpt. Delmar:
Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints, 1985.
Maetzner, Professor [Eduard Adolf Ferdinand]. An English
Grammar: Methodological, Analytical, and Historical. Vol. II.
Translated from the German by Clair James Grece. Boston:
Roberts and Brothers, 1874.
Reed, Alonzo, and Brainerd Kellogg. Higher Lessons in English. A
Work On English Grammar and Composition, rev. ed. New York:
Clark and Maynard, 1877,1886; rpt. Delmar: Scholars' Facsimiles
& Reprints, 1987.
Silverstein, Michael, ed. Whitney on Language. Cambridge, Mass.:
MIT Press, 1971.
Smith, Henry Lester, et al. One Hundred Fifty Years of Grammar
Textbooks [ 1795-1945). Bulletin of the School of Education.
Division of Research and Field Services. Bloomington: Indiana
University, 1946.
Whitney, William Dwight. Essentials of English Grammar. For the Use

12

13

INTRODUCTION

ESSENTIALS

of Schools. Boston: Ginn, [1877].

- - - -. "The Varieties of Predication," in Whitney on Language,
ed. Michael Silverstein. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1971.

ENGLISH G RAl\11\IAR
FoR THE UsE OF SCHOOLS.

ar
WILLIA~!

D'YIGHT WHITNEY,

raonuoa or l.L:<HaJT .Lim COlllP.LltATITE PB!l.OLOGf .L!O> r.<!'TlltC'JOR or )(OllCK.."'1 U..WU.LUI
m T.LU cou.r.c.r.; AUTBOa or .. L~:<Gt AGE A~"ll THI ITUJIT or l.AJIGUd.....
.. LUI .l.!(ll GRt'T'Tll or L.L:SGt'AOr:," .. ORll:lCT.LL Alm Lr.<Gl1JIDll
n11l>ID 1" .L "COlllPE:<lllOCS GE&Jl.1.111 41UXKU"
£l{J> " GlllLJLL"'I a&.LJllll,n

src. la'Q,

GINN AND COJIPANY
BOSTON
.ATLA.1'A'A

14

•

N~W

• DALLAS

TORK

• CHICAGO

• COLliMlffS

• LONDOX

• '°AN FHANC18CO

PREF ACE.

CoPTm&llT, 18'17.
'BTW . D. WBIT5&Y.

616.10

V::fJr i:ltl)rnr•in

Bu••

Gl:S:-1 A:SD COMPASY •PROPRIETOB.S • BOSTON •U.S.A.

IN preparing the present work, my intention has been
to make it fulfil strictly the promise of its title. I have
endeavored to put before the learner those matters which
are of most essential consequence to him, those which
will best serve him as preparation for further and deeper
knowledge of his own language, for the study of other
languages, and for that of language in general That the
leading object of the study of English grammar is to
teach the correct use of English is, in my Yiew, an error,
and one which is gradually becoming removed, giving way
to the sounder opinion that grammar is the reflective study
of language, for a Yariety of purposes, of which correctness
in writing is only one, and a secondary or subordinate
one - by no means unimportant, but best attained when
sought indirectly. It should be a pervading element in
the whole school and home training of t11e young, to make
'them use their own tongue with accuracy and force; and,
along with any special drilling directed t-0 this end, some
of the rudimentary distinctions and rules of grammar are
conveniently taught; but that is not the study of grammar, and it will not bear the intrusion of much formal
grammar without being spoiled for its own ends. It is
constant use and practice, under never-failing watch and
correction, that makes good writers and speakers ; the
application of direct authority is the most efficient correc-

PB.EPA.CK.

tive. Grammar bas its part to contribute, but rather in
the higher than in the lower stages of the work One
must be a somewhat reflective user of language to amend
even here and there a point by grammatical reasons; and
no one ever changed from a bad speaker to a good one by
applying the rules of grammar to what ~e said
.
.
To teach Enalish
QTaIDmar
to
an
English
speaker
1s,
as
1t
0
0
•
seems to me, to take advantage of the fact that the pupil
knows the facts of the language, in .order to turn his attention to the underlying principles and relations, to the
philosophy of language as illustrated in his own use of it,
in a more effective manner than is otherwise possible.
Fol'eign languages are generally acquired in an "artificial"
way, the facts coming ticketed with certain grammatical
labels which the scholar learns as if they were part of the
facts themselves; and the grammar part is apt to remain
long a wholly artificial system to him. Almost every one
can remember the time when it first began to dawn upon his
mind that the familiar terms and distinctions of grammar
really meant something. But this is partly because children are (and with good reason) set to learning foreign
languages before their reflective powers are enough developed to make such things intelligible to them. If the
pupil is bright enough, his L'l.tin grammar comes by degrees to be to him something more than a heap of dry·
bones ; and then he gets the benefit, in its application by
analogy to other languages, his own included, of the hard
work he has done upon it. A real understanding of gram~
mar, however, be can get sooner and more surely in connection with his own tongue than anywhere else, if his
attention is first directed to that which most needs to be
learned, unencumbered with lmrdensome detail, and if a
clear method is followed, with abundance of illustration.

E~~h grammar can in.this way be made to pay be.ck,
with mterest, the debt which it owes to Latin. It must be
for practical use to show how far the endeavor to reach
these ends is successful, in the work here put forth.
I have wished to give the main facts of the English language just as they are in themselves, not importing into
them anything that belongs to other langua:oes. With this
•
•·
•
0
· m view, cert.am subjects have been treated in a somewhat
new way, but one which will, I hope, commend itself
to general. approval b~ its reasonableness. The ordinary
method with gender m nouns, for example, which was
really an imposition upon English of a system of distinc-,
tions belonging elsewhere, has been abandoned in favor
of one that is both truer and far simpler. The sharp
distinction, again, of the verlrphrases or compound forms
from the real verb-forms seems to me a matter of no small
importance, if the study of the construction of sentences
is to be made a reality.
It hn.s been my constant endeavor to bear in mind the
true position of the grammarian, as stated in the introductory chapter- that he is simply a recorder and arranger of
the usages of language, and in no manner or de!lree a law.:
.
h
0
giver; ardly ernn an arbiter or critic. Certainly, an elementary work is no place for dragging forward to attention
matters of disputed usage, nor are elementary pupils the
persons before whom to discuss nice and difficult points.
7
" here reforence has been made to any such subjects, it_
has been in order simply to set forth the facts of usage, -as
fairly and briefly as possible, or to state the principles that
should govern the case.
lifanj grammars, of course, have been consulted in the
preparation of this, and valuable hints have been derived from one and another. But I do not feel that I

.

TI

PB.E1'ACK.

need acknowledge particular obligation to any excepting
the great thesaurus of Matzner (Berlin, 1873- 5 : there ia
an Encrlish
version, but it is hardly to be used), to which I
0
have constantly referred ; especially drawing upon its rich
stores of citations illustrating almost every conceivable
point of English usage, for the benefit of the parsing exercises which are appended to the various chapters. In the
body of the work, I have preferred to use almost exclusively illustrations made off-hand, because such seemed to
me more desirable: the more familiar and every-day the
exemplifications of principles, the better; and the pupil
should be led to form them for himself as much 8.8 possible.
I have also for the most part avoided the use of set
rules, lest they should come to be applied mechanically. In
studying the grammar of one's own language, the true end
is not attained un1ess such a real understamtmg is gained
by the scholar that lie can state in his own language the
principle invohed ; and he should be made, or helped, to
do so.
My thanks are due to several eminent scholars, among
my colleagues and elsewhere, who have Leen kind enough
to give me the benefit of their counsel during the progress
of my work.
W. D. W.
YALE CoLLEGE, NEW llivu, Con.,
January, 1877.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I. -

LA.."lGUAGE AND GRAlDliR,

1-15 (pp.

