COMPOSITION AND RHETOI<IC
BY PRACTICE,

WITH EXERCISES, ADAPTED FOR USE IN HI G H
SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES.

BY

WILLIAM WILLIAMS, B.A.,
EotTO R OF G o wsM I TH's "D&51!RTRD

V 1u.AGK• " Cow re R's "TASK,"

KTC .

i

f

RE V ISED ANO ENLARGED.

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.

BOSTON, U.S.A.:
D. C. HEATH & CO. , PUBLISHERS.

1894.

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Harvard College Library
Dec. 20. lOH:>.

T r ansferred f rom
Education Library.

PREFACE.

:o·
,.

;;·
·-~"'

Cor.YRIGHT, 1890,

BY D. C. HEATH & CO.

NorbJoob 1Grr•• :
]. S. Cu shing & Co . - Be rwi ck & Smith.
Bos ton, Moss ., U. S. A.

THIS is, first of all, a practical book; not that it excludes theory,
but that it gives prominence to practice. If this were not the
case, it need not have been written. There are already book.>
enough that deal ably with th~ theoretical part of the subject, but
there are none that combine with theory a sufficient amount of
practice. As composition is both a science and ;rn art, no system
of teaching it can be successful that does not recognize both of
the se departments. Young people do no t acquire facility and correctness of expression merely by memorizing rules or by poring
over methods o~· sentent ial structure. Repeated and varied experience in the making of sentences is .necessary as well. Still , the
learning of principles is not to be neglected; for, although it is
not the whole, it. is an essential part. How; then, can these two
depart ments of the subj ect be most advantageously presented to
the pupil? Every discerni ng teacher must have found that little
theory and much practice is by far the most effective methoJ of
teaching composition. On this maxim this book is b1sed; a nd
· its purpose is to furni sh th e teacher with the means of carrying
into effect the pl1n here indicated. It proceeds on the sim pl e
method of laying clown a few principles at a time, and then illu strating them with such number and variety of exercises that th e
pupil may fully master the practical applicati on of these principles,
and thereby learn not only to write, but to write correctly.
JA NUARY 2 1,

i89I.
iii

<,

CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTORY

THE SENTENCE

Grammati cal Cl:i.ssificati on
Rh etor ical Classification

11

20

CAPITAL! ZAT!UN
PUNL-l'UATIUN

..

3S

STYLE
~ictio n

3'J

Purity , Rheto ri c::tl

:.'}

Gfammatl cal

45
63
68

Propriety.
Precision .

S1
,'-: t

Clear ness.

Strength

IU(1

Unity

127

Elegance .

133
qo

Constructi on o f Paragiaphs

16o

VARlETY OF EXPR~SS I O ~

~;..a,.

Tr~1nspvsitivn

J (,n

vf Pruse

J :-; .. ~

[¥,;:

"

i~

FIGURES OF SPEECH

~l)G

QUALIT I ES OF STYLE

, _\.!

Perspicuity

234

Picturcsq$ncss

237

m

Poetry

Force

1<]_\
y

...

CONTENTS.

Vl

1-'AGH

Pathos

247

The L udicrous

2

Tbe 1Esthetic .

2

53
55

LE1'Tl<:RS

263

THE PLAN

270

A Paragraph
A Theme
KINDS OF DISCOURSE

Narration

COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC

273
278
284
284 /

BY

Desc ript ion

Pf~ACT ICE.

INTRODUCTORY.

Exposition
Argumentation
Pe rsuasion
Poetry
VERSIFI CATION
CORHECTING COM!'OSITIONS
P 1<00F - RE.ADING A l\D !llAI<K ING

THE art of finding thoughts and of giving them sui table expression is Composition.
· '
The science that discusses the p rinciples which guide us in
composition is Rhetoric.
In practice Compos ition and Rhetoric ar~ inseparably connected.
Compositi on has two distinct parts: the one deals with th oughts,
th e other with forms of expression. The former i~ usually called
Invention ; the latter, Style.

LESSON I.
TH E SENTENCE. - GRAM MATI CAL CLASSIFI CATION.

Kinds of Sentences . - Sentences are classified, accord ing to
form, into Simple, Complex, and Compound.

~he i r

SIMPL F. SENTENCES.

The S imple Sente nce. -The essential parts of the sim ple
sentence are th e snhject and preclic:~te. In the most elementary
form neither of these has any q ualification; as, "Time flies ."

CO MP OSITION AND RHETORIC.

THE SEN TENCE.

Qualifiers. - The subject and predicate may each have a vast
variety of modifications.
I. The subject is always a substantive - that is, a noun, or
pronoun, or an adjective, adverb, infinitive, or othe r
part of speech - used as a noun.
1. The subj ect, when a noun or pronoun, may be modified
by: ( I) An adjective or an adjective phrase, used either attributively or apposi tively; as, a. The good citizens, f ea ring a revolt, fled.
b. The days of man's life are few.
c. His father's estate was sold.
d. The husband , wit!t l1is wife and children, has
departed .
e. That new world, blessed with plenty, was my hope.
f. The desire to please was too strong.
( 2) A noun in apposition; as, "There, too, sat she, the
beautiful mother of a beautiful race, the Saint
Cecilia. "
2. Wh en the subject is a verbal, sim ple, or ph rasal, it may
have the rnodifiers of a ve rb, as well as some of
those of a substantive; as,a . To buy (or buying) and sell (or sell in g) goods .for
casli is a safe business.
b. To be sad and gloomy all through life argues a misconcep tio n of its object.
c. I:lis running violently down the street had a fatal result.
d . Be ing ke pt l1ere week afterwuk is a great annoyance.
3. When the subject is a word commonly used as a n adjec tive or as an adve rb, it may have the modifiers of those
parts of speech, as well as some of the modifi ers of
nouns ; as, " Tlie 11ay good o.f all ages are often ridiculed ." " Tl1is l'tt'l'nal no w rang in his ears."
The subject may cons ist 0f two or more nouns or pronouns, each
ll'ith modifiers.

I I. The predicate may consist of: 1. A single word.
The simple verb of th e p redicate may be mo<.liJicd
by:a. An adve rb or adverbial phrase ; as, " He turned
quickly lo th e rigIL!."
b. An indirect or adverbial objective; as, " I gave him
m oney "; "He stayed a day."
c. An absolute word or phrase ; as, " Tiu work being
jinisl:ed, we repai red to ou r homes."
d. An infinitive; as, "He left the lull to ohey his
master's com mands. "
2. A verb and its object; as, "They built a house."
The objec t may be: (r) a nou n o r its equivalent ;
( 2) an infinitive abb reviation for a noun clause ; as, "He
felt lzisface flu s/1."
3. A copula and its complement ; as, " He was rick"
4. An incomplete ve rb and its comple ment; as, "The tim e
sums long " ; " The tree gnnl's taller."
The compl e ment of 3 and 4 may he : a. A subs ta nti val; as, " T hat is t!u· 1111111 " ; "This is
lie "; "My duty is lo die"; "Seeing is bdinJin.r."
b. An adjectival ; as, "Tli ey arc )·0 11 11.i: " ; " l J e st:1nd';
firm"; "The l1uilding is of wood "; "They
seem exlwtts lcd."
c. An adverbial ; as, "The hat is /1ere "; "The work
is all-of-a -pieCt: " ; "He is here /tJ slay "; " The
letter is lo be written."
5. A verb completed by a foct itive noun or adjective ; ;h.
"They made him !..'.i11g" ; "He was made ki11:1.'" ,
"The pai n d rove him wild."
All the objects or complem ents of 2 , 3, 4, :iml 5. whether s11 hstanti val, adjectival. or :idve rhi :1l , are th e mselves subject to modifi cation, each accordi ng to its nature.

3

5

COMPO S ITION AND RHETORIC .

SlM P LE SE NTENCES .

Position. -Th e various modifi ers may sometimes occupy different positions in a sentence. It is, however, a good ge neral rule
that words and phrases should be placed as near as possible to the
words they qualify.

d. There lived Baron Landshort, the oracle of his ta"olc , tile
absolute monarch of hi s li ttle te rritory, and happy above all things
in the possession of superior wisdom .
r. . His head was covered with a brown wig, faded and shrunk
from time and use, a frin ge of thin grizzled hai r showing bdow iL
at the sides, and corresponding to his ragged whiskers.
4 . Write a simple sentence having for subj ect ( 1) a noun (or
an adjective, or adverb used as :i noun), (2) a pronoun, (3) a
verbal (i nfini tive or gerund) , simp le or phrasal.
5. Expand by one or more modifiers each of the subjects of the
sentences requi red by the preceding question.
6. Write a number of simple sentences hav ing c:tch :t complete
verb for predicate .
7. Enlarge the predicate o f each of the sente nces of the precedi ng question by an adve rb, an adverbial phrase, an indi rect or
adverbial obj ect, or by a nominative absolute.
8. Write sentences with nouns or pronouns fo r suhject,, thrn
expand th e subject of each by an adjective, adjective pronoun,
num eral adjective, an adj ectival case or phrase, a verbal :i.djec ti \·e,
or a p:uticipial phrase.
9. Wri te a simple sentence with a copula completed by ( r) :rn
adjecti ve of each of the various ·classes, (2) by a substant ival uf
e:i.ch kind, (3) by each of the different k.iuds of adverbi:tl com plements.
1 o. ·write simple sentences whose predicates arc inco mplete
verbs, completed as in the l::i st question.
11 . Expand each of the compl ements of the predicates re< l' 1ire< I
in the last question by one or more modir1crs.

4

EXERCISE I.
SIMPLE S ENTENCF.S.

r. E nlarge the subje ts and the pred icates of eac h of the following simple sentences in as many ways as you can: -

(1)
(a ) Boys play.
(b) Ho rses travel.
(c) Mind is.

(2)
Gi rls sew.
Farmers plough .
T hough t roams.

(3)
Man . ces.
Birds fl y.
Money paves.

2. Combi ne eac h of the following groups of statements into a
simple sentence : a. I pursu ed my walk. I pursued it to a doo r. The door was
arched. I t opened. It opened to the interior of the abbey.
b. She was a maid en. She was born in the country . She was
shy . She was simple. She was sweet. She was di ffe rent from
those reared in to wns. They are boisterous. Th ey are romping.
c. H is head was small. It was fiat. It was fiat on top. His
e.1rs were huge . His eyes were large. They were green. They
we re glassy.
d. _Night came. She cam e to receive their form. She came
with her mantle. It w as bcsp:mgled. It was bespangled with
Ha rs.
3. Analyze the fo llowing into simple sentences : a. /\n old, thick-se t peasant, in rags, is driving his plough in
the field.
b. She seemed to h:w e survived all love, all fri endship, all
soc iety.
c. The falte ring ,·oice of the poor old wom:m rose to heaven
far before the respo nse· of the clerk, the swell of the organ, or the
chanting of the choi r.

6

COMPO S !TlON AND RllETOR !C.

LESSON IT.
COMP LE:\ SENTENCES.

A complex sentence consists of a principal sta teme nt with
which is co mbined on e o r more subordin ate sta tements. It is a
sim ple sentence in whi ch the modifying words or phrases arc
d eveloped in to clauses.
Th e modifying cla uses are o f th ree kinds: ( 1) substantive,
( 2) adj ectival, (3) adverbi al.
r. A substantive clause has th e value of a noun and th erefo re
may be ·:a. Th e su bject of a verb; as, "T/1<1 / one sho1tld be slw t 011 t
.from all society, is un end urable."
I>. Th e object of a verb; as, "I kn ow rrnt 10/iat can be done."
' · Th e objec t of a p reposition; as, "I wi ll give th e estate to
wlzoever may deserve it."

rl. The comple ment o f a ve rb ; as, " T he obj ection is, th a t ptf}p/e
are 11ot disposed to lay !his tr11/h lo heart."
' " An apposi tive mod ifier ; as, "Many people are of opi ni on
th at w lwlc71er is, is bes!. "
./. In th e adverb ial objccti, e rebtion; as, "\Ve investi ga te till
we a rc pus itive onl y t /1 ,r l w c a rc ;l{l_ritiz1e f}. f 1101/1i11,i;."
A substanti ve c lau se may be inserted d irectl y, or introduced by
a word o f adve rb ial or conj un cti ve po ll'c~ r. See ~.bove .
2. An adjective clause has th e va!11e of an attribu tive or appos itive adj ective; hence it is always attac hed to a substa ntive .
l\n adj ective clause m ay be at tached to the words it mod ifies
by : -

COM P LEX S ENTENC E S.

7

The connect ing word may be om itted; as, "They ro used me
at th e h our (at wlticli) I desired to be c alled."
The anteced ent and the connect ing relative ma y he contai ned
in the sam e word; as, "The actual fa c t differed m:1tcrio.lly fro m
w llat was first reported."
3. An adverbial clause has th e value of an ad ve rb and , consequently, q ua lifies a verb, an adj ective, or an o.d ve rb.
An adverbial clause may be cvnnec ted with th e wo rd it mo<l ifies
by : ( 1) A subordin ate co njnnction of tim e, place, cause, m:1nner, etc
Thus: "A.r h e wend ed his way bJ.ck, every so und II ut tered hi s i111 :1g inati on " ; "\\late r goes o n cont rac ting till
it reaches 39 ° F ahren he it "; " \Var is an evil /1ec.i11s t' it
p rodu ces human mi sery."
( 2) By words ordina ri ly used as relative pronouns. Thus : " The
man ha ll no covering on hi s h e:1 d w !tid1 (thoug h it) \\" :Is
defend ed by his own th ick hair."
Each subordinate clause may be m odified as if it were a p ri nnp al clause .
By the omission of easily suppli ed word s a comp le x se ntence is
often m:Jde to resembl e a simple senten ce ; as, " The su p per was
twice as good as the dinner " (was good ).

1

( r) A relative pronoun; as, " Fortun ate is he w ho fi nds so
merc ifu l a jud ge ."
( 2) A relative ad, erb; as, "It was th e d .1y w/11' !1 we last met."
(3) A word having the value of a rel:itive pronoun; as, "Such
books as I have "; "Not a mo.n b11t thinks so."
1

EXERCISE II.
c o ~IPLEX

S1-::-:n:NCES.

r. Analyze the following complex sentences into simple se nten ces: a. \Ve know that this is some tim es a hard lesson.
b. I sha ll only add that when I awok e I was sorry because
fou nd that my golde n scales had vanished.
c. Though the copying of this piece of music w:i.s stri ctl y for bidden, yet M oza rt, wh o was th en b ut fourte en yea rs old, dete rmined that he would make himself master of it.
d . It is proh:th)e that when this work was begun, whi h m us t

s

'

I,

COMPOS ! TJON A.'.'<O RIJETORIC.

have bee n many hundred yea rs ~"'O
.
for th ey g ive it the name f
" 'tin s people had some religion .
.
o a temple and th
l
'
tl iat It
was desi rrned r 0 1. m t
'
ey iave a tr<Hlition
o
''
en o p:iy th · rl
.
2. Combine the follo .·
. ,
e1r evo t1ons in.
te nccs .
''mg sm1p le sentences into comple
·x sena. The blossom perishes. The i .
.
.
I
nfant perished s11ni larly. The
recollection causes a p
' ang. t c 1use··
'
:s a pang to th e mother. Still
she would not forget it.

b:

Shakespea re is buried. H .
. .
buri ed in its chancel It . . I e is buned m the churc h. He is
I .
.
is a arn-e pile It .
t IS mouldering with age I•· .. "'.
.
IS a Vt:nerabJe pile.
c. The "Vicar of \Vak Ii ,!' 11~. n chly ornamented .
d 1'd
e IC (
IS capt1nt"
·1·1
. • mg.
1e bookselle r
no t app rec iate it. He ke )t i
published it. It has s·
I . t by him two yea rs. H e the n
ti . .
. ince atta111ed popula .t
I 1
us m several langu,1 ges. It r. . .
n Y·
t 1as attain ed
,
<.:tams tha t popula ri ty.
3. Co 111 .
'.
pose a comp lex sentt:ncc in ·l . ·h
.
11lOCllfied by an ad1·eri.Ji al J
II l l C
the predicate (I) is
(Ii) 1
( ' I) manner, (e") cause•. causcof(a)t·n1c
(~) .
' ' ' Pace-, (c) d en-rec
.
'
- IS COlll ple tccl b
b
'
4· Compose a complc.
.
Ya noun clause.
.
x sentence 111 \\" hi ·I
su bJCc t, ( z) is an appositive mod·~
~ i a noun clause ( r) is
osition, (4) co1n1)lct ti
. I icr, (3) is the object of a prep.
.
es ie predicate ( ) r,
p red icate i·c rb ( 6 ) · .
' 5 orms the objec t of the
'
is 111 the object"
d
.
ivc a vcrb1al relatio n.
5. Compose a com1Jle . ,
. .
x sentence 111 ll'hicl ti . b'
. .
by an ad11:ct1vc
clause in trod
I (
l
ic su JCCt is limited
a relative adve rb . ( ~ ) l . uc(.cc) l) by a relative pronoun, ( z) by
6 C
' .) )} llS, 4 by /,,1/.
. . ornpose a complex sentence in wh i ·l l
.
.
. cl tie oh1ect is modifi ed
as is the su bjcct of ti
ie sentence requ ired in
. .7· Compose a complex sentence ii
. 5·
is mtrodu ced ( r) by a sub d"
l whi ch the adve r bial clause
or
m;ite
co
nju
t'
( )
1
pace,
(c) of cause (d) of
nc ion rs of time, (b) of
'
manner; ( z) Ly (a) who, ( b) whid1.
n

COMPOUND SENTENCES.

9

LESSON III.
COM POUND SENTENCES.

A compound sentence consists of two or more independen t
se ntences.
r. The relation existing between the clauses of compound sentences is usually expressed by co-ordinate conjunctions. Thus: a . In cumulative, by 1111rl, also, likewise, m oreover, etc.
b. In adversative, by bttl, )'et, or, nor, 11e7!erll1dess, ot/urwisc, etc .
c. In illative, by t/1cnforl', iience, for, so, t/ws, //um, etc.
2. Sometimes the rebtion be tween the parts of a compound sentence is disguised by the connective, so that the sentence appears
to be complex; as," H e had a ready com mand over his countenance,
wliic!t (and ... it) he could contract at pleasure into solemnity."
3. Occasionally the connective is om itted; as," Goldsmith tells
you shortly all you want to know; Robe rtson detains you a great
deal too long."
4. The members of a compou nd se ntence may be all sim ple; one
o r all of the m may be complex, or even compound. \ Vhen one or
both are complex , th e whole sentence is called Compound Complex.
5. O ne of the members of a compou nd scn.tence may be abbreviated by the omission of words easily supplied; as, " No w inspi rati on see med to be at an end, and the poetic fire extinguished."
6. A compound sentence may be abbreviated by the use of a
compou nd subject o r of a compound predicate or of both; as," Men
a nd money are as ked for (and obtained )" ; "He reads and writes. "
One so abb reviated is called a Contracted Compound Sentence .
EXERCISE III.
COMPOUND SENTENCES .
1. Complete the following sentences by the addition of another
clause: a. Time passes away and . . .

IO

COMPOS TTI O

AN D RHETOR IC.

R HETORIC AL CLASSIFICA TfO N.

II

b. The sun is setting and .
r.

He rode, not a mul e, but ..

LESSON IV.

r!. Ou r c:i.ptives are as fi erce as Od in, yet
e. He has transg ressed the law, th erefore

J

T ake the path to the left, for . . .
;;. In his girdle he wore a long dagge r, whic h .
/1. l I is shi e ld was covered with a scarle t cloth, whic h
- . Coml>ine the following sim ple sentences into compou nd sen·
tences : a . A n umber of horsemen were see n. They were slowly advancing. They nearly reached the foot of the hill. They then
stru ck off. They struck off in a cl iffe rent d irection.
1'. Animal attach me nt mu st L>e re freshed . It must be refreshed
continual ly. It mu st L>e ke pt ali ve. It must be kep t al ive by the
presence of its object. Trne affec ti on is seated in the soul. It
can live on lo ng rem e mbrance .
r. He w:i.s a g reat reade r. H e read o ld lege nd s. He read
rom:mces . He co uld not b 'lieve them. H e re gretted th is. Superstitio us pe rso ns live in a kind of fairyland . He des ired that pleasure.
3. Compose a co mpoun d senten ce with simple subjects and
simpl e pred icates about eac h of the fo ll owi ng : Time, money,
sl eep, base- hall, ho rses, railroads, steam -boa ts.
4. Introduce :is many modifi ers as you can into each of the
se nte nces requi red in 3.
5. Compose o the r se nte nces on th e top ics named in .J, in whic h
the me mbers a re ( 1) si mple, (2) co mpkx, (3) .o mpound.
6. Write ou t fully the following abbrc \·iate<.1 co mpound sentences: a . Meas ures should be snpportecl, not men .
b. At every turn I me t wi th some illustri ous name, or the cogni zance of some powerful hou se .
c. Now one of these elements appears most promi nent, now th e
oth er.
r!. His hospif.t1ble intentions were brie f, hnt ex pressive.
e. He whistied afte r him, ancl shouted his name, but all in vain.

TH E SENTENCE. - RH ETORI CAL CLASSIFICATION.

Kinds of S en tences. - On the basis of rhetorical value, sentences may be clividecl into Pe riod ic, Loose, T he Compromise,
Balanced, Short, and Long.
I.

PERI ODTC SENTENCE.

A periodic sentence is one whi ch is so construc ted that the
complete meaning is suspended till the close.
E x amples. - ( r) "When th e sun shines forth, we will se t
sail."
( 2) "What I cannot describe is, how in the innermost recesses
of my own heart, I had a lurking suspicion."
2.

Loos E SENTENCF:.

A loose sentence is one which is so constructed that it may be
brought to a close at o ne or more places and still be comple te in
sense.
Exampks. - ( 1) " Th e battle was won I a t last I afte r ha rd
fightin g I a nd prodigious displays of valo r."
( 2) "The mature m:m, in the desire to get qu it of a n early
habit, a ttempts an imitation I in which he is preve nted fr om su cceeding I by the b sting consequences of th e unintentional imitation, J into whi ch he had g lided when a child ."
In these examples we may stop at the several places marked
and have complete sense .
A loose sentence is not necessa ril y a faulty sentence, but as :l
person wh o writes such sentences is apt to fall into obsrure and
careless constructions, it is well for beginners to giv e a ttention to
formin g peri od ic sentences.
Most loose se nte nces m:ly be converted into period ic by so me

I2

13

COMPO SITION AND R HETOR IC.

LOOSE SEN T ENC E S.

c hange in arrangeme nt. The first example will become pe ri od ic
if arranged thu s : ".l\ t bst, after harJ fight ing, a nd prod ig ious displays of bravery, the battle was won."

subordinate pa rti culars, fo r the expansion of the main thought, and
for th e introduction of finer oratorical cadences .
When Used . - It is imposs ible to lay down rules to determine
wh e n eac h of the diffe ren t classes of se ntences sho uld b e used .
Pe rhaps, the luose sentence is best adapted to compositio n in whic h
simplic ity a nd clearness a rc th e a im, such as narration, description,
and exposition; th e periodic and the co mpromise, to those whi ch
are required to be fo rcible, as persuasion ; th e balanced sentence,
to s;itire, and to essays, in which c harac tei;:; o r subjects are comp are d or se t off by contrast. Long an d sho rt sen tences should be
introduced to relieve one a no the r. As the continuous use of any
one k ind becomes m ono tonous, the best rule tha t can be given is
to study variety.

3. THF. CoMrRm11sE.
The compromise is a se ntence that is pa rtly a periodic and
part ly a loose se ntence . It co nsists of two o r more pa rts, o ne of
whi c h is periodic, while the sentence take n as a wh o le is a loose
sente nce.

Example.-" He then se nt two more, and one of th e m, hurry .
ing back in affr ight, :aid that the wh ole British army was at hand ."
4·

BALAKU·:I)

SENTE:\CF..

A balanced sentence is one whi ch contains two clauses th a t arc
similar in fo rm, and e ith er paralle l o r cont ras ted in m ea ning.
R :r:amples. - ( r) "Contempt is the prope r pu ni shm ent of affec ..
tali on; :rnd de tes tation, th e just consequence of hypo c risy."
(2) "The style of Dryden is capricious and varied, that o f Popr:
is cautious and uniform. D ry den obeys the motions o f his o wH
mind; Pope constrains hi s mind to hi s ow n mies of co mposition.
Dryden is sometimes vehement and rapid; Pope, always smooth,
uni form, and level. Dryde n's page is a mtural fi e ld, rising into
inequalities, and Jivers ifi ed by th e varied crnberan ce of ab undant
vegetation; Pope's is a ve lvet lawn, sluvcn by the scy th e and
levelled by the roller."

5· SllORT

Al\"D

LOi'iG S 1·:'.'1Tf:NCES .

These term s carry with t hem their own definit ion .
Advantages of Each. - Each of these kinds of se ntences has
its advantage. Short se ntences are more easily unde rstood, and ,
if introduced after a number of long 01ies, gi ve sprightl iness a nd
animation, as we ll as rel ieve th e monotony by var iety. If, howeve r, too many o f them are used togeth er, the effect is irkso me,
hecause abrupt. Long senten ces, on the other h;ind, althou gh
requ iring c loser attention, afford g re ater scope for the add ition of

EXERCISE IV.
PERIODIC AND LOOSE SENTENCES.
DIRECT JO'I . -

R1:constrnc t these l\: ri od ic Se ntences int o Loose Sentences.

r. He excelled both in ab ility a nd in industry.
She spent h er time e ither in se wing or in reading.
3. Without fur th e r preface he co nducted th em into his little
sc hoolroom .
4. While the sacred words, "I am a Ro man citizen," we re on
his lips, you orde red him to death .
5. H a doubt re mains o n the mind of a ny m ember, let him
examine the trade returns of the seve ral States.
6. \Ve re this op ini on we ll fo un ded, one ge ne ration would have
no advantage ove r another.
7. Unless this measure is clearl y constitutional, I shall not vote
fo r it.
8. Wh ere th is is the case in any pa rt o f the worl d, those who
a rc fr ee are by fa r the m ost proud a nd jealous of their freedom .
9. \\Th en he was not unde r the influe nce of some strange
scruple, or some domineering passion, whi ch prevented him fr om
boldly and fairly investigating a subject, he was a wary and acute
reasone r.
2.

14

COJ\1POSITION AND RHETO!{!C.

1 o. When he talked, he clothed his wit and his sense in forcible
a nd natural express ions.
r r. It was during the thirty years which preceded the appearance of Johnson 's Lives that the diction and versification uf English poetry were, in the sense in which the word is commonly usc<l,
mos t correct.

I 2. Supposing th e story true, we may remark that the g r;idual
change of manne rs, t ho ugh impercep tible in the p rocess, appe:us
great when different tii:nes, and those not very distant, are compared .

13. Of the mind that can trade in corru ption, and can deliberately pollute itself wi th id eal wickedness for the sake of spread ing
the contagion in society, I wish not to conceal or excuse the
depravity.

EXERCISE V.
LOOSE AND

Prn roD!c

SENTENCES.

_ DrnECTJON . - Reconstruct each of these L oose Sentences into one or more
Periodic Sentences.
I. He repaid her by breaking her fortune, and nea rly breaking
her heart.

~-- \ Ve welcome you to the blessings of good government and
rcl1g1ous liberty.
3· The waves rolled over his head and threate ned to drown him
but he reached the shore in sa fetv.
'
4 · Olivia would be drawn as
Am <tzon, sitting upon a bank
of t1~w~rs, dressed in a gree n Joseph, richly laced with gold, and
a whip m her hand.

:rn

S· Ali0e could not sec his blushing cheek, but she noticed hi s
hesitation and that he retracted the prom ise he had made.
6. Sp enser's poem strikes th e note of the coming Puritan ism
bot l~ in i~s conception and in the way in which its conception 1s
realized 111 the portion of the work th;it he comple ted .
His habitation is so me poor thatched roof, disti ngu ished from
his uarn by the loop-holes that let out smoke, which tbe rain had

. 7:

rs

CO MiJ IN !NG SENTENCES.

long since washed through but for the double ce iling of bacon on
the inside, which has hung the re from his grandsire 's time, anJ is
yet to make rashers for posterity.
&. I hereliy caution all parties agains t giving credit in my n:tme
without a n order from me, as I wil l not be responsible for the sanw
after this da te, without my written order.
9. Mr. Pym was looked u pon as the man of greates t experience
in Parliament, where he had served very long, and was always a
man of business, being an office r in the Excheque r, and of a good
reputation generally, though known to be inclined to the Puritan
party; not yet so furiously resolved against the Church as the other
Jcadiug men were, and wholly devoted to th e Ea rl of Bedford, who
had nothing of that spirit.
ro. A history that Joes not serve this purpose would be perfectly useless, though it might be filled with Lat tlcs and comnwtions.
1 I. The mind is crippled and contracted by perpetual attention
to the same ideas; just as any act or posture, long continued, will
di sfi gure th e limbs.
12. This happy re gion was peopled with innumerable swarms
of spirits, who applied themselves to exercises and diversions
according as their fancies led them.

EXERCISE VI.
CoMil!NlN G SENTENCES.

DIRRCTION. - ComLin e the following short se ntences into longe r ones.
CAUTION. - I n comb in ing short sen tences into longer ones, the pupil sho uld
be careful to give every part its proper place. The lead ing t houghts mC'st
fornl the prin cipa l clauses and the ot h ers rnust occ upy positions
tj o n, corresponding to the ir impo rtance .

(i f

sul;ordin.1 -

For exJ.mple\ in combining- the

state ments," In 185 7 an Act was passed. Tt cul down the average of duty
to twenty per cent," if we wish to ~:ive "th e passi ng of th e Act" promin ence, the sentence will read ," Tn 1857 an Act was passed, cuttin g down,"
etc. If, howe ver, \\'C desire to give prumill e nc e lo the ''cutting dt. n uf
1

th e ave rage of duty to twenty per cent,,, Lhen we tnu ~t \Vi.'ile,

0

\\

The average

of duty was cut down tu t w~nty pe r cent by an Act passed in 1857 ."

16

THE R ESO LVING OF :::i l:-:NTENCES .

COMPOS I TION A ND RH E T O RIC.

Separate . - A frog had seen an ox. She wanted to make her·
3elf :.ts b ig as he. She atte mpteJ it. She burst asund e r.
Combined. - ( 1) A frog had seen an ox, and want ed to make
hersel f as big as he; but when she a ttempted it she burst asunder.
( 2) A frog that had see n a n ox, and wanted to make he rse lf as
Lig as he, burst asund er wh e n she attempted it.
(3) W he n th e frog burst asunJcr, she w:is wishin g a nd a tte mpting to make herself as big as an ox whi c h she had see n.
(4 ) Because a fr og, wh en she had seen a n ox, wa nted to 1nak e
hersel f :is big as he, and a tt e mpted it, she bu rst asun der.
(5) It is said tha t a frog, hav ing see n a n ox, wanted tu ma ke
he rse lf :is big as he, and burst asunder in the atte m pt.
I. H e drew a pic ture of his old home.
It showed the ho use .
He was born in it. It sho wed th e barns. It sho wed th e o rch a rd .
z. They p layed on. They played till six in the eve nin g. Th ey
the n desisted. They desisted till after dinne r.
3 . H e reached his house . He g:t,·e o rde rs. He was not to be
di sturued . He we nt to bed. He tri ed to sleep.
He tri ed in
vain.
4. T he D eclaration of Independ ence was agreed to. It was
ag reed to on the 4th o f Jnly. It was e ngrossed on pape r. It
was sig ned. J o hn H a ncock signed it. He was president of the
Congress .

S· F air sir, you sp it upon me. It was last \Vednesda y mo rn ing.
\'uu called me d og. Tha t was a nother time. I am to lentl yo n
money. It is fo r these courtes ies.
6. X e rx es resolved to i1wadc Crcec c. H e raised a n army. The
army consisted o f two milli o ns uf men . Th is was the grea tes t force
eve r brough t into th e fie ld .
7. He then left th e lists. l lu t he re turned . He return ed almost
immediately. He had in hi> hand a wil low wand . It was Jong.
It was abou t six feet lo ng. It was straight. It was thi ck. It was
thi c ker than a man's thum b.
8 . I stru ck th e man in self-defen ce . I explained this to the
mag istrate. He would not Lelieve me . Witnesses were called to

17

·
I-l e h ad
support my statements . He committed me to prison.
a right to do thi s. This righ t is rarely exercised in suc h c ircumstances. I remonstratecl.
. Then two or three boys laughed. They sneered . A big
9
fellow was stand ing in the midd le of the room. He p ic ked up a
sl ippe r. H e shied a t the boy. Th e b oy was kne eling. The big
fell ow called him a snivell ing you ng fell ow.
At one end is :t gallery.
1 o. T he cei ling is arch ed a nd lofty.
In thi s th e re is a n organ. Th e room was on ce ad orn ed with wcapom anJ trop hi es u f th e c hase . The walls a re now cove retl with
family portraits.
He had
1 I. The Baron had ju st drawn on his jack-boots.
girded on hi s sword . He was a bout to mou nt. H e inte nded tu
sall y fo rth . An apparit ion made him pause. A lady wa,; approach ing. She was mounted on a palfre y. She was atte nded Ly a
cavalier. H e was o n horseback. She galloped up lo the gate.
She sprang from her horse . She fell at the B::tron's feet. She
embraced him.
1 2 . The Agnostic tells me h e is b lind and deaf, dumb, to rpid,
an d dead to th e spirit ual. I must bel ieve him. J esus tells me th;it.
Paul tells me th at . Sc ience tells me that. He kn ows nothing of
tliis outermost circlt! . vVc are compelled to trust his sincerity.

EXERCISE VII.
THE R1·:SO !.VI NC O F S 1,:NTENC ES.

DIRECT ION . -

Rcsol\'e these sentences into simple state ments.

Combined. - All th e r est o f tha t Llay Assar was kep t busy with
his master in counting out m o ney, and making up accounts ; anJ,
thou gh his brain was in a whirl, yet he made no mistakes.
Separa/1•. - Assa r was k e pt bu sy that Llay. Ile was kept Lusy
all that day. He was kept bu sy with his m aste r. H e was kept
busy co untin g money . He was kept bu sy making up accoun ts .
His brain was ia a whirl. He made no mistakes.

l8

COMP OS ITION ANO RllETORJC.

r. I w:is born on the side o r a mount:i in, near a village of Peru,
:ind made a voyage to England in an ingot, under the convoy of
Si r Francis Drake.
2. The p eople favored my disposition and shifted me so fast
from hand to hand, that, before I was five years old, I had travelled
into almost every corner of the nati on.
3. The Mound-builders knew how to model in clay a variety
of objects, such as birds, q uadrupeds, and human fa ces. They
prac tised farmin g, though they had no domestic animals to help
th e m.
4. Livingstone's example and death have acted like nn inspiration, filling Afri ca with an army of explorers and mission.1ries,
ancl r aising in Europe :i po \\' erful feeling against the slave-trade.
5. \Vh en the prisoners were ordered to enter the cell, they
imagined the soldie rs were joking; and being in high spirits on
:iccount o f th e promise of the Nabob to spare their lives, they
laughed and jeste d at th e absu rdity of the notion.
6. Mr. .Pi ckwi c k p:mseJ, considere d, pu lled off his gloves, and
put th em in his ha t, took two or three short runs, balkeJ himself
as often, and at last took an ther run and went slowly down the
sl ide.
7. On the 2d April, F rancis Drake sailed from Plymouth with
fo ur vessels belonging to the Queen, and with twenty-four furnished
by the merchants of Lond on, and other private individuals.
8. Afte r the Resto ration th e entire control of printing was placed
in the ha nds of the Government by the Licensing Act of 1662,
which, though o riginally passed only for three years, was continued
by subseque nt ren ewab unt il r679.
9. Of nervous lire, inLl c..:d, he had an abundance, though it was
not the fire whi ch flames up in th e radiant colors of a strong
imagina tion . It was rathe r th e glow of a th oroughly convinced
reason, of intellectual ingenu ity, of argumentative keenness.
ro. The n ew and fair lady of Castlewood found the sad, lonely
little occupant of this gallery busy over his great book, which he
laid down when he was aware that a stranger was at hand.

19

BALANCED SENTENCES.

EXERCISE VIII.
BALANCED SENT1':NCES.

x. Constru ct balanced sen tences containing par:illel state ments
about,_ genius and wealth, hope and expect:ition, hono r a~d
dignity, bravery and cour:ige, wit and humor, pleasure and pro:ll ,
promising and p erfo rming, grammar and rhetoric, poe try and
painting, advice and money, sh rewdness and hard •:ork, fame and
fortune, sympathy and support.
,
2 • Form balanced sentences containing statements al.>out tn e
opposites, - Jove am! hate , virtue and vice, labor and re st, summc::r
and winter, priJe and humility, knowledge and ignoranc<.:, innocence and guilt, fri end aml enemy, violence and moderation , wi sdom and fully, pleasure and pain, right and wrong, fl attery anJ
d etracti on, reward and penalty, sobriety a nd drunkenness, ornament
and blemish, taste and vulga rity, beauty and ugliness, contentment
and discontentm ent, perspicuity and obscurity.
3 . Draw up a series of contrasts about - No rth and South
America, Italy and Sw itzerland, France and England , Canada and
the United States, history a nd geog raphy, mathemati cs and classics,
reading and writing, Scott and Dyron, Pope and Cowper, Irving
and Goldsmith.
4 . Make the parts of th e following balanceLI sentences similar
in form: a. A wise son maketh a glad fathe r ; but a son that

1s

foolish

causes his mothe r mu ch sorrow.
b. The e rrors of young men are the ruin of l.iusiness; but when
aged men err it is in not Joing more or in not acting soo ner.
c. I do not think that a broken heart is fatal to many of mv
OIVn sex; but it is easy fo r me to believe that it withers m an y a
lovely woman into an earl y grave .
d. The character of Milton was distinguished by loftiness of
thought; 1hnte had intensity of fe eling.
t. It never occurred to Southey that a rumor does not always
prove a fa ct ; that a th eo ry may not always be establ ished by facts.

..

.~

•' ,

....

~\~~~;.z.,~

20

CAPITALI Z ATION .

COMPOSITION A ND 1UIET OJUC.

LES SON V.
C:\l'ITA LJZATI ON .

Capitals are used in the following cases : The first word of a se nt ence.
The fi rst word of eve ry line of poe try.
3. Nou ns personified; as, "Come, gentle Sprin g."
4. The words I a nd 0 .
5. Every proper na me . This includes : a. Th e ch ie f pa rts of a compou nd; as, "New York,"
"Alexande r th e Great."
b. The names of th e months and the days of th e week.
c. All names of the Deity; as, "The Supre me Ruler," "The
Mos t High." P ractice varies in the case of pronoun"
d. All th e nam es of the Dible and of its books. If the llible
is thou gh t of merely as a book, a small lette r is used;
as, " He sold bibles a nd other books."
e. The names of the cardinal points, except when used to
express mere directi on ; as, " He went north."
.f. T iLles of hono r, respect. or offi ce wh en joined to a
proper name o f whi ch the y rc:1l ly form a part; as,
"It was Queen Elizabe th that be headed Lord Burle igh."
1.

2.

g. Common nonn s that arc closely joined with proper
names; as, "Th e L ike of the Woods," "The Chesapeake Bay," " Simcoe Stree t."
Ii. Any word that for th e tim e be ing is used as a proper
name; as, "Th e \Vars of the Roses," "The Declaration
o f Independence."
t. Every adjective derived from a prope r name; as, Roman,
Ameri can. Adjectil'es that have assum ed a general
meaning are written with a small letter; as, mercurial,
herculean.

2 l

6. ·worrls th at have some special importance ; as, "\Vhen a
woman is introdu ced intu the Director's prese nce ." J\ capital i5
not used when th e words have their ordinary application; as," JJ e
is a direc tor in the company. "
7. The first word of a d irec t quotation; as, " He inr1ui rcd,
'Where did your father live? ' " If the quotat ion faJJ,; in wit Ii
the gramn1 atic:il co nstru c tion of the se ntence , a small le tter is use•I.
8. The p rincipal wo rds in th e na me of a book or in the title o r
heading when in th e -body of discourse ; "The Position :rnd Influence of Lo rd Byron's Poe try."
9. T he t itles of bouks, the hc:1d ings, chapters, :incl scc:tions arc
generally wri tte n entirely in c:ip ital s. T his is on the principle that
in fan cy printing capitals are placed wherever they add to th e
appearance.
10. To denote emphasis; as, "He cried out, ' Strike ! Stnl<c /
STRIKE! STRIKE ! ' "
I 1. With th e first worcl in each part of an ennmcr:.1tion when
the numbe rs arc followed by a period. If the numbers :ire
enclosed in p;:irenth eses, small lett ers are used .
1 2. Th e first word of a sente nr e embodied in another se ntence;
as, "Th e question is, Who will be elected?"
I,;. To begin th e real statc1n cnt after an introdu c tory wo rd;
as, "l:Zeso lved, T h;1t we, etc ."
14. In some spec ial cases in letters . Sl'C lJclvw.
15. An y importa nt wo rd that is repeated in the body of disr.ourse. This rule should not be carried too far.

EXERCISE IX.
CAPITA i ,IZATION.

DIRECTION . Give reaso ns .

\Vritc out the: foll ow in g, with cap itals in th e proper places.

r. mr. partridge, secreta ry o f the disc harged prtsoner's
society.
2 . bcn -hur: or, the days of the mess iah, by kw w;i.llace .

a 1• 1

22

COMPOS ITIO N ANO R lI ETOl<lC.

PUNCTUATION.

23

3 . ri c hard wlutely, lord archbishop of london and sir j os hua
j ebb, k .c .b.
'
4. wh e n it was said to :rnaxago rus, "th e athen ians have condemned you to die," he said again, " and nature th em ."
5. the first wo rks from Cax ton's press were "the rra me of c hess"
,,
:1n rl " t I1e poe ms of chauce r."
6. and freedom shriek ed when kosciusko fell.
7· The poem is entitled english bards :rncl scotch reviewers.
8. The lake o f the woods is a fin e sheet oMvater.
9 . The com mit tee drew up the fo llowing by-laws : r. that no
cattle he allowed on the streets ; 2. th at the lights be put out :i t
midnight.

ro. The queen of sheba came to see king solomon's glo ry.
r. Th e last b oo k of the old testame nt is called the book vf
mal acb i.
1

1 2.

LESSON VI.
PUNCTUATION.

Punctuation is a method of indicating th e constru ction of :i.
sente nce . Hence the g rand rule that should g11 ide us in pu nc tua t ing is : U nderstancl,the construction, anJ th en punctuate so as
to show it.
Marks Used . - The principal marks used in punctuation are : The Comma( , ) , the Semi-colon (;),the Colo n ( : ),the Dash
( - ) , the Period ( . ) , the Interrogati o n Point (?) , the Exchm;ition Point ( ! ) , the Curves [ () J, the Caret (...,) .

He looked no rth and sa id, "the north is to be our futu re

home ."
r 3. On .coming back to nui ne on tnesd ay, nove mher the d,
3
he found him se lf without a dollar in his pocket.
14. An invitation was se nt to willi am, p rin ce of o ra nge, to come
and take the e nglish throne.

15. I fe entered the lists against luthe r with :in "assertion t?f
the scz•ot srrrra111e11t,-," for which he was rewarded with th e title
of" defender of the faith ."
16. He trnvcllcd fro m n ew hampshire to nova scotia.
r 7· \Ve have had ou r "revol utio ns of e i ~hty-ei crht " officiallv
called "glorious" ; and our other rc1·olu t,ions n~t yet called '
glorious.

18. :'\las! for the rarity o f c hristi a n ch:i ri ty in the old world.
i9. Ue se t 011t on a friday early in th e month of ap ril an<.!
travelled clue north, hopin g to reach the north pole.
20 . The (ju es tion, "wh ence :ire we and "'hi the r are we goi ng?''
Ins re-echoe d all down the ages .
2 1. 'fhe works of the c reato r of th e univ e rse could no t ha.-e
exi ted without the wi sdo m of a c rea tor.

THE COMMA.

The Comma is used : 1.