1-~).

Engliilh language. lta name and origin, l - s ; mixture or material in °it .f · lta
·~~ad, a ; \"ariety in time, 6 ; changes, ; ; Anglo-Saxon, s ; local pecuJia.n°u-,
dialect&, 9 ; good and bad English. 10 ; Englilih ~mar. 11 ; olBoe or ~
atudJ' or 6:J'&DllD&I'. 12- ~
'

CH.APTER II. -THE
(pp. 6-23).

SENTE:SCE; THE

PARTS

01" SPEECH,

16-55

Various kinds and uaes or wonls, JG-8 ; part.a or speech, 19 ; aent.ence, 20-l ; kinda
or ~nt.en (".e, 22; kinds of words fonning a aeutenr,e, 23; Jl&l'ta or the aent.ence,
auhJect and pre<licate. 2" -'i; Yerb, :?S-9; hare and ("Omplete predicate, 30; noun.
SI- 2 '. pronoan, SS-.& :. "ubstanth·e words, 35 ; inderiendeat )lU1.I of •i-ch. ae;
adJectt,.e, s.1- 9 ; predwat.e adjecth-e or nmm, 40 ; 1d,·erb, 41- 2 : qnalifYinr
and ~onnertmg J>art.s or Bpeech, .fS ; ]>reposition, .f-l - 6 ; coajunctlon, .f7- 8; claul·
lcation or )':Lrta or apeec-b, 49 : . interjediona. 50-1 ; articles and numerals, 62 ;
lnterrogati,·e and imperath·e aenten(".ea, M-6.
roa DETl:JUU~~o A.'O> Dr.n1nlto TBS Pun OF Sn:r:cw. l'P· 21-S:
I. B:ll'e suhject and predic-att'. II. With adjfftl,.ea added. III. With ad'refbl
added. IV. With prepositions added. V. With ronJunctiona.
Xiacellaneoaa
uamplea on the chapter.

EXERCISES.

n

CHAPTER III. -INFLECTION, 56-87 (pp. 24-37).
Changes or fonn e>r ..-oms, 56-';; number in noun and rronou.u, 5S; in l'Ub, 69:
iO'·cm~ent and agreement, 60 ; rerson In pronoun and l'erb, 61-3; tense and
mode m nrb, ~ -5 ; inflection, conjupatlon or nrb, 66-;; pos.~i,.e cue in
no1111 and rrono1m, 68-iO; ohject, and objec-th·e c-ase In rrououn and noun. 71-4 ·
declension or noun and pronoun, ;s; Inflection and comparison or adjecti~
7G-8; uninftected parts or 1peech, 7~-80; methoda or lntlection, 81-6; bue al
intlection, root, frT.

EXERCISF..8,
JI)-.

Jl'OB P&ACTICK DJ

lrno1', pp. 36-7:

vn

)fjtael4nOQ111

aam-

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Vll1

CHAPTER IV. -DERIVATION
38-46).

AND

CoXPOSITION,

88-107 (pp.

Derivation, 1umx, variou.a examples of derivation by 1u1!1x, 88-96; derivation bJ
interoal change, 96- 7 : co!lnnlon of one part of 1~b to anoiber, wiU.OU
change, 98-11; derivation by prefix, 100 - l : composition, compound word.I. 102-7.
EXERCISES, roa .&1'.l.LY%11'0 DE&IV.1.TITS
VllL Hiloell&neou.a eumple&.

.&.Ill)

Co•POmr» Woa:oe. pp. t&-6:

CHAPTER V.-NouNs, 108-48 (pp. 46-66).
NoUlls, definition and ma, 108.
CUSSES OF NOUNS, 109- 111 : l"&rlona claii&e&, 109-12 ; common and proper 'DOUU,
ns ; collectives, lH ; gender-nouns, 116 : diminutins, 116 ; almple, derivatiYe, aDCl
compound, 117-111.
INFLECTION or NoUNs, 120-4!?: declension, 120; number, ~11ar fonnatlon, 121-1:
irregular, 124- 6; wanting, 127 ; wonh u.sOO only in •inb'Ular or In Jllunl. 128- t:
compound nouns, 130 ; case, 131 - 2; fonuation of possessi\·e cue, lSS - 8 ; datiYe
case, 139-4-0; vocative, 141; examples of declension, lU.
Other parts ofspeech used u nouna, 143-8.
EXERCISES, roa PB.1.CTJCE 11' P.1.BSINo Noro;a, JlP· 62-6: rules for
general; examples of J>arsing nouns; IX. lli.scellaneoua eumpl-.

CHAPTER VI. -

PRONOUNS,

panlnc

ba

PRONOUN, definition and naes, H9- 50 ; Inflection, 161 ; cluaiJlcatlon, 16t.
PERSON.I.I. PRONOUNS, 153 - 65 : ]o!:l'!IOn, 153 : inflection, fl nit and aer.ond J'*'rM>n•, l~ :
uses of plural forms, 1!16-8; third pcn;on , gender, 159 ; Inflection, 160; UAea of
gender forms, 161 - 2 ; of ii, 1G3 ; compounds, with .if etc., 164 : poaaeuln•, 165.
DOIONSTR.l.TIVE I'BoNOUl'S, 166-8.
lNTEllROG.l.TIVE PRoNoro;s, 169- 78.
RELATln: oR CoNJUNCTl"r"E PRONom, 174-87: relatln and 1ntecedent; 17'-8:
pen;on or relath·e, 177 ; uses of the dill'erent relati're!I, 1T8-80; compound relatives, 181-2; Indefinite rel:ith·es, 183; omission of that u relative, 184: reletift
adverbs, 185; 1U and bvt in ftlatl\'e .u.ae, 186-7.
INDEFINITE PaoKO'Vl'B, 168-f.

CHAPTER

Vll.-ADJECTIVES,

VllL- VERBS,

pan-

222-307 (pp. 99-135).

Vl:.IUI, definition and w.e, 2'.l2; transitive 11Dd intranaitive verbe, 22S; lllm~ ct..
rivatin, and compound verbe, 224- 6; Inflection, 227 ; for peraw and lllUll'ber,
228-30; for ten11e and mode, 231-4; iD..llnitivca and participlf:ll, ~-8; COl\Jap..
tiona, :Sew and Old, 239-40 ; examples of both conjagationa, 241 ; principal puts.
U2 ; tense-lnllection. 2'S.
:NEw CoN.1uo.1.T1os, 2.U- 66 : regular verbe, 244 ; lrregular, W-64.
Ow CoN.100.1.noN, ~7 - 75 : ch:l.ract.eriatie&, ~7 ; cla.ssea and irftgul&rlti11, W-eo;
Old verbs, and their wode or coDjUi,'&tion, 261-74; conJUi&tion al lac, m;
double forma or p&rticlplee, 275.
Oml:R Iaar.Gul..l.ll VEBBll (auxiliarlea), 278-1.
Co.1i1POt..'"ND VEBB.l.L FolUl.8, VERB-PHB.l.BEB, 2ill-ll05: emphatic verb-phraaea, 279-80;
contlnuou" or }•rob"TeSsive, 2Sl; fut Utt, 282; di~tinction or IAall and trill, 283-8;
conditional, 287; perfect and pluperfect, 288-11; other \enae and roode phruu.
potential and obl4,-ative, and their 1ierfccts, and proi,"Te&Sh·e fol'Ull, 290- a; iDJlnith·e anJ loarticiple·1•hraeea, 294: scheaue of cooJugation, aimple fonnaand phruea,
2!!5; it. indefinite limits. m ; passive verb-phra&es, 297 -sos: progreaaive phruee,
m; s cheme of conjugation, SOO; ar.th·e and J>&Sah·e, SOl; puaive and 1100pa.&Aive use of l•hr&lleS, 30~ -s; \·erbe forming passive phrasee, ~-6.
REFLEXl\.E .L>;D IMPERBOlc.1.1. \'EJl.BS, S00-7.
EXERCISES, POB PR&CTICE Ill P.l.JUllNO \'Ell.BS, pp. 131-•: eumplee ol paniq
verbe; XII. llls<.'dlaneoua eumplea.

or

Al.Plu.BETIC.t.L LlBT

149-89 (pp. 66-82).

EXERCISES, FOR PRACTICE Ill" P.l.RSrKO PaoNOUNI, pp. jf- 82 : example& ot
Ing pronouns ; X. )llscellaneou.a eumplee.

CHAPTER

l&IUXl UL.Lii. VUllll,

CHAPTER IX. -ADnnns, 308 - 18 (pp. 136 -

EXERCISES, l'OR PRACTICI: IN PARSING ADJ11CTIVD, pp. 96- 8: exam pl.. of pining adjectives ; XI. )I iacell.aueou. e.xamplee.

~).

omces of adverbs, 308 - 10 ; cla11ses of adn•rbs, Sil ; sim1•le, derivative, and compound adverbs, 812-4; ad1·erb-11hrases, 315 ; ·comparison of ad\·erbe,SUJ; CAen
with verbs, 817.
RIBPO!ISJTEll, 818.
PAJLSTNO or AD~ p. ld.

CHAPTER

x. -

PREPOSITIONS,

319- 26 (pp. 143 - 6).

Omce of a preposition, 319 i Its conatructions, 820- S; c1asaM
824 - 6 ; Jlreposition-phru., 320.
P.a..asll!o or P&EPosmon. p. UCL

190-221(pp.83-98).

ADJECTIVE, detinltlon and nae, 190; descriptln and limiting nae, 191: 1lmple, •
rh"ative, and compound adj ectives, 1!12:. 4 ; classes of a<ljectlves, 1!15.
ADJECTIVES OF Qu.1.L1TY, l!lG-203: inflection, 100; comparison, 1117-201; ~
comparison, 202 ; nse as noun and ad\·erb etc., 203.
PaosmuNAL ADJECTn·EB, 204-11: possessi\'e, 20S -7; demonstrative, 208; interrogatiYe, 209 ; relative, 210 ; indefinite, 21L
NUXERALS, 212-18: cudinals, 212-6; ordinals, 216; traction.ala, 217: multlpl!Q.
tive., 218.
ARna.r.a, 21P-2L

p. 116.

CHAPTER

XL-Co:sJUNCTIONS,

ot prepositiona,

327-31(pp.147-51).

Office of a conjunction, 3:?'i; co-ordinating and auliordiuatin1> coilJunctiona ud
their cla.asea, 328 - SO ; words uaed as conjuuctiona, SSL
P.u.sll!o or CoNJU!ICTiol!lll, p. UL

CHAPTER XII. -

b"TERJECTIONS,

332-6 (pp. 152 -3).

Character of an Interjection, SS2 - 3 ; claasea, 334 ; worda med u
SS5 ; cooatructfoua, 8S4.

Pu.slJl'o or IIcn:ancnon, p. US.

ill~ona,

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

x

CHAPTER XIIL - Sn"TAX :
(pp. 154- 87).

THE SrnPLE S.o"TENCE,

337 - 410

Syntax, S37; kinda or sentence, 338-9; essential element. or the awtcDce, 840-tt.;
rules a.a to their form, S.5- 7 ; apecial CUM, MS.
PREDICATE No~ £ND ADIECTJVE, ~ - f>7 : Incomplete nrbs, SliO i . addiUOn ol
predicate noun or adjective, ~l - 2; nrbs taking 11uch, ~ ; pre<Ucate adJective,
"and adverb, S!i4; adverbial predicate, S55; ae,-reement and rulea, Sf>6- 7.
O&JECT or THE YERB, ~-68: transith·e\·erband ita object, 358-11; lntnnaiUves
and \ •erbs u.&ed intransitively, 360-61; 11bjecta or iutraJJ11ith·ea, 362; direct &lid
Indirect object, S63 - &.
0&1ECTIVE o• F.a.CTJTrvr: PJLm1c.a.n, 8611-7L
ATI'IUBUTl\"E ......""I> AProsmvE AWECTIVE .a.ND Noni, 372-11: attributh'eadjectiv~.
872-4; al'posith·e DOUD, 3i'5; appoaitin adjectne, Si6 j attriuutive DOUD, r.7;
rule11, 3i8; ae,Teement, 3711.

CHAPTER XV. - 1.sFINITJVE
438 - 62 (pp. 211 - 27).

xi

AND P.utnCIPLE Co:mnucno:sa,

.

I1rn.1uTrva ~ PA.RTICJPLEB, character and l1IMI of, as.
INnNrTJVES, 439- 451 : inl!nitivea and illtlnitin·1•hruea, 439; uae and omilsloa ol
the "aign " to, ~O - I ; constructiona of the illtlnith·e, «2; aul:iject, predicate
DOUD, 443 j obj~ct, 04 j .afl.l:r preposition. 445 j J>eculiaritiea or iDJlnitiTe in ,.,,
«6- 7; adnrh1al objective, 448; subject to the illfiniti\·e, 449; other cua,. '50;
~ment,45L

P.a.RTICIPLES, 4.'..2-62: p;uticiplea and particlple-phl'B.l!ea, 452; conatruetiona 453•
Yith auxiliaries, 45-1; u attributh·e adjectives, 45f>; 1•redic.te, 456; ap~itl~
457-8; Infinitive and participle equh·alenta of clau&es, 458-60; abaolute co11atruction, 461 ; J>articiplea used •ubstantively, 4~
EXERCISES. FOR PRACTICE "' bnsrrl\"E AND PARTICIPLE 0o!r9T1IOCTIOQ, pp.
2"..5- 7 : XXIX. Infiniti\·e constructionL XXX. Participle conatnu:tiooa.

DVDB, S80 - 83.

GENITIVE OB POSSESSIVE CASE or NOUJ(ll, 3Sf - 9 : posaesail·e genitive, ll8f; aubjective, oldectin, and 8J>positive genitive, SS5 i adJectin: rnlue or ttie t·~.
386-11.
.ADVERBIAL OBJECTIVE C.a.ar: or Noll1'B, SllO -H.
NOON 'CSED ABsoLt.'TELY, 11115-7.
PaEPOSITIOSAL Pell.CIC!, S!lS- 4~ : uses of prepo6itions, S!lS - 400; preJ>OSitional
adjecth·e and adnrb phrases, 401 -4.
Summary of the combinations fonning a aimJ>le sentenee, 405-11; 'bllre and com·
plete subject and preJicat..>, 407; sim)'le, ex1-andt'd, and compounded 1enteDC4!!!,
408-10.
EXERCISES, roa PRACTICE rs 8DrrLF. 15~cE CoSMTRl' CTIO!fS, JlJ'. 181- 7.
:illl. lm}'en;onal, collecth·e. and compound l'Uhjt-Cta. XI\'. Pttdicate noun
;. 1d adjecti,·e; ad\"e rbial J•redicnte. XV. Ol•jt>clll nf the nrh; ohjr'C'lh·e J>redl·
cate. X\"I. Attributin and apJ>ositin adjt>1·ti,·e and noun. XVII. AdverLL
XVIII. Po!IS('ssi,·e ca..e and f'O"""ssh·e.~. XIX. AdnrbiaJ ••Ljedh·e and nom·
lnatl\"e absolute. XX. Prepo11itional phrases.

CHAPTER XIV.-CollPO'GSD
(pp. 188- 210).