To isolatea. The nominative absolute; as, "That fin ished, our duty
is clone."
b. The no min a tive of add ress; as, "0 Crave, whe re is th y
victory? "
c. Word s in apposition; as," Brnt•1s, the last of the R o ma n';,
was noble ."
rl. The relative clause whe n not restrictive; as, "The sun,
which shines above, is golden."
e. Intermediate expression s ; as, "The snn, with its planets,
is but a small portion of th e universe ."
f Dependent cla11ses; as," Uriah proc eed ed, as I sat gazing
at him , with this thou g ht in mind."
g. Ph rases and single words used parenthetically; such' as
then, th e refore, however, too, indeed , perh,1ps. surely.
finally, nam ely, in short, in fact, in brief, no doubt, ;1s
it we re, to be sure, of course, aft e r all, to he hricf ; .'.l::,
"Poetry has, nevertheless, a refining int1uence. "

CO MPO SI T ION 1\ ND R HE TORI C.

Some of th ese words may be used wit h an ad verbial
fo rce only and then take no comma; as, " H owever
wise he may be."
/1 . Ad ver bs or phrases of orde r ; as, "In the first piace, let
us deal with the sp iritual."
2. Jktwee n pairs of wo rds or phrases; as, " The rich and poor.
t he weak a nd st ro ng, have one commo n fat her. "
3 . When a wo rd is omitted; as, "To err is hu man ; to forgive,
d ivine ." "Alfred was brave, pious, a nd patriotic."
I t sho ulJ. be obse rved that the comma is inse rted before
the 1111 1! co nnecting the l:tst o f the se ries. Sometimes whe n
the parts a re emphati c, the comma and the and a rc both
inse rted.
4. Tu se pa rate the parts of a compound sen tence, if th ey are
si mple in con~truct i o n ; as, "\Ve can tolerate the first lin e, but
th e allus io n to tree s is un satisfactory."
lf the parts are sho rt a nd close ly connec te d in sense, no co mm a
is needed .
5. To set ofT in ve rted phrases and clauses stand ing at the
beginn ing o f a sente nce; as, "To obtain an ed ucation, he was
wi lling to m:1ke sacri fices."
The co mma is often om itted in short sentences.
6. To separate adjectives q ualify ing the same noun, except
when the second adjec tive a nd the noun form a complex idea,
as in " H is reel right hand ."
7. He fo re short di rect quotations ; as, " T he poe t says, ' Ile wise
to-Jay.' "
8. Before the pred icate when the subject is long, or \\'he n it
h:is seve r;1l qu .1.lifyin g words or phrases; as," i\ny om: tin t refu ses
to earn a n honest livdih od , is not a n object of cha rit y. "
9. T o se t off nega ti\·e exp ressions, used by way of co ntr:1st ;
as, " T he king, h ut not hi s councill ors, was p resent. "
r o. Defore a clau se o r phrase th :1t is usccl loosely or appositi \·ely; :is, "The re \\'as no remai ns of the clo\\' n :1bout him, savr
and except the red ness of hi s chc r ks."

THE COMMA.
1 1.

Between a word and its repetition; as, " Sweet, sweet

home."
12•

Between the pa rts of a transposed name ; as, " Thompson,

He nry S."
13 . Before the explanatory or ; as," T he skull, or crani um ."
14 . Between words or phrases that express contrast; as, " Though
deep, yet clear."
15. To d ivide fi gu res; as, 7,840,321.
1 6. T o se parate titles a nd degrees from proper names, also
from each other; as," John Campbell, M .A., Ph.D. "
EXERCISE X .
P UNCTUATION .
DI RECTION . -

Inse rt commas in t he pr oper places, and give your reason in

ea ch case.

·what th en is your view of it?
T ruth lik e gold sh ines brighter ,by rnllision.
g. Na ture's swee t restorer balmy sleep .
. All classes high and low rich and poo r have the same oppor4
1.

2.

tunities.
5. T o work is pleasant; to ride healthful.
6. T here bei ng no remedy he d ete rm ined to endu re his affliction.
. P ractically indeed the rel igious ques ti o n ha rd ly existed the re.
7
8. Spring retu rnin g the swallows reappear.
. Destiny whi ch g ives a nd tak es away tran sfers fam e fr om one
9
to another.
1 0 . When fell the ni ght u p sp rnn g the breeze .
1 J . To gratify his wish I was willing to do anything.
O ur own heilrt not othe rs' o pinions forms our true ho nor.
12.
13 . It is an incessant ac t of creation eve r adva nci ng and eve r
de velopin g.
14 . No man unl ess he is an absolute licgga r should ex pect to
rece ive a n edu cati on fo r nothing any more than a loaf of bread .

26

COMPOS ITI ON A ND RIIETORIC .

r 5. Having frowned upo n th e abashed Bob th e old ge ntleman
began to read the letter.
r 6. What lay th ere was if l saw arig ht a wingless bird.
r 7. Come back come back Ho ra tius.
18. Volca noes throw out melted rock or lava ashes sand and
dust.
19. Sugar also is fou nd there as for example in th e sugar-beet.
20 . He co uk i not only lead but m ouhl an army.
21. It is easy Mrs. Dial fo r you who have always as every one
kn uws set yourself above me to accou nt for laziness.
22 . Tht.: spirit and not the le tte r of the la w shoul d be fo llo wed .
23 . H e ev inced ;L~tonishmc n t at th e eccentri c not to say extraordinary behav io r of his comp:mions.
24 . Yet a poet to be a poet must do something more .
25. The poe t when he finds a truth not to his liking forthwith derid es evades o r pe rv e rts it.

THE SEMI-COLON.

c. When th e pa rts a re sho rt, indepe ndent sentences, bu t
a re wri tte n as a compound sentence to avo id abruptness; as, "Cresar was dead; the soldie rs were dispersed ; all Rome w as in co nfusion."
:z. To separate suc h members of a se nttmce as a re already subdivided by co mmas; as, "A man o ught waril y to begin changes,
which once beg un will continue; but in ma tters th at re turn no t,
he may b e more magn ificent."
3. Whe n a sentence , co mplete in itself, is fo ll owed by a clause
containing a n infe rence, conseque nce, itera tion, o r e num erati o n ;
as," O f wha t consequence are alt th e <jualitics of a d octr ine, if that
doc trin e is not communi cated; a nd co mm unicated it is no t, if it
be n ot understood."
4 . Before as followed by an example . See illustra tions in this
Lesson .

Tm:

COLON .

The colon is used : -

LESSON VII.
TH E SE~ ll - COLON .

The semi-colon is used : 1. To separa te the membe rs of a com pound sente nce less
closely ron nec ted than th ose re<juiring a comma. This may
occu r : a. In contrasts ; as, " Flattery brings fri e nds ; truth brings
foes. "
b. I n e num eratio ns, when the pa rts a rc pa rticula rs indicated ,
o r preceded by a colon ; as, "The following articles
were to be added to the fr ee list: agricu ltura l im plem ents ; bark for tannin g purposes; bath bricks; bricks
fo r bu ild ing ; hay; lime; malt ; man ufactures of iron
and steel. "

r. To in d icate a g reate r hreak tli:in that indicated by the semicolo n. fo r exa m ple, pa rts tha t have the sem i-colo n a re separated
b y a colon. See ( r. /J) above .
2 . Before a sentence adde d as a n explanation o f a wo rd or sentence; as, " Engli sh Grammar: a n exr)osition of th e Princ iples and
U sages of the Engl ish Language."
3. Before a direct quotation; as, " Po pe makes this remark :
'The re n eve r was a ny party in which th e most igno r:rnt wnc nut
the most viole nt.' "
"W hen th e quotation 1s short, a co mma is us ed instead o f a
colo n.
4. A colon may be used in ste:1d of a se mi- colon when the con n ective is omitted.
5. /\ full stop o r a dash is no w often us ed where a colon would
formerly have been placed . See Bacon's Essay3.

28

EXERCISE XI.
J'UNC l'UATJ ON.

Drn.J•'.l'l !Ui\' . -Tnsert com mas, semi-cl1luns, an d colo ns where th ey arc required. ~late yo ur rc...:asu 11 in e ac h c ase .

1. E co nomy is no di sg race it is better to live o n a lit tle than to
o utli ve a g rl'.:lt deal.
2 . Ym1 ha,·e call ed yourself :m atom in the 11nive rsc yo n ha ve
s:1i d you arc h nt an insec t in the sola r blaze is you r prese nt vr id c
cons isk nt wi th these profess io ns.
3. l\ lr. (; Jadsto ne says "T he o lde r I gro w the m ore co nlirm eJ
r :1111 in m y f:1itli in rel ig io n."
4 . Our stron gl'.st sent in1cnts arc env e lo ped in obsc urity m od esty
vir t11u 11 s Jove s ince re fri endsh ip ha1·c all th e ir secrets which the
world must not know .

5. The Ltk e the hay th e waterfall a nd t he n th e spirit o f th e m
'

j

,~

j.

I

. '

J:,~ ~I

I
1.

•

i.

r.:

'i

~l

.1 ~:1
1'

THE DASH .

COMl'O S ITION AND RllETOKIC .

a ll.
6. :'l fcrcy is twi c ·~ bl essed it lJ lcsse th h im th:t t g ives and hilll
th a t takes.
7. ,\[an cou nt s h is life by years the oak liy cc ntnrie >.
S. The :1rt.il lcry clo:;es up· tli c fbnking tire from t he gu ns ope ns
1q1o n thc hcad o f their colum n the coli1111n breaks the Du ke seizes
the m o1ne 11t a nd ad v:rnc es to \\'ard the rid ge .
9. Prvvi sions having fa iled the ga rriso n was obli ge d to capitulate O llt'. o f th e terms lil'i ng dqi:irt 11rc wi th m ilitary ho no rs .
lo. Whil e I write the bl'.ll rings I wond er if it tells th e co rrec t
t ime strange is it: n o t if it d ocs .
1 1. You m :1y swell c ,·e ry· expense st ill more cx tr:lVagantly acc umul :1te eve ry assis ta n ce you ca n b eg o r bo rrow tr:1tlic :incl barter
with every prin ce th :il se nd s his subj ec ts to the ~ haml>l cs o f a
fo reign co11 ntry you r effo rt s a rc fore1 -c r ,·a in and impote nt.
i 2.
l le al w:tys obse rv ed the metrica l fo rm whic h is o f itse lf o f
th e n:1t11rt' of pnd ry h e also usecl the cho icest of o rdin a ry wo rds
for the exp ressio n of fact ve ry often he did more.

13. Poe tic trnth is a mi snomer it is a pby upon wo rd s .
14. He had brought all but o ne and th a t o ne was ve ry h eavy
had he had more time h e could have broug ht it also.
15. The Lo rd is my shel'hcrd I shall not want.
16. Th e outline of th e sto ry was /\ sLtvc dete rmin ed to aven ge
his own wrongs by inflict ing terror upon the town.
1 7. Th e first g reat lesson a young man should learn is that he
knows n vth in g a nd the ea rlier and more th oroughly t his k ssvn is
learned th e better.
18. R ead ing makes a full

111 :111

confere nce a ready nun and

wri t in g an exac t m a n.
J9. If the ship strikl's 11po n Scylla il is cl:1shccl in pie.- es 11pun
· the rock s if upo n Charyl>clis it is swallo wed outright.
20. Th e proposed tr eaty suggested ( 1 ) th ;1t th e dur:iti o n of th l'
tre aty should h l' tw e nty- o ne yea rs ( z) that all t h e conditions of
the o ld tre:i ty of 1854 should be re n e we d.
z 1. F o r ;\ddi so n three defences may be set up ( r) his sati re
a rouses no l>ittern css (2) it is never pe rs o n:il (3) it is alw ays
emplo yed on th e side o f vi rtue.

LESSON VIII.
'l'll E l>ASH.

The dash is used : T o indica te.: a pause mad e for rheto ri cal effect; as, " I have
o nly poverty and rags."
2 . To m a rk suppressed feeling o r an un e xp ec ted turn in th e
sentimen t; as, " He had no malice on his mind - no ru ffles on
i .

-

his shirt."
3 . Instead of paren theses o r commas. espec iallv when the parenthetical cla use is abrupt or un expe c ted; as, "I believe - at
least I know - that he was n o t ri ch."

..

~ .'

,.;

30

C OJ\! PO S ITIO N AND RHETO !UC.

THE PERIOD.

4. Betwee n wo rJs reµ ea teJ for emphasis ; as, "Oh, d o not_
d u not fo rsake me ."

EXERCISE XII.

5· \V he n suc h wo rds as tl1a t is, ttameh a s are omitted . as
•. ·1·11ey liaste
. ned o nward - th ese three ." , '
'
' ' '
6. T o d e no te a de liberate o r hesi tat ing m a nn e r of utterance;
a s, '· I tho ug ht - you migh t - ju st - w:mt - tu. "

7· Hefore a wo rd o r clause th at sums up pre ceding partic ula rs ; as, "Tea rs, prayers, suppli cati ons - no ne of th ese moved
hun."

8. Be tw ee n th e ~x prcssion s o r diffe re nt speakers in a dialogue,
\\'h e n those exp ressw ns are writte n in th e s:i.me line.
9. To d eno te a n om iss io n o f: a . Le tte rs in a word; as, " He was bo rn in C - - ."
b. Figu res o r wo rds ; as," In th e yea r - - " ; "In 1 3_";
"Sec ti o ns r-56 "; "Think
of--."
ro. With o the r stops : a. T o de no te a lo nge r pa use.
b. Be fore a q uo tati on, if lo ng.
c. Afte r a side -head.
d.
f' .

of the

timt::

wastt::d,

Before th e name of an author wh ose words are qu o ted.
Before a new paragraph that drops to the next li ne.
T111-: PERI OD.

The period is use d : I.

Afte r e ve ry co mple te se nte nce no t i nte rrogative or exc lama-

to ry.
2.

After ab bre via tions; as, Mo ., LL.n., Dr.

Wi th so me famili:.ir abbre vi a ti o ns the pe ri od is omitted ; as,
cab, T o m.
3. After R o ma n nu me ra ls, except in paging ; as, "Charles XII.
of Swed e n."
4. After headings ; as, "Thomson's Seasons."
5. Afte r signa tures; as, " U .S. Grant."
6. Before a decimal; as, .042.

31

Pu NcruAT ION .
D i llECTION.

_In the fullowing senten ces ins<::rt dashes, commas, an d peri ods.

Gi ve reasons.
1.

2•

The marbl e floo r was as smooth as glass he sl iplKll he fell.
The farm e rs asked for a reduc ~ i on of taxes a nd th e y go t the

minist er's blessing.
3 . Something too much of this but now it is past and the spe ll
closes .
.
4 . ;\ Roman has his ,\ignity to keep up and dignity is expensive
Clodius must c h eat like a scoundre l to live like a ge ntle man .
5 . Ride r and horse friend and fo e in o n e~ red burial ble nt.
6. I reve rence the affli ctio ns of a good man his sorrows a re sac re<l.
7. He utt ered no p ra yer no groan.
8. 1 felt yes id io t that I am I felt degrad ed.
9 . The manne r may be f11ll o f respec t eve ry wo rd of impa tien ce
repressed and ye t th e wits of th e liste ne r ma y lie woo l - gathc ri n~ .
1 o. You she sobbed are a woma n you have had sisters kel !or

__:

,._I -. • •• •.

.... ·-·

~,

-

~....

me save me.
1 1. Give it no name earth has no name for it it is no t of ea rth
why <lebase it with earthly epithets .
12 . Has he bee n ill ask ed the child with a child's q11i ck sym pathy.
13 . You will marry some one muc h o lde r five and twenty yea rs
perhaps than yo urself.
..
q. To sit in dun1b s il e nce :mcl be forever a rec 1p1e nt a 1Hwkt·t
eternally pumped into without powe r o f re ac tion is doubtless goud

.,:,

for no man.
x5 . He was tolerably learned but c hie fly in c ivil p olity.
1 6. Does he forge t and if he does Russel can give a case parallel to his own but more full of instrnc tion.
1 7. See Prov xx 2 5 also I s c ha p xxviii verse 9 and !'>fat t xi 3·
x8. Parse is rlerived from the L a t pars lit a pa rt.
19. Decimal 01422 divided by 9 g ives decimal 00158 .

.'-',I

'

:.

32

COM POS ITION A ND RHETORIC.

zo . The degree of Doctor of Philosophy was conferred upon
him by the University of Leipsic and now he writes his name
John Jones MA Ph D .
2 t . Such ti ties as K C B K G F and K G C do not flourish ciu
this continent.

LESSON IX .

OTHER POINTS.

33

b. If a paren thetical phrase intervenes between parts of a
quo lativn, the marks a re placed befvre and after each
part; as, " l weep," said he, " because we ep ing will

not hcl µ."
To enclose the n:unes of books, magazin es, papers, ships,
engines, and the like; as, " Harper's \V.eekly."
.
vVhen such names an; written in italics the quotat10n marks are
2.

not used.
THE /\l'OSTROl' llE.

THE INTE RR OC:ATION POINT.

Th e interrogation point is used : 1 . Afte r every sentence that contains a direct ques tion; as," How
can I tell? " " ' Where is the boat?' exclaimed the captain."
Jn the indirect form it is not used; as, "The gentleman asked
the groom whe re the horse was."
2. In curves to express doubt; as, " It happened in the year
1856 ( ?). "

:,,
j

ri• I'
l i
1; • 1
·1

TH E EXCLAMATION POINT.

The exclamation point i:; used : 1. :\Ctn int e rjec tions; as, " !'shaw ! " "clear me ! "
2. /\ fter invocations ; r.s, " Hail, holy light ! off.sp ring of heaven,
fi rst-liorn ! "
3. After clauses or se ntences th at exp ress sutlden o r violent
emotio n ; as, "What is more adm irable than virtue ! "
QU<J'l'ATION l\L\ RKS.

Quotation marks are used : 1. To enclose words that are the exact language of some other
person .

a. Wh en a quotation contains another quotation, d ouble
marks are used; as, "This friend of human ity says :
' When I consider th eir lives, I seem to see the
" golden age " beginning again.' "

The apostrophe is used : 1 . To denote the omission of one or more letters or figures;
as, "That is o'er." "The war of '3 7."
· case ; as, " Tl1e, man 's l1 and . " " For
2. To form th e possessive
righteousn ess' sake."
3. To form some plurals; as, "Dot your t's." " He uses too
many if's."
PARENTllES l ·~S .

Parentheses are used : 1 . T o enclose some incidental remark that does not affect the
strncture of th e sentence; a,;, "I told him (and who would not?)
just what I thought."
2 • T o enclost: anythi ng that cannot enter into the sent<.:nce;
as, (hear, he::tr) .
THE HYPHEN.

The hyphen is used : I . T o join the parts o f a compoun d ' Vol·d ,· -as, " Se nse-construc tions."
2 • At the end of a line to show that p:i.rt of a worLl is carr ied to
the next line.
THE CARET .

The caret

as,

15

used to show that a word or wo rds are omitted ;
wi th
" He came along A a fr iend.''

•
34

C OM PO S ITION ANO

H.HETUl<IC.

EXERCISE XIII.

GENEl<AL E XER C I SE ON
20 .
2

l'UNLTUllT ION.

ln the full owing se ntences insert , where requ ired, commas,
et.:damatio n pv int s, in krruga ti v 11 points, apvstrophcs, quv tatio n marks, parc ntL eses, hyphe ns, and o th er necessary marks.
J)11a:cr 10N . -

I.

Read no far th e r said Deans th e qu e stion is what is to lie don e .

derer

Unhappy ma n farewell not for a whil e !Jut until we both

shall meet no matter where.

EXERCISE XIV.

Of Greece Byron says wh e ree r we tread ti s holy haunted

3.
4.

5.
G.
7.
hand .

/\las said I m.'.ln was m.'.lch: to mourn.
Fight on fi ght o n said he .
Thon art Fre nl o ms now ::rnd Fames.
He said it oer and oe r.
Le t me go sir it is all I ask said he .
!Jel ieve it be li eve it ye t (Tied i\l l.Je rt g rasping his fri e nds

k . Mrs Sara h sa id I I cu uldnt resist co ming :ic ross t he field.
9. It is fu r yuu to determine under ( ;od in what co nd ition posterity s hall !Je bo rn.
1 o. Expend expe nse te lls us th :it money was once weigh ed o ut
C e n xxxiii 16 .
1 1. A C h inese wo rk co nt:i ins thi s Fo rtnn e te llers rnb the p o int
of a need le to g ive it the power o f indica tin!{ th e so uth.
1 2. Th ey are apt to say with the old wom:m of fvlulit:re I fe
speaks so well tha t I d o nt understa nd him a bi t
13. Why sa id he should l shun th e nam e of an .'.ln he hesi tated
for a p hrase an out of d oo rs arti st.

14. I charge you said h e to ta ke away that m a n m ean ing t he
juclge in the reel gown .
,

15. Tom orrow will be lik e today.
1 G.

He diJ he did c ried Sa rah Pec ker.

17. MaJge Madge what have ye d une with the horse was a sked
by the m e n with out.

18. Saved your life I h.'.lve heard that story sa id the lad y.
I 9. Plague on th ee said B11cklaw interrupting and on m e for
listen ing to you .

35

r. O Proc rastinati on excla imed the hermit th o u art a so ul mur-

GENERAL ExFRCI S E o'I P u NCfUATION .

g round.
2.

PUN CTUATIO N .

Duu:cn oN. - Stud y th ese sentences till yu u un clersla ml their cunstructiun ,
;ind then puuctuale them in :i.cco rclance with the rules given in th e preceding

lessons.

De ut xx 21 2 S:1m x ix 23 A D 1890.
Bot 9 m os c redit 4 ycl:; 3 qrs a t 1 z cts a yd.
.
.f-labo1110· co 11jito1/em re11m \\' c kt•T the accusecl one con3
fessing ii: yo u plead gui lty.
4. The rev olt however was im portant.
5. Seeing the fertile plains uf Caul they were dissa tisfieJ with
r.

2.

their o wn land .
6. The bu b!Jub was fearful even the c riti cs took fri ght.
7. And what co nclusio n after all can lie Llra wn from me re
inferio rity?
8 . Byron had little dramati c talent he co uld no t go u11t of
himself.
. The weapons of a R o man soldier were of two kin ds (_1)_ offe n9
sive weapo ns (a) th e javel in (h) the sword g/,zdius (z) Llet e nsl\·e
weapons (a) a braze n helmet (b) a c uirass (c) g reaves (d) a
shield.
10 .

He desigmted the greatest man then living as that rep ti le

M r Rurke.
1 r. That re solu tion w:is ind eed unju st but t ill it 1vas re sc inde d
could the ministe r advise the king to uestow any mark o f app robation on the person censured .
12. O thou th at bri nges t good tiding,; a id me.
13 . The French having been disperseJ in a gale put Lack to
Toulon.

'
""-.-··

'·

•
COMPOSITION

AN D RHETORIC.

14. Virtue merit everything that is praisewo rthy will be made
th e subject of ridi cu le .

r5. With all his faults a nd they were neith e r few nor s mall only
one cemetery was worthy tu contai n his re m ains.

16. So ca m e the a utumn an<l passed and the winte r yet Gabriel
c1trne not.
1 7. This fri end of humanity says Wh en I conside r th e ir Jives I
seem to sec the go ld e n age beginning again.
1 S. The double value it will be n o ti ced is obtained in the same
way.

19. He was carr ied to a neighbo ring h ouse where it appeared
that the wo1111d th o11gh severe was n ot m ortal.
20 . The au th o rs of the /\ct had cstaulished two independent
powers th e o n e judi cial the o th e r political.
21. Whatever I have tri ed to do in life I h:we tried with all
my he:irt to do well \\.hatever I have dernted myse lf to I have
Llevotecl myself to comple tely.
22 . Oh Rouen she sa id wh en she saw the lofty scaffold.
23. Some of his classmates were afterwards men o f n o te e g
/\ bbott the historian Pierce the politician and Cheeve r the preac her
and author.

24. Thence in February 1827 he set out for Spain a n d whil e in
Mad rid he m:1de th e :icq11 aintance of \ \'ashington Irving th e n
c ng:iged on his Life o f C h ristopher Columbus.
2 5. J .ct the quotients :ind remainders he d enoted by the le tters
in the marg in then we h;i~e th e followi ng results ~hat is to say e tc .
26. Each Roman c itizen had usu;ill y three n ames the praenomen
the nomen :rnd the cogno m e n.

27 . In the ye;ir6oon c th eGreeksof l'hocx;i in As ia Iviino r
emigrated and settl ed a t M ;issilia now Ma rseilles.

28. In

1

S.13 the year of his second marriage he published :i

clr:imatic poem on whi ch he had long been work ing The Spanish
stud e nt.
29 . How Conrade murd ered an d by the Grand Master his
spon sor and most intimate friend exclaimed Ri c hard.

G ENERAL EXERCISE ON PUNCTUATION.

37

30 . He shortly afterwards took up his residence at H ·as an
inmate of th e household o f the Rev Dr N.
31 . The spirit does but mean th e breath Tennyso n.
3 2. Distraction if the earth could swallow m e.
. Tired and hungry sick and so re they continueu their march.
33
. He fell ovc.:r the cliff down down down into that aw ful
34
abyss.
. Listen Listen methinks I hear that dreadful sound,35
36. After his return from Germany he led a desultory life he wa s
in Lon<lon Malta and Rome.
-;-.,

. The character of Coleridge w:<s peculi:tr his mind was acti,·e
37
powerfu l many-sid ed in politics relig io n m etaphy s ics poetry and
li tera ry c riti cis m he th ough t deeply and few spoke more wisely but
of all he thou ght and of all he uttered only fragments remam.
s. To thi s day they always use the word political as synony3
mous with diplomatic.
. Pope saw in the Indian only an object of compassion . Fen39
nim ore Cooper invested him "'i th some dignity and other virtu es
Longfellow found in him and h is surroundin gs material for poetry.
40 . /\s to the position pursuits and connect ions of J1111111s the
following are the most important facts First th:1t he w:is il(•111:11nted
with the tec hni cal forms of the Secretary of States office seconcily
he wa s acqnainted with the business of the war office thirdly that
he du ri ng the year 1770 attended dt'.h:1tes in the l Iousc nf l.unb
fourthly that he bitterly resented the appointment of :\1 r _C:h:irnicr
fifthly that he was bound by some strong tic to the l1r,;t Lvn :
Holland.
4 r. Had he permitted me to remain (juict I should have said
T is h is estate thats enough It is his by law wh :1t have 1 to do with
it or its histo ry? He would naturall y have s:1id on his side Tis this
mans fort un e He is as good now as my ancestor was twu hundretl
and fifty ye:irs ago.

,,,._· ;.·.

38

COM POS !TlON AND RHETORIC.

39

DICTION.

4· Translating with acc uracy from o the r languages.
S· Unwearied refe rence to a good dict iona ry.
6. The study of some standard work on synonyms .
7. The study of etymology.
·
,"" iiJ composition the vocabu lary
8. Employing in conve rsation
acquired.

L ESS00.T X.
ST\" U·:.

.

Sty le is the manner of exp ressio n.
I rs 111echa11 ic:t l cle ments arc wo rds, sentences, ;mrl paragraphs.
1\ s these lllay be dealt with in an infinite va riety of ways, style is
as di \·crsificd as the mi nds that prod11cc it ; indeed, more so, fo r
the same person may ,·:try h is style accord ing to the na ture of the
subj ect with which he is dealing. Besides, eve ry writer puts his
in divid11ality into his compo,,ition and thereby gi\·cs his style a
peciiliarity of its own. T he excellences of style, so far a t least as
th ey 1nay be acq11ircd, depend largely on a j11clicious a nd cultured
cho ice of words and on the correct a nd gr:icefu l for m of sentences
and paragraphs . The first of these will be studied under the
head o f Diction, a nd the latter 11nder the heads of }'orm ation
of Se nte nces and Constnict ion of l'aragraphs.

LE SSO N XI.
I. DlCrl ON.

Diction is that pa rt Of Style which de als wi th the choice and
use of words .
·
cl ff ·· ·
It D ivisions. - For the pur pose of syste matic stu y, icc1011
.
m ay sbe considered und er the followrng
hca cl s: L p un·t y '· 2 . Pro prie ty; 3. Prec ision.
PuRTTV .

Importance. - T o be able to ciothc one \ thoughts in appropriate wo rds is an :i cco mplishmc nt that eve ry young person shou ld
labor to possess . Lang uage is the dress in whi c h th e m in d shows
itself to the outside world; and, as neat and seemly c lo thin g renders the body lll<>re gr:1cc ful, S<> c ho ice and rc fi ncd speech adorns
and l>ea11tifics the mind. Gthcr things being equal , the pe rson
who has the largest stock o f wo rd s to c hoose frum will Le able to
selec t the aptes t words and to frame th e hapricst expressions. To ·
every pe rso n, the refore, wh o wishes to become e ithe r a speaker or
a wr ite r, the pussession of a pu re an<l wi de vocabulary and a n
ac c urate knowledge o f th e exac t sig nifi cation of wo rds is o f the
hig hest importance .

Purity consists in the use of suc h wo rds, forms.' ~n.d constru c .
tio ns as are justified by the practice of the best wntcrs.
Standard of Purity. - In the choice of language, we m11st be
.
1..
.cl . d hy two n rin c 1plcs.
• 1rst, we mu.st select .such wo rd s ' form s,
l
I o" rc,1
,. t bod)' of educated
agm
nd eco nstru ct ions
as arc farnil. 1. :u to tic
.
1
'Condl
y
we
must
e
m
ploy
only
such
as arc
peop c ; sc
'
·
I sanctioned hy
I 11
tint is by rep111ablc 1111 /ional, arn J>rr.>e11/ 11.>a;:r :
srrp•, '
·'
·
'
·
. cl · · e·ikers as
g oor.
t
.
b
l
ti
.
re put.'l e, i.t o f the maJ· o ri ty o f the best .wnters ,rn ~1 d1 '
l • , I·
opposed to that of the unc11lt ivateJ; nat ional, as oppose to oca ,
.
.
. t . . posed to obsolete or
. transient.
.
f
1 or foreign ; prese n , as op
Professional
· h urnier.: ( 1 ) V1.olat 1o ns o
Errors in Puri ty may be t l ea l t wit
Rh e to rical Purity, ( 2) Vi olations of \.rammat1cal Punty .
. .
Rh e tori cal Purity forbids the use of such words, co nstru ct ion s,
.- 1 1 , olr;olett.'
. .
. ' ne w' o .r low. rules
ant.I forms of CX J> res, 1. o n as a rc ~iurci;~
\,rammati cal Purity demands a tt e nti o n to the e:;tablished
of Synt:.ix.

Means. - In the effo rt to :ittain such a kn owledge and co mm a nd of language, th e fo llo wing me:ins will lie fou nd helpful: 1. Liste ning to goo<l speake rs.
-· Associating with people of cul ture .
3. Read ing the best au th o rs.

=

·.'-

·.

...

COMl'OSlTIUN AND JOI ETUIUC .

EXERCISE XV.
l' UR !TY.
DIRI~CTI ON .

- Correc t all violations of Purity in t he following &entcnces.
PART

I.

r. He succeeded in enthusing the company.
He wi red h im as soon as the office ope ned in the morning.
3. The d e magogue tendeth more to words than to works.
4 . He told me a long rig marole abou t what happened .
5 . I go where likes me best.
6. I wot not which to admire most, h is rf!/icatesse, hi s candidness, or his a miabl eness.
7. Th ou needest not pretend to be from France, for thy speech
hew ra yet h thee .
S. 1\n y one can see wi th half an eye tha t he has go t the blues.
9. He is in th e swim with the other politic ians.
lo. This cha nge of for tune has almost transmogrifi ed him.
1 r. The king soon found reason to repent him of provoking
th ese dange rous enemies.
12 . I opine that any gentleman who devotes his time to the
bra11x arts and belles lettn·s enj oys the high est agrh11mls o f life.
. 13. Il e remarked en f11ssa11t that his fri end had much esprit de
2.

( Ol"j>.c.

r 4. I con fess that I was unmi t ig:ited ly disappoi nted with Mr.
l'roctor's lectu re o n Tuesday evening.
l 5. He has a tendency to talk nonsense occasionally, or so mething very like b/11g11e.
r G. Th ey have taken a journey out West fo r the purpose of
recupe rat ing their health.
r 7. Severa l circum stances see m to militate against that idea.
18. Eve rythi ng ma y not be so s:1tmated with co11!t'ttr de rose.
i 9·
l I e seems to be a /1 a n1111 scrr n1111 sort o f a mo rtal, who
tak es gn':it d elight in cl o ing r11t1re things.
20. Th e temp tation tv nm a toll-gate sc crni; to be irresisti ble
to a bicycle r.

PURITY .

43

2 r. His father was a true blue Revoluti on soldi er, and his
mot he r a sincere C hristian .
22 • H is style o f writing was such as to e nable people to clearly

unde rstand h im.
23 . These rooms are generally occupied by the more quie t
inclined of the travelling public .
24 . There is some agitation over the imp racticable character of
the instruction of our public schools.
PART
2 5.

II.

The three months are passed , and Shylock is wild for the

fulfilment of his bond .
26. I le has just rece ived a cablegram informi ng him o f the
death of his friend.
2 7. Do you catch o n to his meaning?
2 8 . I neve r heard such a lovely singer before.
29. He gets rattled over the merest trifl es.
3 o. That man is all b roke n up on works of ceram ic art.
3 r. The people of the Hebrew pe rsuasion expect to return to
live in Palestine.
3 2. The liqnor 1 usiness is run because it is profitable .
33 . Let me tell yon sub rosa he behaves just comme /If.wt.
34 . He tri es to bulldoze the House, but hi s pretences a re far
too thin.
.
35. That will not go, it is :tltogether too thin. . .
6.
He
just
scraped
th
rough
his
exam
.,
and
he
1s
111 for makmg
3
his pile.
3 7. A teacher cannot afford to expcrimentalize.
38. He took the sh ibboleth of his party.
39 . When he got to that town he f01111d himself strapped.
4 0 . H e w:ts somewhat adclic tecl to wrath and usq uehaugh.
4 1. The Soc iety intends to excurt on th e 4th of July.
4 2. H e wi ll ge t h imselr into a fix some day.
43 . They have determined to rc nd czvo11s ne ar Q 11'A11 pc;lc.
44 . 11is house was burglarir.ed the day after he se nt in his
declamature.

.
.~:

~'
~

'

\

';{•·

.

-

.·,~:::l11~

COMPO S ITI ON AND RH E TORIC.

44

4 5. He is not thoroughly posted on that subject.
46. I a m g re atly beholden to you .
4 7. Having acquired the snvoir faire, he is n ever afraid of mak·
ing a faux f as, and in e \'t.:ry conversatio n plunges in medias res.
48. The fair dt:b11tla11te is on th e look-out fo r rm bon parti, bu t
her n t":; rdro11sse is against her.
49 . She is accompani ed lJy mamma w grande toilette, who,
tnlre n1J11s , loob rath er rid/:e, eve n in the gas light.

EXERCISE XVI.
Pu 1u rY.
D TRV<'TJ nN. -

Examin e each w<1rci and de term ine wh ic h may be usc<l and

\\'liich sh.iuld be rejected.

lu all cases of d uubt, refer to so me slanclurd

di...:tiunary.
I . D onate, o n dit, ta pis, siesta, un gallantry, confutan t, disillusioned, blaze , srn1 pi;on , imprimatur.
2. fl uil d res,, enthuse, gen t, p:i nt, gube rmtorial, hy<lropathy,
electropathy, experimcntalize, controve rsialist, w:i lkist.
3 . l'rac titio ne r, proven, reliable, disposable, anchorable, co mphin:1hle, unrepentable, pre~·e n t:itive, c:isuality, resurrected.
4 . In c ur:tble, parag raphist, :igri culturist, stahbist, interccsscd,
nattress, presidenti:1l, multe rosity, role, fab1ilos ity.
5. Callantness, obloquy, periculous, m oonri se, doc ibl e, ovate,
me men to, nee, loca te .
6. So i-disa nt , ac robat, t raducement, kraal, distingue, am e n<le,
amour- prop re, skedadd le, o paciuc, co nfut e me nt.
7. Cahlegr:un, ivo ryty pe, c redibl e ness, ul timatum, ince rta in,
exunernbleness, pe rsiflage, parvenu, verlutim, ;\te li c r.
8 . M isaffec tcd, fe te, plate:1ll, sp irituel, fa11t c11il, con futant, optigraph, employe, a li bi, saleslady.
9. C urrentness, impromptu, pa to is, fashioni st, j11111pist, mat in,
mulish, p rot<'.- ge, ohedenti<ll , d il e ttante .
10. Boycott, Copperhead, blue-stocki ng, inc og, cablegram, cute,
educationalist, sui cided, r eportorial, spec.

GRAMMATICAL PURITY.

45

LESSON XII.
GRAMMATICAL PURITY. -OF NOUNS A ND PRONOUNS.

r. A noun o r pro noun, used as subject of a verb, is in the nominative; as, "I am"; "This person is o ne wlio can be tru::>ted ."
2 . A noun or pron oun, used as the subjective complement of a
verb, is in the nomina tive; as, " He is th e man " ; " J t is Ju."
But when a noun ur pronoun is used as an objective complemen t, it is in th e objective; as, "They appointed him marsh al.'"
3. A noun or pronoun, denoting the direct or indirect object of
an ac ti on, or, fo llowing a prepositio n, is in the objective; as," His
teache r gave lzim (ind ire c t ) a book " (direct) .
4 . A noun or pronoun, used as the subject of an infini tive, is in
th e objec tive; as, " I believe /zim to be the man."
5. A noun, used to de note time, value, we ight, measure, and
th e li ke, is in th e objective; as, "He stayed twenty days."
6. A noun or pronoun whose case does not depend on any
other wo rd is in the nominative absolute; as, "Our wo rk being
done, we retired."
7. A noun (or pronoun), used in apposition to anoth er, agrees
with the latter in case; as," Washingto n, the fir st Pn:sident of th ~
United States."
8. A noun or pronoun, used to limit a noun, is in the possessive
case ; as, "A man's life " ; " His ha nd ."
This rule applies when the limited noun 1s a verbal, simple, or
phrasal; as, "Thi s depends on your obe ying the ord e r."
\Vh en sever:i.l nouns qualify the same noun, only the last takes
the possessive form, if the possession is common; but all take
it if the possession is individual; as, "J\, B, and C's shares arc as
6, 3, 9 " is evidentl y wrong, as each has a share. It shvu!1l read,
"A's, B's, and C's shares are as 6, 3, 9."
For the sake of eupho ny, the s after the apostrophe is some times
om itted; as, "For righteousness' sake."

COJ\!POSITION AND RHETORIC.

9· Incomple te verbs take th e same case afte r th e m as before
t hem; as, "I supposed it to be l1i111 "; "I supposeJ that ii was
lit!."
OF PRONOUNS.

r. A pronoun o r pronom inal adject ive must agree 111 ge nder,
num ber, and person with tha t to which it refers.
111 th e case o f the relative pronouns, the agreement is chiefly ·
nominal.
2. When a pronoun or pronomin:il adjective re fe rs to a collective noun, its number d epe nds on the sense and fo llows the number o f th e verb; as, "This cbss seldom know llteir lessons ."
"This class is working ils way through Reduction ."
3· A pronoun o r pronominal adjecti ,•e that refers to a noun
qu::tlili ed by many a is singular or plural ac co rding to th e sense ·
as, "Many a light glimmered for a time, bu t soon tltey all becam~
exti ngu ished ." "Many a flower wastes its sweetness on the t.lese rt
air.''

4· \\" hen a pronoun or pronominal adjer.ti,·e refers to a word
th:lt embr:1ces both gende rs, it may be plural; as, "Every one
enjoyed 111011 srh•es."

1t is better, however, to say, "All enjoyed themselves."
5· \Vh en a pronoun or pron om inal adjective refers to two or
111 1.m .: singular nou ns con nected Ii:· a111I, it is plural; as, " The lady
and the gen tle man left l/ieir seat."
6. \\Then the nouns are taken scp:i rate ly, the pro noun o r pronominal adjective is singular; a~," Neither John nor James saw
l1is opportunity."
7. Whe.n the nouns are of different ge nders and a re taken separately, a smgu lar pronou n or p ronominal adjec tive must be used
for each; as, "Such a cou rse is a benefit to a ny boy or girl in any
sµhe re lie or slit· may enter."
Similarly wh en the nouns are connected by and,· thus, "Every
young man :rn d woman p resent w:is enjoying himself or lterself"
(themselves?).
This expressi on is awkward and should be

GRAMMATICAL PURITY.

avoided.

4?

Say, "All the young men and women present enj•>)'c<i

1/ie111 sdves ."

When a relative clause is d escriptive, it is introduced by wltu o r
w!tic!t .
\<\Then a re lative clause is restri cti\·c, it m:iy be introduced hr
tliat; but there is usually a chuice between w/111 u r whi.-lt :ind
//ta/. The following points deserve notice. In restri ct ive clauses
who or wliiclt is used, a. When the antecedent is limited by that.
b. When the conjunction t/iat occurs in close proximity.
c. \.Yhen the antecedent is a pronoun ur pronominal adjec ti ve.
d. Afte r a preposition .
e. For variety when there are two or more relative clauses.
f. When th e relative is separated from the rest of the cl:lllsc.

EXERCISE XVII.

N, >VNS ..:.Nu 1'1wNuu,-.: s.
DIRECTION. -

reason for each

Correct all c.:rrors in tin:

fulluwin~ se 11ti.:nccs, anJ give Ll

c han~e.

r . They asked you and I to come.
Who do you suppose he meant?
3. Is th e re any prospect of the l.'uun ci l passing such a Ly-law?
4 . I le was prouder of nothing than of wit an d raillery, but he
was far from being happy in it.
5. If a Pythagoras o r a Galileo s11ffer fo r their op1111ons they
are martyrs.
6. Do you think there is any chance of me findin g him at home?
7. If a ny person wishes employment he or she shoulJ keep
their eyes open.
8 . About three-sevenths of the work are his own.
9 . That is the man whom I heard was ill.
ro. Nothing but trials and disappointments seem to await me .
II. Mrs. A.'s compliments to Mrs. n., and I should like if you
would be kinJ enough to spenJ an evening with us .
2.

,,.,

.•·

·.
., '

COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.
1 2. Eve ry m:m anJ boy showed t heir joy, shouting and clapping th ei r hands.

13. Hoth Cato and C icero loveJ his cou ntry.
I 4. Such an education will assist every boy and girl in any calling th ey may choose.
1 5.

There is m ore likelihood of me leaving than of her.

16. He fe lt satisfied that it was me o r her.
1 7.
It was sure ly not us wh o was suspec ted .
1 S. The whole class knows its lesson, and they shou!J be
p r:tiscd for their diligence.
E ac h boy and g irl must learn thei r lessons .
T he jury arc considering the case in its room .
2 1. Wh e n he shoots a partridge, a pigeon, or a ph easant, he
gives th e m away.
i <) .

20 .

2 2.

Many a m:m returns home with less tha n they went away

with .

23. Th.: army went to it:; lxi rracks and soon began their exercises.
24. Every act and every thought
charac ter.

has their effec t o n our

25 . The study of botany is a benefit to any boy or g irl in any
coun try they may live.
26 . That is the best part of beauty, th a t a picture cannot
express.

z 7. In the twilight it seemed to be her, th e long-sought c h ild.
28 . This is John, Andrew, and Simon's farm.
29 . What do you th in k of him learning so rap idly ?
30. Is t hat him?

N o, it is me.

JI. 0 Thou who tou ched Isaiah's lips with fire!
32. lVTany a man squanders money when th ey arc young.
33 . The r est must have been as glad as us to escape.

GR AMMATICA L PURITY.

49

LESSON XI II .
OF VERBS. -AC REEM ENT.

r. A verh agrees with its subject in person and number.
Exceptions: a . In the plural th ere is no change of form; th erefore t he
agreem e nt is only nominal.
b. The tendency or modern English is to make the ve rb
follow the sense of the subjec t rather than the form.
Hence words th a t are plural in form, bu t that (.lenok a
single object or id ea, take a ve rb in the singular; thus,
"Class ics is my delight."
c. Similarly a wo rd sin gular in form tak e s a plur:t! verb wlic·n
it denotes plurality of idea; as, "The c rowd wac
t hrowing stones ."
The vcrlJ is singular if th <.: objects forming the wh.ilc
are to IJe tlivught of colkctivcly; as, "The c rowd w11s
very grc:lt .''
2. Two or more singular nouns, co nne c ted by a111/, require a
rerb in the plural.
Exceptions. -Th e verb is sing ular: a . \Vhen the wvrds are nearly sy nonymous; as, "Wherein
rlut!t sit the rear and dread of kings."
b. When the words denote a unit or a complete object ; as,
"The wheel and axle i:> a mechanical pvwer."
<- Often when the subjects follow the verb.
This is th e case even if one of the subjects is plural;
as, " There was hurrying to and fro am! tears and tremblings of distress."
d. Wh en a se<:ond \·erb may be understood; as," There wa,racing am! (there was) chas ing on Ca nnobi e T.ce ."
1. \Vh,..n the noun s are connected by with . th e verb agrees
wiL!i the first noun; as," The man wi//1 his family is gone ."

·'·
....;••,,..,'

.

··'

50

GRAMMATfCAL PURITY.

COMl'OSlTTON AND RllRTORI C .

It is better, ho weve r, to substitu te and fu r w ith anJ to
make tht: verb plural.
/. \Vhen the nouns an.: qualified by t'Vl'IJ', the verb is sing11·
lar; :i:;, " !·:very leaf and twi g is mov ing ."
g . \Vhe n th e no u ns rek r to a sing le objec t, the verb is s ingu·
Jar; as, " The saint, th e father, and th e husba nd pra_1»·."
It. Wh e n it is inte nd nl to gin: spt•c ial prominence to one of
th e nouns, the \" Crb is m :H.k to agree wi th it ; as, " His
time, h is talent, his hea rt, 7NH devoted to the 11•,irk."
3 . If a sing ular and a plural no un form the s11hject 1 the 1·erb is
plural, however the nouns may be conn ec tt:d ; as," The ca pt:1 in allll
th e sailors a re drowned"; "The cap tai n (}!' th e sailors drt druwne<l."
This rule holds abo for pronouns of the third pt:rson.
T he p lural no un should stand ne xt the verb.
4 . \ Vhen th e re is an affirmative and :t nega ti ve s11lij el"t 1 th e verb
agret:s with the fo rmer; as, "The king, nut his soldi t: rs, is suprenie ."
5· \Vb en th e nouns arc co nn ected by rrs wdl 11;· or /i/,:e, the
veru us ually ag re es with tf1e firs t noun; as, " I I um e, as well Oj.5
Faraday, was a man o f virtue ."
6. Wh e n the su bjcc t o f a verb cons ists o f pronouns of different
p e rsons and numbe rs, co nn ected by a11t!1 th e verb is plural and of
th e highest person mentioned; as, " J !e, you, and I au" (first
person) ; "He and you are" (seco nd person); "H e and she
are" (t hird p e rso n).
7. If the pronouns arc conn ected l>y or, the verb agrees with
the pronoun next it; as, "He or thou t1rl here ."
This rule and the preced ing hold if a noun tak es th e place of o ne
of the pronouns.

51

EXERCISE XVIII.
VERBS. I >11a.:C L'l uN . -

C 11rre1.: t

/\1:1<FEME NT.

th e c rr11r s i11 th e full11wi 11 g , and g i \·c a rea so n f~1 r c a ~· li

cha n ~t:.

T. She was o ne of tho se impulsive natures th at lung' fur :< con·
Jid a nt.
,, The dour of one cell is ope n and within stands twu figure s.
3. Wisdom a nd prudence dwells with th e k> wly .
4. The mea ning of words, sentenc es, and phrases are taken U['

in the class.
5. Neithe r precept nor principle are so forcible as habit.
G. One of th e plots \\'< :re said to have been discovcrt"d l1y :t nul Jlc .
7. What is the s11uord inat e sul>jects uf these par:tgr;tph s?
8. Avarice is o ne of th e p:issions th :i t is nc vt:r sat isfied.
9. The costliness of his :mn or :.tnd :ipp:trcl a re seen at :t gL1 ncc .
io. The Frank kin g, with h is sun and many of the nobles, wcrc
tak e n prisoners.
1 1 . Prufus iun as well as parsimony an.: to be avo id e d.
1 2. More th an one a cidcnt has h:tppcned ih that way.
13. The news o f his defec tion has j us t reach e d us.
14. Trnth anu truth only are worth seeking fur their own s:ikes.
15. I :ind my ideal is nothing.
16. E ith e r th e young man o r his g uardi:m s l1:1s done wrung.
r 7. H c d on't kn ow that h is Lrothcr ain 't going to cume.
18. The news that come from the seat of war a re injuring the
general's fame.
19. To choose wo rds judic iously and to use th e m accurat ely is
highly important in composing .
20. The assembly, one by one, is le ~11· ing the room.
2 r. Not loud talk, but strong proofs, bring cunvictiun.
22. He or she o r thou a re the fortunate one.
23. Every bud and blossom are opening wide.
24. He and she is a loving co uple.
25 . The measles a re go ing the rounds this sp ring.

' ~·

.

'·

52

GRAMMATICAL PURITY.

LESSON XIV.

thought I co 11 !rl rf,, th at, " because the tl1i11king took pl:"ir.e befo re
the doing a nd co11/d ll<lve exp resses a time more remote than that
which is expressed by tlz oug!it.
"As I never saw one before, I examined it with care." Saw
should be fzad seen, as the seeing took place be fore the exam -

OF VERBS. - MOODS.

r. The indicative mood is used in direct statements, and in
condi tions o r suppositions, bel ieved or admitted by the speaker.
2. The imperative mood is used in com rn::rn<ls, entreaties, and
the like .
J· The subjunctive mood is used : -

In expressing supp ositions involvi ng futurity; as, "I will
go if it t!u not ra in."
b. In expressing cond itio ns involving futurity or un ce rtainty;
:is," Though he slay me, ye t will [ tru st in him ."
c. In suppositions cont rary to the known fact; as, "If he
wn-e he re, I wou ld tell him."
rl. In expressi ng a wish; as, "0, that he were here."
r . In the present and past te nses, to express suppositions or
condi ti ons wh ic h th e speaker docs not believe or does
not kno w to be true; as, "If he w ere to say so, I
would no t b elieve him."
11.

If, howe ver, in such cases the speaker believes the
supposi ti on, o r if he wishes to admit it, he us es the
indicative; as, " If he was to say so, I would believe
him."

ining.
The p ast perfect tense is used to express an act that took place
before another act that al so took place 1n past tune.
"I intended to have bought a pair of new gloves." Tu k1 <1e
bo1tght should be to buy.
Actions that take place at the same time must be expr,~ssed by
the same tense.
Exceptions.- r. To express wh at is custonnry or always.true,
· us e <l even a ft er tl1e j)ast
the present tense is
'. ,· 'as· , "'l'l1e
· science
·
teacher told th e cbss that water always exj><Tnds when it f1u;;,·s."
2 . After w /1e 11 , till, as soo n as, etc., the p resen t tense is us ed
instead of the future or future perfect; as," He will go as soon as
they come," i.e. s/1all come or s!zal! ltave co~ne. The g111t1.i; is
simultane ous with the coming or subsequent to it.
Interchange of Tens es. - One tense is sometimes used wh ere
the stri c t rul e would call for another. Thus: ·
r. The present for the past in vivi<l narration; as, " Cxsar
crosses the Rubicon, enters Rome."
2 • The present fur the future; as, " Duncan comes to-night."

EXERCISE XIX .

.f.

To express a future or un r.01n pleted act or state; as,
"Thou shal t stone him with stones till he perish."
.'!· To ex press an intent ion not yet carried out; as, "The
sentence of the court is, that you be flogged."

V ERBS . -

I.

OF V ERBS. -TENSES.

The tenses must be so us ed as to indicate the relative time of
th e ac ts o r states expressed .
"I thought I could lwve dom th at" should be "I

Moon

AND TENSF..

DIRECT ION. - Correct all errors in the fo llowing, and give reasons .

2•

Examples. -

53

COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.

I intended to have written on Saturd ay.
It is now four hundred years since printing has been in-

vented.
;. I thought I should h<1ve fi nished before ten o'clock.
4. If he was mv son T should be proud of him .
5 . If I was he should be ashamed to go there aga in.

I

54

COMPOSlTION A ND RHET OR IC.

GKAMMATI C AL l' UK I T Y.

SS

6 . My horse has been blistered on the shoulde r about three
weeks ago.

7. Did not the doctor say that bad water was the cause of
many epiJemics?
8. Plato was of opinion that man was immortal.
9. He wished to have gone weeks before.
IO. The olcl man maint:iined th a t honesty was the best policy.
1 I. If I was su re of finding her, I wou ld go a t once.
r 2. \Vas there no other cause than the safety of that faithful
knave, \Vamba, I woul<l jeopard a point e re a hair of his head was
hurt.
13. If she was to come, I would go wit h he r.
14. If I was sure o f what you tell me, I shou ld feel at rest.
15. If I am ready in time, J will call for you .
16. T ake heed lest at any time your hearts are overc ha rged
with surfeiting.
1

7. If the nu.ii was in now, I could give you a decided a nswer.

r 8. He said the sun went round t he earth once eve ry twenty-

four hours.
r 9.
20.

·

I thought that he was to have come to-day.
If that be he, he ha·s an unusual appeara nce.

I will stay here till he shall come back .
If he h:is :i horse he will be your gu ide.
23. l le laughed ne;1rly all clay to-day.
24 . I h;tve failed in th:it scheme, though I felt sure I s'.iould
have succeeded.
21 .

2 2.

25. The family with wh om he has lodger! some mo nths ago,
moved to Dakota last week .
26 . He must reig n till he has put all e ne mies un de r hi s feet.
2 7. If I was able to speak, I would neYc r hold my peace.
28. If he was in t he c ity wh en I was, I shou ld have met him .
29 . He said that wate r was composed of oxyge n a nd hyd rogen.
30. If he was younger, he would study medici ne.

LESSON XV.
OF VERBS.-AUXILIARIES.

The auxiliaries must be used in their exac t signification .
Must exp resses compu lsio n res ting o n its subject.
Can expresses power in its subject.
Jl[ay exp resses possibility, probab il ity; also, pe rmissio n g ranted
to its subject.
Could and migli t have the same general cl is ti nction as ur 11 and may.
fafig/1 / expresses possibili ty or past permission .
Could expresses power as the past of can ; also present condi·
tional powe r.
Sita!/ expresses futurity :ind the subjecti o n of its subject to foreign co ntrul; will expresses futur ity a nd the power of its suliject
to control th e act.
f!Vill in the first person denotes the resolution, purpose, or
prom ise of its subject; in the second and third pe rsons, it denotes
chiefly futurity; shall in th e first person denotes futurity; in the
second :111d third persons it denotes obligation, arising fn>111 1h,
will of the speaker o r from some other power beyond the ,;11bjcct.
Slto11!rl a11Ll wo11ld follow the gene ral uses of s/iall and will.
.S/1011/d a nd 10011/J have some special uses, e.g. to express mo ral
obligation; as, "You s/io11ld obey the laws of virtue" ; - to indicate a modest expression of op inion ; as, " I s/iould th ink so" ; - to
express future possibility; as, "If he s/1,1111,/ attempt to break th.'lt
stone, he will fa il" ; - to express a wish; as," IV011/rl th at the day
we re ove r" ; - to express what was c ustoma ry ; as, " He wmr!d
walk up and clown his room all day" ; - to express fix ed purpose;
as, " He would have his way."
OF J\[1;>;1)1{

~·

. "f

.

i'l)INTS.

l . The arljec ti ve prononns t/1is ;rnd t/1 11/ agree 111 nu1nber with
what they li111 it o r represent; thus, "That kind," not "Those
kind"; "That will do," "Those will do."

~·

,,:

-

_.............

GRAMMATICAL PURITY.

COMPOSITION ANO RHETORIC .

The pas t tense and past participle mu st not
Du not say, "I Jone my bes t," but," I did my best."
3. The part of a verb that differs in form from the part ex·
pressed , must n o t be omitted ; thus, associate m us t be expressed
in "They do not (associate) , and n eve r have associated, with such
2.

persons. "
4. In c omparison, use the co mpara tive when two obj ec ts are
comra red , a nd the st1 p erlativc when m ore than two . Thu s, " This
is t h e bette r of th e two" ; ''This is the h cst o f all."
5. \ Vhcn two adjcCLivcs qualify the s:i mc singul:ir noun, the
fl)ll o wi ng arrangem ents arc found : " Th e old and new books
are .. . " ; "The old :rnd the n ew book :ire . .. " ; "The old
hook :ind the new boo k are . . . " The first is ambiguot\S; th e
last is the b es t.
6. The use o f adjec tive s an<I adverbs m ust be c ar e fully di sc rimina 1cd . Usually adjectives express a qu:llity and adverbs exp ress
manner, degree, etc. Sonll: words in the :uljcc t ive form are used
with the powe r of an acl\"e rbial adject ive ; as, "H e stood firm."
Th e re is a ni ce distinction between thi s a nd "He stood fir1111J1 ."
7. 7~', the sig n of the infinitive, should not be separa ted from
its verh .
To is om itted :1fte r 1he :111xiliarics, afte r liirl, ilrlrr, nerd, sa,feel,
ma/..·,·, Id, /11:ar, and sometimes after a fe w othe r verbs.

57

6. I would be astonished if he went to church.
7. If he wou ld not succeed, then I would be the lose r.
8. It is n ow hi g h t ime that we would r eturn.
9. If you refuse m ed ic ine in hea lth, it shall be too strong fo r
your body wh e n you will need it.
10. You shall get into trouble if you pursue that course.
D r 1n :crroN. -

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

j.
g.
/1.
t.

;.

k.
I.

Dist in guish the m eaning o f th e folluwing .

I must ( should, o ugh t to) attend in person.
I could (m ig ht) no t wo nd e r at his co ndu ct.
He declared he would (shou ld) go home.
He did as [would (should) hav e done.
I thought I wo uld (should) speak m y mind.
I should ( would) go if he came .
I will (sh a ll) Le oLliged tu kave cu -day.
I will (shall ) live in the house of tir e Lord forev er.
I wo uld ( sho uld) take part if I could .
He may (c:ln) walk a mile.
You may (can) b e harpy.
Thou shalt (wilt) endure al1ll thy yea rs shall (will) not

change.
111. J\.fay (ca n ) I have th e pleasure nf helping you?
11.
I can (ma y ) not call ric hes bt't \er th :m the h:igg1ge ol
virtu e.

EXERCISE XX.
VERB ~ . - -

i\ ux r 1.1Mrn·:s

A:-.l ll OT 11 r.: R

D1 1u:c nu:>. -

i\f !NOR

l'OINTS.

D r1<ECTl d N . -G ive a reason fur changing the auxi liary in any of th e ful ·

lowing.
1.
2.

till [
3.
4.
5.

I would n o t like to do it am! I shall not.
The ge niu s told me I would not reach those b eautifu l islands
wo uld die.
Will I help yo u, o r sh<lll you do it alone?
I fe:u T will no t be able to pass my ex;nnination.
Can I h<lvc the pleasure of help ing you?

1.
2.

Correc t e rro rs in th e folluwini::.

Giv1: reasons for changes.

She will not wear th ose kind of g loves.
He Jud spoke an hour before the audience seen the driit of

hi s discourse .
3. The weary traveller saw the sun to set.
4. Those apple s taste sll"ectly.
5. Wisd o m hicls us to hearken to that voice.
6. H e has abst:iined from food this two d ays.
7. A divine and human law-giver seeks to acc o mplish dift l: rc nt
purposes.

.

·•·...-,

•' t

•

;~ ..

COMPOSIT ION AND Hl!ETORIC.

s. or th ose

tw o oaks the oldest is the sho rtest.
9. The elib and fluw of the tides has been accounted for.
10. The rogue :uiJ fuol by fits is fair and wise.

GRAMMATICAL PURITY.

5')

19 . If a piece of iron or glass be heated to the same degr ee ,
th ey communicate to the hand a very different sensation.
20 . The office r has power of detentio n over even those whom
he knows will get intoxicated.

EXERCISE XXI.
DJRFFTION. -

l\ int
1

~nit

the \'i1)lati(l11S uf grammatical purity in the follow·

ing scntcnccs, stale wht?rcin eac h cunsists, correc t, and g ive th e reaso n.

PART

J.

r. The syntax and etymology of the lang11:1ge is thu s placed
before the learner.
2 . He or you is in the wa y.
3. The i<lea of me being p resident seems ut terly rid icu lous.
4. The people was di,·ide<l.
5. Bread and milk are good food fo r c hildren.
6. More than one has had a hand in that affa ir.
7. I gave the book to l\fary, she who wears the white hat.
S. Both m o ney a nd labor was spent on it.
9. I le said he would give it to who msoever co1 il d soh·e
question.
ro. He told us there was two pri ncipal propositions in the
sentence.
i 1. The flee t was under o rd ers to sail.
12 . I int e nd ed to hav e written it on Sat mda y.
13. Every o ne of the pe rsons who have pews in hi s c hurch
have concurred.
14. It mu st, indeed, lie con fessed th at a lampoon o r a satire do
not carry in the111 rohherv o r 11111rcl cr.
15. In olden ti111 es hanging and hi.:hcadi ng were tho punishme nts of high trc:lSon.
16. Each of th ese circumsta nces be ing impressed 11pon the
comp1Jsc r's mind ten•! to improve the pc rform;in ce.
17. Give the> ho1>k tu ~rnith, he that is s itting by the wind ow.
18 T ll'ish you would co me with my s ister a nd I.

!'ART

II.

· 2 r. One, if not more, of these propr ietors hold land in b rg c
.
_quantiti es, buying it befure the land .-\ c t was passed .
1
22 . Eve ry one must fo llow th e ir ow n views on the 1ucst1on .
1
23 . Every religious asso c iatio n has a n rndonbted right to fo rll1

a creed for themseh·es.
24 . It must be confessed that this is non e of those tmh11lcnt
pleasures which is apt to gratify a man in the hea ts of yo1 1th .
25. He goes after what he has lust till he finds it.
2 6. I must observe that there arc a set of merry drolls wh om the
common people of ev1::ry country admi re s.
2 7. Eve ry emot io n a nd every ope ratio n of the mind have a
correspondin g exp ressio n of the counte nance .
2 8. If the donor was rich, the present was too li ttle; if he we re
poo r, it was too much.
.
29. Neithe r my bro the r nor I were able to e ndure 1t :rny lo nger.
30. If he was here, he would ope n the bux.
3 1. T his is ju st as if an eye o r a fuot should dema nd a s:ilary
for th e ir servic es to the body.
32. l'rovid cnce, ant! not pump, arc the basis of hi s fame.
33. Three-quarters o f the la ke are shallow.
34. ll is as cold, if nut culder, th an any d av this year.
35. Profu sion as we ll as parsimony arc to be avoid ed .
36. Th e re is no use in me trying the examination .
37. If he does come, I will be ready.
38. He is the smallest oi the pair.
39. No professional man, no business m:1 n, in fact no m:m of
sense woukl ri sk th e ir reputation by support in g such :1 C1.11sc .
40. l\·1y friend and co m panio n have often warned me or the
danger.

.,

6o

COMPOSITION ANO RHETORTC.

PART

III.

4 r. In the meantime, I will have to t;ik e the case as it stands.
42 . Will l find yo n at home this evening?
43 . li I stayed there l would offend th e archbishop .
44. A few inches more or Jess in a bdy's height makes a great
differe nce .
·+5· I ca nnot h elp thinking that the prop ri etor of th e hotel has
n ot told all he knew.
4 6. If he was to find out that it was me who wrote it, he would
be very angry.
4 7. 'Twas Love's mistake wh o fan cied what it feared.
48. The ti dings of bis re turn give joy.
49. No office in the church, no preferment in the state, but go
to the king's friends.
50. If we act thus, we will be miserable ourselves and will
make o thers miserable.
5 1. I will now accept your kind invitation .
52. Every grape-vine and fig-tree are st ripped of th ei r foliage.
53. A person c:rn rest as well in a parlo r car as they co uld in
th ei r own parlor.
S·l · I Tc works as if his life clepcnd ed o n him attaining the
position.
55. Addison thought that a person was bound to he cheerfu l.
56 . There is in th is country but few you ng persons who may
not attend school.
5 7. Every boy and gi rl should ava il th emselves of any opportunity to get an education.
58. \'our challenge should soon Le answered if your antagonist
was here.
59. If Ivanh oe ever return from l'alestine, I shall Le his surety
that he meet you.
60 . The c:irefully kept mem oranda shows that physics are rap idly
becoming a popular study.

GRAMMATICAL PURITY.

PART

61

IV.

6r. Every train and boat were crowded on civic holiday.
62. Either you or I are the one who th ey have selected.
63 . The ashes was taken out of the grate.
64. The measles are very prevalent at this season .
65. l<::ich uf these cuu rses have th eir own spec ial difficulties.
66. If a man was to come b:ick who had lived a hundred years
ago, should he nut think the world was going crazy.
67. Eve ry subordinate clause may be modified as if it was a
principal clause.
68. For in cheerfulne ss the spirits does a little go and come.
69. The captai n, with many of the c rew, were lost in th e
storm.
70. He reacher! the encl of his journey half an hour earlier th;m
he expec ted.
7 r. If ye from your hearts forgive not eve ry one his brother
their trespasse s.
72. He said the Mississippi ran throu gh the United States.
73. Jf he was now living, he wonlcl have sufficient judgment to
wish to be shown as he w:is.
74. The sunshine antl rain is making the flowers open.
75 . It is ev ident th at large pile of iceb<.:rgs arc sail ing around
in the Atlantic.
76 . The ge nerality of his hearers refuses to accept his views.
77. 1\ consid erable number were inclined to withdraw its support.
78. ])id yon eve r he:ir what that man's name was?
79. To instru ct and preserve society are one of the designs of
the Christian religion.
So. He supported those whom he thought supported him.

,..~·.

. I

Gz

C011JPOSITION AND RllETORIC .

PART

'1~:

l

PROPRIETY.

v.

S r. They saiJ he had we nt a\\'ay and hroke hi s pledge ; at any
rat e he drunk sen.:r;tl glasses a nd begu n to st:tgger in his gait.
82 . I shall h:.ivc great pk:1Sure in acce pting your invitation.
83 . When he di ed, his su n and namesake a nd successo r we re an
inhnt.
K.f. Oxygen and nitroge n uni tcJ , forms the air we hn:a the.
.'i5. Une h:tlf of men do not kn ow how the other hali lives.
86. " 1lon't cry about it," sa id l\l id:ts, that was ashamed to
confess that he himse lf hail wrou g ht the c han ge that affiicteJ her.
S 7. 1-! e was su re that the ohjects that he had Leen watching
was o nl y cattle.
SS . H e wouicl have clone a great deal better, if he took a diffe re nt course.
89. 1-T e r kni ghts, her dames, her court were th e re.
90. There are many that can testify that that man was not
th ere.
91. Each o f the m e mbers of the commit. tee nude th e ir n·port.
92. The moral and reli gious element of th e co mm1.111it y were
a rouse d.
93. I have examine.\ both the methods and believe th e first to
lie th..: h ..:sl.
9·t· The report of the mayor an<l <:Jerk \\' ere presentetl.
9 5. News were sent th:tt the gallo\\·s were erected.
96. The travd le r did no t fed wel l, yet lie ate a hearty meal.
9 7- J\'f y frieud and compa ni on have o ften warned me of the
cbnge r.
98 . Praise from a friend or censure fro m a foe are lost on
hearers who kno w our merits.
99. Th e last month or two has h ee n spen t among the islands.
100. Hoping th at I will hea r from you as soon as convenient, l
1Yill subsc ri be myself, Yours truly.

LESSON XVI.
P!{O!'Rl ETY.

Propriety consists in using wo rds in the sense th ey bear in th e
us;ige o i the best writers :rnJ speak e rs.
Importance of Propriety. - If a writ e r or speaker does nnt
use a wo rd as it is understood hy the reader or li,;tencr, h1'.
cannot convey the lll e:ming h..: intt:nds, o r, if he does, it will Le
because his reader or listener has, fro m th e context, seen th e
intended meaning and mentally substituted the correc t wo rd.
1-!ence it is of the utmost importance th:tt wo rds should be used
in th eir ge neral, well-und e rstood, and est:.iblished sense. To be
able to do thi s requires tim e and patient toil, and he who is
unwilling to :iccept th e task on th ese tcrllls may never hope to
succeed e ith er in writing co rrectly or in und e rstandin g his o wn
language.
Impropriety. -The application of a wo rd in a sense n ot
authori zed by good usage, is called Imprvpriety.
Examples. -- :\ few e xamplt~ S arc given to illustrate more fully
wha t is to be avoided and what is to be attai ned.
I'ro/i, ·a/1· ( Latin pre.!ir·.trt, to p1il,li,h o r state) mc:ins s i11 q.!y
to attirm in rl~gard t o soin<:t hing that a lr..:ad y is, 1>11t it is fr<.:quently founll in the sense of "for<.:tcll" o r" predi ct" ; as, "It is
impossibl e to pred ica te what he will or will not do."
Expat is very wi dely used in th e sense of s11pposc, think, .f{lfl'-'':
as, ''I e xpect you had much trouble on that occasion." F x/rd
refe rs only to th at which is to come, and which, therefore, is
looked for (ex, out, a nd JjJl'r/11re, to look). We cannot expec t
backwards.
Adopt is ofte n used for "decide upon" and for "to take" · as,
"The m easures adopted, as the resul~ of his inquiry, will be
productive of goud ."
Caph.un is deriv ed frum Latin caprre, to tak e, not fru111 ,-<1/!11/,

?- "".;·

··,:

·.,

.

COMPOSIT!ON AND RH ETO RIC.

PROPRIETY.

the head. Hence it me:rns seizure, or the ac t of tak ing,
!tet1 di11g .
/ l}fra i11 /e (fro m"/ '. to, and prdium, price), mea ns lo rstima/t
H e nce we ca nno t say, " I appreciate your kindne
/ 11slly.
ftiJ;!ily ."
l.Jn11 ea 11 is no t fro m m ea n, low, bu t from the F rench
to co nduct o ne 's se lf.
R ,»·k 1•e. This word, whic h mea ns i11rli11erl to rest, obsti11at1,
1111«•1lli11g ' " g" , is fr eq ue nt ly e mployed in a sense directly the ,:
reve rse of this; that is, fo r 1111easy, restless.
A 7•ocalion is ofte n used fo r voca tio n, or calling , A man's
m •oralions are th ose pursuits o r a musements which engage his
a tten ti o n whe n he is call ed away fro m his regula r business or profe ss io n, as mlisic , fi shing, o r boating .
R <'llilil/1111 is some tim es used fo r re nde rin g ; as, "Mr. Booth's
re nditi o n uf Hamle t." R o lililiu11 mc;:in s s11rre111ler, giving up;
as, when we speak of th e re ndi ti o n of a lJele;:ig ured town to the
besiege r.
C'tJ111!i:o;n is fro m con, ;:ind r1i:~r1111s, worthy, and sig nifies deserved
o r me rited . l\fan y who use it see m to think it means u vere; ~.
"The vil b in received cond ig n pu nish ment."
Q11ile m ean s wlirely , comflc!I'~) ', a fact that is lost sight of when
it is p laced bc fvre a n o un; as, "They collected qu ite a sum."
I Vitncs;· ( 1\ .S. wilnrsse, knowled ge) is to bear testimony
wh :1t o ne knows by p erso nal observ:it io n. \Ve should not say,
"I n ever witnessed suc h a 10\·ely clay."
I'd l-111ell impli es a numl>e r in confusio n ;
o f o ne p e rso n, "He rushed out pell-mell."
Gtt mea ns to obt;:iin by a rnlunta ry cffo rL \Ve should not say1
' ·I ha ve got a cold," or "I have got a ho use to sell. "
Altem a tiv e. An alternative is one choice out of two (Latin,
alto·, one o f two) ,
Female should not be usell fu r wo111a 11 u r larly.
A//,1w is to g ive l> y me;:isurc o r in cl ue proporti on.
11////7w his Sllll a re :tsunal.Jle a 1110unl o f s pe nding money.

uses of the word as, " H e allows he can defe;:it his oppone nt," are
mere vulgarisms,
Balance (Lati n, bi/<1 11a111, scales) denotes eq11ilibri1111L It
'houlcl, th e n:fure, no t l>e used for re111ai11drr,
. Citizen . It is proper to call a pe rson a r1t1:;en when he is
-$poken of in rdat io n to th e state, b ut improper when in rel:ition
to his fellow-men; as, "So me citize ns b ehaved uaclly o n show

ay."
Aggravate (Latin, aggnniare, to make worse) means to in ake
qqrse.

It is o ft e n impro perly used for z·ex or a1111oy,

Transpire should no t l>c used for haffm.
E liminate m e;:ins literally to !!trow 011t of doors.
tih uld not be used for d ii-it o r draw f or/11.

Henc e it

· Extend is to inc re::1se in o ne or all dire c tions, to stretch out.

So we should no t say, "Extend a n im·itation."
Replace. Literally, we can re place only tint whic h was previously in its place ; b ut suc h ex p ressio ns as," H e can never hope
to replace so eminent a man " seem to have obtained a strong

· · foothold in th e lang ua ge.
Dock should l>e distin gui shcll from wliatf A doc/.: is usually
n excavatio n, while a 10/1111/ is an elevatio n.
Plenty is ofte n wrongly co nstru ed as a n adjec tive; as, "1Y! on ey

, is plenty th is year."
· Mis taken, To 111is/11 /•c is to take wrongly, so lo /1c 111ist1tl.:en
should mea n to Le taken hy erro r fu r some o ne else . S:ty, ' ' \'ou
·are in error," not, "Yun are mi stak en."
To a degree is someti mes used where exca din,i;ly would be the
proper word.
A l /engt!t sh oulcl not be used fo r at last.

At !l'ngt!t means fully;

t!ast, finaJly .
· Nice is n ow o ne o f those " soc ial" adjec tives that a re used for
almost any quality that pleases the spe;:ike r.

I ts correc t meaning

delicate anti exac/,
D escription sh ould not be used fo r /.:ind o r sort.
Words simibr in form or <leri1·ation ar c often mi staken; as,

...

66

CO MP OS JT! O N ANO ]{JJ ET OIOC.

PROPRIETY.

" conte mp tuou s " for" c onte mpti!Jle "; " e xc c ptio1ubl e " fc>r "ex1:e pt ional " ; "re spec tfull y " fo r "n:spec ti1· ely " ; " o bservation"
for " obse rvan ce "; " p urpose " fo r "propose."

Pe:ic hes a re ve ry pl e nty this seaso n .
I hav e e very cuniid e nce th::it he will t urn o ut we ll.
2 I. I expec t yo u hav e had a g reat man y d it1ic ulti es.
22. l1is manner is calc ulat ed Lo h in de r hi s b usiness.
23. /\ vesse l of this d esc ri p ti o n h ad b ee n hover ing in sigh t.
24. He a ims at elimina ting truth fr o 1n spi rit, fact and d uty from
h1th .
25. Th e e levat io n o f 100 fc:t"t el iminate d a h earty ch eer.
26 . It a b o loo ks tu th e final el imina t i1m o f the ~ oul fro m th e
20.

EXERCISE XXII.

D IREC rH •N . - P u iut o ut t he word th a t is n o t p ro p e rl y used, supply the
cv rn.~
. t wurd, and givt: the urdinary meaning v f the rej ecte d wo rd.
p ,\ RT

body.

l.

7. \ \!h e n th e lio a t c:1111 e a sh o re , it C1J nt a in ed o nl y one fe ma:e.
28. Can we su ppose th :it good IJl1\od repl:tc:es te ac h ing)
I declare th is is the m os t sple ndid l>ay I ever 11·itn ess cd. '
They follo wed th e an c ie nt a rncati o n o f pi c kin g p oc:ke ts .

2

H is conduc t a ggr~watcs m e co ntinual ly.
2. H e r siste r h:1s g u t a very se 1·erc: a ttac k of fev e r.
3. I l ire c tly he heard the ab ri n he rn shed out p e ll -mell.
·I · J oh nso n d ied from lilu ws ad mini ste red l>y a pol ice rn a n .
5. Th e m ea sures ad o pted by t he I l ouse will do good.
6. l re ::i.llo ws t ha t h e h:1s the.: tin e,; t ho rse in the cu untrv.
i· This road will se rve to co n ven e the public .
8 . A g reat amoun t of p e r fec ti o n has b een attain ed in that a rt.
9 . l l e w.1s unwill in g to de m ean hims e lf b y a pul1l ic :q><>l ugy.
1 o . The al te rn a t ives se t before him we re, to a hjme th e faith, to
su l1rnit to th e t o rture, o r t o go in to p e rp e tu :ll e xi le .
11 . I le Ind e xce pt io nable oppo rtuni t ies fo r learning the lang uage.
1.

l'A1n·

3 r.
32 ..
3.1·
34.

TT.

l re i,; fu nd o f re ad ing s11 ch (1 ct1tiuu s ll'r it n s

:1 0>

i Ll11·t i1• >r nc·.

A youn g man a bo rti1· e ly se ize d two pi e ces of alp::tc::t.
A lady havin g two bovs, would like t o ad o pt one.
/\ soc ie ty for th e p re vention o f c rn e lty to animals, has l: 1tcly

b een inau g ura ted.
35. /\ g reat pa r t of th e cong rega tion we nt h ome at ten o 'ci o1·k .
but th e bala nc e r ema in ed ti ll t welve .
16. Sill:: has se1·eral u the r little j11)e lll s uf a mu c h higher «cci: Lrc .
; 7. The re is an arti cl e in the las t issue of uur con te mp ur: 1ry

1 2 . The t ro ops, tho ug h fi g h t in g bravely, we re t e rribly deci1n:1ted, n ea rly half of t he m ha1·ing fa ll e n.
13 . I h:tve sat and h e ard him t ell a ny :tmo nn t o f a necd o tes.
14 . I have always co nsid e red him an hone st m:111.
15. " S ir, " s:1id he to I lr. !'arr, " I ha 1·e a co nt e m p tible o pinion
o f yu u ." "Tha t do es n o t surp ri se me," rep li ed the Doctor; "all
yum O!'in iun s :tre co nte 1npt ihl e ."
16 . \Ve h:we t ravelled q11it e a pi ece to -d :1y .
17. A ce ntury tran spire d hcfure it was re vi si ted.
1.S . \ Ve h:1d a ni c e tim e yes tc r.J:i1· : tl1L· ll'L"ath c r was ni ce , th e
co 111p:rn y was ni ce, an d ev ery thi ng 11·c 11L off ni ce .

under the ::i bove c:a ption.
38. Seve ral c iti zens c ar r ied the s uffe rer to a drng sto re o n the
next b lo c k.
39. The marriage w :1s h::i ppi ly consu m rnat ed at l'ari s ]; ,,, .\ 11rii .
40 . Th e rvr osq 11 e in Ea s te rn la nds nJti,;t g u, a nd the C IH ist ian
Churc h will replace it.
4 1. Th e Pre,; id e n t co m-cned C on gress e; trl y in J:mu a ry .
42. This app lic ati o n o f rea son p n .,\i,.alc' a g rc <il na l ll• l\ :1 1 f11t:i re .
43. 1\ 11 i11 vit :1ti o n w:t s <" Xte nd cd to hi11t to dim: with hi ,; fri e nd s.
44. He was at len t_; th in du ced tu d es ist.

_ L __

68

COMPOSITION A NO R HE T O RI C.

45. His name has ne ve r bee n r eplace d by any othe r in the
t r:rnsactio n.
46 . Twice in histo ry has th e re bee n witn essed the struggle of
the h ighest indiv idu al ge nius ~iga in s t a natio n.
4 7. If yu u are of th a t opi n io n, yo u arc mi:; ta ken.
48 . T he m a n liy some st rang..: a ccid ent fe ll off th e dock.
49 . U is offe nce is of the most agg ravated de sc ription .
50. H e ru sh ed pe ll -mell out o f t he h ouse.
5 [. Tl1e p iece of roas t beef is pe rfec tl y s pl endid .
5 2 . T he po li ce drill wi ll t rans pi n.: und er sh e ltt:r to-day.
.53 · l pro1ni se )'lrn I was ve ry mu ch sur p rised.
5-t · What d o yo u p ropose do ing in th is mat te r?
55 . l I. ..: was fuol ish to a deg ree.
56 . H e has for years bee n a confirm e d i1w alid.
5 7. I have fo und th e package you a ll ude to in your le tt er.
58. We we re stopp ing at th e Wind so r Ho te l in l\fo ntr eal.
59 . M r. Boo th's rendition of H a ml e t was admirab le .
Go . Th e reade r soo n wearies of such st uff.
6 1. Th e above e xt ract is su ffic ien t to verify my a ssertio n.
62 . He is a pa rty wh o has rise n to eminenc e.
63 . IIow a rc yo u to-day? N ic ely, th a nks .

PRECISION.

\Ve say a 11aca n t cha ir, no t an emflJ' chair; for tho ug h b uth
words imply that th e c ha ir lus n o occ up:rnt , ye t 11a c11 11t conveys
the icle:i. that it should b e fill ed, uut is no t, while l'lllj /y s11np ly
means th a t th ere is no thing in it.
How attained . - :\ s English abounds in wo rds \\·hi ch express
nea rly the sa me m ea nin g, grea t exactness o f express io n is pus,ililc ,
and mu c h ca re and thou ght are necess:iry to b e a b le to s..:kct
always th e word whic h con veys just what is m ea nt. 1\fuc h m:1y be
learned by observing th e prac ti c e uf good a utho rs, h ut the 1n 1 1,;t
effic ient m e th od o f atta ining prec isio n is th e ca refu l ;rnd continuou s stud y of sy nony m s. Thi s m:iy be c; trri ed on l>y colbtill;..'.
and e xamining wo rd s o f n e:i rly t he sa me m e:rnin g; !J)' rev ising
every se n te nce th a t on e wri tes, an d stud iously in1111iri11g "~hcthcr
ea ch wo rd in it is :iccu rately use d ; and hy the study ot sume
standard wo rk o n th e subj ec t, suc h as Cr::ilib's u r S m ith 's Synon yms, or R oget's Th esa uru s.
Further Exampl es . - In ord e r mor e fully to ill11sWll1' th e ,11bject a fe w sy no nyms are he re explain ed, hut the y mu st be regarde d,
by those wh o would :tttain pro fi c ie ncy, a s the merest beg 11111mg.
I. Visitor, Visi/11 11/.
Visitor or l'i.1//,111/ is one who pays a v1,1t;
but a 111·situr is a h u m an \;e ing, and a 7'i.>ilt1 11!, :1 sup e rn:itur.ti one.
..,
M ., ,1 .. 1 N,,,,/i•'nJce.
]\ 1ra/N
I is a n ac t, o r, r;tthcr, a f:li im c
-·
.J \' l,')/ l l '
,..,
....
,...
to a c t ; 11rgli:i;o1a impli es a failure to cunfurrn .to an csta l>Ji,hcd

LE SSON XVII.
PI{ECl s rox.

Preci s ion c onsists in selec ting the wo rd or expression that conv eys th e exac t me a ning inte nd ed - no mo re, no less.
Examples. - It woul d be more co rrect to say damp c lothes
t han m oist c lo th es, 1.Jecau se anythi ng is s:t id to be da mp wh e n the
wet ness is from some out ward cause, or when the a rti cle is in an
alin o rinal sta te ; wh ile th:i t is m oi.1·/ whi ch is na turally damp, as
t he' so il wh en fitt ed fo r vege ta ti on .

standard o r c ustom.
. Conlimml, Co11 /i11 110 11s. Co 11 ti111" t! is s:iid o f :1cts th :1t :i r<'
3
fr equently r 1·p ca tetl ; 0111/i1111011s of uni n terrupt ed ;ir·t ion.
4 . R emo 11 /1rr, R1•(0/k ct . Re111 l'111 brr im pl ies u nly t!Ltt the impression re ma ins ; n :rtJ!kc l, that an effurt is nud e t <> rc<· all I.ii
the mind somdh ing th a t for the tim e see ms to luve esca ped 1t.
5. Utter, Exp,.css. 7l1 11//,-r is sim1 1ly to so und a n yt h ing wit h
th e vo ic e; /o exf'rt'ss c arr ies the add itional idea of me:rn111 g and
form:ili ty.
6. Crimr, S i11 . Crime is a vi olatio n of Lt\\' d i\'in c <> r h1J111 :rn.
· no w g..: nera 11y ;i pp 1.1c<I to <)lre11<.·
tho ugh it is
,, .ec.·., again st th e sta le .
Sin is a departure from divin e law.

•'.·.

CO MPOSITION

ANn HllETORIC.

PHECISION .

that are dorm:in l n r cal 111. To incilc is to urge forwa rd intu act s
co rres p onding to t he fecli11 gs that lnve b ee n arouse d.

7. CrJ11ragt, Forlil1ttlc. Co11ragc is an actin:, e ne rget ic resist·
ance uf all th e trials o r difficulties of life; .forlituJe is a reso lute

19 . ll / <11111,-rs, Jl / ,,, ·,i/c.

e n duran c e of present evils a n d a patient res ignati o n tu th e wo rst
th at m ci y lnpp e n.

8.

Co 11st io11s, A w are·.

\\'e a re t C'llS(it1 11s uf anything wh e n we

kn o w of it i>y r e llection; we arc a w.ire of any thi ng wh e n we know
of it IJy obscr\·:ition :111.! experience .

good "'" rt1!• 111 :1 k c 11s good m e m\Je rs uf sowicty.
20. Ti ·11//1 , / 'rr11< i~1'.
T111 1/i helungs tu th e thing; 7'f"ril1·i.~1·, to
the p e rso n . The Int/It of the s to ry is a dm itted upun the 1·aaoty
o f the 1n rr:1l<>r.

9 . ./lm l!l!_r, fl ·"/1{1/r..-,1111r . .//(11//liy is said of th at which 111c reases
str<.:ngt.h - J >hy s i• ~ : il, m en ta l, o r moral; wl/IJk.ro mr, of that

<1 111"

21 . !, m'1", .·1Jli·,-1i1111.
J:nth th e se \n irds ex press g ood will;
ajfu tio11 is a t l~ n tlc ~· se n timent th:tt d \\·e lls with pk:isme on the
o\Jje<:t; l t17'C is a lc'ndcr scnt illlcnt :wcolllp:tnied wiLh lun g in g for
the Phj e ct; we cannot ha\·e lm·c 11·i th o11 t ,r(ff'di,1 11, l>11t we nuy
have ajfati11 n wiL11011t Ion . J, ,17•,· is :t p:hsio 11 , exr:l11si\·e, restk'>s,
a nd ca prici< H1s ; flj(i- ction is a c hast e n ed feeli ng und e r the .-o ntrol
?f t he und e rstand i ng .
22. firing, Frt.-!1.
To /i ring is simply to tak e with one's self
fr om th e pla c e whe re one is; to .ft'/ch is firs t to go to ."l pl:w e ~nd
th e n b r in g th e o bjec t ; to .ft'!r/1, the refo re, is a s p ec i<.: s of /Jril!gi11~' :
wh ateve r is nc:t r :1t h:1nd is /"·011g ltl; wh:llevn is at a t!ist:ince
mu s t \Jc fdd11•t!: th e p orte r at an inn firings a parcel, a servan t
who is se nt fo r it fr:tc/1n it.
23. Cl/I/racier, / ,',p11!alit111. Cl111rad1·r li es in a man; it is the
m a rk of wh;it h e is; it s how s itse lf ll n :1!1 llc:«as io n s; n p 1t1.11i1111
d e p e nd s llJ>D ll oth e r., ; it is what th ey th ink o f him. lt is poss ii.Je
for :i m an tu h:i\·c: :i 1°:1 ir r1f11/<1li11Jt who h:1s not in rea lit y a guo d
diar<1drr; :1 lth•>•1 gh 111 c n of really good d1 11r11, ·fr"r are n u t likelv
to have a lud up11!11/i11 11

which dol·s it n o inj ur y .