AND CoHPLEX SE?.'TESCEB,

411-37

Filling up and combination of ~tences, 411-4; combining Yords, clau'lell, 4U i
degrees or <'Oml1ination, 416; independent cl3U!'e5, compound aenUn<'e, 417-11;
dependent clauses, com}'lex aentence, 420 -4; romplex 1entenees 11ith more
than one dependent clause. 425; rompound-eomplex aentences, 426; c.omrlicated
aentences, 427; summary of rules, 428; adjective-clause!!, 429- SO; ad\·erbclauses, 431-ll; 1<ubstantin~·clauses, 434 - 5; omission of thal, 4~; dependent
clausea of addition, 43i.
F.XERCJSES, FOR PRACTICF. I~ Cm1romm AND CoMl'LEX 80."TESCES, pp. 201 -10.
XXI. Comhination and t1q•aration of H·ntcnces. xxn. Con.pound aentencee:
inderoe11deut en-ordinate d :rnses. XXIll. Com}'lex aentencea ('ll"itb one deJ>eDCI·
ent clause). XXIY. Complrx se11tl'nces (with more than one dt~ndent clauae);
compound-com}'lex sentences. XXV. Adjecth·e-clauioes. :XXVl. AdTer~­
:XX\"11. Sub&tantive-cl.a11.5e11.. X.XVllL Omiasion of tllat; de,1-.endent cl&UNI of
addition.

CHAPTER XVI. - ISTERROGATl\"""E
463-81 (pp. 228-36).

AND btPERATIVE SD."TENCJ:S,

The three kinds or sentence, 463; Interrogative 11entenre, 4G4; killda or queation1,
and their answe!'ll, 465 - !l; int.('rnY,:atin amm:;ement. 470; im·erted conditional
aentf'nCi!, 4iJ j chan!!f' or interm;::nti\·e order, 47!? j kind$ or interrogative clause,
4i3; imperath·e mode and 8t'lltt•n<"t". 474 - 5; kind• or im1oeratin! clame, 476;
lmpcratin-phra--es, 4i'4; other forms of imperath·e· and OJ•t&tin upre8&iora.
44S- soi nl'lamntory interrogatin aenteuce, . 481.

EXERCISES. FOR PRACTICE IN 1~11:RROOATIVE A~"l> h1PER.a.nv1: Coirsnn:cnoq,
l'P· 234 - 6: XXXL M'iscellanfOus e:r.:ampla

CHAPTER XVII. - AnnRE\L\TED
482 - 508 (pp. 237 - 52).

AND hcoul'LETE EXPRESSION,

Compleie and lncompltte aentences, 4~!?; ahbreviation, 483-4; abbreviation ln coordinate clauses, 41'5; use of conjunctions, compound mtmbe~ or 11entence,
486-8; abbre,;ation or dtpendt>nt clause. 4tl!l-lll; in qneation and answer,
400; substitution for repeated Jl&rl.s or spttch, 4!12 - S; comparatin cla1111e1,
Yith IU and tllan, 4!4; omission of p~rt• or the aentence, 4115; variou. cues,
400- 7; abbre,iation for impressh·enesa, 4!1~; exclamation, 41111- 502; lnur,jectional phrases, 603; change or character of 1rnrds, W4 - 6; idioms and Uieirexplanation, 607 - a.
EXERCISES, POK PRACTICE
lliscellaneoQ& eumplea.

INDEX (pp. 253- 60).

Jl{

AllBRETl.a.TED

EXPllESSIOX,

pp. 2f>O-t: mIL

ENGLISH

GR~IMA.R.

CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTORY: LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR,

L The English language is the language used by the
people of England, and by all who speak like them anywhere else in the world; for example, in the United St.ates.
2. There are hundreds and hundreds of different languages in
the world', and the only way we can define any one of them is to
say: "It is the language used in such anu such a region, or by
such and such people." The people from whom our language
gets its name are those living in England. Their forefathem
came to that country from the northern shore of Germany, about
1500 years ago, and droYe out or destroyed the people who had
lh-ed in the country before, and ""ho had spoken a very different
language (much like what the w·elsh, the language of Wales, is
nowadap).
3. Because the Engl.iSh language was brought from Germany
int-0 England, being th~n only a dialect of German, it is still very
much like the languages of Germany, and is for this reason often
called a GEIDlA:SIC language (or a TECTO:ac, which means the
same thing). .A nd all the Germanic languages, along with most
of the others in Europe, and a part of those of Asia, form a great
body of languages resembling one another, and hence called B
"family" -the lxD<>-ECROPEA:S (or the .ARYAN) family.
4. The English-speal"i.ng people of England were conquered in
the eleYenth century by the Normans, a French-speaking people ;

LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR..

[•-

and, by the mixture of the two, their speech also came to be
som~what mixed, so that a part of our English comes from Germany and another large part from France, to say nothing of the
words we have gotten from yet other source&.
5. The English also conquered and settled other countries:
the southern part of Scotland, and, a "good deal later, most of
Ireland ; and they have sent out colonies to all parts of the world,
which of course carried their English language with them, far out
of England. Some of these colonies have become great nations ;
so, especially, that in North America has grown and increased
until it is as numerous a people as the English of England.
Thus the English language is now used by many more people
out of England than in it; btit it still · keeps everywhere its old
name.

6. Our English, however, is by no means the same language that has always gone by that name, nor is it now
used .a like by all the people who speak it.
7. The language first brought from Northern Germany to Eng
lanu was so different from ours that we should not understand it.
at all if we beard it spoken ; and we cannot learn to read it with
out as much study as it costs us, for example, to read French or
German. Tne reason ii::, that evel'V
lanmiane
is all the
"J livincr
0
0
0
time changing. Some old words go out of use ; other new words
come into use ; some change their meaning ; all, or almost all,
change their pronunciation ; and our phrases, also, the ways in
which we put words together to express our thoughts, become by
degrees different. Such changes are sometimes very slow ; but
they are all the time going on, everY'"here. A thousand years
hence, if it liYes so long, the English will be so far unlike what
it now is that \ve, if we were to come to life again, should perhaps not underst:md it without a good deal of trouble.

8. The oldest English that we know anTthinn
of' ihe English
•
0
of the time of King Alfred and thereabouts (a thousand years
ago), we generally call A.•rnw-S .u:o~; to distinguish it from that

10]

THE E!\GLISH LANGUAGE..

8

of later times ; and there are other names - such as Old En
Ii.sh, Early English - for the language of times between
and our own.

.Alfredf.

When we say simply "English," we mean the language
of our time, such as we ourselves understand and use.
9. But th~re are considerable differences in the language
even of English speakers at the present day.
Thus, almost every region has some peculiarities in the
way in which its speakers use their English.
There are, for example, the peculiarities of the English of Ireland, noticed by us in the Irii-h emigrant ; those of the English
of Scotland, seen in the poetry of Burns, the stories of Scott,. and
other such places ; and those of the negro English of the Southern United States. And, in genera], an Englishman can tell an
American, and an American can tell an Englishman, by the way
he talks.
~hen thes~ peculiarities amount to so much that they begin
to mterfere a little '"'ith our unden-tanding tl1e pel'SQns who have
them, we say that such persons speak a DIALECT of English,
·
rather than English itself.