Co11tle i111 plics that the two uni1.t:d a re
bm1nd h y su111 e ti <.: :111d art: o f such a n a t ure as to \J<.: suitabl e fo r
su< ·h a uni o n ; 17"'<' indic :lles nurnhe r onl y .
I 1. / Js.• , / ,;·wr r .
Lt·.c ..- is applit:d to thiugs m ea s ured ; .frwer,
10 .

Co11j>f,-, T1<10.

to th<1'>e that a re nnrn he re d.
12. Di.cti11g11is/1, J]i.roi111i11alt.

\\' e di.cfi11g11is/1 \Jy ou r m e ntal

A
tlisli11 ,.li11n is :-i n im portant o r marked diffe rence; a rliscrimi11atio11
is :1 nice o r e xa c t diffncn c\'. .
13. A 11s1wr, N rj>{1'. 1\n ,111s1wr is g iven to a questi o n o r dt.:mand, a nd s ho11ld sat isfy it. A nf~I' is a fo rm al answe r. l t may
be made to :ugu m c nts, may go beyo nd them, an d m ay Lt: made
whether it is, o r js n ot, expected o r asked.
14 . ])1:/11«r, J)ish'Jl!"e.
Tu d1ft1rc is wil f11lly to inj ure th e
or plwsic;il fa c u lties ; we disoim/11 ,1/c l1y our judgm ent alone .

<.' Xter iur by an y m ea ns ; to di.~/ii;11rt" is to m :1r th e effect h y so m e
T hings :ire drft1ff J; li\·i ng \J<.:ings
injury lo the :tppe:1ranc c.
1 li~/i~·11 r/'J.
i S·
!!11/1il , Cus/{• 1/1.
/ /, J/lf'! is said o f the individua l ; r11s/{1111,
of th e <'< l111munity. The l:ittcr is ,·ol un t:1r.y ; the former is not

p m ely so.
1G. ] )11111/J , Jl f11k .

I Tc is rl11m/1 wh o c:rnnq t spea k ; he is 11111/t

wh o c:111 speak . ln 1t will not.
t 7. J •i wll, !> jt'd. :\ ,/,j;·d :s ,,,n1 wthi 11;.; \\'. 1nti11g ; a .fa11!! is
SOllll"lhin,~ \\Tl1ll g .

i 8 . .F.1·d'tt' , l11 cik.

""'
To e.1-,:ilc is 1.; aw:1kcn or rouse fct::li ngs

1lfa1111 0 -s re spec t the minor furru s u f

ac ting with uthv rs :rnd tuward others; ""'r,tf• include t he importan t du ties of life . ( ;o .. d ma11111f.> make 1is guud companions ;

. '

72

COMPOS IT ION AND RUETOHJC.

PRECISION.

EXERCISE XXIII.

3. Our (acts, o r act ions) gene rally proceed from in st inct o r
- impulse ..
· 4. It is difficult for one unaccu sto med to (soph ism, or soph is try) to succeed in a (sophism, or sop hi stry).
5. The house was stripped of its furnit ure, and was ent ire ly
, (em p ty, or vac an t).
6. Th is c irc umstanr.e (alone, or only ) is suffi c ient to prove the
worthl essn ess of the c ritic is m .
7. \Ve (:tvow, :tcknnwledge, o wn, o r co nfess) a n eglect of duty.
8. Though numerous appli c ations were made fo r th e pri so ne r's _
(forgiveness, or pardon), they we re all (unsuccessful, o r in effec tual).
9. A very su cccssf1J l (soc i<ll, or soc ial>le) was he ld in th e hase m ent o f the churc h.
ro. Notwithst ::r nding all hi s effort:;, l1e co uld n ot (recollect , or
reme m ber) the date.

PRECISION .

DrnECT lll N. - Explai n th ese syn<1n y ms so as to show clearly th e rlistinction
in lh e m1.:ani 11gs they bear; then wril c a :;c..:nknct: iri whi c h eac h is pro perly used,
I.

In -

in to .

.3 · Shal l ·l·

5·
6.
7.

8.

nad, wi c k ed , ev il.
z3. B<tnd, compa ny, c rew,
gang.
2.J . lk:rntif1 il, fine, handsome,
pret ty .
25 . B eg, beseec h, so li c it, entre:it, s11pp li catt.:, implore, crave.
26. Brin •' fe tc h, ca rry.
"'
z7 . Call, bid, su mmon, invite.
28. Character,
repul:lli o n,
fame .
29. C lea r, lucid, bri g,.,, vivid.
30. Com mand, orde r, injunct ion, p recep t.
3 l. Compensatio n, sat isfaction, a mend s, r e mun er:1t io n, reco m pe nse, requital , reward.
32 . Complete,
per fect, finished.
t"l
, se n33· Deci sio n, jn dr<ment
ten ce .
22.

z. May-ca n.
wi ll.
fewer - less.
Two - co uple.
M11ch - m a ny.
On -upo n.
Sit - Se t.

9· Augh t -

Ought.
B es ide - besides.
I I. Sex ge nd e r.
l 2 . l.ike love.
13. Be twee n - among.
14 . Li1·e - dwell.
wisdo m.
i 5. Learnin g 16. T :tlk - co nv ersation .
I 7. Le t ter- ep istl e .
l s. Nc\\'s - t idings.
19 . Woori - timbe r.
20. H o me -dwelling.
2 I. Annu al yearly.
J O.

EXERCISE XXIV.

I >tRFCTIO~. - Jn th e ft ill t)\\'in g
g-i\'c ;l reaSl)ll f,,r yuur choit..'c.

st.:11k11ccs,

PAl{T

selec t th e cn rrcd sy no nym, and

T.

1.

\\'h at (f11rthcr. 1>r f:trthn) 1wcd h:1ve we of Gllltion?

2.

We may try h:ir.I :rnd :;t ill be (f11rthcr, or f:mher) frurn s11ccess.

~

1 1.

73

My o ld ancl tried friend (int roduced, or p rese nt ed) inc to

1 2 . He was (aware, o r co nscious) of a very unpleasant feeling
coming ove r him.
13. Th e (negligt•nce, o r neglec t) of this leaves ns exposed t<)
an un co mm on levity in our conversatio n.
14. T he (enorm it y, o r cnon11n1 1sn ess) of the dist:tnce hf'tween
the ea rth and th e su n accounts for these effects .
15 . Tlis donw s tir. 1·irtues :tre too wc·ll kn o wn to nuke it necessary to (allude, or refe r) to th e m .

'•','."'

16. T! e wrrs caref11! in his (ohservanre,o r obse rvati on)of:ili the
usages of his C lrnrc h .

.,,

.',(:::

r 7. ( Continno11s, cont in n:i l, or conti1rned) droppings wc ~1r the
stone .
r S. Th e 1-cget:i ti r>n uf the,;e rcg i1111' i,.; (lux11 rio11,; , ur l1 1x1111;1nt i.

19 . Th e food furnished to the men w:1s (hea lth y, or wholesome ).
20. In the m o st ri gorous weather he is sca rcely ( se nsitive to, or
sensible o f) the culJ.

.·.
.,

. ..,~ .:·

_,.

• ;.• >!.')·'.·· ... ~ _..,.:,.""·,.:.

74

COMPO S ITI O N AND R II ET O!U C.

P A RT

PRECISION.

EXERCISE XXV.

II.

2 r. He was surprised by t h e a p pearance of a heave nly (visitor,
o r vis it:rnt).
2 2 . Afte r t h a t wi tn e ss had given h is ( evid ence , or testim ony),
t he c ase was a djo urn ed .
23 . Th e Iri sh a rc (p erpe tuall y, or co ntinually) using s/ia// for
w ill.

24 . H e r d eath was hourly (antic ipa ted , or e xp ec ted ) .
25 . It was (d ue , o r o wing) to hi s e arnes tn ess th a t the plan
suc c eed ed .
26 . l l e ac te d to wa rds the p riso ners w ith too m uc h ( le nit y, or
le ni e n cy) .
2 7. There we re no t ( less, o r fe wer ) th an twe nt y p erso ns
p rese nt.
28 . He we nt in a nd took the (vaca nt, em pty, or un oc cu p ied)
seat.

29 . Hav ing ex a m in ed th e a ffa ir, I wish to ( say, o r sta te ) that
I find no th ing wro ng.
30 . .I have fr e<]_u e nt ly he:ml h im (utter, ex p ress, or pro no un ce)
th a t o pini on .
.11 . l le he ld a ve ry (d ecid ed. o r d e c is ive ) o pini o n o n alm ost
all such s11 lijec ts .
3 2 . I I e ha s n o t ye t (a nswered, or re plied to) my last le tte r.
33 . T h e m urdere r was (hanged , o r hung) o n th e 17th of last
mo nt h.
34 . H e rej ec ted th e ( proposal, o r p ro po sitio n) mad e by his
fr ie nd .

.35 · I h a ve founJ th e pacbge (alluded , or re fe rred ) to in your
adve rti se m ent.
36. H e too k u p th e c up a nd (tau gh t, or e ducateJ, o r in st ru cted)
h is J isc ip les h ow to d rink it to his (mem ory, o r re m embra nc e).

75

PREC ISION.

In th e follo wi ng sen tences, find the words not used prec isely
and substitu te fo r th em the prope r sy nonyms.
DIR f:C fl ON . -

1. The d iscove ry o f steamboa ts produ ced a bene fi ce nt 111fluenc e on the commerce of th e wo rld.
2. I-k comple tes th e sto ry with o ut freeing th e h e roin e .
3. His a p pa re nt g11ilt justifi ed his fri e nds in d isown in g him.
4. H e mu st co nt e nt himself wi th the comm on pri vileges of t he
plac e.
5. It woul d have p u zzle d hi m to m ak e good th e asse rtion, if
its verac ity had b ee n tes ted by th e act ua l c o ndi t io n of th e p eople .
6. 1'1y he ar t was e ntirely subdu ed b y th e capti vati ng str::i ins .
7. A glance a t th e clock will mak e you co nscious that it is
nearly three in th e mo rnin g.
8. An d a s she was g o ing to b ring it, he call ed to he r a nd sa id,
"Fetc h me, I p ray th ee, a m o rsel o f bread . "
9. /\. c o uple o f ladie s fe ll upo n th e ic e yeste rday a fte rn oon.
10 . I n a ho use li ke t hi s, t h e in habita nts m us t resem b le t he
knig hts of a n enc hanted castl e .
1 r . Th e Princ ipal is an a stute , a mbitious, and un co mm on ly
zealous individu a l.
12. H e was dis p osed to a sin c ere remo rse fo r the c ri m es he
had c om mit ted in th e sig ht of heav en, an d als o for his rec en t si n
in brea king th e laws o f his c ountry.
13. Sh e see ms to love g re en peas a nd ap p le pie.
14 . A p rod igio us num be r o f hand s we re emplo yed in re mo vin g
th e debris .
15 . I have tried all d ay t o re member the d e ta ils uf th a t dread ful a ffa ir.
16. The since ri ty o f his reli g ion was cl ea rl y see n in hi s reverence fo r e veryth ing virtuous.
1 7. He e xc ited th e fe elings of p a tri o ti sm that ha d lai n d ormant
in the nation.

-

<·_·.~·

... ;4.

COM l' OS ITI ON A l'\ D RH ETOR IC.
i 8 . His b ravery u nde r this painful oper:ition, and th e fortitude
he had show n in heading the last charge in th e recent acti on,
in spi red c 1·ery one with admi ration .

19 . There is a sect in that c ity wh o bel ie ve in the e ffici ency of
praye r to cure all diseases.

zo . Our sid e -wa lks she w that we :ire a people alm os t wholly .
g iven over to expec torati o n.
2 1. Th e C hristmas tree was denuded of its g ifts.
22. The nakecl bodies and barbarous weapons o f th e natives
were no m:i.tch fo r the weapons of the Span iards .
23. The desks we re all disfigured by penkni ves .
24 . He felt himse lf compelled to acknowledge th e justice of
my rem:irk.
~s . I asked him to fet c h the book with hi m wh e n he came.
26. Have you any id ea of writing to him?
2 7. It is d ifficu lt to discriminate between adjectives an d partic iples .
28. The health o f the Empress of Germany is greatly ameliorated.
29. They were a ll pe rsonages of more or less co nserJlience.
30. It is th e usefulness of any moral rul e a lone whic h constitutes th e moral obl igati on.
EXERCISE XXVL
PURITI', PROPR IETY , l'RECISJO N.

I n the fo llowing, examine whether .the erro r is one of Purity,
Propriety, or P rec ision, and th en cor rect it, giv ing yo ur reaso n.
01 RECTION. -

P ART

J.

Neglige nce of du ty often prod11\cs un happiness.
The p rin ce next made propos it ions of m a rri age, b ut was
rejec ted on account of his disgracefu l rnstoms .
.). T h:it nat ion is n oted for its observat io n of the S:i blnt h, and
fo r its in toleration of th e o pinions of other people.
I.
2.

PURITY, PROPRIETY, PRECISION.

77

4. His conscience o f his o wn integrity has suppo rted him despite
th e negl ige nce of his fr iends.
5. This appl ication of reason, so co ntinually and gene rally
exercised, pred icates a great nati onal fa ilure.
6. The first sleigh ing of th e season arrived yes terday.
7. Some of these p ublicatio ns are calc ula te d to injure society.
8. He r dN111/ wJs m ade on a sudden e m erge ncy, when_ she
made so de cided ::t success that she has s ince been retained.
9. No a rti st who has ever vi sited the c ity c reated a greater
furore th an this quee n of song .
1 0 . There appears to be a determinat ion on the part uf some
o f the lead ing men in E ngla n<l to s it o n th e pate nt rnedi c:ine
deal e rs.
l 1. /\du Iterations in food are becomi ng so ge ne ral that no one
kn ows \\'h at he is consuming unless it is prod uced before his eyes .
1 2 . Th ere will be some tall swearing, some big fees, some
leg:i l sharpne ss, ancl all that kind o f th ing, befo re t his mise rable
case co mes to a n end.
13. The prese nt parti es in the Reichs tag a re engaged in a
perpe tu al struggle between the Em p ire a nd th e Ch urc h.
14. He thuuglit that th e action uf the e.;overrnnent rni gl1t
jeop::i nli ze the llni ty o f the Empire .
15. The assumption tha t a man who goes in to a cauclls is
bound to vo te in accordance wi th the caucus m :1jority, is wholly
g ratuit ous.
1 6. Th e s mooth se:l g rew rollgh ; the moon g rew smaller afte r
th e full.
I 7. The M o rmo n prophet has taken h is forty-fifth h elp-mate .
18. Co rn elia, pointing to h e r sons, exclaimed, "These a re H1y

j ewel ry ."
19. I g uess T sh all locate out W es t.
20. He never li ved in this secti o n o f the co untry_

.

<',,,:,

~

."

COMl'OSITION AND JrnETOJ<IC.

PART

IT.

21. The plan of the Unive rsity embraces the uuilding of a new
convocation hall.
22 . He has Leen cutting a ridiculous figure fo r quite a spell.
23 . Manufactures profited by the discowry of Watt and Arkwright, am.I by the consumption of raw cotton in the mills of
l .ancash ire.
24. I will not be answerable fur the exactitud e of these
speeches.
25. Ant! hast thou walked in the world with so lit tle observance
as to won de r that m en are not what they seem?
26. The deacons seem to have been quite unconscious that the
law prohibited what they were do ing.
27 . Events had transpired in the country which c hanged the
'lSpect of affai rs.
28. The rains rendered the roads impracticable .
29. No one uesidcs ourselves will be :idm itted.
30. There is a ,se ri ous fault in that man's cha rac ter.
3 r. They \kserted th e sin king sh ip.
3z. The rules are inJorseLl Ly most write rs on th e subject.
33 ·. The number of blunders imputed to him is enJless.
34. I never saw such ~\ quantity of horses at any show.
35. They formed a procession to proceed the palanquin.
36 . I am well aware that this view of my subject is not
prevalent.

3 7. Wha t he supposed to be a stone turned ont to be o nl y the
apparition of one ..
33. Some change will probably soon arrive .
39 . The eme11te, was caused by the !1a1tlwr o f th e new governor.
40. He deprecates th e whole proceeding.

PUl<.ITY, PROPRIETY,

PART

l'ltECISIUN.

7<.J

III.

41. The sportsmen bagged a large amount of game.
42. I have heard of the gents, but [ never indorsed th em.

43. He came home unbeknown to his parent>.
44. !\n Assurance Company has been started in the town.
45 . H.e perambu la ted up and down the street.
46. Afte r several years, th ey at length heard fro m hini.
4 7. Th ey all refused to come except Mary and Alice would.
48. Jfoe ctly I found the house inhabited, I began to L>e sorry
th at it was not vacant.
49. The epithets, thief, coward, liar, were heaped upon him.
50. [ expect to receive an invitation to that party.
5 r. Such a statement was enough to dumbfound e r him.
5 2. He was a model in mildness of temper and in prop erness
of behavior.
53. The rogne deserved condign pun ishment for his crime .
54. The announcement of the \·ictory was premature, ~is it
turned out that the supposed victo rs were vanquished.
55. He died in the conscience of never having failed in his
duty to the Pope.
56. We are more liable to see people's faults than thei r virtues.
5 7. Most of his statements were the converse of th e facts.
58. We had an awfully jolly time that eve ning.
59. He was dragged in by the heels and afterwards ejected in
the same m:rnne r.
60. When the English greeted the French soldiers, the latter
evinced a rec iprocity.
PART IV.

6 x. He experienced a very painful sensation .
62. That meeting was a howling success and the opponent's
chance,; are now higher than a kite .
63. l-1 e was that sick that he co uld not proceed a step further.
64. That man is a great worker and he will be sure to •·get
there."

.•··

·j:
,'I

·"

So

.,
COMPOS IT ION AND RHETOR IC.

THE FOKMATJON Ol' SENTENCES.

81

65. Thm1gh lampoons do not relieve a ma n of hi s money the
lacerate his soul.
'
Y

66. He soon acquired the cus tom of using tobacco .
67. Tnsp1te of aH the~r threa ts h e remain ed pe rfectly dumb.
GS. We had a de lig htful dinne r yesterday.
60 . lt is not difficult to di sc rimin:ne bet\\"een o r" 11ge" d
I
.
.
'"'
"n green.
70.
:un p i ep:m:J to gwe lllY e1, idenc c on the case.
7 1 . "\V
·
"
·
·1
I
. . c :lre, s:tH t 1e p reache r. "incessantly remind in ' "l pit: of t11e1r srns."
g l eo
72 . The pt1blic will heai lily indorsc the sent11n enb uttered b

the court.

II .

I.

Tl fE FORMXl'ION OF SENTENCES.

The form:iti o n of sent e nces will be co nsid e red unJer fou r heads:
Clearness, 2 . Stre ngth, 3. Un ity, 4 . Elegance .
I.

Y

73· The state was, as th e centu ry c rept o n, in vaded by bands
of courageous settlers.
. 74. In spite of the ir uni1·crsal dete rmin a tion, midnight a rrived
wit hout anythmg Jecided.

7~- ·~·[is frie nd s pardoned him fo r th e injury he had done th em .
7 · . . 1ere w:i.s :i. ge ne ral ou tcry of su rprise.
77. lhey assumed a seat at the ba nquet.
78.
The island. was the n frequentecl by n o t rave ll ers an d few
. .
v1s1tants of a ny kmd.
79. He . led us into a room lig hted up with abu nd a nce of
candles.
So. lie rc.1d the recital of that dreadful acc id ent.
(\ I.
l k :tc:ts lik e a downri ght dude.
82. One w<.rnl d h:tve th ought i>y th e ir acts that th ey had
just
blo wn 111 from the country.
83. Obstac les ;ire ove rco ni e by diligence.
8..J.. He.was notorious for hi s ch:iri ty.

85 . Del1eve m e, Yours respective ly.

LESSON XVIII.

CLEARNESS.

Clearness requires a sentence to be so constructed tlut the
meaning is easil y and reaJily apparent to the reader. Wh e n the
m ea ni ng is not clear, the sente nce is said to be obscure; and
when there is a n uncertainty as to whic h of two differen t meanings
th e author inten ds to convey, the sentence is said to be ambiguous.
How promoted . - Clearness is a relative term. W hat is clear
to one pe rso n may be obscure to anoth er. A writer's a im should
be to make his meaning easily intelligible to persons who understand the language. Clearness is promoted by attend ing to the
followin g points: The W ords, Arrangeme nt, Pronouns, Emphatic
Words, Same Construction, Ellipses, Lengt h of Sentences.
THE WORDS.

If we wish to make ou r meaning clear, we must use such words
as are und erstood by th e persons addressed. Discourse is somctim es re nd ered p:nt ially or wh oll y obscme through an excessive
use of lo ng, un fa mi lia r wo rds. In d ealing with abstract sul1j ects,
and in t:nfolding th e princ iples of th e va rious sciences, difficult,
te chnical la ng uage is often necessary and proper ; but in treating
of subjects, suc h as are deal t with in ordina ry na rrat ion or desc ri ption, short, simple, familiar words should as far as possible be
used.
ARRANGEMENT.

Qualifying words, phrases, :rnd claus es should be placed so near
th e words they mod ify, that th ere can be no mistaking the conn ection intended.

82

COMPOS ITI ON AN D RHETORIC.

r. An ad verb should stand close to the word, phrase, or clause,
that it modifies; as, "The general nearly lost a thousand of his
men." Here " nearly" is placed so as to qualify "lost ," though
it was probabl y intende tl to qualify "a thousand."
2. Adverbial phrases and clauses mu st, likt:wise, be placed
nea r the words t hey qu:ilify . Thus, "The eagle saw th<: lamb while
nying." H e rc" fl yin g " seems to qu alify" la mb," liut it was no
do ubt inll'nded to •1u ali fy "eagle" ; so the sentence should reatl,
"The c:1glc while fly ing sa w the Lunb."
3. Participial Cl a uses. - In placing partic ipial clauses, care
must Lt: taken not to leave it ambiguous to which of two nouns the
partic iple and its qualifyi ng ll'Ords belong. Thus," I saw my friend
by mere accident wh en I was in the c ity at the fai r, walking down
the main stred." Arrange : "Wh en I was in the city at the fair,
I, by me re a cc id en t, saw my frien d walking clown the ma in street."
When using, instead of adl'erbial phrases, parti ciples implying
" wh ile, "" when, " " th ough," "that, " or "if," make it clear, by
the con text, o r Ly the .1rrangcment, which conjunctio n is im plied.
J f this cannot Le <lone, turn th e phrase into a relative p ronoun
:ind finite veru; as, '· J Jca fened by the sound , he went away."
This sente nct:, as it stand s, is o pe n to different m..:anings, and
unless th e co nte xt makes clc ~ r whi ch meaning is in ll'nd e<l, the
conjunc tion should lie inserted. T lni s, it may read, " because,"
"since," "as," "though," "when," " he was deafene<l by the
sou nd, he went away."
"Men, followin g after shadows, arc snre to be decei\'ed ." This
may mean, "l\1e n that," etc. ; or "\\'he n men, " etc.
"Sedng hi s da nge r, he with d rew." In a sentence like this, the
ambig ui ty may be removed by in serting a preposition; as, "On
see ing, " etc.
4 . Clauses. - Dependent clauses should be so arra nged as to
keep them distinct from each other and from independen t clauses;
as, "He stated that he wished to lie present, and intended to
speak on the question." To makt: t lie intendc::d arrangement
clear, //wt should bt: inserte<l Lefure i11le11t!ed.

CLEARNESS.

5. Misleading Arrangement. - Some times sentences are ~u
arrange<l that th<: reader is led to suppose tlut a certain mean ing
\s intended, but as he procee<ls he finds that something very d iffer·
ent is the sense conveyed; as, " The Rt:v . J. J ones is the un ly
gentleman tra velling authorized to collec t subscriptions fo r this
paper."
6. Words that have a number of meanings must be placed sc
that theu~ can be no mistaking which sense is intended ; thus,
"The general had some fast fr iends in the: cily." " fa:;t " is
arnl.Jiguous; say, "firm, " or" dissolute. "
EXERCISE :XXVII.
TH~~ W ORDS.

DIRECTIO N. -

Stucly th ese sente nces till you nn clerstaml t hem, a nJ th en

write u ut lhe n1eani ng in ~ imple r words.

That confl.agration consumed numerous ed ifices.
T hat audacious inJividual co11tim1t:d an incessant di sturb . ance, ll'rminating only with the terrniuatiun of the lecture .
3. The lunar effulgence shed a luminous raJ iance ovn uur
pathway.
4 . He expired amid c ircumstances of the most direful indige nce .
5. Here we discovered a spacious cave rn whi ch affo rded u ~
adequate protection fr om the inclemencies of the elements .
6. He ge ntly insinuated th e incapacity of the en ti re asse1nulage.
7. I remembe r a similar ol.Jjection being maLle to a company
of sable fun ctionaries.
8. Her mat ernal relative had been snatched away by the rel t: ntJess hand of Death.
9. Nor is it improbable that the teeming future may usher in
existence men wh ose resplendent genius will entitk them to take
rank with the immortals of extinc t civilizations.
1 o. An inventive genius who was a profound searcher of nature
and a sagacious scholar, fuumleJ the inunortal sy~ t t:m uf ll0u1u.:·
opathy.
1.
2.

CO~! POS ITI ON

AND RHETORIC.

1 1 . A youthfol pe rsonage was <leclared c ulpable and was sentence<l to be chastised.
1 2 . I le w:is nut p repared to confront parental displ easure under
th e stigma of de reliction.
13. The be nignan t pedagogue arra nged matte rs satisfactorily
by admin istering a sound castigat iun .
14. r bo re the cli111inuti o n of my riches witho ut any outrages of
su rruw or pus ilbnimity o f d ejec ti o n.
15. I lialcct has become the appellation for the ce ntrifugal tendencies o f bnguages, wh e th e r originating in indi1·iJ uab, in famili es, or prov inces, as opposed to the ce ntr ipe tal po we r o f analogy,
rqi reSL'ntcd by the sway whi c h majorities always exerc ise ove r
min o riti es.

EXERCISE XX:VIII.
ARRA~ GD l ENT.

DrnECT ION. -Arrange th ese se ntences su as tu mak e the intend ed meanin ~ de ar.
PART

I.

r . EveryboJy th ought th a t it was destined to be a g rea t c ity
twen ty years ago.
2. T he F re nc h, having n earl y los t li ve thousand me n, became
d iscouragcd .
3. Be ing the onl y boy, 1 was loved by both my pare nts, a nd
alm os t a llo wed to do as l liked .
4 . I am this year offering th e public a la rge ~md well selected
~ t oc k to sc.:l ec t fr o m a t reduced prices.
5. Sup pose an adult man could bP. suddenly placed in the
wo rl d, as Allam is said to ha ve bee n, and then left to do as best
he mig ht, in the full vi go r of his facu lti es.
6. It was my father's c usto m t o hear me repeat to him the
lessons I was !Carning wh en I was a boy.
7. He is bou nd to execute any orde r you g ive.
8. He walked a way very reluc tan tly ack nowledging his fault.
9. I saw some boys going to school throu g h th e windo w.

CLEAR1'ESS .
10 .

He ansll'ercd all th e ques ti o ns that we re put lo him quite

readily.
1 r. His rebu ke had th e des ired e ffect.
12 . The b st scene o f Canonchct 's life is worthy :i<; one of the
nobl es t instances on reco rd of India n mag na ni mi ty.
13 . T he fire started in the ba~eme nt, caused by the exl'losion
of a lamp .
14 . Th e g rea t ends o f the R evolutio n were, indrc,>d, scc:11rrd
eve n :i.midst the confusio n and int rigue whi c h we ~hall h:l\'e tu
d esc ribe, by the co mm on co nsent o f all.
JS· Th ey broke down both th e d ou r o f the stal>lc and uf the
cellar.
1 6.
1

H e pulled up th e three fir st plants in th e row.

7. All o f us wish so me tim es to co mmunicate ou r thoughts to

others.
1 8. There is a se t of merry drolls whom th e people l1J 1·c so
well that they could eat them according to th e olcl proverb .
19. Prove that Wa terl oo was fit re tribution before you p raise .
2 o. He sta bbed Cxsar twenty- three ti mes b etw ee n Pompey's
Pilla r and e leven o'clock, many of whi ch we re fat al.
2 r. Th ese we no t only hear now so me times, bu t even sec in

. ·'

print.
2 2.

The judge se nte ncccl him to jail for diso rd e rl y rn ndu c t for

ten days.
23 . I shall have a comed y for you in a se:iso n or two :it the
far thest, th a t, I b e li eve, will be wo rth your acceptance .
24 . A stup id butt is only fi t for th e conversatiun of ord inary
people.
25 . For they call me wi se, e ven though I am not wise, wh en
th ey wa nt to rcprn:11:h you.
PA RT

II.

26. Und er the c ircu mstances, I must ad mit that you acted fairly .
2 7. She did not hear what you said running so q ui ckly down
th e crowded street.

•
86

COMPO S ITION AND RHETORIC.

They ra n hom e crying "Fire I" in their overcoats.
I saw the sunset walk ing on the pier beh ind the mountain.
The whale c rushed the boat to atoms while floating.
And k eep the flame from wasting by repose.
32. He did not notice \\'ha t you said, going un expectedly out
at that moment.
28.
29.
30.
3 r.

3.1· We d epa rt ed and left a great many people very sorry behind \IS .
34. He has btely applied steam to move coal-w;:igons on a
r;:iilw:-ty, instead of dr;:iwin g them with horses, with g reat success.
35. In that room hangs :l picture n eatly painted behind the
door.
36 . 1 I c le fl th e room quickly dropp ing the purse on th e fl oo r.
37. fi e did not prete nd to extirpat e Frenc h musi c, but only to
culti ,•ate it.
38. Wh y, I believe, with a tolerable grace, I do b ear a part. I
d esire not to be misunderstood .
39. Poverty had dr iven him in boyhood to accept a writership
in the company's service.
40 . !\waking with a start, the waters hea ved around me.
41. When I came into the country visiting my fri e nds, looking
up the street, I saw my father coming to fe tch me home.
42. /\ m;:iste r who is essentially a cram me r, cannot be preve nted
from cramming l>y any po\\'Cr on earth .
43. T.ct not Eng li sh manufact urers depart fro m the max ims of
self-he lp, which have made them what they a re, by calling upon
th e Government to do th eir \\'Ork for them.
44. Among the first arriv als was l\f r. Derby, now so loved by
every one, \\'ho was to officiate on the occasion.
45 · The beaux of that day used the abominable ar t of painting
th eir fac es as well as the women .
46. The enemy a tt acked us befo re th e day had begun to lm·ak,
at three o'clock in the mo rning.
4 7. \Vante rl, a you ng wnm:in to t:1k e care of two orphan children, of a religious turn of mind.

CLEA !<NESS.

48. Lost, a cow, belonging to an old woman, with br:i ss knobs
on her horns.
49. After the robins have pinched and pounded all the life ou t
of an earth-worm, as Italia n cooks pound all th e spirit out of a
steak, and th en g ulped him, they sta nd up in honest self-confidence.
50. To he superan nuated at that age must be rega rded nther
as a hardship than as a favor by me n of energetic dispositions.

LESSON XIX.
CLEARNE:-;s. - PRONOUNS.

Pronouns. - Owing to the fact that we have in English sn few
pronouns of the third person, it is o ft e n very difficult to make
clea r to which a nt ecedent a pronoun refers. This is espec i:1ll y
the case in long sentences where there ;:ire two or more nou ns
of th e same number a nd ge nde r. Various expedients may i>e
em ployer! to obviate the difficulty; as, r . To break up the sentence into two or more shorter ones.
2 . To make one of th e nouns singubr and the other plural.
3 . To change the constru c tion so as to make the pronouns of
diffe re nt perso ns.
4. To repo rt a speech in the first person.
5. To put a synonym instead of the noun.
6. To supply the nouns.
Rxa mp!es. - " He told his father that he would never forget
his promise." The last "his " is ambiguous. R ead, "He said
to his father,' I will neve r forget my (or your) promise.' "
"Alm ost imm ecl [a tely after the accession of Henry Vf. the
French king diecl , and he was procbimed king of Fra nce at
Pa ri s." Herc" he " see ms to h ave " Fren<h kin g " for its ;rntccedent. For "he" substitute "H e nry of England."

88

CLEAHNESS.

COMPOS ITIO N AJ\"D RllETOJ{lC.

Relative Pronouns. -The rebtive pronouns must be placed
so as to refe r c learly to their :111tecede nts.
T he fo ll o wing rules will be fou nd of se rvice : 1. Do not, if possible , allow any words to inte rv e ne Letween
the re btive :me! its antecedent.

EXERCISE XXIX.
PRONOUNS.

D11n:cnu:--; . - Rcmn\·e the am bigu ity fr 11 m l ht:se
of th e cxpccl icnt s suggested .
P ART

z. W hen the r ela tive clau se is res trict i\·c, and the use of" who"
or" whi c h" causes ambiguity, 11se "th at."
3. Th e amb ig uity arising fro m th e use of "who" o r "which"
may so m etimes be rem oved hy pl:ic ing a definite art ick, o r other
d emonstrative wo rd, befo re t he ante cede nt. Th11s, "Virtu e which
hi des itself is not sure o f it s rc w:ml." T his sen te nce is ope n to
two m ea nin gs, as" whic h " may I.Jc eithe r co nne c tiv e: or restrictive.
Hy placi ng "the " o r " th at" Lefo re "virtue " the relative is mad e
restr ict i\·e o nl y.
4 . 1\ mlii gn ity m ay so m e times be removed l>y re peating the
antecede n t in some ne w form . Th11s, " li e sa id th:1t he would
not e ve n hea r m e, which T had expec ted ." " !Tc said th:it he
wo nl d no t even hear me, a re fn sa l (o r a fav o r) whi c h (o r th at) I
h:id expec ted ."
5. D o no t use a redu nd a nt "and" before "wh i h "; as, "I
g ave him an inte rest ing boo k fur a presen t, 1111d whi c h cost me
five d ollars."
" :\ nd" is n ot red und ant wh en it stand s between two co-o rdinate
relative cla uses eac h introd uc ed by "whic h."
6. So m e tim es it is l>e tter to b egin a ne w se nt ence and to turn
"who" o r "which" into a personal prono11 n, o r pro nou n and
conjunc ti on; a s, "He " or " 1\ ml he," "It" or "And it."
7. /\gain, the rela tive a nd its preposit io n 11ny he cha nged into
"wh ereby,"" wh ereupo n,"" whcrc:1 t," or int<) so rn <.: other subordinate co nj un c ti o n; " 1\ s th e skckto n that waited nt thei r feast
l>y whi ch (whereby) th e ir sinful pl easure was in c re:1s ·d."
'
8. /\rnbi g nity may at tim es be :l\·oid rd hv orn itt inr: the rPL1tive
or by making its clause a parti cip ial phrase.
,

st..: 11 kt1ccs ,

lJy applying: sume

I.

Th e capta in of Lhe ship swa m :1 sl10rc, a nd so did the C<.J<1k.
Sh e was insur ed fur fift e <.:n th o us:rn.\ d o llars, and was ht:l\·ily
loaded with iro n.
2. Th<.:y were persons of o rdin a ry alJiliti cs, even Lefor e the y
were injured by their vi ces .
3. l [c promi se d his fath e r that he wo1ild nev e r furge t his
advi ce .
4. Th e farm e r went to his ne ig h bo r, and told him th:1t hi s
cattl e we re in his fi eld.
5. T h.e boy tvld h is maste r th at wh ateve r he d id, he c uuld not
please him.
6. P eople o f all diseases, and with out an y ki nd of di sease, l>u v
paten t m cdi c in <.:s, ;1 ml they a re swallowed d ow n hy the barrel in
eve ry to wn a nd c it y.
7. It would be a great thing if our youthful ag ri c ultnri sts
would read mo re, and wh ate ver st im11 lates th a t is to he lotJk cd 011
as g ood.
8. I have come to th e c onc lusio n th a t freedom where :lily
p erso n is free to d o a:> he li kes with any one or his property, and
wh o ca n have no rl'.d ress, is no fr ee dom at a ll.
9. ;\ youn g g irl, it is said, has jnst di ed in an asyl11 m in Hamburg, \\'h ose hair was accustom ed to c h:rn ge its color ar co rdin g to
h er states o f mind.
10. H e sa id to m e that if h e die! not wi sh to do so, he n('ed
r,ot, but that he wo uld rlo so a ny way.
r 1 . The picture o f the k in g hun g on the w.111 lwhin d tlH" <!n"r,
it was covered with a doth.
12. He said that he wonld se nd hin1 help if he 1\':h wil li:i ;.: t <>
accept it.
1.

'''f
'r'·

,_,

'

.....
·

')O

COMPOS ITI ON i\ N D Rll ETOR IC.

13. He fired .1ccidental ly and shot the man while he was out
walking.
r 4 . He informed the man that he had seen his bro ther and
that he had gone to see the exhibition .
15 . In th e confusion th :lt follo wed the CJr ri :ige ran over the
hoy that had black wheels.
r 6. 1\lth oug h l have looked eve r)·whcre, I ca nn o t find one of
my books.
1 7. l [c shot the nnn and hn1ke his lei;:.
1 .'\ . The dog r:rn away with the meat, wh ose tail had been cut
off by a wagon th:H had l>ec n stolen fr om the coo k.
1 9 . While he w:i.s go ing through the co1111 try, he met a fri end
:111d he was very ill, but he ga \·e him fo od and he reco ve red.
20. I fc is unworthy of th e confidence of a fello w-I e ing who
di srega rds the laws o f his ~faker.
2 1 . \Vhcn very little snow falls, or whe n it is blown off the
fi e lds, it g reatl y diminishes the c rop of f;:i ll-whea t the next season.
22 . John told James that if he d id not sta rt sooner, he would
be late, and that thi 3 woul d not suit him.
23. He hath made him to be si n fo r us wh o kn e w no si n.
24 . She asked her if she would keep house fo r he r while she
was away.
2 5. He s:1icl th:lt he had see n his hrnther and that he wo uld fulfil
his p:1rt of the ln rg:1in.
l'Alff

I I.

2 6. He went to th e officn and tol<l him if he did no t make
that man g ive him l.Jac k hi s purse , he wrnild h:1ve hi m prosecuted.
2 7. The re is a m o rtgage o n th e pn>pcrty, whi c h will likely
cause some trouble .
28. I thus obtained a character for n:1tural powers of reasoning
whic h I could not r efute, and yet whi ch I felt was un deserved.
29. Meanwhile the sponso rs of both champions went as was
their duty, to see th at they were duly armed for the co mbat.
3 o. He nrique forced him to his knees a nd beat him till he was
out of breath.

CLEARNESS.

3 r. It is a kind of basin twe n ty feet long, e nclosed in a wall,
whi c h omes from a di stance of se veral miles.
32. He is ruining his health by the same erro rs that so many
hav e mined th ei rs befo re .
33. The prior had control o f a large part of th e revenues,
which gave him the mea ns o f defraying his o wn expenses.
34. fn the sp ring o f 18SS, h e: lost hi s sight th rough an mJliry
to the optic ne rve, whi c h was causecl by exposure, after e ightee n
years of se rvice devoted to life -savi ng .
35 . His serv:rn t being ill, he had consented to allow·his hrothn,
a tim id youth from th e country, to take his place for a short ti111e ,
and fo r that sho rt tim e he was a constant sou rce of annoyan ce .
36. While he was out huntin g he m e t an Indian, and he at tempted to take his life, but he could not.
3 7. Xenophon is always celebrating the good na ture o f his
hero, which he tells us he brought into the wo rld with him .
38. He bequeathed to his brothe r Alexander, the sum of
$ 1 2,000, to his wife :;1000, and to his three c hil d ren $ 1000 e.wh.
39 . The king was shot hy his nep hew while he was c rossing th e
mountain.
40 . The ma n was driving an old ox wh e n h e becam e angry anJ
ki c ked hi m , hittin g his jawbone wi th such fo rce as to break his leg.
4 1. In gene ral I enjoy se ttled co nfirm e d health, to wlti ch I
have for so 111 e years pair! great attention, chiefly from p ulili r view,;.
42. I !e r maid s:1id tha t wh e n she h:id a fine face she w;.1s always
looking o n it in her glass.
43 . Tms way will dire c t yo n to a gentlcm:i.n's house that h:i.th
skill to ta ke off th ese bn rdens.
· 44. All persons wish ing to hav e th e Tim rs se nt to any of th e ir
fri e nds, will p lease give their nam es tu any membe r o f the com·
mittee.
45 . Tell her of a piece of good fortune that has befallen one ,,f
her acquaintances ; and she wishes it may prosper with her, hut
her m othe r used o ne o f her ni eces h;idly.
46. I notifi ed the co nstabl e and he ar res ted the n1Jn a t once.

92

CO MPOS ITI O N AND Rll l::TORIC.

47 . I offer fo r sale th e stock saved fro m the fire, which consists
of tw eed s, yarns, a nd a few gray bla nk ets.
4 8. Last ni g ht J by on a gondol a o n the Gra nd Canal, drinking
it all in, an<l life n eve r seemed so fo ll befo re .
49 · A dream vari es our being :rnd chan ges our condition while
it lasts.
50. Mr. F re ling huyse n, th e Secretary of State, tende red me the
a ppointm ent, whi c h I accepted.

LESSON XX.
CL EA RN F.SS. - n1i>JL\TI C WORDS.

Emphatic words should occup y e m pha ti c positions.
Sub ject and Pre dica te . - In o rde r th a t a se nte nce may be
e.:1sily a nd clearl y u nd e rstood , it is im po rtan t th a t th e subjec t and
the p redi cate sh ot1ld occ t11 y pro m ine nt positio ns.
r. The Subject. - \\' ht: n th e princ ipal su bje c t is the sa me as
the gramm a ti ca l th ere are th ree plac es of pro min e nce that it may
occ upy ; a. 1\ t the begi nnin g of the sen te nce ; as, "Th e m t:di c in e man
p itc hed his mag ic lodge in the woods."
b. Afte r an ad ve rLial, pa rt ic ipial, o r o th e r s ubsid ia ry clause;
as, "W ith g reat d iffi cult y, \\' e ma m gc d to glide d o wn the slippery
trunk o f a p ine tree ."
c. At the e nd of th e se nte nc e; as, "The most shameless thing
in the wo rl d is a p erfec t democ racy."
2. The Predicate . It is no less importan t th a t the predicate
should b e place d in a consp icuous positio n. Its natural place is
a rte r th e su bject. W hen, howeve r, it is specially em ph a ti c, it may
p recede th e subj ec t, or eve n sta nd first in the se nte nce. Thus,
" ( ; rea t is D ia na o f the E phesia n;; ," is mu c h more e mph atic than
" D ia na of the Ephesians is grt: a t."

C L EA l<NE SS .

93

Caution. - The grammatical sulijt: c t :md the prinr ipa l :,u\,ject
of a sen tenc e, th oug h usuall y the sa me, :i re ll• Jt a lways so . 1:u r
exa mpl e, in the fo ll o\\'i ng st: nlen ce th e princ ipal subjec t is the p:trt
in itali cs : " l Lippy if th e y :tll h:td c ontinu e d to knuw t/1 ,./r /11.!J.,_
soluble 1111ion , a 11r/ tlll'ir pr(lj>er place."
Other Emphatic Words. - Clearness as we ll as furc t: further
requires that all othe r e m pha ti c wo rds in a se nt e nce shu11ld uc cupy
e mp hati c pos itio ns, and th a t \\' he re th e re are seve ral t: rn ph. tt ic
wo rd s it sho uld be mad e clea r whi ch are th e mus t emp ha ti.. .
l t rn ay be h id d o wn as a gt: nc ra l rule th a t, wh e n w<> r.ls are
placed 011 t of th e ir usua l o rde r, th ey a rc m ade m o re e mp ha ti c.
See also wh a t is sai<l in " C auti on " to Exerc ise VI.
TH E SAM E

Co:-:sTRUL"fl ON.