10. Then there is also the difference Letween what we
call " good English " and " bad English."
By good English we mean those words, and tho...c;e meanings of
them, and those ways of putting them together, which are used
hy the best speakers, the people of ~t education ; everything
which such people do not use, or use in another W"ay, is bad
Enf,!lish. Thus ba<l English is i::imply that which is not approYed
and accepted by good ~d careful speakers.
Every one who speaks an¥
lan!!Uacre
"naturallr"as we call it,
•
0
0
.. '
has really learned it from those whom he heard speak around
him as he was growing up. But he is liable to learn it ill, forming bad and incorrect habits of speech; or be may learn it from
those who have themselves learned it ill, and may copy their bad

habits. There are, indeed, very few who do not, while they are
learning to speak, acquire some wrong ways, which they have t'l
correct afterward&.
It is partly in order to help in this process of correcting bad
habits, that the good and approved usages of a language are collected and set forth in a book which is called a " b"rammar."

11. Hence, the English language, as made the subject of
a grammar, means the English of the present day, as used
by good speakers and writers ; and English grammar is a
description of the usages of the English language in thi3
sense.·
A description of one of the earlier forms of English (as the
Anglo-Saxon, or the Middle English), or of one of the dialects
of English (as the Scottish, or the Yorkshire, or the negro English), or of one of the forms of bad English (as the thieve./
slang), would also be an English grammar, but in a <lifferent
sense ; and we should not call it simply an English b'rammar,
but should give it some different name, which would tell precisely what it was.

12. Grammar does not at all make rules and laws for
language; it only reports the facts of good language, and in
an orderly way, so that they may be easily referred to, or
learned, by any one who has occasion to do so.
13. Nor is the study of the grammar of one's own native fan·
guage by any means nece.uary, in order to correctness of speech.
Most persons learn good English in the same way that they leant
~n.gli~h at all - namely, by hearing and reading ; by hearing and
lIIlltatmg good speakers, by studying books "·ritten correctly and
well, by correcting themselves and being correded bv others and
so on. But attention to the rules of good usage as laid down in
grammars, with illustrations and practical exercises, oft~n helps
and hastens this process; and it is especially useful to those who
have been tl.nfortunate enough to learn at first a bad kind of
w

English.

15)

[10-

LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR.

,

.

THE LEARNING OF LANGUAGE.

5

14. Then there are many other respects in which the study
of grammar is useful

The learning of language is made up of many different parts ;
and it is never finished. It begins in infancy, and ~ all our
· lives. The most learned and able never get through with adding
to their knowledge, even of their own language, and to their
power to uae it.
At the very beginning of language-learning, we have to learn
to understand the words which we hear others make. Then we
learn to make them ourse!Yes, and to put them together correctly - that is, in the same way that others do - in order to
express our thoughts and feelings. A little later, we have to
learn to understand them as they are put before our eyes, written
or printed ; and then to make them in the same way - that is,
to read and spell and write : and this" also correctly, or as other
people do. But then we waut to use our English not only co11:-.
rectly, but well, so as to please and inflµence others. Many of
us, too, want to learn other languages than English, languages
which answer the same purposes as our own, but have other
means of doing it. Or, we want to study some of the other
forms of English, and to compare them with our own, so as to
understand better what it is, and how it came to be what it is.
We are not content, either, 'nth merely using language ; we
want to kno\\" something of what language is, and realize what it
is worth to us. The study of language has a great deal to tell
us about the history of man, and of what he has done in the
world. And as language is the instrument of the mind's operations, and the principal means by which they are disclosed, we
cannot study the mind's workings and its nature without a thorough understanding of language.
15. For all these purposes, we need to have that sort of
knowledge of language to which the study of grammar is the
first step, and to which a study of the grammar of our own language is the easiC$t and the flurest step.

SENTENCE; PARTS

or

SPEECH.

[16-

PARTS. OF SPEECH.

21]

There are a

7

great many used as golden is used, or brightly.

The words which are thus used alike we put together
into classes, and give each class a name.
19. The classes into which our words are divided, according to their uses, are called the

CHAPTER II.
THE SENTENCE; THE PARTS OF SPEECH.

P.A.RTS OF 8PEECB1

16. Our language, like every other, is made up of words.
Each word bas its own particular part to play in the
work of expressing our thoughts : its own meanings, and its
own ways of being used along with other words.
17. Thus, for example, sun, moon, star are the names of
objects.
.
But shine, move, twinkle are of quite another character:
they are not names ; they are words which we put with
names like those given above, to state or declare something
about the objects to which the names belong: a.S when
we say
the sun shines;

the moon moves;

the stars twinkle.

The word the, again, in these sentences, is unlike the
others; it neither names anything nor declares anything;
it is never used except before a name, like sun, etc.
We may say, further,
the golden sun shines brlghUy.

Here golden and brightly are words of yet other kinds;
each may be used in its own ways, but not in those of the
others. And so it is with all our words.
18. But not every word is different from all the rest in
its uses.
There are a great many 11ames of things which we use in the
same way with sun.
There are a great many words used in the same way with
shines, to declare something.

and every word, as belonging to one or another class, u
having a certain kind of use, is called a PART OF SPEECH.
20. This name, " part of speech/' gh·en to a word, pbiinly ·
implies that there is something incomplete about it; that it
is not a whole, but must be joined ·with other "parts " in
order to make a whole, or in order to be speech.
That is in fact the case; and the whole which these parts
make up is the SE.,"TENCE.
2L All our speech, as we actually use it in talking or
writing, iS in sentences; we do not really say anything
unless we make a sentence.
If, for example, we speak the words aun, tree, Ink, goodn...,
ht, we are only mentioning something ; any one who hears us
will naturally ask, " Well ; what about it 1"
So if we say shines, or stands, or writes, or went: the natunl
question is, ""That shines l" au<l so on.
So, too, if ""e 8:1Y the, with, golden, brightly, away, tall.
But if we sa~
the sun shines;
he writes with ink;

the tree Is tall;
they went aw1y;

we have really said something. It may be very uninteresting ;
it may be foolish ; it may even be false ; but it is at any rate
something said; the person to whom we speak does not need to
wait for it to be finished in order to approve or reject it. "\\"'e
have thought something and said it; we have made up our mind
to.some purpose or other and told what it is; we have (as it ii

0

SENTENCE; PA.RTS OF SPEECH.

called) formed an opinion

01'

[21-

judgment, and expressed it by a

sentence.

A sentence is, then, in the sense thus explained, the expression of a ju<lc,oment.
22. Strictly speaking, this definition is troe only of one kind
of sentence : the .A.sSERTIVE sentence, as it is called, or that by
which we assert something, declare something to be so and so.
There are two other kinds of sentence : one, the INTERROGATIVE,
asking a question : thus,
does the 1un 1hlne?
and the other, the
·

J:MPERATIVE,

giving a command: th111,

shine out brightly, 1unl

But the kind which we have been describing is the regular and
by far the most common one, and the other two will be best
treated afterward, as variations of it.
In going on~ therefore, to speak of the sentence, we shall consider only the first kinJ, leaving the second and third until later.

23. In order to form a sentence, we have to use words
of more than one kind. Every complete act of speech is
made up of at least two parts of speech. 'Ve cannot produce a sentence by stringing together words of one sort
only : for example,
1un tree ink;
the this yonder;

shines writes went;
good golden bright.

Nor, again, can we take words of different sorts at haphazard out of a dictionary or spelling-book, and make of
them sentences - even foolish or false sentences. Thus
the with golden brightly away;
shines over is toward tall never.

This would be like trying to make an instrument, or a
piece of furniture, out of materials picked up at random,
and having no adaptation to one another. For a scntcn\it',

SUBJECT AND PREDIC.&.ll

9

there must be not only words of more than one kind1 but
words of certain kinds, fitted rogether in certain ways.
24. As the sentence is a combination of words by which
. we declare something to be so and so, or assert that something is true about something, there must be in every
sentence .two parts or members: one naming the thing
about which we make our declaration or assertion, and one
expressing what we declare or assert of the thing named.
Thus, in the sent.ence
the sun shines,
the words the 1un tell what we make our assertion about, and we
assert about the sun that it 1hlne1: 1hinea expresses what we declare to be true of the thing expressed by the 1ua.