The Same Construction. - rn the di ffe re nt pa rts o f a se nte nce
th:it :i re jo ined togeth e r in the sa me co nn ec tion , the· s:1111 e c o nstructio n shou ld ge ne r:tll y Le m a intain ed throu gho ut. This rid e
a p plies, c hie fl y, to wo rds, phrases, a nd c la uses tha t come n c.: ar
toge th er; it mt1st no t he adh e red lo so cl osely as to m ake tl1c
sent e nce stiff o r mo no to nous.
J~'xa mples . - Sa y " good a nd b rave," o r, " o r good ness :md
brave ry." nut, " of good nt:ss and h ravt: ."
"Ht: \\'as fully rt:so lvtd to g ive u p 1·o mm e rci:i l life :rnd oil <k\·oting himse lf to the stu dy of lang uages." T h is sho uld read, " J l e
was full y resolv ed to g ive up com me rc ial life a nd to dev ote hi mse lf to th e study of b ng11ages," or " o n gi vin g " an<l " o n d evo ting ."
In contrasts, the se nt e nces ar e bo th cleare r and mo n• forr: ilJle if
the contrasted m e mb ers are co nstru c ted alike . Fo r txam µlt: , the
sentence, "Sc ri ptural la nguage burst from hi. lips wh e n be sa w
victory at Dunbar; th ey falter ed it even in death, tho ug h h e haLi
almost los t his p oli c y a nd consc io usness," is mu ch Le tte r as the
auth o r has it: " Sc rip tur:il la nguage burst frurn his li ps wh en he
saw vi c to ry at Dunbar; it hove re d on them in death, wh e n pol icy,
and alm os t consciou sness, was go ne."

: ..1;-·.

· •. -

94

COMl'O:o; JT JON

Ai'\D J<II ETOR IC.

EXER CISE XXX.
E :111·11AT1c \ Vrnw,;.
l> JRFL- n1J :\' . -

1.

Civc the e mphati c wurds a cu nspit.: u11us s itua tio n.

There is little q uestion uf his genius .

~ . The idea of Na ture's alilwrrence o f a vacu um g rew out of

the di sc uss ion vf 1•11111ps.

J . i'\ o r is th e rc:1 s" n which has led tu the cstalilish me nt vf this
mor:il l:iw difficult to ]Je dis, ·erned .

-I· l should have come 11p bst week , if I had k no wn you were
3ick .

CL EA H. N ESS .

95

17 . A m e re conqueror ought n ot to oli ta in fr o m us the revere11 ce th:tl is due tu the great l>enefactv rs o f mankind .
18. Hut who can doubt tint this man's religi o n was s ince re ?
19 . Colore,J p eo ple are more successfully photographe• I, :l> :1
ru le, th an while people, in the opi n io n o f :i n ex pe ri e nced :trt ist.
20 . All th y towers are slink in shapeless ruin .
:! r . The m a n wh o, voi cl o f c ares, retains a shilli11 g in s ilk e n o r
in h:athem pu rse, is happy.
2 2 . T o the cornm:rnd of th e pa rliamenta ry party w.1s appuinte.J
t h e Earl o f Essex, a man of re spec tabl e ab iliti es and l>f sunH:

7. T he re is smely nothin g in t hese ex pl ana ti o ns t ha t is not
.>lff lle uut by the f:tvts.

military experience .
23. The house occupied five yea rs in Luild ing, <'usti11g the
propri e to r a hu ndreJ thousand dollars.
24. Th e Indians are e xceed ingly sk ilful in shooting b11ffalues;
sendi ng an arrow q u ite t hrough the Lio d y of a full-g ro wn [,u(falu,
he be in g in a favorable posit io n, a nd suffi c ie nt ly near.
25. Zenouia assumed the gove rnment afte r th e 11 111 rd e r uf lter
husliand, avenging h is death , a 11d n1 :ik ing herself fvriniJa uk tu :111
t he nations within h er reac h.

:-;, That ou r vlde r writ er-,, quoted to excess, it wo uld Lie the
Lilindness o f partiality to deny.

EXERCISE XXXI.

5. J\11 mankind :i re passing or ha1•e passed throug h such concep ti ons o f th e plan an d "·urking uf the Unive rse.
6. H.is is a mind th:1t, in d isce rning a 11d rdlecti11 g wh ate ver
odd o r amu,,ing thin gs vcrn r in life around, occ upies itse lf pree min e ntly.
1

9. T he spi rit of the famous h ouse o f V asa rose to th e first

TH1·:

hnoic heigh t in him.
1o. Th ey d rew vff slowly and sull enly , lea1·i ng no thing t u the
vi c to r e xce rt so me g un s of positiun.
1 r. Th e business ll' ill ta sk you r sk ill and fidelity.
(Make
"fidel ity" emphat ic .)
1 2 . The ni g hts that had l>ee n s pe nt l1y him, not u n his couch,
were 1n:tn y.

13.

Th e ex h aust ion that he Ind e xperie nced h:id b ee n g reat.
14. Th e lust rt: of hi s youth had sometimes bee n h:1gganl.
15. \Ve should first secure a good defi n it io n of Orat ory. I
t h ink t his is not diffi c ult.
16. It mu st hav e see med cl1'<::1clfu l tu :ill whv were wi t hin sigllt
o r hea rin g vf ] .iitLe n when t hat battle w:1-; u \·e r.

l ) 1H ECTl <JN . -

SA~tE

CoNST IWLTtON.

In these senl t.: 111..: cs, 111 akL· iHJt h parts uf tlic sa me funn.
I·.

The up pu1 :c11ts of the c; ove rnm e nt are na tu rall y, a1 1d nut
without justification , elated at the failure or the attempt.
2. The gene ral was qu ite aware ho w treac herou s we re the intentions of i1is entertaine rs, and of th e dan ge rs from which he had
1.

late ly escaped .
3. T o deride the mi series of the unhappy is inhuman, and want ing compassio n towa rds th e m is u nch ri st ia11.
4. Before the loc usts ca m e, the coun try w:ts a parad ise; afte r
th e ir wo rk was do ne, they left only a de sert.
·5. Th ese fund s will be available fo r rn eeti 11g suc h expe nses, and
to enalile th e co mmittee tu ca rry u11t the sche me .

f

COM POSITION AND l<HETOJUC.

6. The boys said, "We are going, and that they would not stay
long."
7. He is one of the few surviv ing magistrntes of the island of
whi ch he is a nati\'c, and has lived in it all his life.
S. I les<.:r te rs from princ ipl e, listl:d with fortune, they neve r see
any good in suffe ring virtue; nor, with them, is usurpation a crime
if prospe rou s.
9 . ,\ JI returned to their ho mes w<.:11 please d with the exe rcises
of the eve ning, :tnd in the conscious enjoyment of th e tim e profitably spent.
1 o. The love of Christ is like a sea, into whose boso m you can
look a little way, but its depths arc unfathomabl e .
i 1. ln England we are said to lea rn manners a t second hand
from your side of the wa ter, a nd that we dress our Lehavior in
the frip pe ry of France.
1 z. ,\ s fa r as appears th e re was no prejudicing th e case, a nd
no at tem pt to stra in e vid e nce to accomplish their convi c tion.
i 3. I recoll ec t the good, hones t, wholeso me, hun g ry repast
whic h we nude und e r a beech-tree, just by a spring of pure, sweet
water th a t stoic o ut o f the side of a hill; and how, wh e n it was over,
one of the p:trty rea<I old Izaak Walton's" Sce ne with the i\filkm:1 icl. "
14. He undertook th e preparation of the hall , and to p rovide
accommod a tions and rcrrcsh menb for .111 who mi ght ro nw .
15. I fan c ied how th est: ugly sullllrbs would ju in with the open
ricl ds, :i.nd tha t th e c ity would soo n reach to th1· ri\·cr.
16 . Ko m:1ttc r ho w brig ht the future may :ip pL'ar, we should
not dep e nd o n it, but le t us act in the prese nt.
17. H e d ec id ed to visit the go rge, and if he saw any of the
p arty, he would ask for his dog and gu n.
r 8. Th e judgments whi c h Johnson passed o n booi<s we re, in
his own time, regard ed with superstiti ous vencrati n, and, in ou r
time, people generally treat them with contem pt.
I9. Of the two great c reative minds of th e lat ter half of the
seventeenth ce ntury, one produced the "Parad ise Lost," and the
" i'ilg rim 's Progress" was the work of the other.

CL EA RNESS.

97

20 . There is a principle which Hastin gs was fond of assertin;:; in
th e strongc , t te rms, and he acted on it with undeviating steadiness .
2 1. Wi sdo m is the promise of tlle past; but if we wa 11t pkdges
for th e future, we look to beauty.

L ESSON XXI.
CLEA Rl\'ESS. - IMPROPER F l .I .I PSES.

Improper Ellipses. - !\lthou gh, as we shal l hereafter see, a
sentence is stren gthened by omitting all words not necessa ry to
a clear expression of th e thought, ye t if this is carried too far,
ambiguity, obscurity, or loss of vigo r, will be th e res ul t.
The followin g hints will be found useful: 1. The a rti cle si10 ul J be re peated before each noun whe n dis tin c t things are meant; as, "a treasurer a nd secretary" means
one person who holds two offices, but "a treasu re r and a secretary" means two ofiice rs. "The good and wise " are one class
wi th two q11alities; "the goocl and the wi:;c " arc two classes .
2. The subject, or some wo rd re presenting it, should be inse rted
when the omission would perplex the reader. Thus: " l Tc prete nds to Ix wo rkin g fllr h is friends, whom he is act11ally lictr:1yin,.;,
and (he? 1>r th ev?) wi ll no t ~11low any one ebe to interfere."
3. /\ conjun cti o n slwuld be repeated when its o mi ss ion rnak'"'
the construction d o11 Ltful. Thus: "\Vh rn we look hack up on the
havoc th:it two hundred Years ha\·e 111:1.Jc in th e ranks of our
authors, -and, above all, ( when) we re fe r their d isappt>:1 r:111 ce
to the succession of new cnmpetitors, - we are dismayed at t he
prospect of prcseut writers."
4. \Vh cn there arc two or mo re rchtiv c clauses th e rebtiw·
pronoun must ge nerally be rcpe<1tecl with each; as, "His heroes
are men who h:we arr:ved hv different roads at the same ~oa l of
despair, and ( whu) to the bs~ defy the powe r uf earth and heaven ."

·'

-~y

~\.·,

. ..
f."r

·.;_:~::t:Mj'>-

COMPOSITION AND Rll ETORJC.

C LL\l< NESS .

5. After the co njunctio ns tlia n or as the verb or other words
whose om issio 11 causes a111Lig uity must be inserted; as " J le likes
me !.Je tter t han you " should be ·· He lik es me !.Jetter th an you
l~ke me," or, "Le tter than he likes you."
G. \Vhen th e se nt e nct: is long and the verb fa r fr o m its subje ct,
the subject or so me wo rd that wil l stand :ts a summary o f what
has Leen sa id must be inse rt ed. T hus ; " Gold and cot to n, banks
and railwa ys, cro wde d ports and populous c ities, although ma tters
of g reat mo ment, tlust: are not the elt:men ts that co nstitute a great
nati o n."

EXERCISE XXXII.

L ENl;TH OF SENTE NCES.

t.

Long S e ntences. - With young pe rsons there is. no m ore fruitful source uf obsc ur ity than long sentences. T he beginn e r plunges
with such zest into his subj ec t th a t he nev e r thinks of a full stop,
out goes o n 111 o ne continuous sentence and is soon hopelessly lost
in his maze o f wo rd s. Th en he flou nd e rs abo ut eviden tl y witliuut
the faintest id ea of what is the sul>jec t, wh a t the p redi cate, whi ch
th e dependent, o r whi c h the inJepc ndent clause, in his neverending sen tence. His re medy is to put in plenty of full stops,
and, if the styl e h as no other e xcelle nce, it will at least possess
some degree of clearness .
If, in a sen te nce, th e s11 bordinate cl:rn scs are all of the same
kind , a ll cons trn cted in a similar fo rm , :rnd all depen ding 0 11 the
same p rincipal clause, there is not necessa rily :rn r o l>sc urity ; but
whe n a sentence cons ists of many cbuses pro misc uo usly thrown
together, or wh e n th e d epe ndent cla11 ses h:11·e o th ers depending
on th e m, ve ry c lose attention - close r th;:rn the writer is entitled
to dem:rnd - is req11ire d to gather th e meaning.

lJ1Rti..:CT I ON. -

99

S uppl:· the wurds wh vse u 1ni ssiu n t:uusc:s uLscurit y ur am

b iguity.
I.

She always thou ght m ore o f attending to th e wants of others

than of herself.
2 . My Loyhood days we re, in a measu re , like all vther l•<Jys,

'.'

spent in school and at hom e.
3 . Some young people find it diffi c ult to disting uish l>etll'ee n a
synecdoche a nd metonymy.
4 . They aimed at nothing less th e sup reme control of th e governme nt.
S· Th e ho te l's nigh t wa tchinan enaliles ge ntle men tu Le _cal ied
at any time, a nd adds greatly to the comfort and secunty ut all.
6. If <lead , his wife and child re n may <tpply .
. \\" e liupe the time will be sho rt until yum loe.tlth is rcs tvr ed
7
and in our midst again.
8. H e wished fur nothin g more than a diction:1ry.
9 . Of thuse nuw al the l lome su rne were l.Ju rn in England and
Irebml, and some came from th e c ity.
1 0 . The geography and histo ry :i re val ual>lc books.
1 1. I have nu more in11uence ove r him th :u1 otht:rs .
1 2. His chi ld hood was likt; 11nny oth e rs, th e happi es t part of
his life.
13 . To add to their burd e ns, they suffered from the exactiuns
of the nobles a nd land- owne rs.
14 . The cle rgyman announced that there would ue no prayermeeting that week as usual.
15 . Every advantage manufacturers desire can Le had, and su bstantial aid wh e n dese rvin g.
1 G. O ur wedd ing-cakes are got up in a style t:qual to any lJake r
in th e city.
17 . Th e op inions ofpeoplP in th ose rhy s differed so mu c h frc>m
the present ti111t' tloal li e w.ts l" 'i'1 1Ltr thuubli v11 ·iu11s.

#!-.

,•
.,

•.

·~ ~.:

100

COMPOS IT JON AND RllETORIC .

I 8 . And th ey co ntinu ed steaclfastly in th e apostles ' doctrine and
fe ll o wsh ip, and in breaki ng of bread , and in pro1yer;.
19. ( ) ne wo11ld think there were more sophis ts than one had
a k .11u.l in the argn lll ent.

EXERCISE XXXIII.
LEN( :TI l OF SENTENCES.

DIRE C:TI ON.-lm prove these senten ces by breaki ng th em up into shorter
ones.

It is to be hop ed that the di stinguish eJ author will be spa red
to fill up this gap himself, when, in his own words, there will be a
" continuous his to ry o f the French occupation of th e Continent,"
written we may :.ic!J, with the most 1ninstaking re sea rc h, :.ind the
most prai sewo rthy impar tiality, combined with such pic turesque
a nd gr:1phic narrative power as have already made it th e great
authority on the subjec t of whi c h it treats, and will, we doubt not,
lung nnintai n it in t ha t most honorable anJ deserved position.
2. There is a g reat co ntroversy about th e most conven ie nt and
ge nteel way of holding your pbte at m eals; so me stic k it between
th e fr;unc :md the b:tc k of the chai r, whi ch is an excell ent expedient, whne t he mak e of t he chair will ;11! w it; othe rs, for fea r
t he pl:ttc ,hould fall, g r:t sp il so firmly th:i t 1h<' ir th11111L rc.1chc:; to
th e miJdlc of tht: hollow: whi c h, ho wever, if your thu mb be dry,
is no sec ure m ethoJ ; and there fore , in t lut case , I advise your
wetting the ball of it with your ton gue; as to that absurd pr:1r.tice
o[ le tting t he back of the plate lie leaning on th e h ollow of your
hand, wh ich so m e ladies reco mm end, it is universally exploded,
being liable to so many accidents.
1.

3. Notwithstanding the urgent e ntreaties of his friends, for him
to aband on his ente rpri se, Colum bus, the di scoverer o f America
se t sai l from Palos on the mornin g of Friday, the 3 d o f Augnst'.
T492, and after a stormy and diffi c ult voyage he landed on on e of
th e West India I slands on the 4th day o f October in th e same
yea r; although his S;1ilo rs h;1c] ;11ways d esp:1ired of ever reaching

IOI

CLEARNESS.

'·

land, and had been wi shing during the las t few weeks of their
voyage, for Columbus to return with them to Spain .
4. T o the apprehension of the Corporation o f Trinity U ni1-ersity, anJ the BoMd of Regents of Vi c toria Univ e rsity, that. were
the proposed Univers ity Professo riate and the new Univer,.;ity
College in the s:1111e building, i.e. the buil<ling at present occup it:d
by Univ e rsity College, then University college would , hy its loc:1tion unde r the U nive rsity roof, its proximity to the Universit v
Professoriate, overshado w the oth er colleges and put them int o
an unfair compa rison with it- to this apprehem,iun m\10l be ;1ssigned the motive of the amendments proposing tli:it the confederatin g colleges, U niv e rsity College included, shall he p!:tccd
on precisely the same footing towa rd s the common U ni ve rsity;
whi ch, be ing in te r p reted , is that the Univen; ity Professoriate and
University Coll ege shall h:we separate bu ildings provided for them .

.
EXERCISE

...

.

····-:'"

'll,

XXXIV .

CLEARNESS.
DTRECTlON . -

In this miscellan eous cxer c i~ e point nut the cau~ e Jf tJp·
1

·.~ : .

ambiguity ur obsc urit y, an<l th e n reconstruct the sentence so as to make tln·

mea ning dear.
PAlff

~

r.

1. The interje c tio n m ore nearly resembles th e verb th;1n any
other part of speech .
2. The wife of thi s distin gu ished lecture r arco111p:ini cd hi 111 r.,,
the' city; and th o ug!t her hair is quite white a nd apparently his
1;enior , she wa lks with ;1 firm step .
3. Afte r som e difficulty, we reached the gate where. we pa rted .
4. C:hildren in the East have their own pet elephants, and th e
big c reatures enjoy a fr oli c with the little ones, as well as they do

th e msr-lvc:<.
5 . While oiling the gc:1ring of the rn~rhine his hand c 1uo;hl 111
it, ne arly takin g it off.
6. \Vh e n Julius Cesar was lampooned by Ca tullus, he in\"ited

: ..

:·.

I

!02

COMPOSITION AND RHETORI C.

him to a supper and treated him, with such generous civility that
he m ade him his friend ever after.
7. By the articles subsisting between us, on the day of marriage,
you agreed tn p1y down the s11m of eighty thousand dollars.
8. He forgets th e gratitude he owes to those that helped him
wh en he was poor, and John Smith in particular.
9. He told his servant to call upon his friend to give information, ancl not to leave him till he started.
10. f thought that the sa fest plan was to praise everything he did.
I I. Classify the following, analyz ing the d erivatives and compound s, and tr:msl::tte eac h into an equivalent phrase.
' 12. Although th e people were rid of the locusts, they were not
rid of the trouble which they c1used them .
I 3. About the Falls hung a cloud or mist, and which was in·
creasing every moment.
14. l t is necessa ry th1t God should choose fo r us, and therewith to be conte nt.

i5. May asked her sister if she would bring her her work-basket, as she wi:;hed to make something for her mother.
16. With the beloved daughter she kept up th e most intimate
fellowship, though she tried to hide from her all knowledge of her
father's int e nse cruelty to her.
1 7. When the strangers spoke of the fero c ity of hi s dogs, he
said they were ill -bred curs.
18. He told hi s fri end that hi s brothe r was smrrised that he
had give n so small a sum, for he was a Yery ri c h man, in spite of
his recent losses, compared with himself.
r9. Never allow the muzzle of a gun to point towards yo urself'
or any othez: person.
, 20. Tell him, if he is wrong, he should retrace his steps.
21. His remains were committee! to that bourne whence no
traveller returns, attended by his family and friends.
22. The laborers crowd into the towns to Pn te r into competition with you, to lower th e rate of wages, and to huddle population together until healthful dwellings becom e impossible.

CLEARNESS.

103

23. Passi ng over the bridge in a carriage, the horses became
unmanageable, the carriage was on til e edge oi a precipice, the
two leaders fell over and were killed, but Pascal's life was preserved through a breaking of the traces.
24. From thi s very diversity there springs a multifari ousness of
aspects under which it may be considered, that is sufficient of
itself to inspire the subject wi th interest.
25. I.c t us create more of that spirit that I h:wc tried to convey
above, :ind k ss of the present wr:rn gl in g, how much more profitably co uld our weekl y meeti ngs be held.
PART

l r.

26 . The Spectator discussed and con demn ed th e evils of the
day, as well as all other topics which might please and profit it~
readers.
27. Tickled with the flattery, like a little fool, 1 went to work,
and bitterly did I rue the day.
z8 . This king encouraged not only learned men, but also
founded a number of schools of learning.
29. "Bois-Cuilbert?" said Cedric, in the half-arguing tone,
wh ich the habit o f living among dependents had acc ustorneci him
to e mploy, and rese mbled a man who talks to himself rather than
to those :1 round him.
30. I-I e gave a whimsica l account of the sudden apparition of
one of th em at his gay apart ments in the Temple, who may have
been a welco me visitor at his sq11alid qu1rters in Green Arbour
C ourt.

3 r. The pi cture of the village pastor in thi s poem, which we
have alre:tcly printed, was t:tken in part from the charar.ter of his
pathos, embodied likewise recollections of his brother Henrv.
32. You forget that those were real dinners where peopl~ were
hungry and thi rsty, and you met a \cry miscella neous company.
33· The ho11;,e was cro wd .. d lo its 11tmo«t c:1pacity; nTn·
available scat was occupied and many remained standing till the
close.

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104

COMPOSIT I ON AND Rl-IETOl{ I C.

34 . 'vVe have seen t hat there a re many a ngles of d ifferent magnit udes, whic h have th e sam e sine.
35 . \\'hen I see a man flatt e ring the people, making great professions ot' attachment to li bert y, who is in pri1«tlc life a tyrant, I
say to myself, " Look out, good people! th a t fellow 1\,ill set you to
turn ing grin ds to nes."
3G . T he polar liears li ve o n seal and walrus, crawl ing stealthily
up to th e fo rm e r on th e ice-floes and ca tc hini:: the m ; while of the
walrn s only th e you ng arc ca ught, fo r an old walrus is twice as big
as Bruin.
37. Obrutsc h eff regards wa r as inevitable, ;:tnd urges immed iate
m obi li za ti o n, a nd th a t no t a moment sho uld be lost in pushing on
to H e ral a nd Can d ah a r.
38. Th e inte llec tual q uali ti es of th e you th we re superio r to Lhose
of his ra im e nt.
39. Th e sam e ni gh t, wh ile Crozier was at Carlton, R iel sen t
him word to come fo r h is d ead, and afterward s to Prinrc Albert,
a nd said if they d id no t come he would bury the m.
40 . I le is sa id to p refer pl:tin foo d; h e is als o s;:iicl to be extre mely fo nd of b read , a nd d otes on wate r.
4 r. Th e young m a n did not want n:i tm:tl talents ; but the
fathe r o f him wJs a coxcomli, who affecte<l being a fine ge ntlema n
so 11 nmn1-if1ill y tha t h e co11ld not e11d11re in hi s sig ht, ur th e freq ue nt me nti u n of, one wh o was his su n, g roll'in g into manhood
and thrustin g him out of th e gay world .
42. He ach-a nc ed J gainst the old ma n, im itat ing hi s add ress,
his fa ce, and c ~trce r, as well as th e vi go r o f his ho rse and hi s own
skill would allo w.
43. Wh e n th ousands arc left without pity a11cl unattended on a
fi eld o f battle, a1 11id th e insults of a n enrage d fo e and the trampling of horses, while th e blood fr om the ir 11·1H1nrls, freezin g as it
fl ows, bind s them to the earth , and t hey a rc ex posed to th e piercing :tir, it mu st be, ind eed, a pain ful sce ne .
4.J. . Th e bull I am speakin;:( of was gr:t nt f' d five ye:irs ago to
the faithfu l people of Spain, by the late pope, ll" hic h a ge ntle man

CLEARN ESS.

105

of the anny took ac cidentally fr om a master of a ship, whose n:tme
is Peter de Zuluga, in th e bay of Discay, JS it is sig ned by himself
in the same bull, and may be see n at th e publishers.
45. N ine times out o f ten wh e n yo u hear a firm e r'> hoy set
down as a ha nl case, yo n finJ his father to blame fur it, fur he h;t'.
bee n too h;i rs h and :u )•itr;i n ·.
46. In ord e r further to adve rtise my lins in c ~s. 1 wili se nd m y
new p ipe organ to any one sending me 'f,75, provided I re ceive
fifty names, the same as given away at the co ncert of D ecemucr
the 3d.
4 7. T he c ritical position of the ne w free state, which is be ing
fou nd ed in Africa b y the K ing of the Be lgians, is owing to its present jurisdic tio n o n th e (:o ngo, being a n island, and to the r ig hts
it possesses on the sea coast to the north of the Congo, being coveted b y France.
48 . This they effec ted by conveying th e ir lette rs to her by
means of a brewe r lh:tt ~- 11p p lied the fam ily with ale, through a
chink in the wall of he r apartm ent.
49 . \Ve li1·e in th e past by :L kn o wledge of its history, :ind we
have hope and ant i•:i pati o n in the fut11r e.
50 . A b raze n statue of Justice stood in th e puhli c srp1are, o nce
in J n anc ie nt c ity, wh ose nam e I no lo n.c:•' r re me mbe r, rais er! aloft
on a column, u pholding tbe sc::tles in its left ha nd, and in its ri gh t
a swo r<l.
5 1. Th ese funds will be availribl e for meeting such ex1wnses,
a nd to enable th e commi ttee to carry ou t the sc heme prope rly.
52. T wo ni ghts ago, I lect ured to a large asse mbly in this li:i.11,
nearly all belon.c:i nc: to your co untry.
53. The p rogress o f c iv:J izat ion wo rks for la nd as against hhnr,
shutting men off from fr ee access to mo ther CJrlh , whose \J u untc 011s
breasts a re sto n·d \\"ith the food of men, rn;iking the bnJless in·
c r~ as ing1y depe ndent.

'{

.· ;~... .

,•;

.P...

106

COM l' OSITION l\ N D

HBETORIC.

LESSON XXII.
2.

STRE 'GTJT.

Strength consists in constructing sentences in such a way as to
give full force to th e thought or meaning they contai n.
When t o be sought. - In some kinJs of composi tion, such as
juJicial opinions a nd text-hooks of science, all th at is necessary is
to nuke the la nguage clear. If, however, the communication of
kn owledge is n ot the oniy aim. if the reader's attention cannot
be ta ke n for granted, the langu:ige must be more th:in clear, it
must be forcible .
How promoted . - As strength in exp ression dep e nds largely
on th e m:inner in whir:h :i sentence is fo nn cd, mu ch m:1y be gained
hy attc ncli ng to the f,1llowin g- poi nts: Numhcr of \ \'o rris, the Order
of Words, Forcible Word s, Connecti on and Transition, Variety.
N UMBF. R OF W ORDS.

E1·cry wor<l that ciocs not add to the meaning o f a sentence,
enfeebles it.
JI c ncc, a sentence is strengthened by rejecting
every cbuse, phrase, or word, that is redundant. Thus, "Hands
off!" is mo re for c ihl e th an " Kee p your h:tnds off l "; "Strange l ",
than "Th:it is very stran ge ! "
Am ong the princ ipal vi olations of brevity are: Tautology,
Redundancy, and Verbosity.
Caution. - Beg inne rs must not nm away 1;·i th the idea that
every sente nce shou ld l>c constrncte,J with the smallest number
of words possible. There arc many con siderations to be taken
into account in determinin g just how man y words sho uld be used.
The nature of th e subject, the c haracte r o f the treatment, as well
as the capacity and intelli ge nce of the persons addressed, d emand
v ~1ri ations that o nl y a du e att<'ntinn to these thini..;s r:1 n justify.
Commonplace thou9hts 011 familia r topics aJmit l>riefer exp re~·

STl<ENGTH.

107

si.on than originai ideas : grea ter conr isc'ncss is ckm:ind cd 111 . 1
book than in a newspar •e r o r a spec1·ii : inl L"i ligcnt pcopl \· n" 11110t·
less explanation than ig norant ones. Jn any rase, one: s!H 11ild
avoid excessi ve conciseness on the one h:ind, and excessive diffusen ess on the other.
1. Tautology is the fa ult o f saying again in other words what
has just been said.
Examples. - "F11/re misreprese ntations." "Um/1ragto11s sl111JI'. "
"He was by no means defi c ie nt in the .mhord/1117/e and //1111"!,-,J
virtue which allez·i,zks and rd1>11es the w:1 nts of others." In e:1• h
of these expressio ns one of the italici zed wo rds may be 01 nitt1' d
with aclvantage.
When Permi ssible. - What might appear T autolog y b y a stfr·t
rend e ring of the rnle is allowable
a. Wh en one \nm! d.,cs not express th e full se nse intended ;
as, S 11hjf' d -111,1llcr , part 1111d pc1rrd, 7(1fl_l'S rr11d "'''"//.>'.
b. For g reate r emphasis; as, "The /1,·.rd and j r<J nt of his
offending." "He rul ed wi th mig/1 / and main ."
c. In strong passion; as, "I am aston ished, I am sliod. ·,-J, to
hear su ch princ iplc-s con fessed."
2. R ed undancy, or pleon:lsm, cons ists in the addition of 11 scless wor ls.
Examples. - "Th ey return ed /,ark 11,i;t1i11 to the sc1111I' riLy jn1J11
wh ence they camcfi1r//1. " "Thn H1ghout hi s w!1t1!r carc: n."
When Permissible. - Redun da ncy is J•c rmi"i !Jle when nec essary to important stateme nts, to give C'nipll:lsis, and in the l:tn gu:1gc
of pass io n. Sometim es what is said directly may be sa id :1g:1 in
ind irectly; the abstr:ic t m:iy I.Jc reprod uced in the concrete fur1n;
the liter:i l, in a metaph or; an ohjcrt may he presented from a
ne w point of view; an argun}{·nt may lie s1.:1tt'd in :1 v:ll"i1·ty nf
forms. Thus, "\Ve ha ve seen it 7i'ill1 011r 1•'/e11 t:rt ·...·." "ki 11g-;
will be tyrant s fro m policy w/(('11 w/1jrcts a re rf'/;cl1/n1111 j>r/11ofk."
Epithets. -The handl ing o f epithets re•piircs great care on t lw
part o f begin ners. \\'i th th em the tendenq' ge ner;illy i ~ to hc:q :
up adjectives that aJJ neith er for ce nor bea uty to th-: sentence.

,:f

I08

COMPOS ITION AND RHETORIC .

Although it is not always well to have the waves "silvery," the
sun "glorious," the snow "feathery," and the groves "shady,"
yet whenever force, beauty, or an additional interest can be.
secured by the use of an adjective, or even two, there need be no ' .
~cruple about employing them ; as, "The lideless Mediterranean.•f
3. Verbosity consists in a <liffuse mode of expression which so
pe rvades th e se ntence tha t the o nly remedy is to recast the whole:
in fewer words.
R:xamplr. - "She regrets that the multiplicity of his engage-: ~
ments precludes the possibility of her accepting your polite invi:
tali o n."
Circumlocution, or Paraphrasing, which is confessedly onefo rm of Verbosity, is permissible as a mea ns of explanation or
ill 11str:nion . It is a method of diluting strong thoughts so as to
suit th e m to weak or uninform ed minds. It may also be used
with advantage to ::ivoid the repetiti on of a word, or to give greater ,
p ro mine nce to som e poi nt oi import:rnce.
Prolixity , anoth er form of Verbosity, co nsists in enumerating .~
unimportan t or obvious particulars tha t migh t have been left to
th e rC"adcr to supply; as, "On rece iving the news, he arose from .
hi s cha ir, put o n his co:tt and hat, t ook his umbrella, went down °.
stairs, walked to th e rail"·ay station, bought a ti cket for the ci~ ·
and sta rted in the cle\·en o'clock train." "On receiving th~
mcss:tge, he started fo r the c ity by the eleven o'clock train."
StrengLh is ge nerally gained by usin g brief modes of expression ;
as,1. Omitting words easily su ppli e<l; as, "What makes ambitio!)
virtue ? - the sense o f honor." Compare with "It is the sen.
of honor that makes ambition virtue."
2. Expressing in a single \\"ord the idea contained in a phl'3S(l
or clause; as, " 1\n i111cl/1:1,· ihk book" fo r "J\ book t!tat may lu
'!;
easily 11 11dersl fJorl."
3. Rej ectin g pre facing or in trorlu cto ry expressions; as," I t!tinil.
I shou ld lie entitled to spe:ik on th is s11hjcc t." "Th ere is nothing ·
so tireso me as listening to a speake r who has no message."

STRENGTH.

· On the other hand, strength may some times be gained by expressing an idea with much fulness, or even by the repetition of
' a word, phrase, or clause; as, "Act, act in th e living prese nt" ;
"Deep, d ee p in the living rock Leneath you"; " J'vTy me rit was
. to support ev eiJ' right, eve ry privilege, ez1ery franchi se in this my
·. adopted country."

EXERCISE XX.XV.
N u ~rnER
DIREC fl ON . -

o r \Vo1ws.

Rewrite these sentences, omitting all superfluous wurds, and

note th e effect.

You are welcome.
What am I? I am nothing.
I hope that you may be very successful.
4. Can you really be a ph ilosopher?
5. If little is said, the matt er may soon he set ri ght.
6. You m:ty let om blood be upon our own he:td s.
7. Let him who sees any chance to save himself take advantage
of his opportunity.
8. Speech about a man's self ought to be seldom used, and it
ought to be well chosen .
9. Thanks be unto G od , men have at last begun to 1111dcrstand one anothe r's ri ghts, and have at last Legun to feel fo r 011<.:
another's wrongs.
10. The different departments of science and o f art mutually
eflect light on one anothe r.
11 . The universal opinion of all the people is, that the prisone r
who Is in the prison, is innocent.
•. 12. The d awn is overcast, the morning lowers, and heavily in
clouds brin gs on the day.
13. I never was so astonished before in the whole course of my
1.
2.

He was a man of powerful strength.
All praised his magnanimity and g reatness of mint!.
He has arriveJ at the final completion of his work.

'

'

'

'

:

.

r. ·~,•

110

CO>ll'OS ITION

AND

RllETOR IC.

1 7. He stood gaz ing al th e sp:rnglt:<l canopy, which appeared
to lJe lit up with innu me rable o rbs.
18. It was a cool, <lt:!iberately plan ned hom ic ide.
19. lt was said tha t two eagles sent forth by Jupiter, o ne from
the e;1st and one from th e ll'est, met at l kl ph i a t the sa me time.
20. As yon proc eed forwa rd down the lawn, yo u will see two
gates opposite eac h othe r.
2 1. We a ll of 11 s co mplain o f the shortn ess of tim e.
22 . Being co nsc io11s of his own integ ri ty, he di sdained submission.
23. I >ming the timc of peace, Napoleo n once more returned
b:1c k to France .
24. l re is a n /\m e ri c u1 aml>assadoT sent by th e llnitt:d States.
25 . Tht: rc is nu duul>l that h is cond1 ll't was n~p rt:ht;nsib l e .
26 . The ho use was closcly crowded with a very l:irge audience.
2 i· There is no doubt your head :.tch cs, trying lo mak e something o f my desc ri ptio n.
28 . They d id not hesit:1te or pause, but with one accord they
g raspe,l each oth e r' s hand.
29 . They told us stories about wh at they Jud experie nced in J apan.
30. He never attended to th e interests of th ose wh o m he had
th e ho no r to rep resent.
31 . This will, indeed, be rough work, it will be icono clasm; but
it is certainly the way to get al truth .
3::?. · The a im and end oi ou r insti tuti ons is, tha t we may think
what we like ~rn d say what we think .
33 . O n a rriv ing at the sta ti on, he stepped from the train , looked
abo u t fo r a cab, hired one, got into it, to ld the d ri ver to m ove on,
:rnd rt::1c hed his ho11 se wit:wut accident.
34 . l'vf yra who was a new hcginncr fclt shy abo ut taking the
new position to whi,.h she h:u l just lH.:l'n :11•po intcd.
JS· If men of em in e nce rece i\·e re proa c hes wh ich th ey do not
deserve, they like wi se re ceive praisc·s which are not due them.
36. Mrs. Hope th o ught bright colors unhecoming a Christian,
and she tho ug ht them espec i;illy unbe <-.J 111ing o ne who held a
rc:;po nsil.>l e pusition

ST R ENG TH.

I 1J

LES SON XXIII.
STRENGTH. - OJWER OF \VOROS.

Much of the fo rce of a sentence depends on the orde r in which
th e pa rts are arr:rnged .
1. Emphatic Words. - Strength as well as Clearness is promot ed by disposi ng of the importa nt words in th e place wht:n:
th ey will make th e g reatest impressio n.
E x11 111Jlcs . - "Tv know so m e Latin , even if it ],c not ii i n~ lJ;1t :t
few Lat in roots, is 11»rfu!." Better thu s : "lt is 11scf•il," etc. ·· 1\·, ,;u
is your ti me." " S11c/i a sliow I ne ver sa w before." " Up llew
th e price ."
2. Closing . -Care should be take n in bringin;; cl se nte nce to
a c lose. Th e mind naturally dwells o n the last word and is uisappoin tecl whe n, contrary to exp ec tation, it tincls at the end of the
sente'nce some unim portan t o r merely re lational word. Fo r this
reaso n it is rarely well to end a sentence with a n adverb, a prepu ·
sitio n, or even a p reposition and th e pronoun "it."
Examples. - "Acco rding to Southey, the laws governed furm e rl y." "This is a quest ion I did not expec t, and I must :1sk time
to reflec t o n it. " These se ntences wou ld ga in in force if writte n
thus : "Fo rm erly, acco rd ing to Sonthey, th e laws gn\·e rn ed ."
"This is a question I did not expect, and th erefo re 1 must ask
tim e fo r reflectio n."
We m ay, however, end wi th a p:•rtic le when it is very closely
connec ted with a leading word: ;:is." This must lie attended /,1 ."
"That was well thought fJj. "
/\gai n, suc h words ma y clo~e a se nt e nce \vh<::n I.hey wot11d cr ~:ue
a stiffn ess if pbced in th e ir gr.1 m n 1at icai position. Th us, if" of"
we re placed befo re " whi ch " in t:1e follow ing sentence. the const ruc ti o n wonld be fe lt to be Jnrsh. " 1\1inistcr$' wives li:n·c cluti,·s
laid u po n them which a h0·.•1 e l>'Jdy 1.ikt~ me vn liar<1iy c~n­
ceive of."

,·.:1

.:

l !2

COMPOS ITION A ND lU lloT ORIC.

STRENGTH.

So me t'1rn es a n a d 1·e rb or p ro noun is made e mph a ti c by be ing
p laced al t he en d of t he sen tence; as, " Peo ple h:t\' e fu1 1nd out
the ir n eed of c ivil govern m ent, :rnd have ins tituted it 11t1·1>nli11glj" "
" D y ing for a prin c ipl e seem s to me a no b ler act than scolding
fo r ii."

Anti-Climax c o ns ists in arrang ing the pa rts in a n order the
o p posite uf th a t foll owed in th e Cli nux - an arra nge m en t t ha t is
alw ay!> wea k, e xcep t fo r t he p urpose o f b urlesque o r r id icu le .
E.'\'a111pks . - " I n this sta le of mind , life itself is a burd t" n, and
~ v e ry ol.Jj cc t is g lo omy ."
Place the weak e r nwmber li r, t, and
obse rve h o w mu c h more for c il.Jle the se nt e nc e b ecomes ; thus :
"In thi s st:i te o f mind, every o l.Jjec t is gloo my, a nd life itself a
1.rnrden. "
" C onte n t me nt nukes a man pass th rough fire and no t Le
1.rnrne d, tli ro 11g h hun ger :t'nd na ke dne ss ye t want for n oth ing,
throug h seas :ind n ot be d rowned."
\V rite : " Co ntented ness
mak es a ma n pass through hu nge r :me! n:1k ed ness yet want fur
n o thing, t h ro ugh seas anll not b e drown ed, throu gh iire and n ut
be burned ."

Suspense. - Sim ib rl y, unimportant phrases :rnd clauses should
general ly l.Jc k ept fro m the e nd o f t he se nt e nce. This, however,
must no t l.Je construed to mea n th at the period ic sen te nce is to be
used to t he exclus ion of t he loose, o r to imply tha t a ll p hrases or
cl:rn scs arc to precede th e main stat ement.
As th e p eri odic
s lrn cl ure ke eps th e m ind o n the stretch unti l the las t word has
b ee n reached, it makes a deepe r impress io n by sec urin g c loser
atten t io n. St ill if ca rri ed too fa r, it would lose its effec t, and, conseq uently, t he loose const ru c tion m us t l.Je free ly inte rmingled with
t he pe ri od ic.
Phrases and clauses m ay sta nd a t th e close of th e se ntence
when th ey are e m p hatic; as, "His drawings a re beau tiful, 11 0 1 to
111e11lio11 J1is painli11.i;s."
'v\l h en they a re cle:lrly subo rd ina te, it is ge ne rally b es t to place
them before the prin c ipal asse rtion .
.J\.1·11111j>l1'S. - "J It mounted h is camel, an d th us p erfo rm ed the
c ir• :nit:s ro und t h e Caa ba . bei 11l; 11>0 1ee,rk anti i nfirm / 11 go 011 f ool."
" I le ~l e w sixty- t hree o f th e ca me ls wit h his o wn hand , w l1m tlt ey
wrre lo be f!jfn-ed 11j> i n s1rcrijicc. " T h ese se nt e nces may be made
m ore fo rc ilile by plac ing the clauses in italics at the l.Jeginning.
4. Clima x . - Stre ngth m ay be gai ned by th e a rr:1nge me nt of
the par ts o f d iscou rse in th e o rde r re(jui red by th e Cl imax. The
C lim a x, u suall y rec k on ed a fi g ure o f speec h, co nsists in arranging
th e pa rts o f a n exp ression in the orde r o f th ei r strength - the
weakest sta n d ing first. \Yo rcls, ph rases, clauses, se nt en ces, paragraph s, and e ve n th e lead ing d ivisions o f a subj ect may be arranged
in c lim acteri c ord e r.
W he n a weake r e x p ression or th ought fo llows a stronger, t he
min d is di sapp o inte d , and receives b u t a fe cl.Jle impression fro m
the whole_

1 13

EXERCISE XXXVI.
0RJJER OF WORDS.

D rn r·:CrIO N. - E xami ne t hese se nten ces; ch an ge th e or<le r o f th e w ur<ls
w hc1H.:\'c r by Su 1 lui11g you ca n incr east: tl1 e fur cc; <l c.: f1.: n J th e pr esent u nle r
wh e n you ma ke n o ch:rn ge.
I. D ryde n possessed , Ill a pre-e min e nt deg ree, the poW<.: r of
reaso nin g in ve rse, a s we ha ve sa id.
2 . Su a bl e a c riti c was ne ve r so fr e e fr o m fa stidi o usnes,; .
3. N u writ er h as carried th e fl attery of d ed icati on Lo a greater
leng t h, it must b e owned .
4 . \Ve h:1ve pros t ra ted ourselves at the fo ot of th e th ro ne, we
have re m onstrated, we h ave petiti o ned.
5 . If yo u g iv e this c lause a fair co nstru c tion, what 1s the true
m e aning of it?
6. Th e Seve nth R egime nt m a rr. h ed last of all.
7. He was ind e bted for many a good suggestion to h e r.
S. Smi t h started o n a trip to Cali fo rnia, but clied o n the way,
hav ing p oor h ea lth .
9. Afte r working hard all day he soon went tu slee p, be ing very
tired _

;·.

l

14

COMPOS ITION AND R H ETORIC .

1 0. The teacher should en<leavor to rep ress th e pra cti ce of
th ro wing stones as fa r as possil.Jle.
Ir. A qua int or p oetic thought appe::ns in eve ry line o f it.
1 2 . \\' ha t pe n can d escribe the tea rs, th e la menta tions, th e
agonies, th e a nim ated re rn onstr:rnc.::s o f th e unfortunate prisoners!
T 3. The powe r o f man, his glory, a nd his great ness, d epe nd on
essential q ualities.
14. The approaching mar ri age o f Bona11 1.a Mackay's dang hte r
to the prince of Gabti is to be ce lebrat<.:d with great simpl icity,
so it is said.
15 . The re is o ne subject m o re I wish to speak of.
r 6. She came up, liste ned , stopped in liewil d e nne nt, caught
the infection, looked, a nd 11eg:m danc ing, to o .
r 7. Contentedness is a duty, a Llessing, and a p ri vi lege.
18 . 1re douLl ecl hi s fist and looked at it as if he w:rntecl to hit
somebody a p e rnic ious punc h with it.
19. A.L out o ne in a hundred will be found safe :in<l agreeable
persons to deal and live wi th.
20. There are thre e real sain ts, at least, a mo ng th e wo men, to
o ne am o ng the men, in every de nomination.
z I. As to th at process, I will gi ve you a spec imen of one way
of man :tg ing it if you like.
2 2 . A busy stream ran al ong the ravi ne, and we co ulJ catch an
occas ional glimpse of it.
23. \V e would like dinner immediately, as we must res ume our
journ ey in an hour if possil.Jle.
24. There, thanks to your quick temper, I thi nk I have roused
you suffic ie n tly.
25. We aga in set out a ft er ge tting ni cely warmed, and being
suppli eLl wi th some hot Lricks, whic h the woman of the house
insisted upon our ta king.
26. D isease and pain often sour the te mper and contrac t the
heart, if pove rty ma kes men thi eves.
2 7. These are such words as ColumLus himsc.:l f would have
made use o f.

STH E NGT H.

l l

5

28. He h as expressed some doubts th at will n ot raise h i111 in
th e opinion of so me of our modern millenarians assuredly.
29. I have no t tak e n particular pai ns to find out whcthc.:r Birch all is a moral idiot or not, but I know th e re are suc h people, a n l
lots of them, too.
30. No ea rthly judge can touch him now.
3 r. H e forced him to s:1y it at l:tst.
32. A t ime was at hand when the seve n vi als of the Apocalypse
we re poured for th over those pl easa nt c1mntries; a t ime of slaught er, beggary, infamy, famine, despair, sla very.
33 . She would not be human, if the tears d itl not st:irt unbi<lden
to he r eyes, as she turns back the pages of he r li fe.
34. Much was fo rgiven to su ch a ma n, - hollow fr ie nd sh ip, vivbteLl faith, ungenerous en mi ty.
35 . I cannot co nce ive whence this man has gained h is notions
of Chrislianity: he has th e m ost inveterate malice :1ga in st nrurs
in conscience, and the most ev:rngelical c harity for errors in a rithm etic.
36. The stude nts of the past toiled, explored, constructed for
u s.
37. He would be hearJ Ly th e most profligate mini ste r with
deference and respect, whene ver an important tiuestion called fur
his opini on in Parli a ment.
38 . He, deserted by h is friends, was compelled to have recourse
to his e nemies for a id .
39. The great English nat ion w:ts then form ed ; the n:.ition ;tl
charac ter th en began to exhiLit those pec uliarities which it 11:1;;
ever since retained; a nd our fathers then became emphat ic:al!y
islande rs. (Make "then" emphatic.)
40. I rushed fro m th e roo m at once, leaving the wretch where
he stood, with his tale half told, horror-stricken at his crim e.
4 1. We will not pretend to guess what our gra nd ch ild ren may
think of th e character of Lord Byron, as exhibite<l in his poetry.

116

STRENGTH.

COMl'OS!TlON AND IOIET ORIC .

LESSO:cJ XXIV.
ST R ENGTl I. -

FORCIBLE WOR DS.

Th ere a rc some classes of word s that co nv ey ideas with peculiar
energy to th e mind . Amon g these are ( r) familiar words, ( 2)
p:nticlllar ter ms, and (3) concrete te rm s. The fir st of these have
gre :1t furce, b cc:w se we mo re folly and read ily reali ze th eir meaning ; the second and third, because they present to the mind ideas
that it ca n easil y g r.'.lsp.
Exa mple. - "I have neithe r th e necessa ries of life, no r the
means of proc uring them. " Instead of this, write: "I have not
a crnst of L> read, nor a penny to buy one."

I

17

one object to another should not be too rapid, the conjunction
may be re peated with advantage . One of the most common faults
of L>eginners is the excessive use of al/(!, /)/f f, w!u n, and other s1wh
wo rds.
Fx11111ples. - "His clothes were of seedy L>lack , anrl very mtwh
wo rn; a11rl a s ilk h:L11dk c rch ief was twisted around his nec k, cllld
he had no collar, 11111! his shirt-bosom was r111111 ilcd and soiled ."
In this se nten ce, the first three and's would be better urnilt e d.
In th e f11llowi11 g, the an.i's sho uld lie retained l,ccause they help
to empkbize each of the particulars.
"And th e rai n desce nded, and the floods came, and the win ds
l>lew, and beat up o n th;it house; and it fcli: and great was the f.dl
of it."
The omiss ion of conjunctions or other connective words, aids in
expressing animation or rapidity; as, " I came, saw, conqncred."'

...:·

Iu10~1s, PROVERus , A:-." u QuoTATIO NS.

A thought nuy sometimes be expressed forcibly by being put
into idiomatic language, or l>y being thrown into the form of a
proverb or of a pithy quo t:i.tio n. Commonp!J.ce and thread -b:i.re
expressions must be avo ided.
.Exa mJ>lrs. - " He is ont of his head " is a vigorous way of sayin g "Ht: is not in possession of his right senses." "A bnrnt child
dreads the lire" is a proverlii:i.l expression whi c h conveys with
energy th e idea that "A person wh o has been· inju red by an
object, will take good care to avoid it in the future."
CONNECJ'ION AND TRANSITfON .

The streng th of a sentence may often be increased by a careful
use of th e wo rd s that mark connection or transiti on . These are,
chi efly, the relative pronouns, th e conjunctio ns, and the prepositi ons. No rules ca n be fr~tmed to sui t all cases that arise; but
fro m the subjoined examples it will be seen that the too freciuent
r e petition o f connect ives is sometimes a source of weakness, and
thal wh e n, on the other han d, it is de,,iral>le, the transition from

EXERCISE XXXVII .
FORCIBLE \VORDS .
YirnYCTTON.- ~,take th e s c nt<.:nces m< l rc fDrc i\,Ic J,y e1nph 1ying su1nc u f tltc
expedients mentiuncd in the prt:ct.:ding Lcssun .

I Iad he inte nder! to keep the country in slave ry, h e should
kept it poor.
2. They knew that he was fals e and dishones t.
3. /\long the CO:l.St o( th e sea arc tu lie fuund all th e deli cac ies
that niay be had in tropical countries .
4. Th e :i.ncicnt erections of Egypt naturally excited fee lings
of veneration.
5. In Havana there are modern improve me nts in the mode
of living.
6. Some vilbge patriot that with dauntless breast the little
tyrant of his fiel ds withstood.
7. She was turn ed out on the street without any resources .
8. They sank like metal in th e mighty waters.
i.

hav ~

',..
,"

I

'

l

18

9. Will you d ie of want in the lan d whi c h your labor has made
productive?
; o. God is seen in the g rowth of vegetation, in th e mo ve ments
of the h eave nly bocl ies, a nd in the rage of the ele m en ts.
r 1. A ve ry s m a ll proporti o n o f th ose who have atte m p ted to
solv e this problem, ha ve ~ucceeded.
1 ~ . The ga rden was fill ed with an imme nse num be r o f fl owers.
1 3. Wh en h e l>ega n to fi g ht, ne mean t to win o r di e (sword
. . scaliha rcl) .
q. \Vi ii you behold yuur co11ntry in fl a m es, and the fruit of
tl1(' peop le\ to il (ha n ·csts) d ('stroycd?
15. Pca\'e had 111 iw been e njoyed hy th e nati o n fo r a co nsid erabl e t ime, during which the puL>lic r e \· e m1e had in creased by a
l:uge s um.
16 . Will you loo k o n while th e inl1 abi tant s (<'<)ssac ks) of the
n o rth c rnsh (tread . . . foo t ) you r d ea re st fri e nd s (fa th e rs,
mot he rs, e tc.) ?
1 7. Do men gather gratefu l and n11tritious fruit from trees that
bea r o nl y p ric k ly a r mor (figs . . . thi s tle> ) ?
1.S. I sat by her whe n she was a liabe (cradle), I fo ll o wed her
to the grave.
Jr). The Je wi s h 1ution, relying on th e teac hin g o f its prophe ts,
look ed forw; 1rd tu a tim e whe n it s d<'s1Tn/la nts sho11ld be as
n11m e ro 11s as the sta rs, wh e n th e co rn of the earth sho ul d be
abundant , whe n each man sh crn ld res t ht•nca th the sh;11le of his
nwn t rees, and when th e instru ment s of wa r shou ld be co nv e rted
to the u ses of pe;:ic e.

The woo d T walk in on th is mild l\fay d ay, with th e young
foli:1 ge of th e tr ees hct\\'cc n m e and the blu e s ky , th e va ri o us
ilu\\'crS and her bs al m y feet - wh;:i t ,t.;rovc o f trop i<'al tre es, p lants,
or flow e rs, c1iuld e \·er t h rill me lik e this home src ne?
z 1. Su c h a man mi gh t f:ill a \·icti m to p o we r ; hut trn lh, and
rea so n, a nd libe r·ty , wo11ld fall wi th him.
zz. Th en did / Encas pass on hi s w ;1y, an d th e godd ess led him,
and the lhrn es ga ve pl.lee to him, and lh c jave lins harmed him not.
20 .

STR l~ NGTIL

COMl'OSJTION ANO lU-IETO I<IC.

11 9

23. They brought beds and basins a nd earthen vessels and
wheJ.t a nd Lar ley and flour an d varched co rn and bea ns and le nti l
and parc hed pulse a nd hon ey and butter and sheep and cheese
of kin e.
24. I cann ot but imagine that the virtuous h eroes, the virtuous
legi slato rs, and the virtu o us pat ri o ts of eve ry age and of e ver y
country, are bt:nding from their ele vate d seats to witn ess thi s co nte st.
25. Tru e libert y can ex ist o nly whcn jus ti ce is equally ad1nini st e red to th e king and th e beggar.
26. The walls a rc scaled, a nd th e gates stormed, a nd the co nfli c t fo ll ows, and bl ood flo\\' S. Th en th e magi s trates interfere;
Savonarola an fl o ne of his c hi ef fri e nds are se iLed a nd co nv eyed,
by o rd e r of the ma gis tra tes, to prison.
2 7 . .i\lth uugh he was then n ea rl y eigh ty ye:irs o f age, he sent
to England fo r b oob, a nd b egan the task of le;1rning t;r c-ck .
28. Tho u hast clon e well , tho11 who art a go ud an d faithful se rvant.
29 . Let us h ave Liberty fir :;t, and the n let us hav e Union after wards .
30 . Newton was very far from be ing co rrect (was out) in hi s
calculatio ns .
3 1. ! Tc reac h ed a co nclusion with o ut g iving th e matter due
co nsid e rati on (jumped to).
32 . l'eupk wh o m ake ve ry loud threats seldom have the hea rt
to c arry them o ut.
(Bark ing dogs, etc.)
33. Wh e n our diffi c ulti es a re overcome, we fre qu e ntly forg et tu
be grateful to th ose who aided us in the ho ur of n eed. \The
ri ve r past, and God forgotte n .)
34. T he p oe t is born, he can no t be mad e by a n y course oi
tra ining .
35. lli s ambit io n was t o gain h onor and to g ain \\'e;1lth and tu
ga in fame .
36. Do not complain of thin gs that arc done and canno t Le:
h elped.

(Sp ilt milk.)
37. It is fo ll y to kt the cause o f an evil co ntinu e a nd sti ll bbor
to p revent th e resul ts. (Pump with the leak ope n.)

.

_,.~

.

120

COMPOSITION AND RHET ORIC.

LES SON XXV.
STRENGTH FRO f.l VA RIETY.

S tre ngt h is pro m o ted b y Var ie ty. Same ness o f a n y kind in
wri t in g is tiresome ; \'ari c ty is o n e of the ch ief so urc es o f pleasure.
] .igh t a nd shad e , e ne rgy and case, stre ng th a nd weakn ess, beauty
and d efo rmity, hav e a g reate r effe ct wh e n placed side liy side .
Kinds of Variety. -Th e var iety he n.: spoke n o f may be of
se ve ra l kind s.
x. In stead of r e p eat in g a wo rd, it is ge ne rally be tt e r to use a
syn o ny m ; a s, "Th e fl es h w;i s wciuy, th e sp irit Jain!, and I was
getli11,1; out of /wm or w il/1 th e b ust ling crowd."
2. Va ri e ty of ex press io n, as illu stra ted in subsequ e nt L essons,
shou ld be c o nstan tly tu rne d to use , so t ha t no ste re o typ ed form
may b e :1.ll o wed to app ear.
3. Pa rticula r a nd g en e ral te rm s shou ld b e• introduced, each
wh e n m ost e ffec ti ve .
4 . Se nt ences of all kin ds - lo ng . short', simp le, co m pou nd , and
co m p le x, th e p e ri od , loose se n te nce, a nd co mpromi ~e - sho uld
:ti ! h e ernployc <! , n o t with studied stiffness and mea sured prec isio n,
lmt in suc h alternati o n that they may relieve one another, and
effec tu :1ll y ba r a ll m o no to ny.
5. Th e o rd e r sh o uld be va ri ed - so m etim es the direc t, somet imes the in di rect.
6. At tim es th o ug hts shoul d b e stated at le ng th, ;iml e ve n repea ted : a t o th e rs, th ey mu st be utte red w it h th e balrl cs t brevi ty.
7. Som etim e s the sim ples t wo rds app eal m ost strongly to our
fee ling s; at o the r tim es th e lo ngest a nd hca\·i cs t strike th e hard esl
J1IO l\'S .

S. F ig ures of Speec h sh o uld lie introduced lL1 e nforce, bea utify,
a nd e nlive n th e p l:i in la ng u::ige, :ts th e n ature of the su bj ec t and
its trea t m e nt will pe rmi t.
9. Disc ourse may some times b e re nckrcd m o re animat ed by

I21

STRENGTH.

turn ing some of the le:iding d eclarative sentences into the interrogative form. This arrangem e nt is usual ly known a s a fi g ure of
speech, under the name of lnlerrogatio11. Tims, the e xpr ession
"Who is equal to him? " is m o re li vely th an" He h as no equa l."
Besides, if suc h interrogations are inte rs pe rsed a m on g (kc b rati o ns, tht.: y brea k th e m o n oto ny :1s well as flatter th e reade r hy
askin g him to take part in the di sc ussio n, and by sh o win g res pe ct
for hi s o pinio ns.
1 o. Aga in, when stro ng feeling is b e ing expressed , t he wri te r
m ay, instead of rn:iking a full leng th statem e nt, Lreak out into :1n
Exd1111tali1111. Thus, it would both indic ate and a ro use g rea ter
inte n sity of fe elin g to bms t O\lt with the e xclamati o n , " lkat:tiful ! •· or, "How beautiflll ! " than to say, "This is healltifu l. "
Thi s, a lso, is ge nerall y classed as a fi g ure of spee c h .
1 1. Jn na rra tio n o r d esc r iptio n, o ne m ay co nc eive so liv cl I' a
view o f his subjec t as to fan c y t hat th e d ista nt o r the past 1s
actu a lly prese nt, and m ay s peak of it in th e present te nse, as if
at th e mom e nt und e r his view.
This manner of speak in g is
commonly ca lled Vision.

EXERCISE XXXVIII.
STRENCTll
DIRF.CTION. -

FR<nl

VARIETY.

Refer to th e sec ti o ns of the prece ding Lesson , and

m~ k,,

these exprcss iu11s s trv ngc r l>y usi ng sv mc 1Jf th e rn ca11s lli ere p uinteci out.

x. There a re here m an y goodly c reatmes (xo).
2.

H e that ha th planted the car, must surely lie abl e to

hear ( 9 ) .
3. All thi s b ustl e a nd te rror is nut l1eca11 se anything s11 l" ta nti:t!
is e xp ec ted ( 9).
4. H e mll st e xe rt his tal ents at ho m e, for th e re is surL·ly no
oth e r place wh e re h e can obta in a profita ble c redit for h is cx n tion ( 9 ).
5. Th e sce n es of my c hildhood are dea r to my h eart ( 10) .

1 22

CO M POS ITION

AND RHETOR I C.

6. The fe;irs whi c h suc h a sitt1ation must in spire are boundless (IO).
7. Yo11 ca nnot pt1t your hand into the fir e a nd no t be
burned ( 9) .
8 . Our hearb were beating when we saw the army o f the League
drawn ou t in long a rr::iy ( 10) .
9. He co mm :rnded them to fix bayonets allCl.c harge ( 10) .
10. \Ve la id h im clo wn slo wl y and sad ly (5).
r r . The world of Cod around us is indeed g lo ri o us; but th e
ll'or!d of C od within us is st ill more glo rious (5) .
12 . Th ey sailed hy the sa ndy sho res of A raya, th ey sailed past
th e lofty cocoanut tre es that stand over Cu m ana, they sailed along
th::it beautiful coast, they sailed through the difficult waters of the
gloomy C olofo Trieste, th ey sailed past the pro1·inc e o f Ve nezuela,
a nd they sa il ed o n to D:iricn (1) .
13 . /\ncl, once agai n, man asks fo r li gh t. It is as he sits yondn bc,ide his dead in the chambe r (2) that ha s grown dark. H is
heart we nt out (5) to her in the j ocund days ( 2) of you th, and
twined (S) its tendrils rot1nd he r. Lovely and beautifu l (S) were
th ey as they g rew in ll'i sclo m, confide nce, and love. But (s) over
he r th e ruthl ess l>last h as swe pt, she gave up the g h os t (s) in the
\·e ry p ri de o f m o th e rh ood: she died while ye t a youn g wo man (8.
hn s11 n . . . ) . ;\nd soo n h e "must bury his d ead o ut of hi s
sig ht." Myste ri ot1s and dark are the mi ssio n a nd meaning of
D e:Hh ( 9 . What is . .. , 0 Death?) . Perhaps it e nd s a ll, o r
perhaps we pass th rough it back agai n , as ra in -d rops, into th e v;st
imme nsi ty o f the all -indiv iclt1ality and ;ire lost foreve r ; o r pe rhaps
we shall live agai n ( 9 . Dost thou, indeecl, . . . ?) . It is not sentim e ntal ism t h at thus speaks. fo r (4) th e stro ngest minds have
he aved the lead in th ese myste ri o us depth s, and (4) the mighti est
hearts bave <juaked with stra nge te rror in prese nce of these
problem s . He wh o is Christian ity him self r e plies. In H is own
pcr,«m ! le grappled with, \\'res ted the p o wer (3) fr o m th e sovert> ig n ( .3) of terrors , and ovn hi s prost r:1te fo rm m a rc hed fo rth
from Death's dominion (3) wit h the n o te o f triumph o n His lip

STRENGTI!.

1 23

and said (2. Use d irect form h e re) that He wa s " the resurre <:ttc>n
and th e life ."
1 4 . It is no w six teen o r sevenken ye ars s ince I s:tw the Queen
of France , th e n the Dauphiness, at Versailles; and su rely a more
(5 ) de li g htful vis io n n eve r li ghted on this orb, \\'hi ch sh'.: h:trd ly
see m ed to touch. I sa w her just above the h .. >rizon, decorating
and c heering the ele vated sphe re sh e h ad jus t begun to move in -glitte rin g lik e the morning sta r, full of life , and splendor, :tnd ju\'.
Th ere h as since th at ( r o. Oh, what a . . . ) Leen a g re:H re1·ulu ti on, a nd I would ha ve ( 10) a hard he:ut if I could conte rn pl:tt('
wit ho ut e m ot io n t hat eleva ti on and that fall. : Wh en she added
titles of ve ne rat io n to those of e nthu siastic, distant lol'e, I little
dream t ( 10. Give "l it tle" th e m os t e mp hatic positiu n, an <l
" dreamt" th e next) that she would eve r be obl iged to c:1rr 1· i">i son (8 . . . . antidote . . . d isgra ce . . . ) with wh icl1 to s:11·e hnself fr o m the 1·engeance of h e r people; (Repeat in crnpl1:1ti« pusit io n "little " . . . "dream") that I should hal' e li ved to sec such
dis:tsters falle n upon h e r in a n :tti o n o f ga nant m e n (Repeat "in a
n:Hion" and expand "gallant"). I th o ught h e r court iy attend ants (3 . . . . swo rds . . . scabbards . . . ) would instantly h:ll' c
avcngell th e slig htest ( 8 . . . . look . . . ) attempt to offer her
insult. nut I wa s very fa r astray (6), for th e days of nuble (8 .
c hi va lry) and sel r-sac riti c ing deeds a rc past (4), and are sw < ceded
by the reig n o f soph isters, economis ts, and calc ul a tors, and th e glo ry
of F.urope is forever (Make" foreve r" e mphati c) ext ingui,he.J .
r S· Frederick immediately se nt reli e f ; a nd in an instant ali
Saxo ny was ove rn owed ( r 1) with a rmed m e n.
16. The brain -wome n (6) n ever interest us like the hnrt wo men ( 6) ; wh ite roses please less than reel ( 8) . (J ust iry or
suggest improve m e n ts in this an d t he n e xt two.)
r 7. When you can get the b itter o ut of the par t ridge's thigh ,
yon can m ake an enlighte n ed com m o nwealth of Indians ( 6).
A provisio nal race ( 6) , Sir, - nothing m o re .
18. On the rich and the ch>riuent, on no\Jles and p ri ests, they
looke d down with contempt ( 4 ) .

CO~tl'OSITION

AND RHETORIC.

EXERCISE XXXIX.

ST REN GTll.

125

19. Tht: picture w:.ts u n iversally ad mired by everybody.
Th e Presid e nt ho lds the execu tiv e power uf the Lrnd, b ut
th e leg is la tive power is veste d in Co ng ress.
2 1 . I heard him o ften reite rate repeatedly, that he would nc,-cr
ag:tin, if a s,1fe and sec ure p:t th was open to him , prefe r the peril ou s ro:ul of d ange r, how e ve r all uring and a t tract ivt.: the: latter
mig ht be .
22 . Al fr ed the C rea t, o f England, was one of the: most rem ark able a nd distin gu ish ed m e n that we read of in hi story . T hvugh
hi s effo rts were unable a nd in s11Aic ient to e ntirely ban is h tht: Ja rknt:ss of the age h e l ived in, yet he g reatly improv ed the co n diti rm
o f hi s c ountrym e n, anLl was the m eans o f d o ing mu c h govd tu
t hem.
23. \ \'hile trv:ie whisp ers were passing, the sleeper's features
did no t be tray th e least token o f inte re st, his hea rt did n ot throb,
no r hi s b reath become ag ita ted.
24. H e th ought or ?-.Tay Dane , h e thou g ht o r e ve ryth ing that
was pu r e, and holy, a nd l>c:rnt ilul, and luminous, :rnd calm .
25. l know n ot wh y yo u <:tme, with o u t it was to learn h o w we
a ll a re, as a soc iable ne ighbor o ught to.
20 .

G ENERA i. E XERC ISE ON STHENGTH.
DIRECT ION . -

E xplain wh ere in these sen te nces arc de fi cien t in stre ng th,

th e n mak e a ny irnpru vcm c nls yo n can.

l·k ach·an ced u p to the doo r.
As I p r e vi o u~ly re m a rk ed befo re n ow, I s:iy agai n.
He reduc ed th e pou nd down to shi llings and ]H.: nee .
! l e appea rs t o rnj o y the un ive rsal estee m of a ll m e n.
T we nt :nv:tv, ft1 ll of a g rea t m a n y scri o t1s r e Oec ti o ns.
The se nten ce is full o f the g reatest numbe r o f mi stak es .
7. The wh o le o f it is fil led wi th gems of thoug ht.
S. He w:is a man of line reputation and enjoyed a hi g h degr ee
1.

'
3.
4.
5.
G.

o f pop ub rity.
9 . \ Vh e n such a m:rn is fou nd, his name 1s o n eve ry o ne 's lips,
hi s d e ed s a re lauded bv ~di.
1 u . T he man or virtt1c and of ho n o r will bt: trn sted a nd esteemed :rnd res 11ec ted and relied upo n.
t 1. \\" e should n ot avenge ou rselves on o ur e nem ies, n o r take
re venge o n o ur fo es .
1 ~.
J\l:tn is immortal ; h e wi ll live fore n .: r.
13. The la wye r questi o ned th e prisonn 111int1tely, :rnd e xamined
him at le ngth.
1 4 . W e ofte n conjure u p ground s o f app reh e nsio n , and give
o ursel ves unn ecess:uy un ea sin ess.
15. \ Ve rested und er the u m b rageous shado w o f a shady oak,
and then ag:.tin res um ed our jou rn ey an e w.
16. Th::i t esc ul e nt succule nt o n whi ch so m an); p oo r p eople
d e pe n d for th eir dai ly sw;ten:i nce.
1 i· Cook T er ts was last \\' CC k se n:enccd t1 J be ha nged fo r poisoni ng R os:i nn ah his wife ahout this t ime b st ye:ir.
18 . T hey pc ri oclic·;1ll y and reg ubrly exposed th e m ou ld to
the ai r.

PART

II.

26. The people gave him th e ir support, and h e was aw1i n
r e -e lec ted to the sam e p os it io n from wh ence he had bee n
r ejec ted .
2 7. On th e ir j ourn ey to th e Pac ifi c co::ist, th ey passed t hrough
Detro it, C hi cago, and Vi cto ri a; r eturn ing hom e aga in the next
yea r by t he same road , th ey passed throu g h the same c it ies again.
28. It is only in n ovels, and o n tomb-stones, that we m ee t with
people wh o are in dt1l ge nt to t he fa ults o f othe rs, and d o n o t look
with m ercy. on th e ir ow n .
29. \Ve have p as:;cd th e c lause whi c h gives unlimite d authority
ove r the national wea lth, a nd he re is o ne by which un bounded
c1rntrol is given over th e s tr engt h of 1.h e nati o n.

126

COMPO S ITION AND RIIETO!<.lC.

30. Every Lody vf matt e r, with the possilJle exception of the
m o lec ul e , whether solid, liquid, or gaseous, m:iy Le forced into a
sm:iller volume. ( Compare, - J\Iatter is compressible.)
3 1. Those who :i re ha bitually silent by disp osit io n and morose,
are less liable and ope n to the fault of exaggeration than those who
are h:1Li tually fu nd u( talking a nd uf a pleasant di spos itio n.
32 . Consid e r the fiuwers ho\\' they g ra<lu :i lly increase in their
si1.e ; the y Jo no manner o f work, and ye t I decla re to you that no
kin g ll'h a tevcr, in his m os t splendid hab it, is dresse d up lik e th em.
33 lf, th e n, Cod in 1-1 is prOl·iden c e d oth so adum th e vecreo
ta l.Jle productions, whi c h co ntinu e but a li ttle time on th e la nJ, and
:ue afte rwards put into th e lire, how mu ch more will He provide
cloth ing for you !

UNITY.

127

44. This wri te r everywhere exhiuib a vaw s/1uw of leu 111in,;'
whic/1 li e allonpts to display in stiff and pompous pl1t<Ht:<•. 1ugy
45. Whe n we became. better acquainted with hitn ll'e fuund
him to be a 111a11 fond of fine dress, dtlil exlnli '<lt,'1111!(1 • nirr: t1h l 111 !
/1is personal appearan ce.
46. A chai rman and a deputy- c hairman and subscripti o ns :rnt 1
an annual sermon would g ive g reat dignity to th e ir proceed ings.
4 7. "I will Jie for you, [ will reiie\·e yo u," said th e clvuLl.
48. l l e det e rmin ed to seek uut its :1uth o r in th e inmu:;t rcct'sscs
of the consecrated Led-chambe r, of the palace, of the ""!'ital c ity
- and where ve r foun d to luJge :t Jagger in his hear t.
49. The sold ier, in order to attend to his dutic:;, !u rsu uk
fri enJs, wealth, pleasu re.

34 · FashiomLle soc iety gets at these ri r.h nat~res very often in
a way one wou ld hardly a t first think o f.
35 . Th e bke is very gra nd and inspiring when rough, but very
Le:1 utiful when ca lm. (J\1ak e exclamatory.)
3(i . ( 'h:irity lJeareth all things, :ind lie li eve th all thin gs, and endurcth :di tl1in gs .

LE SSON XXVL

3 7. In the :\ tti c corn1nonwealth, it w:is the priv il ege and birthrig ht of every c itizen :ind poet, to rail al oud and in puulic.
38. I have gu t a cold toget l1 er \\' ilh a fever.
39· <)n the supposition tha t o ne p<:rsu n salutes anot he r person ,
Joes th e first perso n lie under an obl igat ion to excla im in a ve hem en t and plaintive vo ice?

Evuy se ntence should possc-ss Uni ty, that is, ev ery part uf i;
should be su Lse rvi ent to o ne princ ipal :1 flirrn;1 t io n.
Subsidiary Clauses and Details. - This U nity does no t pre c lud e th e e num eratio n in a se nt ence of various det a ils, nv r the
introduc tion of several dependent clauses; I.Jut these details 111u't
1Je closely related, and the th oughts of these dependent cb11st·s
must be subordinate tu one gove rnin g idea, or mu st be a .-unscquence of it, o r an in fe rence from it, so that :111 th e p:1 rts of the
sente nce may co mbine to form a unit, not a collec tion of unit s .
How attained. - Jn seekin g to atta in Unity, care mu st Le
given to these mat ters : Change of Subject, Things Unconnec ted,
Parentheses, Supplem e ntary Clauses .

40 . He had been false to his God, to hi s consc ie nce, to his
mother.

•11. There is no go vernment wi th out :.i m agi str:ite ; no e njoym e nt of prope rty without governme nt; no obl'd ience where every
on e ac ts as he pleases; and no magi st rat e wit huut obed ience .
..p. The eleganc ies and su:tvities of life die uu t one l.ly one as
we si nk through the social scale .

43· T h is animal is saiJ to lta7'1' t/1 e p ow er of lfring in t/1e air or
in waler. (In this and the two fo ll owing se nt e nces, substitute
one wo rd for th e wore.ls in italics.)

3. U\llT\'.

I.

C1-1ANGE O F S UBJECT.

In the cou rse of the sa me sentence , th e subject shoulJ he
c ha nged as little as possible.

i.

I

128

UNITY.

COMPOS ITJ 01' AND RHETORI C.

E.rn111}'k. - "Al though he fulfilled his duties honorably, promotion came slo wly ; and it was no t until h e wa s forty -three that
the ra nk of cap t:i in w :ts a ttai ned." H erc :ire four suuj ec ts "he,"
"prom o ti on," " it," "rank," with as m:iny diffe re nt ve ros. The
p rinc ipal subjec t is "h e ," :ind the sent<:nce should be written,
":\! tho ugh h e full1lled h is duties h onorably, he \\'JS slowly promoted; :rn d , befo re he had att:iined the rank o f ca ptain, he was
full y fo rt y-three ."
"

T111r-;r:s Ur-;co:\:\r·:cricn .

Things that h:we so little ronnect ion in sense that they may just
as we ll he exp ressed in separate ~ entrn c es, shou ld no t ht: cro wd ed
into one se nten ce . There should be hut one leading tho ugh t in a
sent<.:nce .
F1·t1mj>k . -"What we understa nd by g en tl e man -lik<.: feelings
he kn e w no t h in g about; I will g ive yo u :i cu ri ous instance." Here
it wo uld lie be tt e r to stop :tt "about" :rnd b eg in a new se nt ence;
thu s, "Of this I will g ive you a cmio us inst:rnce."

3·

PAR ENTHESF.S .

A parenthesis m ay occ asionall:• be introcluc ed into a se ntence
with good effect: :1s, "W..: arc all (a nd wh o wouhl not be?)
offended at the t reatment we have recei,·ed."
This is more
Yi gorous th a n "W e :u e all offended at the treat m e nt we have
rece ived. \\' h o, ind eed, would no t be ofTt·ndcd?" J\s, however,
p:i re nt heses, by c:tll ing off at ten ti on from the main subj ec t, tend
to m. 1ke sen te nces h ea vy a nd ohsru re, t he use o f th em is fr aught
with dan ger, :rnd sho11l tl h e avoid ed hv yo u ng writ ers.
E xamp!t:. - "The qui cksilver mi nes o f ld ria in 1\u stri a (which
w<.:re d iscovered in r 797, by a peasant, who, catchi ng so me water
fro m a spring, fo11nrl the tub so h eavy t hat he could not move it,
and the bottom covered wi th a sh ining substan ce, whi ch t urned
out to lie m erc ury), yiehl every ye ar m-c r three hundred thousand
po unds of that va luable m etal." In this, th e parenthesis should
be mad e a separate se nten ce.

4.

r29

S UPPLEM ENTARY C r.A USF.S.

A clause sh ou ld not be added afte r the sentence h ~1 s l>een apparently brought to a close.

Example. - ":\ s h e m o rJ.li1.ed on th<.:se words they set> 1rn.:d to
soothe th e sadness of his h eart ; whi ch was somcti111es sul•jt'ct tu
palpitation."
This sentence should end at "heart," and th e re mainder u11ght
eithe r to he furmeJ into a ~epa r ate se nt<.:n cc, o r to l><.: neatl y
emboclic:d in the m:1in statement.
Exceptions . - The rules here Jai<l clow n fu r U nit y m us t l>c
constrned with cons idt.:rable libtrJ.lity.
1. IL m ust not be r('g:1rded as a violation o f th ern to :tdd after
a se mi -colo n a cla1 1s<.: o f co nse'l11enc<.:, e xplanati o n, iteratiun,
exemplificati on, o r <Jl1Jlil1 ca ti on; as, "Smely this v ugh t nut to
b e asserlt"d, 11nless it ca n lJe proved; we should speak wi th cautious reverence upo n such a suuject." "Agri culture is th e fv11ndation o f manu fac tures; t.h c productio ns o f nature are th e m:ttcri:tls
of art."
2 . In Desc ri p ti o n and Narra ti on it is o ften d esirab le to l>ring
togethe r seve ral disti nct facts in the sam e se nt ence, as in th L'
following: "Hy night, sw<.: e t od o rs, va ry in g with e ve ry h ou r of t he
wa tc h, we re wafted from th e sho re to th e vessel lying n ear ; I and
th e forest trees, brought togetlu:r by t he se rpent trace ry o f myria<ls
of stran re p:1r:isiti cal plants, 111ig ht wc:ll see m to the fan cy lih
some great d es ig n o f building, I ovt:r wh ic h th e lofty palms a p p ea red to prese nt a new order of arch it ec ture." I [e re, there an:
three distin c t fa cts th a t mi g ht hav e ],cen written in as m:my separat e senten ces, but :ls they are c lns<' ly 1:unnected in se nse , th ey
ha ve a be t te r dfect in one se ntence th a n they wo uld have ;n three
curt and abrupt ones.

...
130

COMPOSITlON

AND RHETORIC.

EXERCISE XL.
D11<v:CT 1l>N . -

Examine tl1 ese se nten ces, determine which of the rules o[

Unity is violated, aud then rewri te the sentt.:nces with lb e nel.'.essary c orrections

By adopting this syste m the est ima tor will kno w that each
it e m is co mplete, anJ it will be alinos t impossible to e rr in the
1.

lin :d resu lt.
2 . j\'J r. J .e wi s an d 1. Ji ne<l with :l fri end of his, and un expectedly
th ere dined with t1s :tn Iri sh Knight, wh o foliuws th e '.aw here, but
at :l g reat distance : he was so pe rt, I was forced to take him down

more th an once .
3. U nlike the o th e rs, she is very fo nd of w:ite r, and if left to
her own inc lin a tions, would swim al l day. ha \'in ~ o nce saved the
life of a chi ld in i\i issour i, on the b:rn ks uf t!ic l\l ississippi River;
she c:m ne ve r go nea r th e wa ter where people a re b::it.hing but that
she insists t1 pon fe tchin g them out.
4. Fritz is a white and rn o t1 se-colo re d houn d, ve ry savage from
the da y he was bor n, a11d sho ws a di spos ition like his mother, to be
n : rv tr e::tc herot1 s, he is inc lined to l.Je cross and t1nruly at times,
noth in"
,., lJu t the m os t severe discij)!ine , co upled with a ce rtain
am o unt of kindn ess, ever kept h im with in bounds.
5. The opposi ti o n induce d th e gove rn or (\\'ho exercises the
power of appoin tin g judges during the n: cess o f th e kgi slature)

aml

not to make any appo intm e nt.
6. If th e object of th e people asscmblc<l at Bethlehem was of a
public nature (which it cert:tinly \1·;1s if th e y asse rnble<l with intent
to prevent th e executi on of l.Joth !ht: a!J o,·e -rn e ntiulled acts of
Congress, or either of th e m), it mt1 st be pro1'e J that the prisoner
incited the insu rrection.
7. His Excellency read his lette r ( whcrci n he says, that notwithstandin g his objections to th e Const it11tion, he would adopt it
rather than lose th e union), and then proceed ed to prove the correc tness of his opinion.
8 . The firs t ord er of business shall he receivi ng the annual
n :port of the trustees (showing the state of th e school fur the year,

UNITY.

131

,_,...

the proceedings of the trn stees, and g iving a detailed account of
the rece ip t and expenditure of a li school moneys) anJ Ji spusing
of the same.
9. \\' hen you se nd t1p bu tter for sauce, be so thrift y as to le t il
be half wat e r; whi c h is also much wholesomer.
1 o. I am convinced that the name "scold" is as offens iv e to
female e:t rs , as th e effects of that in curable distemper are tu the
ears o f m e n ; whi c h, to be st1re, is incxpre,,, i!Jlc.
11. l have fr eq uentl y observed that at th e ba r a nd the ptd pit,
thos e who have the least learn ing or sense generally m ee t with tl1c:
larges t share of promotions and profits; of whi c h m:rny in stan ces
might be produ c ed.
12. :\ Ch urch -of- Eng land man will never l.Je S\\'ayed l>y passion
or inte rest to adva nce an op inion m e rely becrnse it is that u ( th e
pa rty he approv es; whi c h, o n single princ ipl e, he loo ks upon as
the root o f all ou r c ivil an imos ities.
13. And no wonde r this is so, when in ord e r to find ot1t the
characte r of a person, instead of inquiring wh ethe r he be a man of
virtue, honor, piety, wit, good sense, or learning, th e modern •i uestion is o nl y whether he l.J e a Whig or a Tory; untler whi ch te rm s
all good ancl ill qualities are included .
14. A fter th e s:tbbath eve ning se n ·ic e , this nol.ile man stoud
up on a c hair on a co rner of the street and preached in the open
air tO a large audience who crowded the street, and no policeman
interfereJ.
·
1 S. Six d:tys ou t of th e se ven spent on th e oc ean were among
th e most pleasant Jays o( my itfc, and now my difficulty is in partrng with l\fr. and Mrs. Frost, and the many kind friends whom I
have m e t.

16 . If so me men, :tcco rd ing to the fa sh ionabk met~1p hor, :tre
square , whil e ot he rs arc round, the Ri ght Honor:ible Robert Lowe
must be d esc ribed as multangu lar, with whom it is not very easy to
live comfortably and at peace.
.
l 7. Lord Bacon's maxims are full of philosophy; but he was a
very mean man.

,~

.

·'.

\'.

..

ELEGA NCE.

COMPOSIT ION AND R H E TORI C.

13 3

18. Mr. Scott, of this town, m et with a pa in fu l accident last
week; h e is n o w qu ite an old m an .
19 . Th e king fe ll from his h o rse a nd d ied two hou rs a ft er the
fall, which was uccasiO!H:d l.Jy the ho rse 's stumbl in g on a mol e-h ill,
whil e h e w:1 s o n hi s return frv m rev iewing his troop s.
20. vVe intend to luve obse rvatio ns of rainfall and te m pe rature
take n at the stat io n s, :rnd in t h is way data will accumulate to show
what var ic:ties fro m nvrmal seasons tak e place.
21 . I was at th e Co urt o f R equests to ge t so me lo rds to be at a
cv n1mitt ec to- m orro w abou t a fri e nd 's bill : and the n the Duke of
Jk au fo rt gave m e :1 poe m, fin ely hou nil in fvlio, p rinted in Stamford , a nd written by a co untry s11u ire.
2 2 . Mr. I L1r ley co nti nu es o ut of o rder, yet hi s affairs force him
:1\Jroad; he is subject to a so re th roat, and was cupped last ni ght;

T se nt and c:.dled two o r three times.
2 . I Je re :tl so would pro pe rly arise th e quest ion, started by
3
Ch:irles Jo'ux (b ut properly due o ri ginall y to th e conv ersation of
sv m e fa r su Ltle r fr iend, such as EJ mund Burke ), h o w fa r the pract ic e o f fu o t -no tes (a p ract ice purely mo dern in its fo rm) is reconc il:i.ble with the laws of just composition ; an<l wh ether in virtue,
th o ug h no t in form, such foot- notes did no t exist for th e ancients,
l1 y :rn evas io n we c oulJ point out.
2 .J . .'hor tly afte r th e acc itknt ha ppe ned he we nt fo r a to ur on
the continent; wh e re he sa w m any wonderfu l sights, wi th whi ch he
was deli g hted; and thw11gh out hi s wh ole travels h e was treated
with every mark of respect ; and re turned after an a\Jse nce of two

LESSON XXVII.
4.

ELE~ANCE.

Elegance co nstitutes th e charm o f la ngu age. It is the quality
which pleases, as distin g ui she<l from that whi ch in struc ts (Clc:1rness) , or t hat which im presses (Strengt h). As the professed o lJject
of poe try is to p lease, Eleg:rnce is its ap propriate e xc ellcnn;; yet,
since l.Jeauty always gives effective ness to la ng uage, Elegance holds
n o unimpo rtant p lace in prose.
How Attaine d. - I n seeking to at ta in Elegan c e, whi i: h i,.;
r eall y the outcome of good taste, the beginner m :ty ga in so mething by g ivin g attention to l\felody, I f:J.rmony, the Avoidance
of Fine Wri ting , a nd Keeping.
MEI.ODY .

Elegance req uire s M elon y in lang uage; that is, ~t requires the
choice of suc h wo rd s as arc ::ig reea Llc to the ear, the taste, and
the imagination .
Me l ody m ay be pro m oted by th e 11se of: r. Eu ph onious Words. - Tlw sound of some wo rd s is mu ch
more ag re eable to the e ar than that o f o th ers. The following a rc
h arsh:-

a. Derivat ives fr om long compo unds; as, 1111s11rces.if11/11e.rs ,

ye:trs .

w ro!If~ It carlcdncss.

25 . Rode ri ck Dh u is too b oas tful :md co nfident in hi s own skill
and powers; he shows t hi s in tlm llvin g d o wn his large in th e duel
between Fitz-Ja m es a nJ himse lf ; whic h acti on cost him hi s life.

b. \Vo rcls th a t con ta in a successio n of conso nan ts; as, plcad!d 'st, flNZ£:N!' s I, disresper t.
c. \Vorcls th :1t co ntain a succession of un acce nted syllables;

as, deroi;a torih , /'t'ro11ptori11es.r .
d. \ Vorcls that co ntain vowels of the sa m e, or n e:irly th e same

sound; as,

lzoli~r.

e. /\ successio n of wo rds hav ing the sam e o r a similar sound ,
as, "The party dep a rted in the early part of th e e veni ng.

~

..

.·.·.
COMPOSTTION Al\D RHETORIC.

ELE(;AN CF .