25. These two neces$ary parts of the sentence we c.all
the SUBJECT and the PREDICATE (predicate is only a more
learned and harder name for 'thing asserted or declared').
\Ye cannot, in the nature of things, make a complete
sentence without joining together a subject. and a predicate.
But a sentence does not need to contain more than two
words, one for each of the two parts or members. For
example,
gold glitters;
George read•;

horses run;
I 1tand;

paper burna;
they wrote;

are so many complete sentences, the former word in each
being its subject., and the latter its predicate.
26. On the other hand, we may use two, or three, or
many words in naming and describing the thing about
which we are going to make our assertion, and as many
more in n1aking the assertion ; and the sentence may still
be divided into the same two parts.
Thus, in
my father's beautiful black horaes run every day down the
hill to the brook for water,

10

SENTENCE; PARTS OF SPEECH.

33]

(21-

the first five words - my father'• beautiful bl1ck horaea - are
all of them taken together name that about
. t, beca
the sub~ec
use
.
h
rt• · made ,. and the other eleven words
are the
which t e asse ion is
•
•
predicate, because they all combine to form the assertion, telling
vbat is done by the horses we have described.

27. We have, then, this rule :
A •entenee ls composed of two part.a : t. the MCbjeet, Ids·
Dlfylng that about which the assertion la made ; and 2- the
predicate, signifying that which ls asserted of the aubject.

Now we have to look to see what kinds of words, what part.a
of speech, are put together thus to form the simplest sentence,
the sentence composed of only two words.

11

water-it must always have in it, as its essential part, a Terbas run: simply because a verb is a word that assert&.

29. Thus we have the definition:
A Teri ls a word that asaerta or declares, and hence th&&
can stand, alone or with other words, aa the predicate of a
aentence.

30. 'Vhen ·a predicate is composed of two or more ·
words, we call the simple verb in it the BARE predicate, and
this along with the rest the COMPLETE predicate.
'Ve shall see hereaft€r (350) that some verbs are very rarely
used alone as predicat€, but are made complete predicates by
other wor<ls added to them, which are called their OOKPLEKENT
(that is, c completing part'). And there
no verbs which may
not take a complement of some kind.

are

28. A word that can be used as
glitters, run, burn•, reads, atind, wrote

little sentences given above, is called a
verb is Latin for 'word' simply).
word that asserts or declares ; and any
tha.t is a verb.
Hence, we. cannot make a sentence without using a verb; the

are used in the
VERB (the word
A verb is · a
word that does

predicate of the sentence (as ''°e have called it above) must _be
a verb ; and we cannot describe a verb truly except by saymg
that it is a kind of word 'vbich goes with the name of something to declare, or help declare, "omething about it; it can be
used as the predicate of a sentence.
This cannot be too mnch insisted on, as the definitions given of a Terb
often wholly erroneous.

VERB; NOUN.

a"'

A verb, as we have seen, does not necessarily stand alone as
predicate; instead of shines, we can say i• shining, or ia brilliant,
or sends down raya, an<l so on, which rn<'an near}y the salDe
thing; lJ\\t in t.ll<'sc phrases the is and aend• are ,·erbs; words
like shining, brilliant, rays, cannot make an assertion without a
verb added. And, of howeYcr many words a predicate may he
composed - as in run every day down the hill to the brook for

3L The other words in most of our little sentences of
two words each- namely, gold, horses, paper, Georgeare each of them what is called a NOUN.
Noun means simply 'name.'
All these nouns are names of objects that we can see. Othera,
as aound, noise, thunder, odor, are names of things which we

perceh·e by other senses. Yet others, ru; mind, life, are names of
wliat we can only think about, objects of thought. Others still,
as height, roundnesa, beauty, courage, are names of the qualities
of objects. There are many different classes of nouns, but they
an; all alike names, and they can all be used as subject of a sent<'nce ; they can be put along with a verb to make an ass~rtion ;
they express anything that we can declare something about.

32. Thus we haYe the

d~finition:

A 11ou11 ls the name of anything, a word that ean stand,
alone or with other words, as the subject of a M!ntence.

33. But while a verb was the only kind of word, or part
of speech, that could be used as a predicate in a sentence,
a noun is not the only one that can be used as a subject.

SENTENCE; PARTS OF SPEECH.

12

PRONOUN.

[33-

18

iubititutea; but they are used far more often than any nouna

'Ve had also the little sentences
I atand, they wrote,
.
.
d these are words of so
where I and they are subJects ' an
mad
uliar kind that they are not called nouns, but are
e
f
h by themselves and are called PROpee
a class, or part o speec ,
,
NOUNS : other words of the class are
we, you, he, ahe, it, thl1, who. ·
The word pr<Jrwun means ' standing for a noun.' . And th~
. f; t a kind of additional set of names for obJects, whicl1
are, m ac ·,
.
.
Th
. b used instead of the nouns, thell' ordmary names.
ey
:::ote precisely name objects; but they po~nt them out, where
the circumstances show plainly enough wbat lS referred to. Thus,

instead of saying
we may say

the aun 1hine1,

are med.

34. Thus we have the definition:
A pronoun la a word at.anding for a noun or o~
name, and may, like a noun, be 1l8ed aa subject of a 11eateace.

35. Both nouns and pronouns have other uses besides that of
i>tanding as subject; these will be pointed out hereafter. It will .
also be shown that words which are usually other parts of speech
are so"metimes used as if they were nouns. Such a word ia then
said to be used SUBSTANTIVELY. SUBSTANTIVE ia another name
for a noun.
The word nm.in was formerly much used, and is still sometimes ulled, u a
name for both nouns and adjecth·es, the former being distinguillhed aa _,..
sufatanlive, or IUl>atanl.ivu, and the latter as fWUna adjeair>e, or adjtaiTJU.

36. These three parts of speech - the noun and pro-

It ahinea,

noun on the one hand and the verb on the other- are the

if we have spoken before of the sun, in a way that makes plain
what it means. In like manner, having said
George ia atudioua,
we may add
he read•,
'George reads'· Or, speaking to George himself aud
·
meanmg

principal, the independent, ones. '.fhey do not need to lean
on anything else ; they can form sentences without help
from other parts of speech.

not to any one else, we may say
you read;
and George may say, referring to bimself,
I read.
We can, in this way, say he or she or it of every si,ngle object
that has a name, any object that we can speak of by a noun ; to
any one that we can speak to, we may say you; and any one
of them that can speak of itself may call itself I.
Thus the pronouns are a sort of universal names, or universal
substitutes under special circumstancc.q, for ordinary names.
Accordingl~, while there are hunJretls and thousanas of ordinary
names, or nouns, there are only a fe,v, a dozen or so, of these

[See Exercise I., at the end or the chapter.)

Next we-have to look at two other kinds of word which are
of a different character, which do not by t.hemseh-es, or directly,
form either the subject or the predicate of a sentence, but only aa
they are put along with something else, to which they belong.

37. The word the, in
the sun ahlnea,

is such a part of speech ; it can only be used along with a
noun, as an appendage to the noun. Other examples are
golden anJ white, in
the golden 1un ahines;

white paper burns;

each is added to a noun - sun or paper - to describe the
thing of which the noun is the name, to express some quality a! belonging to it.

[37-

SENTENCE; PARTS OF SPEECH.

14

: its name
rd thus used i3 called an• ADJECTIVE
'
d d'
adjective signifies merely somethi·ng· ad e - that 18,
added to a noun by way of d~cnption.