On the other hand, it may be noted that: 11. :\ preponderance of \·owcls anLl liqu ids gives ease and softn ess to the sound ; as, di111i11atio11, morlcration.
/1. 1\n alternatiun of Yowcls and consonants heightens the

Euphonious Endings. - It it important to have a ple:ising
cadence at the e nd of a sentence, and, when possible, so to
arrange the words a nd c lauses that the sound may swell to the
c lose . The fo llowing hea11tiful sentence from Sterne is an admirable example of the pl eas ing · effect: produced in this way: "Thi:
accusing sp irit whi ch llcew 11p to I fcav.:n's cha nce ry with the mtli,
blushed :is h e gave it in; and the rec:urding angel druJ'ped a tear
upon it and blotted it out forever."
Good e ndings may h e forme<l by conc lud in g with
a. J\ lo ng syllable, especially if that syllable ends with a con
tinuing co nso nant; as, afft'<I r, .1"11pu111c.
b. \Vith o n e or more unaccented syl laules; as, cou11/t}', j1a-

134

melody ; as, rclcrill', a l<'11rl1· dlly.
, .. .'\ due alternation of long and sho rt, of acrente.\ and un acce nted syllables, is an r'-;c' nti:il cond itio n of m e lody; as, "The
pomp and circumst;'lnce of glo ri ous wa r."
d. /\ difficult an<l harsh co m hinat i"n of letters rn;'ly produce
:m :tgn·eable variety, if m:icle to follow a succession of smooth
and liquid sounds.
2 . Euphonious Arrangement. \\'ords nuy be well-chosen,
and may be cu11honi o us in themselves, yet if they are not skilfuily arranged, the musi cal flow, or rhythm, of the sentence will be
broken.
a. Euphonious words sometimes produce an unpleasing effect
wh e n p laced in an order that ctuses unpleasant consu n:.int al com binations, or a repetition of the s:ime sounds in clqse succession;
:is, "up by"; "I ca n candidly tell you"; "He will wilfully wander fr o m the way."
These combinations m;'ly be avoided by usin g sy no nyms; as,
"up near" ; ,; I c:rn frankly te ll you"; "He will pu rpo sely wander
frcit n the path ."
;,_ ;\ su ccession of words of the same number of syllables is
sc-lrlom r:o ndttl'iv e to harm o ny ; as , "01'0 kintl nf joy c:rn long
pl ease 11 s " is improved by writing , "No spec ies of joy can long
d elight us."
c. The melody of a sentence may be heig htened by arranging
the words so that the accents fall with some sort of r egularity an.cl
on important word s. In the follow in g beautiful sentence from
George Eliot, the rhythm of th e latter part is almost poetic:
"The b oat rc -appc:ire• 1, but brother and sister had gone down
in an embrace never to he parted; living through again, in one
supreme moment, the days wh e n they had clasped their little
han<ls in love , and ro:m1ed the dai sied fit:lds together."

135

.

..

:·

""

1.

''•

dom, li/!crtv.
V ery long wo rd s, o r words with the accent far from the end , do
not make a pleasing close; as, perc111flonly, irresishlJ/y.
J-fA IU IONY.

Lastly, there is a kind of l-farnwny that a ri ses from having th e
so und of the words and of the sentence an echo of the sense. So
far we hav e sp<>kcn of the use of e1 1ph onious words only, u11t wc.r.ls
of every variety of sound have their place, and Harmony is prnmoted hy the selection of such as are arlapte<l to the sense.
\V orcls of h::irsh and unpleasant sound may he employed with
adv:tn t:tge to express somet hing dis:igrecable; wo rds of slow ;111,j
measured sou nd ;ire .1.1bptNl to gr;1ve and serious tho iwltts · :rnd
those of soft :ind flowing sounds, to gen tle and benignan~ f~e,iings.
The express ion of motion, too, may be made more effective bv
the use of suitable words and combinations: rapid and eas~
moti on, by short, easi ly-pronounced syllables, or by those of soft
and fl owin g smoothness; slow and laborious movement, by a series
of long syllables , of accented worrls, or n f words that h:we so many
dilfo:ult co nsonants that th ey cannot lie r:tpidly pronounc ed.

J: ..

,-'/

COMPOSITION AND RIIETORIC .

ELEGANCE.

EXERCISE XLI.

z3. ./\. be:rntiful
isbnd,
famous· in ·son"
r. ·-md
· stor\·
_ , lies
. upon tll''
,
_
.
ot l1er sale o t th e wi de Atlantic
(There };cs
)
;

MELOl>Y A:-<ll HArrnONY.
I lt IH'.C"rt "

N. -

lm pro ,· e th e ~l dudy a11d I larmuny uf t hese sen tences.

1. They were all th e c hildren of whim, and satire, and wi t.
2.

They h:ul :dready reached the road th at runs round to Sleepy

J! ollow.
3 . This diffi culty was at bst gut rid uf.
4 . Th e m an who lived there last year has made up his mind to
move to th e c ity .
5. He was mu ch pleased wit h th e way the boys and girls said
their \a,-ks.
6. I le was just as just as his neighbor;; .
7. The leaves of the trees fall in the fa ll.
8. He described it in an uninteresting. nnnne r.
9. Sk etch Scott's early education in l·:dinburgh.
1 o. Boys a rc apt, too, to attribute ridi cuk to wrong mot ives.
1 1. His employer pe remptoril y dismissed him.
12. All men do not see m to have the s:11nc mind as this man.
13. The passing bell to ll ed th e knell \\'hen th e hero icll.
14. The stand:ud to whi ch all fo rm nrn st cnnlnrm is usage.
15. The ma ster is placed th ere spcci:tlly tu i11fluence - in t.ellectualh· onlv. manv think. l)\1t as tntlv monllv .
r6. !-l e ex celled in keen satire. :.m d in broad humor, too.
1 7. Th e princ ipal expla in ed th e principle on which he governed.
18. These imp ecun ious, characterle ss · adve nturers, for weeks
and weeks, haunted the parliam entary bu ildings.
19. Th e re will be willing p::irents wh o will \\'i sh to wat er the
seed scattered hy me.
20 . Such a thing wns not to be th ought of, or if it w:1s, it was
only to grat ify niy seiiisiuic:-;::J .
21. The ni gh t is past and the rn<>rnin ~ ;, ·- 1 1ming.
2 z. Lazy people seldom gather riches.

o

[

- ·

0

•

•

~\ } !) !..!: .

z4 . Uf ge nius and greatness, it has give n tu the ~irnid
th:ln it."> ~li,1re .

In t .re

25. Let us con,ide r the arnl1itiu11s ; and lmth in their ,rogre,s
1
to g reatness, and after the attaining of it.
c

26~ l_l e r const:int connection with th e fam ily as ~1 faq frit'nd ui
the last1d1011s little i\fi ss H., left an ind e lible impress ii)j] 0 11 lier
mind.
2 7 · A frw ro11gh logs bid side by s id e served for
J ·}
cross un.
a Jrtt ge lo

28. On approachi ng the hom e of his childhood hf' s;i .,,· 1i, ,,
lcav(~:, scaring, f1)r winter was nearin g . and thl' l•ird:-. were ;i.i H) r:t
disappuring.
29. Th e separate casts of tl1e arm Ioo k· imm
·
ense, but in its
place th e lim b looks light.

30. Th e ragi ng w:ite rs rolled 01·er his c hi ld, and he w:1s ieft sorrow11>_g. ( ( ':1nq•;_,cll.)

3 T. U p the lofty hill he ra ises a large, ro11nd stone. ( l'upe.)
A g reat many thin gs seem ingly r e l:1 t 1vc Jy per 1·ect Iy plain.
arc very diffi cult to 11nr;n·c l.
33· Walled rrn1nd with rocks as is an inland island.
34· Their g ho sts cir<'lc thee in an endless c•mfusion.
3S· \V e !in: in :rn t·nii~i1ll'ncd :t;.'.c'.
3!1. The •111al1tics ncce"an' tu .,,c,·11·"
, t I1e pup11 J.tr p:<rtv ill t h e
h our of <!anger, othe rs migh; possess; both the pown and the
inclinati on to res tr:iin its excesses in the ho11r of t riumph, I-Llmp d en al o n ~ l:arl. (Others . .. dan ger; {-Lunpden . .. trit1 rn j'li.)
37· \\ mie lc:rn1ng on a post he tuld me that, wh en al Lhe 1n iiitary post,
he obtained a ]Jost of brrre:it
h1mor "" ll<I tr ll~n,
• lll
· - \\·llit· lI It
·
.
'
was
li1s
duty
not
onlv
to
post
the
<'cncr
d's
Jetter
·
'
l.
•
.
,
1
. .
'
..
h • '
:-., [)I
,_l[ ;-\() LU j1Ct >.., !
li1, JHn·atc kuhcr.
3 2.

...

~;,

.

-··

.,.,r

COMPOSIT ION AKD RHETOR IC.

ELEGANCE.

1 39

K 1·: El' l:-I G.

LESSON XXVTTI.
ELEG ,\:\ C E. - J-'1:\'E WRITI NG.

Elt:gance as well as Clearn ess requires the avoidance of Fine
Writing , that is, the nse of exquisite ph ra.ses, lo ng-swelling words,
affec ted expressio ns, and volnble c ircuml oc utions, instead of say·
ing what one means in a simpl e, natural, an<l straightfo rward
ma nn e r.
Sometimes thi5 fault manifests itself in a desire to inte rlard
one's writin g with podi c phr:1scs or quotat ions, as "the festive
board," for " uble "; "th e c up that cheers, but not inebriates,"
fu r '·tea ."
Suc h qu otatio ns arc allowable when they are in
keepi ng with the rest of the \\'riting, and a re in point.
Th is pretentious kind of language is so mu c h nsed by public
speakers, :ind in ne\\'spa pns, magazines. and other pe riodicals,
th at it b ids fair to destroy th e na tiv e si mpli city, force, and beauty
of our tongue.
In Fine Wri ti ng people do not live in houses, " th ey res ide in
reside nces" ; fires are not put out, bu t " conflagrat ions are extinguished"; the law docs not hang rogues, but it "launches into
cti: rnity the vic tims of 11 nbridlc<i passions"; people do not send
for th e doc to r, but " call into requi siti on th e se rvices of the family
physician"; they do not die, In tl" the spirit wings its flight into
etern ity 11 ; a man docs not breakfast, but he "disc usses the
morning repast"; he docs no t go to bed, but "retires to his
downy couch 11 ; h e docs· not go to ch urc h, bu t "attends divine
se rvi ce " ; he does not lose his m oth er by death, but " sustains
a hcrc:w e ment of his maternal rcb ti\'c " ;' lad ies are not married,
hnt "led to the h ymcne::i 1 al tar " ; docto rs do not o rd er a poultice,
but an "emollien t cataplasm."

Elegance reqnires all parts of discourse to be in Keeping. The
mod e of tr ea tm en t and the style
shonld be suital
1·
·
._ } le to ti I t: :-\lldj1...'1·t
the language and Lhe subject shou ld support each o ther ; discord~
of all kinds should be avoid ed ,· .·tnd bold fi1gu res s Iiou I, I b,.~
sparingly used .
r. The different parts of a sen te nce should cn m.:spond to
one another; as, "All prope r nouns shou ld begin with a capital."
I~ere th e first 1,~a r_t of the sentence is plural, and th e latte r part
srngular. Say Lvery proper no un."
2 . The harshness c:i.used by making two verbs or pr~'jH •sitiun s
govern the same object should be avoided ; as, "In th e battle, )w
furiousl y sought to close with, a nd c nt do wn, his rival."
..3· Low o r tri vial language mu st not he nsed in snio11s compo sition; as, "' 13lessed are the meek' that was one of Hi · b·
vat ions."
'
s o sc r-

4. Th e same wo r<l sho nld not b c 11se1 I at short interval -; in
diffe rent senses; as, "If the show of anything is good r0 r
thing, since rity is bette r. "
'
a ny-

5· Th e repe tition of the same wo rd a t brief in tc-rvals even in
~,h.e same se nse, 1s offensive to the taste as well as to the ear; .i-; ,
fhe Colon el orde red the subordinate officers to order thei r
troops to co me to orde r."
Exceptions. - So meti mes, howeve r, th e same word may he
repeated with a fine effect . as " N. 1~ . .
.
·
crowd d " "
'
'
t' ung is orn 1tte( 1 ; not/1in1; is
e .
An unpardonable _f.111/t, th e fault of tediousn ess,
pervades th e wh ole of th e Fai ry Quee n."
So me t imes, also, th e repe tition is necessa ry in order to
k
. down as a general rnl ema
th e sense clea r '· ,1s,
. .
.an it 1ie laid
th:itc
th e movement of pol it ic:1l and reli gious truth is rath e r downward s
from the gowrnmo1/ to the j><'oplr, than u pwa rd s from th t: frt1f'/c
to the go1•t'r11mo1 /. "

"c ·

S imilarly, a sncccs<;ion of phrases or clauses of th ~ same kind
becomes disagreeable.

,,

.

COMPOS ITI ON A ND RHETO R IC.

. "h
6 . T he prac ti ce of beginn ing se nt e nce a fter sen te nce w1tn
. e"
o r some sim ila r wonl, is a n inekg3n ce into wh ic h yo ung wnters
a re very ap t to fall.
. A poetic m etaphor should no t be useJ to ill ustrate a p rosaic

7

suliject; as , "Co nsols soared to 94t."
..
s. Incong ru o us statements should n ot, in se rio us _co m ros1t1on,
be united in the same sen te nce; as , "1 le was a lov ing hu sband ,
a tender father, :rnd a goo J shot."
. A literal sta temen t shou ld not fol low im m ed ia tely aft er a
9
meta phor; as, " He was the fathe r of chemi :; try, and h ro th er to
t he Ear l of Co rk."

EXERCISE XLII.

Di RECT ION. -

Exp ress these se ntences in language be tter su itc1 l tu the

tlwught.
1

.

Those ind ividuals we re eagerl y hastening tow a rds th e ir pa-

ren tal dom icile .
2 . That inst itut io n was \nau gur:ited u nde r the auspices of a
most distinguished pe rson:ige .
. Previous to m:iking a sudden tran sition, yo u should exec ute
3
survey
of you r surroundings. (l .ook before, e tc .)
3
. l n rc,ompcn sc for his spkndi d rn11nific.cncc, h e was nude
4

the re ci pie nt of m:iny gr:itcful :1ckn owlcd g mcnb .
. The house th:it \\'aS lat ely in proccs-; o f erec t ion, h as b een

5

1Jcstroycd

in its entirety by the dC\"(H1rini.; cleme nt.
6. Jn th e inte nsity o f h is p:issio n, he ind ul ge d in n1 inatory

e xp ressions .
. His p:u e ntal rel:tt ivc was a gentlcm:m lo ng ide ntifi ed with

7
th e build ing interest.

8. P lease convey to me that di ssecti ng: inslrn:11cnl.
a1li1llt)· fur .,!,!ra" n 1'110
9 · A p e tri fi:etl l)Ot.I y o f rotary mo,1o
1as
mi neous matter. (A rolling sto ne, etc.)
1 0 . T'cdal tegume nts a rtistically ilhimin .lted and li 1h r ica terl for
the infrni lesimal compe nsation of five cents pe r ope ra ti on.

ELEG ANCE.
1 r. One o f th ose o mni p rese nt c harac ters, who, as if in pu rsua nce of some prev ious a rra nge m e nt, are ce rta in to he e ncounte red
whe n a n acc ide nt occu rs, ventured t he sugges t ion. ( A byst:rnd er.)
1 2 . While pu rsui ng my eso ter ic cog ita ti o ns o n th e empyrean
a tmosp he re, l w:is approached by a n e ru bescent dam se l, who
in fv rmcd m e that the noctu rnal revel ri es we re aLou t to e ns11 c.
13 . I opine you adorn the bountifully furni shed table of the
e xcellent bely who provides so libe rally for th e co m pany th at
assembles around her hosp itable boa rd .

14. \V hen t h e luminary of day In d <l ri ve n h is ch:i riot h "liinil
th e mountains, the eminent :ig riculturists beg:in t u dis c11os tl1c·
succ ule nt hivalv es.

15 . Afte r attending divi ne service, a vast concourse co ngrega ted to behold th e vict im s o f u nLr id led passio ns la unched into
ete rnit y.
16. Afte r be in g th e recip ient s of m ulti tt1cl ino us favo rs, :i.nd p:uti c ipa ti ng fo r some weeks in t he hospitali t ies o f t hei r host, they
too k thei r d cpa rtmc .
17. The friends speed ily c:i. llccl into requi;,it io n the services of
th e fa m ily phy,; ic ia n , b11 t t he d isease h:td ta k en so li rm a liuld
o f his system that after a fe ll' ho urs o f :igony his spirit wi nged its
fligh t into rcal1ns un k nuwn .
18 . The r<"n1ai11s of the departed autho r of my be ing 11·cn·
l;laccd 111 a c:1~ke t :111 d con veyed to thei r last restmg -pl:tcc .
19. Be fore she w:is led to the hymc ne:1 I alta r, she had ch ~trgc
of t he 'n lin ary dcp:i rt ment of a promi nent hotel.
20 . The p:ll ru n s o i husbandry, hav ing ti1o rough ly ex:1mint" i
all th e im·e n tio ns o f ge niu s to be foun d wi thin t h e m ach inery
h all , re ti red to a n adjo ining apartm ent to parta ke of so m e li q11 id
refresli111c11ts.

.

~'

··~

E L EGANCE.

CO Ml' OS ITI ON A ND Rll ETOR IC.

17. They we re refu se l e ntranct: int o, :i nd furciL ly dr iv e n from,
the house.

EXERCISE XLIII.

18. I was sail in g in a vas t ocean, without <Jther help t ha n the

KEEPING.
DIRECTION.

-Correct tli c viulati uns uf th e rules of Keeping.

Give

~

All verbs agree with their subject.

z . The faires t of her <laughters, Eve.
3. The first project was to s horten J iscourse by c utting polysyllal.il es into one.
4 . \\' e a re a t peac e with all th e wo rlJ, and seek t o maintain
o ur c herish e d rebtions of amity with th e r est of m a nkind .

S· In the cons tru c ti o n of the Act, "teac her" shall include
fennk :ls well :ts male teac hers.
6. That :rn th or apprvach es the subject from an unu sual sta ndpoin t.

enchanted castle .
21. At the n el\'s o f a Ru ssian w:ir, t h e p ri ce of wheat in sta111ly
soare d 11p tu ;t d oll :n a L11sh e l.

22 . I le had sense enough nut to use that word in th :i t sL·nse .
23. If the lo ss uf tempor ~il gai n Le t he.: ga in uf etern:li guud,
th e reverse o f fo rtun e is the revt:rse o f misfortune.
24 . The farmer gave ord e rs to his son tu v rd er the hi red 111 .11 1
to put the rt:apcr in good o rd e r.
25. When l wa~ there, there were friends vf mine there .1bv.

7 . The brain needs r est as mu c h, if not more , than the rest
of t h e body.
S. He looked ve ry unnatural after h e had rece ived that

ship of state into :t s:ife harbor.
.
10 . A n a nxi o us fa ce ope ned th e doo r and le d us upstai rs.
1 1 . The c hariot of revolut io n is rolling onward :ind gnashing
its t ee th as it rolls.
T 2. r "'as s itting :it the t:tblc e njoy in g :i rnp of c offee, when a
gentle vui<·e t:1pped m e on th e shoulder.
In the beginning it w:is intended th:it :ill men should marry
1 :;.
l mt one wife.
14. He was a firm bclieve r in the imm o rtal gucls who are now
cl e aLI.
1

s.

Shakespeare \\'as the sun among the k sser lights of Engl ish

poetry, a n d a n :i tiv e o f Str:itford-on-.'\von.
.
i 6. He guided the people from th e qu icksands of protection
into the safe ha rbo r of free trad e , and saved the country several
miJli ons.

EXERCISE XLIV.

un-

i1 atural treatrn<:: nt.
9 . 11 e s uc.cessfully a vo id eel thre:itcning ev ils, and steered the

..

pole-star of th e an c ients and the rules of the Fre nc h st:1g e .

19. The trnth is th:it truth and e rro r are Llended togethe r.
20. ln a house like this the inrn att:s r esemble a kni g ht in an

reasun fur ca~ h "-l 1an gc.
1.

143

GE N E RA!. EXERCISE ON
Drn.Ec-n o :-.; . -

the laws uf

Eu.:GA1'CE.

Rccu nstruct th ese Sl' ntt'n ces so as to l.'.orred all vi u l a t io 11 ~ 1,f

L kg a11 ~ c.

x. \Ve arc a firm l>cl i.:ver in ke e pin g p:ice with the time s.
The s< ' <'ll<~ is !:ii~ 011 an inland lake .

2.

3. He was tired with his jo urn ey a nd s:icl and dispirited.
4. I k nn..:r ~ c e m c- d to be c:1p:i l> le o f it .
5. Gcnt: rally suc aki11 g , a prudent general will in th<: f. tce .,f
odds avoid a gener:il engagement.
6. Shamdact:dness may re cu mmcnd m a ny 1n ore lhan 111urn:y.
7. The ess:iyis t could no t find a trace uf so m e of th ose ll' u rthi <:,;
of whum t he wor:J W i.!S 11 vl wurti 1y.
S. Evervl10J \' knows that tha t k1w "·s :rnvtl1ing at :ill.
y . It was in v:iin they reac hed th t: u llicr side; suLh t:ite Ju1_-s
fate assign us.
r o . Thou str•Jkcdst me and m:i.J'., 1 m11ch of me.

,·

COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.

ELE<iANCE.

1 1. You know, whe n you don't know wh ere you are go ing, you
gcner:illy tak e a r:ither slow pace .
1 2 . Thuugh generally scrupnlous, he d i1l not sc rn ple to do th at
/l:1se act.
1 3. After describing so interesting a meeting concerning th e
rival parties contending for supremacy, the speake r paused.
l -1· They found that :it an inro:id of the Indians he had been
taken prisoner.
i 5. J\ s we ::ipproached the clltl rc h we met crowds of respectable people hurrying to wards it, as if afraid o f being too late to
ubtain a good seat, or even admitt:rnce, etc.
16. She alw:1ys di splays a cheerfu l tempe r and ple::isant humor.
i 7. Tedi ous ness is the m os t fatal of all faults.
18. I le :1ttemp ted t<) express the inexplic able p leasme he felt.
19. l\lur:tl faults on ly, and the n only extremely rarely, should
be corrected by ridicule.
20. Boys a re sensit ive, and to ridicule mo re than anything else,
especial ly where both se xes a re tau gh t in the sa me room.
2 r. Though virtue borrows no assistance from, ye t it m ~1 y uften
IJe accomp:m ied by, the advantages of fortune .
22. It is hard to m a ke good the pretence uf a good qua lity.
23 . H e refu sed taking any further n otice of it.
24. Jt is in my power to n:fuse you, and ~nee I have the power
to do it I will do it.
25 . They directed th ei r course in the direction o f th eir father 's

32. The relations between nnid and mistress became sorely
strained .

house.
26 . Th e ni g ht whi ch desc e nd ed upon her was the ni ght (or th e
d ark ne ss ?) of an /\ret ie su mm e r.
2 7. J\ nun of his sense should h:ive a h ishe r sense of h o nor.
28 . I am acquainted with a certain 111:rn \Y ho has a certain income obtained frum th e in vestmen: of a certain sum.
29 . He was also known to, and vi sited b\·, Sheridan.
30. 'T'he devouring cle m ent consumed th e edifice b e fore its
prog ress co1ilcl b e a rn' , tl'd.
31. I le abruptly turn ed to the left and left the house .

. I l e is th e indivi1·l11 :1!
\Vii·'
took tl1e i· n·1t 1·a t.1ve
33
.
v
pisc ine preserves in this locality .

111

·
l 111 ·i11g
mtru<

34. 1 luok upon it as my d11ty, so long as I keep within the
l>ounds of lrnth and duty, and of dcct'n<'.y.

35. Li•stlcs::.ly t~tlking over vi!Ligt' .......~os::.i1 1 ' o r teliin !"">,... sl,,,-..l,.
C"'•l• '-'-- 1 _r,
JJ _
less stories al;u ut nothing, th ey used to sit here in the ::.hade
through a lon g lazy summer's J ay.
(He re . . . through . . .
talking . . . not hing .)
36. Therefore n oth in g, neither learning no r knowl ed "e uf the
world, neith e r furensic acuteness, n o r th:H eloquence whi <~l charms
politi cal assemblies, was wa nting to the defence of Uive . (To
th e clefenc <'; . .. a sse mbli es.)
37· As th ey p roceeded duwn the hill the rocks graduall y receded
from vie w.

38. Soc ieties like th ese will help to educate society and to o verthrow its drinking usages.
39· And see, first of all, that you have hc:1rts, and su11 11 d hearts,
too, to give.

4 0. Aft e r th e :lppe ti zin g bancp1et had been done f11ll justice to ,
the party s pe n t :111 e xt end ed period in pleasantly trippin g the light
fan tas l! c.
4 r . She asked h1111 to visit her v1tc rnal domi c ile. wh en th•·
dimn:d l11111inary soug ht hi s noct11rn:il rcst111g-pl:ice l1chind the
occ idental ho r izo n .

4 2. The Littl e Cent lem::m lies wh e re he longed to lie, among
the old n ame~ :md th e uld bones of the Bostun people. (Should
old be r epeated?)

:

'

COMPOSITION

A NIJ JU!ETO Rr c.

THE CONSTH.UCTION

2.

L ESSON XXIX.
Ill. T llE C():\STI{UCl'IOi\ U I' l'.\l{:\ G RA !'!I S.

}Ji therto we have co nsidered o nly se par;itc word s and single
se nt e nces. \\l e nuw co me to stud y the co nnection of sentences
in pa rag r:tp hs, an <l of pa ragra ph s in sketc hes .
T he pa rag raph is a la r)!;<.: r di vision uf disco urse than th e sente nce, and , li ke it, sho uld d eal with a single to pi c . lt is, in fa ct,
a who le co mp os itio n a nd sho uld the refo re be co mplete in itself.
1t :iids th e reade r by show ing h im whe re th e tlevel o pmen l of a
poin t Lieg ins a nd whe re it ends.
Principles. - The lead ing princ ipl es th:it govern th e formation
of the parag ra ph :ire : r. TH E T orie

SE:>.'T ENC E.

The ope nin g se nte nce should set fo rth th e subj ect of th e parag rap h. This se nte nce is ge nerall y most e ffe c tiv e when sho rt.
Fx11111flr . - "Th e.: g1) vernme nt we nt on , op press ing a t home
:md Ll un de ring ab roa<l . (T opic sen te nce.) A w:tr wa s fo olishly
un de rtake n against France, :ind mo re foolish ly conduc ted. Bucking h:i rn led an c xpcd iti un aga in st !Zhc, an<l fai led ig no mini ously.
ln the meantime soldic.: rs were billeted o n the peo pll' . C rim es
of whi ch o rdi nary j11sti ce should ha ve take n cogni za nce were
puni shed by ma rtia l law. N ea r e ig hty ge ntl e me n ," e tc . The
paragraph goes o n e numerating oth er ac ts of " opp ressing "and
"blunde rin g ."
So me tim es o ne or m o re se nt e n<":es a t th e b eg inn ing- o f a paragra ph are intend ed tu co nn e ct it with the one th at precedes, or
to prepare the way fo r th e top ic sen tence.
Exa mple. - "These were me re foll ies. ( Connec tive and introduc to ry se ntence.) H11 t the spirit ex c ited b y these writ e rs produ ced m o re se rio us effec ts. (" l\ ipic se nt ence. ) The g re:ller pa rt
of the crimes whi c h di ,graced th e refol utiou," etc.

OF l'Al{A G RAY llS.

ARI < A NGE~ I E NT .

The diffe rent se nt ences that compose a p:iragra ph must fu llu~"
one an o th e r in natura l a nd logi ·a l urder. 11 they du lllll , the
atte nti o n o f the read er is <listra c ted and he fi nds it d ifli c ult , if
no t impossible, to keep th e thre ad of t he d iscourse .
Example. - "On th e third day after the ac ti l> n th e d \":td were
buri e d in the naval c hurch yard; the ce re rn" ny ll":ts 111 :tde a:;
pulilic and as solemn as the occasio n required . ,\ p11lil ic munu m e nt was erec ted up'.rn the spot whe re th e sla in we re· gath e red
toge th e r. A subsc rip tion was o pe ned on the d :ty uf the fnn cra l
fur the re lief uf the .suffe re rs, a nd ' ullectiu ns in aid of it througho ut :ill the ch urc hes in the kin gdom. T h is appea l to the kc.:l ings
o f the peopl e was made with c irc umsta nces whi c h gav e it f11ll
effec t. A monument was rais ed in the mid st o f th e ch urc h ;
young maide ns, dressed in white, stood rou nd it ; a nd a suital.ile
o ra ti on was delivered fro m the p ulp it."
In this paragraph th e sentences do not follow the o rd er o f
e vents.
3. CnNT I NU ITV.
It is no t e nou gh that the se nte ncL"s of a p;1r:tgra ph full o w one
:rnothe r in prope r ord e r ; the conn ec tion of eac h with th e preced ing conte xt mu st l>e made clear a nd unmistakable.:. I t is of t he:
utm os t impo rt a nce th a t the se nt e nces should be co nn ec ted in a
cl ear, sm ot>th, easy, a ncl na tural manner, so that th e th o ug ht m ay
be ca rri ed on with out interruption from the ]Jeginning to the
close.
How Attained. - Co ntin uity is sec ure d in va ri ous wars : 1. By the use of conju nc ti o ns, advc.:rbs, prunou11 s, o r co nn ec.ting ph rases ; as : "On e pe rs on mi gh t have fallen aslee p, but tw o - liut three th a t was a me re im possibiiity . And even su p posing all three
1.uge th e r wi th the baby locked in sle ep, still how unacco unt able
was this utter s il e nce! 1\fost nat11rall y a t t ltis 11u 111101t so mething
like hysterical horror ov e rshadowed the poo r girl. A11J now, a1

COMPOSITION AND IUIETOJU C.

laJ' I, she rang the be ll with ,·io lc nce. Tliis don(, she paused.
Seif-command enough she still rl.'.l ai neJ ."
The Connectives Used. -J\ nw ng the most co 11111H)11 connec ·
tivt.: ,,., ,nls and ph rases arc: a. Th ose c::illcd cumttlative ; as, - and, also, so, IJesidt.:s, furti1 cr,
rn<>reovc r, fi rst, second ly.
b. Those exp ressing consequence, simi larity, repe titi o n, or the
repetiti o n o f a subj ec t; as, - th erefo re, he nce, co nscci uently,
acco rdingly, in this way, agai n, once more, in fa c t, u po n this, in
that ca se , o n the othe r h:rnd, to proceed, to re turn.

'" Th ose expressing 0 1•position or ne ga ti o n ; as, - otherwise,
n c,·crthcless, still, however, but, on the contrary, co nve rse ly.
rl. 'l'hthc expressing suspension ; as, - some ... o the rs; partly
p:1rtly; undoubtedly . .. hut; indeed . . . yet.
2. Conn ectives are often omit te d, a nd oth e r mea ns ernployed
fur joining se ntences ; as : 11 . The rc p l.'.l itio n of some wo rd o r word s; as, " .I/is !'anny
h11111 o r lig hts up the polit ica l aml theol og ical co ntro \•e rsies of the
ti mes wit h qu:t in t incisive phrases . .I/is reading was e xt e nsive;
and he was a volumi nous author on subjects whi c h ranged fr om
predestina.riani sm to tobacco. /?11/ liis sh re \\'dness and learning
only kft him the wi ses t fo(JJ in Ch ri ste nd o m ."
/1. The inversiun o f the o rd e r of the words, o r t he givi ng of
sorne wo rd o r wo rds a position th at e nabl es th e m to point
del1n itcly to wh at was sa id in th e p reced ing sentence; as, " Entering th e gu lf, h e endeavored to find th e ri1·er Dari e n. This river
he cou ld no t cl iscovcr. "
.1 · Someti m es the rebtion of the sentences is suc h that the
co nn ec ti o n is evid e nt wi tho ut th e insertio n of a n y jo ining wo rd or
phrase . This is the case : a . Wh en th e tho ugh ts arc very cl ose ly rel ated; as, "He
turn ed his horse towa rd s T hamc, wh e re he a rrived alm os t fainting wi th agony. The surgeon d ressed his wo unds. Bu t th ere
w:1s no hope. "
b. Whe n th e se ntence explai ns o r rept.:ats the one go ing before

THE CON S TR UC TI ON O F PARAGRAl'J!S.

149

it ; as, "I need not e nla rge upon th e suojecl. The t.:ase is pt.:r fec tly plain."
c. In c um ulative stateme nts; as 111 2 ( rz) , p. 148.
rl. In a state ment u f con~eq u c n cc ; as, '' h1rth er r es i,t ~u1 cc on
your part is hopeless. I ask the su rre nder of yvur army ."
4 . UNI'IY.

Th e pa rag raph s lwuld possess un ity; that is, every st:iternen t
shou ld be subservient to one principal affir mati on, a nd th :tt prin cipal aftirmation should be kept prom inent thro ughout the p:t rag raph . Eve ry se ntence m ust Lie part of one wh ole, and tint \\' holt.:
should Lie the presentatio n of one po int o f a s11Ljcct, o r one p:1rt
in descrip ti on o r narratio n.
Ex11111ple. - Th e follo wing par:igr:i ph ill11str:itcs how evny sen·
tence should bear on th e topi c sente nce : "\\·hat, th en . a re the proper encrim:igcrnents of gcni11s? ( T " i,;,:
sen te nce.) l ;1 nswer, snils istence a nd r<.:sjH:ct; fo r tl1t:s<.: arc rt.:ward s co nge ni al to nature. Every animal has a n ali111 t.:n t "'11itc d
to its co nstitu t io n. (Ccneral illust rat io n. ) T he heavy o x seds
nourishme nt fro111 e:1rth; the li gh t l'h a 111 eleo n has ber-n ,i;pposcd
to exist on a ir. (Particular illustratio n.) J\ sparer diet titan e\·cn
th is sat isfi es th e 111 a n or tru e ge niu s, f1l r he m:ikcs a J11:rnri rHIS l>;1n (jL1e t upon c n1 pty applau se . (Comp:1 riso11.) It is this al 1111e whi<It
h as inspired all th a t eve r was trul y g reat and noble among us. l t
is, as Cicero fin ely calls it, the echo of virtue. (Amplifi cat ion.)
Avarice is the passion o f inferior na tures; m oney th e pay of the
c ommo n he rd . (Contrasting sentences.-) Th e auilwr wl1 0 draws
h is qutll me rely tv take a purse no more d ese rv es succt.:s~ than i1c
who presents a p istol. (Conclu sio n.)"

5·

Dl.'E PROl'ORT!ON.

As in th e senten ce, :1 due p ropo rti on must exist between th e
principal and the suoord inatc st:itPment. This is a prinl'iplc ,,f
symme try that app lies to every wo rk of art, and the utm os t skill

CO~ll'O S ITION

AND RHETORI C.

and m11 c h p ra c tice are r eq uired to g ive each p a rt o f a p rtragraph
that due bulk and im po rtan ce whi c h ro und s it out and gives finish
and c omplete ness to the whol e .
Example. -The sente nce cinoted as an example of Unity may
be co nsidered under this head. It will be fou nd sy mmetri cal and
well balan ced .
6.

l\ \ R,\l .1 .1-.1. ( "c1 :->STRUCJ"I O:-.I.

1f th e mattn of a parag r:qih is s1 H:h th:1t «onsec1 1tive se n1t'J 1«es n.: pea t, expand, or illu,tr:tte th e same idea, th ese ~e nte n ces
~lwulcl, as far a s p oss ible, be fo rm ed alike.
J :'.»t1111fk . - "\\',, mu s t no t omit to m e ntion that th ose who
we re :iftcrwards the rn A distingui shed orna1 ne nts o f th e King's
p:1rty, supported the 11i ll of attai nd e r. It is almos t certain that
H yde voted for it. 1t is quite certa in that Falkbnc! both voted
and s po ke for it. Th e opini o n o f flampd en, as far as can be
cnllct:te d from a ve ry obscure note of u ne of his sp eec he:s, seems
to h :11·c lll:en t hat th e proceeding by bi ll was unnecessa ry, a nd
that it would b e a beLLe r cou rse to obtai n judgm e nt o n the
impeac hment."
Caution . - P.1r:illvl cu nstrnctiun s ~ho uld not be followed when
th ey beco me m'J•10ton o 11s o r o th e rwi se lesse n the v igo r of disc o urse. •
7· VARll:'l "Y.
Jn the me ch:rn ic:il co nstru c ti o n of th e p:1r:igraph <''-c ry d ev ice
s h ou ld he t:1krn in onkr to prcn:nt lll•>not nny. The se nt e nces
s ho11ld he uf diffe re nt leng th ; so m e short, some Jo ng; th ey s hou ld
he v;1ricd in co n-;tructiun , s im pl e, pc ri <id ic, :111d Sil on; and they
should he co nn ec ted with all possible nrietv 0f method .
Connection of Paragraphs. -The rnnncrtio n of pa rag r:1phs
rcq11i rrs th e s:i.me ca re as th e connect io n of se ntences, and is
effected by simila r m eth o ds .

THE CO;\STKUCrION OF l'ARAGKAPIIS.

1'.-'

EXERCISE XLV.

Tm:
DIREC rl ON. -

form Lh cm

CoNSTR U<: rin N OF l'ARAGRAPHs.

Stu dy these sc 11tc11 ccs till yn u understand them. Th en
that fulluw the rules laid dvw11 in th e prt:...:ctling

int11 paragraphs

Lcssun,
1. fn sects a rc the curse o f tro11 ic :1l cl im :i tcs .
The /1,'t« ' ""-'"'
lays tht: fo1111da t iu n uf a trc 111cntlu11s ulcer.
111 :1 m o ment y1111 arc
cove red with tick s.
C hi goes bury th emse lves in your fle sh .
The y lutc h :t colony of young chigoes in a few h ours. Th ey " ·ill
n o t live togt:the r. EH' ry chigoe sets up a sepa ra te ulcer. Fl ies
gt't e ntry into your m1 J11th, inti> v1111r n ·L·s , intn \· c111r rn"". ,·rn1
eat flies , drink fl ies, and bre;Hhc li1cs. J .1 L:~rds, cockroachc,, :111d
snakes, get int o the lied ; ants eat 11p the books; scorpions stin;;
you o n th e foot. Everything bites, stings, or bruises; every
minut e you arc wo und ed by s1 >1ne pie c e 1if a nimal life . .1\n in·
sect wi th eleven legs is sw imm in g in y«Hlr te ;irup, a n on d escript
with nin e wings is s truggl in g in tile small ]Jeer, or a caterpilL.tr
with sevcr:tl d oze n eyes 111 hi s l1 c·lly is lu stcning ove r the l•rl":ld
and but ter. 1\ ll n:1ture 1s alin' . It seems to be ga t he ri ng its
h osts to eat you up as you a rc standing ot1L of your coat and
b reeches. Su c h arc the trop ics. This n ;conci les us to om dew>,
fogs , and d ri ales . Thi s helps us lo p11t llJ• wi th u1:r :1pe>tl1c<'arie s
ru s hin g al 1011t with ga rg ks a nd tinctmes . It he lps 11s tu endure
u11r cu11gh", so re thrQ:it s, Jnd swc lk d f:1 1 " ' · The <Lm;..: "r sccnis
to be n111 c h less wit h ~nakes and wi ld bca, ts if )'<lll conducl )'<H1r self like a ge ntl e man. If you p:iss o n ge ntly , yo 11 may wa lk 1111 hurt wit hin a y:ml of th e T.:tiniri snake . 1f yo11 rnsii 1q•111: i 1111 1,
he wi ll p11t vo1 1 Lo dc:1th . Th " L::;..:111 ;111 kn1'><'k s ,.,,ti d1 J\\'ll wi:h"
Glo w of hi s paw, if st1d dt:nll' int e rrul't ed. I It.: will n rn ;1w:i1· if
yo u gil'e hirn tim<'. J\Tust animals lo11k t1pun ni :rn as a vny 111-: ly
customer. They d o not ca re to attack him . T hey d!l it f<>r fn nrl
or in sel f.1kfe nn: . l\lr. \V ;1t e rtun made :t l.:ii>airi s n;,k c J,i1" it ;; .. il.
No harm ens11erl. No ha rm would ensue if a sinful soldier ga H·

.\

"

........

,J.

COMPOSITIO N A N D 10-IETORI C.

- · Still the re \\' ere no t knighthoods e nough. In I 783 the king
inslilu ted the O rde r of St. Patrick . Scothncl lnd its most ancient
Orde r o f the Thi ,-t le . No orde r o f knigh thood had, until that
t ime, bee n app ro pria ted to Ireland . Th e I Ltnovcrian Gu elphic
( >rde r o f Kn ig ht hood had been opened to the a mbiti o n of Engli~hme n ; Wi llia m lV., d uring his reig n, added to its ro ll a goodly
co rn p:rn y o f English kni ghts . Th e Ord e r of th e Bath, orig inally
a mi lit:iry o rder, was enlarged in 1S15 ; ag:ii n in 18.n , th e Q uee n
added a c ivil divisio n to th e o rde r. This was to comp ri se such
pe rsons as by the ir pe rso nal se n ·ices to th e Cro wn, o r by th e perfu nn an cc of p ub lic du ties, had me ri ted th e roy: tl fav o r. Beside
these several titl ed orde rs, may be nuticc• I office rs e nj oying naval
and mi lita ry ra nk, wh ose m1m b ,~ rs we re extrao rd inarily a11g111e11ted
by the Jo ng wa r wi th Fnnce, and by the extension o f the British
possessions abroad. J\fen hold ing h igh offices in th e State, the
C hurch , th e La w, the Un ive rsities, a nd other g reat in co rpo rati ons
have assoc i:tted t he ir poll'e r,; aml influe n e with thnse of the
nob ility. T he cont inual groll' th and accumula ti o n o f property
have bee n a so urce of increasing st rength to th e British no bl es.
\'v'c:ilth is in itself an aris torr:in-, :i ncl it lll:t)' d esire to ri val the
n1il>ility of a con nt ry, e ven lo dctr:tc' l fro m its glo ry . Jn thi s land
ot :1ss•Kiat ions, it seeks only to enjoy the smiles and favors of the
a r isto nac :y. c raves admi ss io n to its ~o('ict :I', a ·pi res to its connectio n, is a mbitions of its dig ni ties; the k:uncd professions and comme rce and ma nu fac tmes a nd publi c e mployme nt s have created an
e norrnons body o f p erso ns o f independ ent income ; so me connected with the la nded ge ntry, oth ers \\'ith the co mmerc ial classes:
so a ll three for m part of the indC'pendcnt " ge ntry." They are
spre:id over th e fa ires t p arts of the co11n t.ry. No bl e citi es have
bee n built fo r the ir acco mm odation . H.1th , Che lte nham , Leamingto n, Bri ghto n, attes t the ir nn mhe rs, their opule nce . They form
a stro ng outwo rk o f t he pee rage, \\'ith murh snrial in fl11 ence and
politic.ti \\' e ight, a nd uphold its ascendency by moral as \\'eli as by
politic::il sup po rt. Prufess io ns lea n as a body o n th e hi gher ranks
u f suc iety; the C hurch is peculia rl y connected with the landed

TllE CONSTRUCTION 01' PARAGRAPHS.