A

WO

38. Because the adjective thus defines a quality as bea· o to the thino expressed by the noun, it is said to
1onolllo
o
. .
b ad"
QUALIFY the noun. Or, again, as the addition of t e
Jective chanaes more or les3 the value of the noun, it ~ also
· said to MiDIFY (that is,' change somewhat') the noun.
Thus, by paper we mean paper in general, without any ~c­
tion; but to say a paper, or this paper, or white paper, limits
the application of paper to one pa1ticular kind, or it may be one
particular piece, of paper.
If, again, we say
men love pleasures,
we seem to mean all men and all pleasures ; but if we

say

good men love hone at pleasures,
we make our statement more definite, and therefore narrower;

we restrict it to the smaller class of men who are good, leaving
out the bad, and to the smaller class of pleasures that are honest,
leaving out the dishonest.
If, once more, we speak of
tall stiff black hata,
we first limit the general name hats to that class of hats that are
black, then the name black hats to that class that are stiff, then
the name stiff black hats to that class that are tall ; and we
might, by putling his before the whole, reduce the still numerous
class of stiff black hats to the two or three which some particular
person owns.
Hence an adjective is also said to LnnT a noun, or is called a
LBllTl!\O word ; it limits simply because it describes or defines.
39. Thus we have the definition:
An adjectlre ls a word used to qualify a noun - that h,
to describe or limit the meaning of a noun.

U]

15

~·. There is no assertion or declaration implied in an
a_dJe~ti~e, any more th.an in a noun; a noun and an adjec-

t1Ye Jomed t{)gether will neYer make a sentence : thus,
aun golden,

•tars •hining,

enemlet beaten.

But we. can make either an adjective or a noun a part of .
the assertion about a noun or pronoun, if we join the two
together by a verb (28). The verb which we especially use
for this purpose is be. Thus, for example,
fhe sun h golden;
this paper la white;
their hats are black;

his stiff black hat wa a tall;
the man was a .oldier;
we were Roman citizens.

A word which in this way, by help of a Yerb, is made a
part of the predication or assertion about a subject, is called
a PREDICATE adjective or noun (352).
An adjective used as predicate qualifies a pronoun as freely as
a noun : thus,
he la white;
we are beaten;

It ·WH tall;
they were running.

[St:e Exercise 11., at the end or the chapter.)

4L There is also another class of words, used to qualify
or describe the ~ther member of the simple sentence, the
verb. If we say
the sun 1hlne1 brightly, or shines now, or 1hine1 above,

the words brightly, now, above tell something about the
manner, or place, or time, of the art ion expres5ed by shines;
they describe or limit, in one way or another, the shining
which we have as5erted of the sun. So in
horses run 1wiftly,
George reads 1ometim.e1,
he stands there,

the words swiftly, sometimes, and there are used in the
same way to define the action or condition asserted by the
verb.

SENTENCE; PARTS 01" SPEECH.

16

[Q-

A word thus used is called an ADVERB, because it is added
to a verb, in much the same way and for the same purpose
as the adjective is added to the noun.
But most adverbs are also capable of being used to qualify
adjectives : thus,
the brightly shining sun,
a very cold day,

a truly faithful friend,
a perhapa falae repo~;

and some even qualify another adverb: thus,
very brightly shining,

quite often aeen.

42. We have, then, the definition :
An ad"erb ls a word used to qualify a verb, or aho an

adjecth·e, and sometimes another adverb.

43. The adjective and the adverb are thus the two parts
of speech which are used to accompany, to describe or
·
qualify or limit, another word.
[See Exercl.e III., at the end or the chapter.)

Then there are also two parts of speech which are used
to connect other words together, and even to connect sentences together.
44. We noticed above only one of the uses of the noun
or pronoun, namely that of serving as subject of a sentEmce.
Now we have also to observe t11at a noun or prono\m can
·be used like an adjective to qll.alify another noun, or like an
adverb to qualify a verb or adjective, if it be connected with
the word which it is to qualify by a word like of, to, from,
in, with, by, and so on.
Thus,

a box of wood

is the same thing

is the same

88

a wooden box;
a man i n diatreaa

88

a distressed man;

PREPOSITION.

45]

is the same

17

an emigrant from lrelHd
88

an Irish emigrant;

is the same th.iiig 88

he walka with graoe
he walka gracefully;

is the same as

he speaks with distinctneaa
he speaka distinctlJ:

and in
good for food,

faithful ti 11 death,

tired of walking,

the qualification of the adjective is quite of the same kind aa
would be made by an adverb;

These connecting words, now, are called PREPosmoNs ;
the word means simply 'placed before'; and they are in
fact usually placed before the noun or pronoun which they
are to connect to another word (just as they are often prefixed to a verb, or placed before it, t.o wake a compound
rerh - · as in with stand, o u ·t .v ie, u n d er lie).
45. Each preposition makes the uow1 ~r pronoun which it
joins 11n to another word qualify that other in some particular
'my: that is, it define..s a cert~iu kind of relation as existing between the two words. Thus, of most oft~n shows po~on, or
connects the name of a possessor with that of a thing posseMed,
as in
the palace of the king;
by i;hows the relation of nearness, as in

he sits by the wall,
or of me.ans, as in

he lives by begging;
from shows the relation of removal, as in
far from home;
under an1l over f'how relations of place. as in

the picture hangs under the ceiling over the table;
:uid so on.

18

SE~TENCE; PARTS OF SPEECH.

(t5-

And the prepositions are used with pronouns just as with
nouns: thus,
I went with him ;
far from you;
46. Thus we have the definition :

good for her;
t0me of ua.

A pTepoaition ls a word which joins a noun or pronoun to
some other word - a ,·erb, an adjecth·e, another noun or pronoun - showing the relation between them.
A preposition is not quite so 1listinctly tlefi1.1ahle as_ the ['~ parta of
speech ; it is best understood. by help of much 11luslratlon, uamg the commonest words of the class, like or, from, to, i•, b:r, with, for.
[See Exercise IV .• at the t:nd or the chapter.)

47. The other kind of connecting word is called a CO!\JUNCTION : that is, a word that' conjoins' or 'joins together.'
Its most customary and proper use is to join different
sentences together: thus,
he went and I came;
we spoke but they uid nothing ;
she blushed because ahe was ashamed ;
she played w hi I e they danced.
Sometimes, like and and but in these sentences, the conjwiction does hardly more than a11d one sentence on to another;
sometimes, like because and while, it shows the second sentence
to stand in a certain relation to the first : a relation of which
the nature is defined or made clear by the conjunction. Thus
because shows she was ashamed to be the cause 'of the blushing ; while shows the dancing to have accompani.td the playing ;
and so on.

But some of the most common conjunctions, especially
and, are also used t-0 connect in the same sentence words
that are the same part of speech aud are used in the same
way in the sentence : thus,
a great and good man ;
he • n d I came ;
poor but honest parents ;
a proud though childlike form;
by and with their consent.

51)

INTERJECTION.

H

48. Thus we have the definition:
A eonjunetion ls a word used to connect 11entencea togetherj
or, also, 'ft"Orda used In the same way In a aentence.
[See Eun:i5e V., at the end or the cbapt.er..)

49. The seven kinds of words thus described and defined are
the parts of speech ; there are no other clas.ses having a use in
forming sentences different enough from these to make us classify
them as separate parts of speech. As we have seen already, they
fall among themselves iuto three well-marked divisions: these are

1. The three independent parts of speech, the noun., the
pronoun, and the t:erb, capable of forming sentences without
the others;
2. The two qualifiers, adjectfre and adt•erb, always attached
to some other word, which they describe or limit; and
3. The two connectives, prepositi-0n and co11junction,
which join one \vord or sentence to another.

50. But we must notice here that there is yet another
dass of words, used in exclamation, which are usually
reckoned as a part of speech, and called I!\TERJECTIONS.
Examples of them are
oh! ah ! fte ! pshaw I hola l
The name l11terjecti-011 signifies something that is int.er:jt.cUd,
or 'thrown into the midst of' something else; and this something
else is the sentence, as made up of the other parts of speech.
Calling them thus, then, implies that they are not parts of the
sentence itself; they are not put together with other parts to
make up sent~nces. And this is in fact the ease. Hence, though
it is proper enough, because convenient, to call the interjections
a part of speech, they are not so in the same sense as the others.
Each interjection is in a certain way an undivided sentence, put
in the language of feeling rather than in that of reason.

SL ' 'e add, then, the definition :
An i11tcrjcetlon Is an exdamatlon, expressh-e of feeling; lt
does not combine with other words to form a sentence, and
so ls not In the same sense with the rest a part of speech.

SENTENCE; PARTS OF SPEECH.

20

[52-55

CJLU.

52. Sometimes the little wonls • or an aud the, which are
called the ARTICL~, are reckoned as a separate part of speech ;
but, as they always qualify nouns, they are really only a peculiar

kind of adjective.
Again, the wonls one, two, three, and so on, which we call
NUllERAI.8, because they express 1tumber, or are used in numerati11g or counting, have also their peculiarities; yet they are no
part of speech by themselves, because their uses are alway~ those
either of nouns or of adjectives.
And we shall have to notice hereafter one or two other such

cases.

53. As noticed above (23), we use, besides the assettive,
sentences of two other kinds, interrogative and imperative,
or questions and commands.
54. By an I:\TERROGATl\'E sentence, or question, we ex·
press a desire to know sometbin;;. But, instead of putting
it in the form of a statement,' I desire t-0 know,' or' I wish
you to tell me,' such and such a thing, we make known our
wish by a peculiar form of sentence : usually by putting the>
subject noun or pronoun after the Yerb : thus,
have you any ftah?

was he there?

will ahe go?

There are also special classes of i11tcrrog<1tit-•e words (see
below, 169, 209, 313 e), pronouns or adjectives or adverbs,
which have in themselves a question-asking meaning: thus,
who

there?
why did he come?
by what route did he arrive?

\.H

55. By an IMPERATIVE sentence we express our will or
wish that a thing be so and so; we give a command to
somebody. This is done by using a certain form of the
verb, hence called the imperatit"e mode (helow, 233) :
thus,
give me the ftah 1

go away from here I

IL]

EXERCISJCS.

EXERCISES TO CH.APTER

21

·n

POB DETEIUlINING AND DEFINING THE Pil'l'S 01' SPEECB.

all

The sentences in
the exercises given are to be divided by the
pupils into subject and predicate ; if written, the division may conYeniently be made by drawing a perpendicular line behveen the two:
tLua,
the aun I ahlnea;
he I writes with ink.

If either the subject or the predicate contains more than one word,
the bare subject, the subject noun or pronoun, and the bare predicate,
the Yerb, should be pointed out; if "-ritten, they may be underscored:
thus,
the bright !!!!! I twinkle;
the ~ I !!!!!. from the cloud.
In the exercir>eH on tLis chapter, the part of speech of ea.ch word
in every sentence is to be stated, and the reason or definition for it

given.
I. Bare subject and predicate: §§ 16-36.

Fire burna. Winda blow. Gold glitters. Stars twinkle. I
walk. He rides. Boys run. Girls d&nce. Wheat growa. They
1ly. Time tlies. Children sing. Doors swing. Clocks tick. Rain
falls. Smoke riaea. Heat melt.a. She came. It ahODe. We
looked.

n.

With adjectives added : § § 37 -40.

The cold winds blow. The winda are cold. The hot fire bUl'U.
It ia hot. A pelting ra.in falls. Happy boys run. Theae children sing. These girls are happy. Life is short. The yellow
gold glitters. The da.y is ra.iny. The night waa dark. He wu
riding. You are wa.lking. The old clock ticks. I am hUDery.
ID. With adverbs added: §§ 41-43.

Cold winds blow keenly. This fire is very hot. Your children sing sweetly. The hungry dog barked suddenly. I w&llt
often. We ride seldom. This rainy night is exceedingly dark.
The day is very unusually hot. Leaves fall down. The old
wooden clock tick.a always loudly.
IV. With prepositions added: §§ ff-46.

The bright stars twinkle in the sky. The boy r&n fut after
the ball We iO to schooL She stays eometimea &~ home. The

.

'

22

SENTENCE; PARTS OF SPEECH.

[cau.

dark smoke rises in the air from the tall chimney. The leaf
fell from the tree to the ground. The night is ~k with cloudL
He rides on his horse. A hot fire of coals is burnmg. '!he doga
barked loudly in the distant village. A clock of wood ticked ~n
the wall. The clouds are hea.vy with rain. Ice melta soon. m
the hea.t of the fire. The happy children of our teacher BlDg
sweetly enough from their book of hymns. The winda of winter
are cold.

V. With con;uncdons: §§ 47-48.
In writin" out arnl <livi<ling into 1mbjcct and predicate such sentences as a: connected by conjuudions, the <liviJing lines of the two
(or more) sentences may be set one above the other, and the conjunction between them : thus,
the bright ~ I twinkle
!!. I laughed loudly,
but
they I ~ silent.

when
the sky I _!! clear.

I went to school and she stayed a.t home. The dog ba.rked at.
the boy, and he ran awa.y. They listened with attention while I
spoke to them. The day is wa.rm if the sun shines. He sa.ng till
he wa.s hoarse and we were tired. The smoke rises in the air
bee:ause it is light. The boy went to the pla.yground when the
bell rang. He a.nd I go to school together. The 'llV'hite snow
lies on the high hills a.nd in the deep valleys. You ride on the
road, but we walk through the fields.
Scholars should be made to fonn, by themselves or under the direction of
the teacher, many illustrative sentences of the 1<.'lme kind ns those gh·en here.
Especially, they should be prnctisCd in making a l)are f'!'ntence of two words as
a startin;;-point, and filling it out by adding other parts of "l'eech to its subject
and pre<licate, defining the cl1aracter and purpose of (•ad1 addition as made.

VI. Miscellaneous examples on the chapter.
In order that the f'entences may be properly divitled into subject
and 1ireilicate, they should, if neces..'<:lrv he re-arran ...ed the words
·'
:-,
'
being pnt int-0 the more u~ual order. Thu" :
The glimmering landscape I ~now on the sight;
Tumult and affright I ~ by the yellow Tiber.

The borrower is servant to the lender.
Procr-c1.Stination is the thief of time.
Grace waa in a.ll her steps.

n.J

EXE RC IS~.

23

Out of th~ ab~dance of the he.art the mouth apeabtla.
No work 18 a d1sgra.ce; t4e true disgrace ia idlenee&.
Stolen wa.tera are sweet, a.nd bread eaten in aec.ret · l
~
The child is father to the mau.
ia P euan
Surely in V&ili the net is spread in the sight' of any bird.
The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the l~
Now fades the glim.mering la.ndaca.pe on the ai&ht..
The pa.tbs of glory lead but to the grave.
By the yellow Tiber wa.a tumult a.nd &fl'ria'ht..
Industry is the road to wealtla.
Above it stood the aerapha.
~e morning-stars sang together, and all the IK\ns of God ahouted
for JOY·
We silently ga.zed on the face of the dead
.
'
And we bitterly thought of the morrow.
Soft and pa.le is the moony beam,
Moveleas still is the gla.asy atrea.m;
T~e wave is clea.r; the beach is bright
With snowy shells and aparkllne- stonee;
The shore-surge comes in ripplea light..

An hour passed · on ; the Turk awoke;
That bright dream was J;iia laat.
The way was long ; the wind wu cold;
The minstrel was infirm and old.