15 3

interest; everywhere th e cl ergy cleave to power; th e vast lay
patron age ves ted in th e p roprieto rs of th e soil, draws close the
bo nd betwee n the m and th e C hurch; th e legal and med ical professio ns, being mai nly supp o rted by weal thy patrons, h:tV<' the same
political an d soc ial int e res ts. H o w vas t a com munity o f rank and
o f wealth a nd of intell igenc e do th ese seve ral classes of society
co r.stitu te ! T he I l o use of Lo rds, in tru th, is not o nly a p riv ileged
body, b ut a g rea t re p resen tative in stit ution, standing ou t as the
em bodim e nt o f the ari sto c ratic infl uence and sym pathi es of the
country.
3. J\11 was now co nfus io n a nd despon de ncy. T he prov1 s1o ns
had been so ill m anaged by the Committee, th at th e re was no
lo nge r foo d fo r the troo ps. Th e H ighla nde rs cons ef]ue ntl y de se rted by hundreds ; a nd the Earl, broke n-hearted by hi s mi sfo rtun e, yield ed to th e urgenc y o f th ose wh o pe rtin ac iously in sisted
th a t he ~h o uld marc h into th e Lo wlands. The little arm y th e refore has te ned to the shore of Loc h T.o ng, p asse d th:H inle t by
ni g ht in bo:lts, a nd l:i nd erl in D11mlxir to ns h ire. 1 l ithe r, on lhc.
foll o wi ng mo rning, came ne ws that th e fri ga tes had forced a passage, th a t all th e E:i rl's ships had been ta ke n, a nd that Flph ins1one
had fl ed fr om Ea la n ( ;hie ri g wit hou t a Llo w, leav ing the C:<:illc
and stores to th e en e my. All th a t remained was to invad e the
Lowl:rnd :; un de r eve ry disadvan tage. Argyle resol ved to make :<
b old push for Glasgow, b ut as soon as this res(Jl11tio n was :in noun ced th e verv men who had, up to tha t mo me nt, bee n urgin;
him to l1aste n ir; to the low country, took fri ght, arg ued , re mo nstrated, a nd \\'he n a rgument a nd remonstrance prov1 ·d v.1 in, J;iid ::i
sche me for se izing th e boats, making their own escape , anrl l f'w in 0"' th eir G e neral a nd his chnsme n to co nfju e r or p e rish unaided .
This scheme failed , an d the poltroo ns who hacl form ed it were
ro mpell erl to share with braver m en the risks of th e la st ve nt11 rc .
During the m:trc h th rough the rountry \\'hi ch lies be tw ee n l .urh
Long and Loch Lo mo nd , the insurge nts we re consta ntly i nfc~tni
by parti es of militia. So me skirmishes took place in wh ic h the
Earl had th e advantage, but the bands whic h he re pell e.J, fall ing

f.·i.

1

54

CO M PO~ I T I O N

AND

RHETORI C.

hack h efo re h im, sp read th e tidings of his a pproac h, a nd, soon
afte r he had c rossed th e river Leven, he fou nd a strong body of
regular :ind irregubr t roops p repa red to encounter him . He was
fo r g i\·ing battle. Ayl offe was of the sam e op inio n. Hume, on
the o ther hand, d eclared that to fi gh t would be madness. He saw
o ne regiment in sc:irlet ; m o re might be behind. T o attack such
a force was to rush o n certain death. The best cou rse was to
re m:iin quiet t il l n i ~ht, :ind th e n give the ene my the slip . A little
alte rcation follow ed, wh ich was with dit11c11lty quie ted by the mediation of Rumbold. It was now eve nin g. The hostile armies enc:-tmpcd a t no g reat clist;ince fro m each othe r. The Earl ve ntured
to propose a night attack, and was agai n ove rrul ed.

EXERCISE XLVI.
CF.NF.RA!. EXERCISE 0:-1

ENTENCES.

D 1nECTl<>N. - S tud y these 'en tcnccs. If you lind " fault in an y of th em,
state the reaso n fur any change yo u propose.

x. The Kin g was woundt> d in the eye , by an arrow, after long
fightin g.
2. In his o ld age the man became wrink led and b roken a nd

bowed.
3 . Th ey call me wise, althoug h I am n ot wise, wh en they want
tu r eproac h yo u.
4 . The house was crowded to its 11tnmst capacity; every ava il;1hle sca t w:is occupied and m~n y remain e d standing till the close.
S· 1 had an ind istin t glimpse of l\lr. 11. flying on:r the fence,
:rn;I I rollccl comfo r tably ou t of th e sle ig h, wrapped in th e buffalo
robe, under a pine-tree.
6. One o f o nr expert wh celmcn was cau ght
nin ,!:{ mill a few days :igo. Th e e ffec t is lik ely
7 . 1 n eve r saw a man in th e whole "ourse
doctors all said so , th at ohsrn·cd directions
bette r than he d id .

in a machine fa nto be pe rm anent.
of my life :rnd_ th e
or took med1cme

<;EN ERAL

EXl'Rt'l :-; E

1> N SENT FN CI·::-; .

I )- )-

8. Wh e n th e locust:; approached the in hab itants shill thc-rn selv c-;
up to keep th em out, but it is impos, ibk as th ey are so thick.
9. \Var and f:11ninc :ind d eath Jud made them disco11ra;,;-cd.
10. \\' hen he '"'h lir·.,t a rrc>lcd, he o:ud th :1t. h .. and J'. .. ;i11" ·: ,
ca me to th e outsk ir ts of W oods tock that day a nd he rema ined
th e re.
l r . No real reaso n ca n be given fo r such diffnences _
; ;t 1s
si mpl y th e case th::it the one is n 1stoma ry, o r wlnt WL' :•r« l h<"I to,"
and th e ot he r not.

I 2 . The app earanc e o f the se rf, o r bond sman, was more sad
ancl sullen th an Wamba.

13. His abse nt friends had every confide nce in him and
believed t heir deposits were perfectly safe in his ha nd s ; and
when ht: told them shortly afte r the ],a nk had Liilcd that the 1· h.1<1
plenty to p:iy e very d o llar they o wed, and that all that they ;1skcd
was a little tim e, a nd the ba nk \\'Olllrl be ope n in a fe w days . th ey
fully bel ieved him.

q. It is for this class that the followi ng dire c tions and sugges tions a re offered, a nd which, if ca rri ed out, will ensure h ea lthy,
luxuriant plants.
15. Flo wer-pots should be washed as ofte n as mould o r fiing11s
g rowth appe.1 rs, to allow evapo ration an d a fre e access of :1i:·. ,
16. A pcriphr:i sis is :i c irc11mlor11t o ry a nd plco n:hlit. , yclc ,,(
ora to ri .11 so norusity, e irc11111 sc ribing an a to m of ideality, e1n-cll)pcrl
in ve rba l profu ndity.
17. Yon have the poll'er o f se nclin g your nam e do wn through
:ill times, ill11'tr:1ted hy deeds o f higher fame and m o re ii>t"f11l
im po rt, than ever were d one within th ese w:llls.
18. L et 11s inrJ11 ire whe ther the pn:sc nt sys te m of ed11cation is
h:umfll l to th e present ge nerati on or not.
1<) . As Ad d ison's s111Jjrcts ~ire common, so his lang11:i,t;e 11·;i,
lang u:ige th:1t could he- n nd e rstood, :ind h is ess:iys are som e wh :it
long somet im es :ind ted io us.
20 . Some . pcrh::ips, are not so f11rt1111 ;1tc :is ti-. ha1·c ;1. trnc fri,.11 d
in th ei r tea c he r, a k ind of guide; fo r T think if tea" h e r~ knew the

CO~lPOSITION

AND 1\IIETORIC.

way m which ch ildren imitate their a ctions and follow their
e xample they wo11ld IJe more carefi:I t" rn:1kc th:1t ex"rnple more
lik e the divine tea c he r of humanity.
:? 1. As the loc usts fell to the earth they we re trampl ed und er
the hoof of the trave llers' horses and they d id not miss the m thei r
numbers were so g reat.
2 2 . The c ity h as a large dock-yard comrared with its size .
z3. He is a ho y th at has no thing th e matter with him, that
tak es the relis h of thi s world out.
:?4. I lt.: was not a n author, but he was a hard .
25. !\fan has two na tures, that o f s pirituality and th a t o f be ing
c o rp oreal, whi c h al ways m::iy he co nsid ered separate.
2(1. The docto r J. 1bwercd after :t pause fnr a mom e nt, Jncl nibbing hi s head at the same tim e, that it was the only thing he could
d o.
27. J\ doth se rv ed in some d eg ree to protec t th e dig nitaries
wh o occupied the cha ir fr o m the weather.
2 ~ . He rode, no t a mule, lik e his co mp anion, but a strong
hack ney h o rse.
29. I w:ts no t, like Ilis (;race of Bedford, d andl ed, rocked, and
swa ddl ed into a leg islator.
30. Yo u have alr eady !Jecn in form ed o f the sa le of Ford'~
Thea tre, where Mr. L in coln was assass inated, for reli g ious pur,
poses .
31. Th e works o f God arc Ycry wondc rf11 l.
32. The dt1ke owed Lord Dice abot1t fi,·e thousand pounds,
and Temple Grace owed him as man y hundreds; l ,()[(\ Castleforc\
:1!so o wed him seve n hundred and fifty, and the ba-ron owed him
a sm all snm .
33. 1\s smoke is drive n a w:ty, so chase (drive?) th e m away.
3 4 . \ Ve played croq uet in the m o rnin g; we played lawn tennis
in th e afte rnoon; and we played chess in the even ing.
.)5 · No one seems to h:1ve lic~ li c ,· e d uur repo rt. ( Interrogation.)
36. He wo rk e d all ni g ht in hi s o flicc, he work ed n ext clay at
his trade, and he wo rked at his ga rden in the evening.

GENEJ{AL EXE!{C JSE 0N SENTENCES.

15 7

.)7· He became , however, :.1s time p:issed on, scno11. ti , se·llls!1,
despllti c , :rn ci «rl1ci.
30. 1\ d111unt1t1\'e spec imen of the fcmi111ne gender, rt') "" int.:
in th·" vnphu11iu1is cug 11 u111cn uf J\!ary, w:i,; pusse,v:d .,( :t yu1111g
anim al c·alled, in commo n parbnce, a lamb. The cxkriur wu u: :)
cove rin g o f th e qu adruped was in color white as the driven snow;
and to :tll places and localiti es whi the rsueve r the sa id l\lary in
her w:1nderings did perarnuulate, the aforesaid small quJdru;:ed
in like rn :um e r was just as certa in to peregrinate.
39. Resolved, Tl1at this J\ssoci::ition expresses the regret with
whic h th ey hal' e he:i.rd of the death uf l\Ir. J. B., wh o added tei
g reat ability th e Yirt11es o f courtesy and kindne ss tu th e ut lin
m e m!Jers uf h is profe,sion , co u pled with the hi g hest int eg rity, :tnd
th ey d es ire to convey to Mrs. B. and family their he:irt felt sym pathy in a !Jc reav<.:rn e nt, that is felt by the profession throu g hou t
th e province .
4 0 . /\d d i,o n suffe red much frum :llta< ks uf astl111u, a nd die<
in the c:1lrnness of a co nfident trust in C od.
4 1. l I e fell forward s11ddenly one d:iy whilst gardening ""i th
his heJd in a l>cd o f mignonette, and wh e n tak e n up was as dead
as a stone.
42. /\ 111an finds himself pl eased, he does not know how 11r
why wi th the cheerftil ncss of hi s compa ni o n; it is like a su dd e n
sunshine th at awakens a sec ret deli g h t in the mind without his
· attending to it.
43· " If yo n wish to find the Professor," said the student," crucify the <]uadranglc, ascend the grades, make a d ex tral ,·en. ::ind
you will find him pe ram!Julating his domic ile or prospect ing his
fenestrum.
4 4. Alo ng the ra nk s go officer and sergeant unti l th e front rank
is reached.
45. Om hearts will go out to those th a t have helped tu 1n:1ke the
Convention days profitable, neve r to be fo rgotten, and dt:! ighll.111.
46. Be ing deeply sens ible of the inc reasing evils caused by
inte mperance, alarmed at the d ange rs of, and commiserating the

.;.:.·

....

159

COMPOSITI O N A;\D R llET O R!C.

GENERAL EXERCISE ON SENTENCES.

misery crnsed by int e mp eran ce, we l>elicve it has beco me our du ty
to unite ou r effv rt s fo r its exte rm ination .

dawn, I will amply repay you for yo ur ami;il.Jle hosjJitality." 'J'he
h ostler, a1nazed, hastened in to tell his m as ter th at ;i Dutchnnn
wanted to see him.
5 7. Answer my prayer whi ch is, if you d we ll on t his isbnd u r
no, and that you inform me how to condu ct my self.
58. All these tales were told in that drowsy tone that men talk

4 7. The sec retary shall read th e minutes a nd all the papers
ordered to be read.

4S . In a short editori:tl in our bst number, we pointed out the
wan t in our sc hool sr;te m of any attention be in g p aid to the
'.H tistic s e n~ ilJilit i es of ou r pupils.

49· The old soil sh ou ld be p ickeJ ou t from the oute r edges of
the roots, c:lre being taken not to break the roo ts too mu c h the
object of re -p o tting bei ng to not only g ive a brge r- s i1.ed pot'. but
111aking t he soil m ore porous IJy ren e win g as in rnltivating land.
50. Hi s rei g n wa s like the course of a m e teo r, which shoots
:d o ng the face of he:ixen, which shl'ds :iro und an 11n11ecessa rv and
µortentous li ght, which is swallo wed up l>y u n i\·e rsal darknes:.
5 I. Th e bes t p ossil.Jle way to learn geog ra phy wou ld proba bly
be to_traYel throu gh the country; perhaps the next bes t way is by
stud yrng the prog ress o f a war in th e newspapers with the a id of
rnaps .
5 2. If the format io n of c har::icte r is o ne o f th e aims o f the
teach e r, as we h;ive ofte n insisted , let hi1n lie excess ivel y ca ut ious
how he ridi c ules.
53· We spoke lately of d 1scour::igemcnt :1 s hcing one of the
stronscst wasters of b rai n power; there is a 1J1 e th od e mpl oyed by
some teachers t o corre c t f:lults whi c h is eve n worse in its injurious
r esults - ri dicule.
54· ] oseph \Viison Swan, th e elect ric: li g ht inventor, li ves elegantly at Bromley, E ngland; and is clescrilied as a handsome man
with a nobl e head set on a r athe r lo ng ne c k, a distinguishing
characte r of the Swan family.
55 · W hy remai n in the land of snow, wh e n r o u can vi sit New
Orl ea ns and return for $3 r .85, where t he m ag n ~ lia is in b loo m .
56. A gentle man once drv1·e tq> to ::i hotel, a nd g iving his horse
into th e care of th e hostl e r said : "Extrica te thi s quad ruped from
t he vehicle, stabulate him, supply him with a sufficient quantity
of n11tri t io us a li111 e nt, an:\ wh e n the :\nro ra of m n rn shall again

in in the dark.
59. The exp ression of his face showed no more self-de ni;i l th an
his dress that he despised earthly pomp .
60. He was a man of many accomplishments and \·irtue>,
thoughtful in his doings, winning in his address, a kind friend, a
faithful ;rnd loving husband, an affectionatt father, :rncl he played
m elod io us tunes on the jews-harp .
61 . The French foot g ua rds are dressed in bl11e and all t he
marc hing r egime nts in white, which has a very foolish appearance
for sold ie rs, and as for l.Jlue regimentals, it is only fit fur the 11 orse
GuarJs Blue or the Artill e ry .
62. Up the perfume-swept avenue of love, and under the roseate archway o f hymen, they had passed in to th e joy-lit realms of
that high e r and holi er existence wh e re so ul me ets soul o n limpid
waves of ecs tati c feeling, ;1nd h earts touch hearts throu g h t he
blended channel of lips in raptnre link ed .
63 . Th e autho r o f th e Waverley Novels wa s not only re markable
for his talent; he was equally rt markalile fo; his industry.
64. 1 hea rd a cobble r who could sca rcely put a sole o n a shoe
say that the soul is not immortal, and his sole reason was that he
could not believe it.
65. But though we think the conduc t o f t he regicides blamable, t hat o f ;vr ilton appears to us in a very different li gh t. The
deed was done . It could not be undone. The evil was incu rred.
Th e object was to rend er rt as small as possible. We censure the
chiefs of the army for not yielding to the popular opinion . \ \"e
canno t ce nsure Milton for wishin g to c h;in ge th a t opi n ion. (Disc uss the advant.1ges and dis;idvantages of inserting connectives
between these sentences.)

160

VA RIETY OF EXPRE SSION .

COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.

66. Co m pose a sentence: on eac h of the se subj ects :
H ealth.
Autumn .
C ontent.
Harvest.
F rien dsh ip.
Ne wspap e rs .
H o no r.
T h e Ocean.

Plea ure.
Po ve rt:'.
Eva ngeline.
Sc hool-life.
Si c kn ess.
Ri p Van Winkle.
Steam.
R a ilways.

Public speak ing.
The valu e of t ime.
T he true a im o f life.
The use of tobacco.
Bathin g in th e surf.
Your birthplace.
You r o wn to wn .
The value o f e du c ation.

161

CHA:-: GI:: OF IJEUI:R .

The parts of a sentenc e may fr e1.p1c 11tl y lie arr:inged in several
ways without :dte ring the meaning ; yet, in every case, ther e is a
parti c ui:J.r order th,1t is more a ppropriate than any o t her.
Example. - "The ne xt argum e nt y ou will all apprec iat e." Or:
"Yo u wi ll all a pp rec ia te the n e xt a rgument." Ur: "You a li will
appreciate the next arg ument."

.. ,

EXERCISE XLVII.
Cr iticise e:ich o f yo ur se nt ences ri gidly. Wh e re yo u find any
vio l:tti o n of the laws of C learn ess, S tre ng th , Un ity, or E legance,
rc wrik th e defec tiv e se nt ence in im proved form .

CHANGE OF OR DE R.

Va ry tl 1c fuiio win g !j1.,; 11t e 11 1._TS liy ch a ng in g th e
words, cla uses, ur p hrases.
DI RECTJ OZ" . -

tH\l~r uf

tlit'

r. W e kno w how c h e:iply p ra ise is won.
1\ ft e r t hei r d eat h it wa s passe d rou nd so mewh at frcdr , :rnd

2.

LE SSO N XXX.
VAI, IET\" O F EX P RESSION.

l.

PROSE.

Explanation. -Thoug h the re is o ne set of word s that expresses
a thoug ht with g re ater exactness than an y oth e r can, yet every
thou g ht may b e e xpressed in a g reat ,·a ;·icty uf w:iys . l·: ., crc ise
in c asti ng about to find th ese diffe re nt mod es o f ex p ressi o n tends
to g ive fre edom and readiness o f c ho ice :rnd to assist in learning to sele c t the form that m os t fi tti ngly co nveys t he m eaning
intende d .
Kinds of Variety. -There may be v:iriety o f expression in:
( r) Th e orde r o f the words ; ( 2) T he co nstru c tion of the senten c es; (3) The kind s of the sentences; (4) The form; (5) The
in cl i1rid ual word s ; ( 6) The p hr:iseology.
How attained. -This vari ety may be nud e by: ( r) Change
of O rde r; (2) Constru c ti o n; ( 3) Synonyms; (4) Phraseology.

fell into my hands.
3. T alent Liac ks into the sha fts li ke a i:J.mb.
4 . O n this issue th ey we re ove rwh e lmingly d e feated.
5. Wh e n th e dange r o f a war had p asse d b y, he ag:1in retired
to his ho me .
G. Th e tra ces o f ma rtyrJurn, it se clll s. arc worn in t lH~ •• tl 1n
wo rld as s'.ars a nd ril .: u1d .-; a rc worn in this.
7. ln a fi e rce ba ttl e he was struck by a musket hall ll'hich brukc
h is a1 1kk-1Junc .
8. I went on my way wi th a 5,1d he:i rt.
9 . When the ht:a vers ln1 ilJ on the l;:rnk of a str eam, th ey make

a dam ac ross it .
ro. O ne by one, clay afte r day, man learns to coin his wish es
into fa cts .
1 I. By a l<> n;:; course o f study and di sc ip line h e nud e hi mself
wh:it he was.
12. He had just raised the cup to his lips wh e n his eye fell
on a p oo r, dying sold ier who w:is looking longingly a t th e cool
dr ink .

,,

COMPOS ITI ON AND HllETOlOC.

13. Many born poe ts, I am afraiJ, flower puurly in song, or not
at all, because t hey h:n•e bee n too ofte n tr:ms phntL•d.
14 . All legislative po wers granted by th e Constituti on of the
United S tates are vested in Congress, which co nsists o f the Senate
and the Ho use of R epresentatives.
I 5. I fear th e popular notion of success stands in d irect
opposition in all points to the real and wholesome success.

LESSON XXXI.
CONSTJ\Ul.l"ION.

Substitution . - In the constru ction of sentences, g reat latitude
is afforded in th e choice of the form of expression. As Va riety in
this respec t is o ne of th e uea11ties of good co mpos iti on, p:1ins must
be taken to acqu ire a read in ess and tact in substituting one construc ti on for another.
How Secured. - Var iety of constructi on may be secu red by
( 1) substi tut ing one kind of ph rase or c lause fo r ano th e r, ( 2)
by vary ing th e pred icate, (3) by co mbining or expanding
sentences, (4 ) by ch:u1g ing the form .
I. Adjectival phrases or clauses m:w be c hanged into: r. Ar(jectives; as, " A man of virtue"; "A virtuous man."
" He assumed a gravity that was ri dicu lo us"; " H e ass umed a
ridiculous gravity."
2. l11ji11itives; as, "He was th e first that en tered " ; "He was
th e first to enter. "
3. Arli!erbia/ Clauses; as, " .'\ man t lut does not care for
music is to be p iti ed " ; " :\ man , if he does not ca re for music,
is to be pitied. " Or : "If a ma n does not care for music, he is
to be pitied."
4 . Prrp" sitio11a/ P/1nues; as , " :\ m :rn ll'ho has little sense, is

\' AIUETY OF EXPRESSION.

seldom awa re of the fac t"; " :\ ma n, with li ttle se11,e, is , eldu;n
aAvare o f th e fact."
5. Fa rlicipll's or P artfripia/ Pl1raoeo· ; as, " ( ;L11 icrs, whi ch
flow down mo untain gorges, ul.icy th<.: law of r iver' " ; " Glacier,,
flowing dow n mountain gorges, obey the law of rivers."
6. Nouns; as, "Let th ose who win laugh" ; " Let the winn ers
laugh."
2. Adverbial phrases or clauses may Lie chan ged into : 1. Pi1rlicipkr, or PltnlSes (<'!l t11inini{ Partirip!o ,· as, "She g:n·e
it to me when she was dying"; " She, d ying, ga ve it tu me. "
2. Imperative Jlfood; as," If th a t he g ranted , th e rest is easily
proved "; "G rant th at, and the rest is easily proved. "
3. Prep{lo·itiona / JJ/1ra ses; as, " i\ly mother, wh en she does
praise me, g rieves me "'; " 'My mother, in praisi n;,; m e, gri eves
m e."
4. Nominati·ue Ab.r/1/11/e; as, " \\" hen the c:1t's away, the mi cl'
will play "; "The cat being a way, the mice'. will play."
5. Otlter A 1h1erbial .Pl1niscs ,· a s, "l\fany peo ple fail 1Jec:rn se
they neglec t their o wn business "; "Many p eo pl e fail through
neglecting th eir o wn business."
6. /11ji11iliz1e Pltnues; as, " \Ve should rejoice on hearing of
the prospt' rity o f others"; " We shuu ld rejoice to hear of the
prospe rity of others."
7. Adzierl>s ; as, " As fa r as we can judge by appearance , sh e 1s
wealthy" ; " She is apparentl y wealthy."
3. Noun clauses may be chan ged into : r. /11fi11ilives; as, " \Ve know not what we should d o "; "\V e
know not what to do."
2. Limilt'J fnjinitives; as, " It was a lucky thin g that Tum w:is
here"; "Tom's being here was a lucky thing."
3. l11fin ili7Jt:S w ith Suh/er!; as, "I believe that he is hunest " ;
" I believe hi m to be honest. "
4. Prepositional Phrases; as, "T can not accept the notion that
school life affected him so " ; " I cannot accept the noti on of
school life affec ting him so."

'!''

: ~· ·.

~

CO MPOSITION AND lo-IETORJC.

EXERCISE XLVIII.
ADJEC l'l\'E Pl!l<ASES ANlJ CLAUSES.

D1 lniL"J'I O~ . - Change th e adjecli\'a l phrases or cla uses as illustrated in the
Lesso n.

pre~cdi ng

1. We we re in a sl np ing cha nn el whi c h hacl sloping banks on
eac h s iJ e .

2. i\ man wh o has started Ill life o n wrong principles may yet
le:trn th e true lesso n.
3. Those wh o wo rk should be paid.
4. Th e trees th at were not prott:cted were win ter-kill e d.
5. Th e nati o ns that arc the lxs t ed uca ted a re th e most
pro sperous .
6. She phce d the p osy she hacl ga th e red b e neath a clump of
b ra kes .
7. That happ e ned at th e time wh e n all we re seeki ng to save
t hemselves.
8. i\ re wa rd was offe red to any on e who mi g ht fin d him.
9. H e expunged t he p assages that ha<l given offen ce.
10. He offered a reward to any pe rso n wh o sh o uld reveal the
auth or.
1 1 . Th e re is n ot hing whi ch we ough t more to e nco urage in
ourse lves ant! o th ers than c heerfu lness.
i 2. J\ be ing wh o h:ts no t hing to p :mlon in h imse lf may reward
eve ry ma n accordin g to his works .
r 3. Th e treat ise I me nti o n has l.icc n not iced by seve ral authors
who have attain ed e min ence .

VAR I ET Y OF EXPRESS ION.

16 5

D IR ECTION . - Change the a djectives, in finitives , aJ ve rb ial cl auses, prepo sit ional phrases, participles, and appositive nouns into adject ival phrases or
clauses.
1.

N o ancient or modern h e ro ever had more contempt fo r death .

z. In th e proclamatio n offe ring th e rewa rd, the c riminal was
desc ribed.
3. The king, cu ri ous to see the result, went to th e p riso n.
4 . She rede e med the tyranny of her father 's reig n.
5. A mur mur of astonish ment ran through the co mp any.
6. The mirth of the co m pany rapi d ly inc reased .
7. \V c b rea the b y mea ns of lungs, placed in that part of the
bod y called th e ch est.
8. No man o f ordinary intellige nce wouid ve nture th e stJtcment.
9· H e was th e first to m ake th e discove ry.
10. Virtu e e xtends to th ose parts of our ex istence ly ing beyond
the grave .
11. Our eternity is to take its color fr om the hours here
e m p loyed in v irtue or in vice .
1 2 . That m an h as but a small talent to improve.
13 . Country life abou nd s in h ealthfu l pleasu res.
1 4. H is stable doo rs are p atc hed with noses of foxes of th e
Knig ht's own hunting clown.
15 . Th ey use sauces of a hun d red ingredients.

EXERCISE XLIX.
A nvF.RnI AL PHRASES AND

Cuuscs.

14. /\ small riv e r th at goes nearl y round th e to wn o verflows in
th e ra ins.

Dll<F.CTION.-Change th e ad\'erhial p hrasesanrl clauses as illustrated in the
precedi ng Lesson.

15. The windows a rc of o pen wo ou -wo rk, wh ich is ca rved in
fanciful fi gures.

r . The majo ri ty of th e passe nge rs h ad been m ade aware of the
state of affa irs.
2.
Passc-parto ut m ade a g rimac e wh en h e gaz·~ d a t hi s e leg:mt
but th in sljppe rs.
3 . The a nimal had been purc hased for a fi ghting elephant, not
fo r carrying purposes .

166

VARI ETY OF EXPRESSION .

COMPOSI TI ON AND RHETORIC .

·,
• ..

4. Elephants in Ind ia a re Jear, fo r they a re becoming somewhat sca rce.
5. As the n ig ht wore o n, th e accounts gre w mu c h wo rse .
6. To this place many of the rioters had st raggled, because it
afforded the m eans of a barricade .
7. As th ey hrid been warned by each othe r and by th e scout,
they knew something about the mritter.
S. 1\ othing is mo re amiable than tnie modesty.
9. Discret ion d oes not always show itself in words .
1 o. A man shou ld cond11c t himself so tha t he will be respected.
1 1. N :Hure deli g hts in the most plai n and simple die t.
1 2. T h is obseITat ion , in my opinion, has no fo undati o n in nature.
13 . The Son of Man· hath no place whe re he m ay lay his head .
q. After I had dined, I returned home .
15. When I was young, I thought as you do.
D11n:CTION. - Chan ge the parti cip ial , prepositi onal , infinitive , and absolute
phrases, the imperat ives, and arlvcrbs, into adverbia l phrases or clauses.

r . He turned his head to look be hind him.
- · She was a l>eautiful girl with fl owi ng na xen hai r.
3. The spo t was immed iately erased.
4. Ad mit that point, and all the rest follo ws.
5. Uttering th ese words, he left the roo m.
6. Having made this re mark, he soon began his task.
7. This preface being made, they addressed themselves to the
\\' Ork .
8 . I fe calm ly contempla tes the approach of death .
9 . The eve nin g W 3S spe n t conv er<.ing with fr ie nd s.
1 o. The objec t o f the book being discove red, both parties
were ind ignant at the writer.
1 r . His mind was busy plann ing sc hemes o f improve me nt.
12 . Taylor be ing rel eased determined to remain in Wales.
13. I scrambled up with p:iin and sha me.
14· He did not ca re to live with his fri end d ead .
r 5. Grant the supposit ion, and the co ncl usion must fo ll ow.

EXERCISE L.

I

,.:

> '

NOUN CLAVSE:S.
f)JRE CrION. 1

•

2.

.3·
·l·

as indicated in the prcce<ling I .esson
Cha nge the. noun clauses
.

I believe you are a friend of the defendant.
[ hope I shall have the pleasu re of judging.
I l e determined that he would sell his enti re stock .
H e ha s long had a notion that he would re tire from Lusincss.
He fo11nd that th e boys were disobedient.
He expected that he would meet him a t a din ner.
The king commanded th at th e leaders should be p11 t tu

5.
G.
.
7
cl ea th.
S. I le asked that th e y should be his fri e nds also.
0 . They found that the place was inhab ited l>y savage,;.
;o. It seemed to him that he had become a new hoy aga in.
1 1. He ctenied that he had used that exp ression .
r 2 . Tl°1ey did not think they we re doing anyth ing wrong.
1 3. It is not always enough tl1:1t we should m ea n right.
14 . We are not ce rtai n that mind and matter are necessarily
co nn ec tecl.
15. The y cannot tell where th ey o ught to sell th e ir prnd111.e.
OiREC."Tio1N .

-Ch:\llgc the infinitives to noun clauses, to partic iples , to

nuuns, or tu other in llnitives.

r . He begged to know if he could cio anything.
They were anxious to hea r wha t was to follow .
.3· My friend proposed to walk through th e park.
4. He hurried out to m eet his fri e nd.
5. I shall he pe rm itted to die for my country.
6. He d ill his utmost to he here.
7. His bei ng punished was an act o f justi c e .
8. Tt was impossible fo r h im to come .
9 . The object o f ecluc::tting childre n is to develop the mind.
lo . I was .nrnch surpr ised to hear my old fri end t ell him not to
2.

di sturb the congregation.
.;

168

COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC .

I believe him to ue a thorough scholar.
1 2. The chiers being absent was unfortunate.
13. Tu be united is to be strong.
i4. H e is not a man lo fo rget his prom.ise.
15 . He struck with such viol e 1w~ as to injure his sku ll.
II.

LESSON XXXII.
TIIE P1n:n1 CAT I·:.

Se ntences may be vari ed by cha nging th e predicate.
1. The verb be and an adjective rn:ty be subst ituted fo r the
predica te verb; as, "That suffices for me "; " That is sufficient
fo r me."
2. Sometimes the verb be and an attributive noun may be substituted for the predicate verb; as, " He invents"; "He is an
inve ntor."
3. The ve rb /rn w :ind an obj ect m~y be snhst ituted for the
predi cate verb; as, " l le is not di screet"; "I Ie has no discretion ."

4. The voice of thl'. verb may he changed ; as, "Th l'y st::irchcd
for yo u "; "Yon were se:irchcd for."
5. The chief part of the pred ica te may he changed to an a<ljective; as," Her disease c:111not be cmecl " ; " Her disease is incurable."
6. Instead of an affirm ative statement we may use a denial of
the opposite; as, "He is \e:irnecl " ; "H e is not uneducated ."
SE"N"TEl\CES.

The constrnction may be v:iri ecl hy com hin ing, contracting, and
expanding se ntences .
Simple Sentences. - r. Two or more · simple sente nces may
be comb ined uy c hanging one of them into: -

VAl<.IETY OF EXPRESSION.

a. A 11 Apposih.1 1e P/1 rase; as, " The keeper was a man of
great strength. He killed a lion"; "The keeper, a man of great
strength , killed a lion."
/J. A Participial Pl1rase; as, "The trees are growing :il ong
the ri ver. They are very large"; "The trees, growing along tht:
ri ver, are ve ry brge."
c. An /11fl11itive Phrase; as, "I have come. I sliJl l tell
you"; "I have come to tell you. "
ti. A Prrposilional F/1rase; as, "There is a path tlirnugh
the woods. It is shady " ; "The path through the woods is
shady. "
z . Two or more simple sentences may he combin ed int o a
complex sentence by making one the independent" cbu se, :in cl
turning the others into dependent clauses : a. Into an Ar(;~ctival Clause ,· as, "'l'he tree is dead. r"rhe
tree was strnck by lightning"; "The tree which was stru ck by
lightni ng is dead."
b. Into an ArlverNal Clause; as, "I have come. I shall tell
you" ; " I have come that I may tell you."
c. Into a Noun Clausi: ; as, " l'lato's e nemies had spoken ill
of him. He was told this"; "Plato was told that hi s t1H.: 111ics
had spoken ill of him."
3. Two or more sirnpl e sentences may he combin ed into one
simpl e sentence with a compou nd subj ect or a compound
predicate; as, "Life is work. Life is warfare " ; "Life is work
a nd warfare." "The men are dil ige nt. The boys are dili gent";
"Th e men and the hoys are diligent." "He is :l wi se man. H e
is a good man. He is a patriotic man"; "He is a wise, good,
and patriotic man ."
4. Simple sentences may be expanded into compound or into
complex sentences .
Exa111p!c . - "On approaching the honse, we saw the enemy
retreat ing"; "J\s we approached the house we saw the enemy retreating." Or: " We approached the house and saw the
enemy retreating."

170

CO MPO S lTION AND RHETORIC.

Compound and complex sentences may be contracted into
simple sente n ces .
E x ample. - "He a lways stood up for wh :lt wa s right"; "He
alw:tys s toorl up for the ri gh t."
Compound sentences m:1y be changed int o complex, and
co m p le x into co mpo und.
E .rn111flt' . - '·I was to o fa r from home to think of returning,
:rn d so I dctc rminecl to go forward"; " /\s I wa s to o far lro m
home to think o f r e turnin g, I deter m ined to go forward."
DmEcT n1 sn>tt R~E r n R I i\"1>1Rr.cr.

Direct discourse introduces t he speake rs the mselves, while
indirect merely tells w hat they said o r did. It is o ft e n conv e nient
or d es irable to c hange th e o ne into the other. This is do ne c hi efly
by c ha ng in g th e first and second p e rso n to th e third, and the
prese nt t e nse to th e past.
Example. - J) iral: "Paint me as I am," said Cromwell,
"wit h al l my sca rs, wrinkl es, and wart s, o r I will not pay yon a
shilli ng ."
/11rlirect: " Cro mw ell said th a t the p;i.inte r was to paint him as
he was, wi t h all his sca rs, wa rt s, and wrinkl es, or h e would not pay
him a shill ing fo r t he picture."

1.

Th ey earned m oney.

z. She had no distrust.
3 . I had n o alternat ive.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Shelle y d es ired the re ali zati o n o f th<' id eal.
Alm os t ali youn g persons arc fo nd of th e sea .
l\ly o pini o n diffe rs from yours .
This statement appl ies only to certain dist ric ts .

8. He is foo lish.
9. Your words showed your thoughts.
10. J Ie wa s fri e ndl y to us.
I 1. M o ney will su pply yo ur wants.
r 2. H ope buoys up the sinkin g suu l.
13 . Our inte rfere nce did no t produ ce mu c h good.
14. Th ey have non e of my sympathy.
1 5. She do cs not Juve him .
16. Yo u are not kind.
17 . Ir e is not polite .
1 S. H e is n o t t hough t ful.
19. The mystery was soo n solved .
20 . The obs tacles ca nnot he s urm ou nted .
21. I re is wo rthy o f co nt e mpt.
22. Tiis speaking co uld not he h eard.
23. It is expec ted .
24. I a m m ind fu l of you.
25. Wh a t th e man ea rn ed durin g the day was sq ua ndered in
th e evening.

EXERCISE LIL
S1~11·1 y

a~

EXERCISE LI.
D1REC'T1 n :-.:. - Vary th e furm of these sen tences hy changing
as indi...:at rd in the pre cf·ding- I .csc:nn.

!JI

VJ\l{IETY OF EXl'RE SS!O N.

th~

pretlicj\le

SF.NTF.Nt

DIRFC'TI O '.". Combine the ~impk
ill11 str:t. tf'd in !h P prP1 'f' d in f,:! I .<'s~11n.

·1·'.S.

St'nll..· 11 c i·s intD cr11 111H )U nd o r rnm p1~x,

1. Lyillg is a great ~in :1g:1 i:1't C od .
speak tlw trnth. no t r.t1,<"h 111 11I.

2. Their wor k was nut vt:l li lli shcd .

Il e gave 11,; :1 t•1n 1~11 .. '"
The l1•1<1 11<>i,; c.1111(' : '.~· 1111

up0n tiic.:1 1i.
3. T h ey bo re her :do ng th e cro "·dcd path.
w1tl1 sno w. She was ~s pu re :i s thC' snow.

It

11·: 1:-;

covered

4 . '!' he larges t telescope shows m:rny ,.;t:1rs. It sh o ws til,·11 1 111
eve ry part or th e ht·:wcns . \Ve cann o t cou nt th em. Th ey ":···
many 1nill ions.
5. The se a rc the man,,i o ns of goo.I men a fter d eat h. T he,· ~re
di stributed among the se islands according to th e d egr ees o f ,·irtue

172

173

COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.

VAH!ETY OF EXPRESSION.

in whi c h they excelled. The se isla nds abound with pleasures of
d iffe rent degre es . Th ese pleasures are suitable to the perfections
or those wh o settled in th e m.

5. Frost-bitten peo ple shoulJ not run to the stove .
6. 1 never pass thi s p o int with ou t sh:1king some fort y ye:irs off
my shoulders.
7. There is so me th ing Lrave in your spirit as we ll as p c ne tr:ll ing in your eye.
3. Curiosity getting the better of reserve, she pulled open lht.:
he:wy g ra te.
9. With out his help yon would not have succeeded .
1 o. /\. surprised expression crossed his fa ce.
1 r. They now left the main road, striking into a g re en hy-p;ith.
12 . There is not on e in my circle so handsome :ind so stro ng.
13. She obse rved two belies slo wly paci ng the piava.
14. The sud de n ch;i nge from hea t to cold experienced on
going into water is ::ipt to be very hurtful.
15. She proudly drew herself up, exulting m th e bright
prospects of the future.

6. Th a les lookt.:d 11pon th e sta rs. He fell towards th e water.
l re might have lo uke d into th e wale r. He might ha\'e seen stars
in th e wate r.
th e re.

He looked up to the sta rs.

He saw no water

7. He was a co mely persona ge. 1Ie was a little abo\'e the
ord ina ry sta ture . 11 is co11nl cna nce wa s reve re nd. J le w:.is little
lik e a d i11rc h11nn. I Ii > fa ce w:.is ho nes t. Jt was not strange. It
was no t dark. It was no t winning.
8. Cresa r w::is tole ra bl y le:un ed . H e was lc:.i rn ed chi e fly in
c ivi l m:1tters. I le was well ve rsed in histo ry. I le understood
the weigh t o f wo rds. I Tc ::ittributed mu ch to his good st::irs. He
w:1s fond of astr::i no my.

9 . .'\ nton io was one o f th e kindest me n th a t eve r li1'ecl. He
was one o f th e best co n<liti onecl . I le had the mos t unwe;iriecl
spirit in doing con n e,ies. In him the ancient Roman honor
app ea red . It appea red more th an in :rny other nrnn in Italy.
io. N:it11re inOu e nced Wordswo rth.
The freedom of life
:1111 o ng the C umb e rbnd hills inOu e nced him. So did th e simpli c ity of life there. This fr eedo m and simplic ity affected his
mind . Th ey affec te d his c h:i ractc r.

EXERCISE LIII .
SrM Pr.1-:
D1Rr·:c-no:-i. -

S 1 :NTF.Ncr-~s .

Expand th e sim ple se nt ences into compo und or complex·

se ntences.

r. There he stood, poi nt ing m e out wi th his du sky finger to
th e m ob.
2.

I co uld see the ro:id lying dim and grry hclow us.

3. Five minutes bter a tall ligme wrapped in ;in ove rcoat rose
fro m the he:i th e r.
4. The lowering sky had !Jrought the pro mised storm .

1)1 RECTION .

-Contract the cornpoun,] and complex senten ce s into simple

sentences.

My si ght cl eared for a moment, and I m::inage ll to look up.
He forgot the loss of his hat, and hurried to mee t his fri e11d.
3. I kn o w not how thy palate may rel ish the compositiun.
4. The fint: l:idy or fine ge ntleman who shuws me, sliull's
bones.
5. She ca me so heedlessly that she stumbled.
6. Never le::ive a street-car while il is in mvtiun.
7. l\len uniformly overrate riches and unJerrate th e ir own
strength.
8. The fact is, th::it a thief is a very dainty ge ntlem an.
9. My ambition is to give them a beau-ideal of welco me when
they arrive.
10. He broke with his family, and has for some years led an
unsettled life .
I 1 . No one who loves :ind studies nature can feel alone in the
world.
1.

2.

.'
. . ~ ~ ·.

174

COMPO S ITION ANU J{ l!ETORJ C.

J 2. Th e cxa min:uio ns arc ju:;t corn ing on, and it woulJ no t be
a dvisable t o u rca k up sc hoo l.
1 3. That farn 1 is valua ble bct:a use it is near th e to wn.
q. J stre tc hed out my neck, :iml caught with my tee th «t th e
stoutest root wi th in my rcach .

15 . If yo u are heated wi th either pla:· or work , take care not
to let the body cool tuo qui c kly.
U11rnc fl o'.'l . -

U 1angc the cumpkx sentences into co mpo unJ, and the

VARIETY OF EXPirnSS I ON .

175

14. \\'hen the light infantry joined the main body, tl1t: a111 1y
retreated into the town.
15. Hio eyes closed with the to rp o r of approaching d eath , ;u1d
those around sustained h is fai ntin g form.

EXERCISE LIV.
DIHECTION. - In the fulluwing senten ces c ha uge the direc t furm t• ' tlic
indirec t, and th e indirect t u th e d irect.

L·u 1np0uthl into co mph.:x.

The blows we re strong enoug h, but th ey came from a man
who struck at ra11Jo111.
1.

2 . J fe remained in si lent admira ti on, and we all joined him in
his wors hip.

3. Three seasons have elapsed sin ce the last of th ese laws were
p: tssed .
4. If poac h ing ca n Le ntirpated by int ensity o t pu ni sh men t,
wh y may no t :11l ot he r c rim es ?

5. 1 det<.: c tcd th e ,,11bstitu te before I was old e nou g h to reason
wh et her it ll' C rl' :ir1iri1 :i:d u r not.
6. I le kft the.: tc rnple a d evo tee , an d returned a rati onali st.
7. If th is dish have ti me to cool, it is the mos t tas teless oi all
lllCah.

8. He burnt hi s l111gcrs, an d to cool th e m applied th e m to his
month.
9 . The small stock of prov isions whi ch we took with us was
soon exhausted.
i o. What I want is that you sho uld \\'rit e to you r s iste rs, and
tell them of the fo rtun e th:1t has ::icc rn ed to the m.

r 1. She offered to relieve him of th e task, which he resig ned to
her ins tantl y.
1~H e knew how the de sire to bec ome a dashing equestrienne
had taken possess io n o f he r soul.

13. He was a c lose obse rver, and from his stanJ -point he was
able.: to Jisc ern sig n> of c h:Hacter.

1 . "I did not ri se," said he, "with th e exp<:f'Util)n that l
shou ld convince the honoraule gentl e men that they :ire ll"ron g :ind
that I am ri ght. "
2. \Valbce told the.: priests to re main with h im, as he co11 ld nu t
pro tect them from his soldiers wh e n ou t of h is presenc e.
3. T he c rabbed old sc hoolmaster use d to ;1sk , ll"h en the y
brough t him a new pupil, •· l>ut are yull slln: he i,; 11f•t :1 d 1111ce., ··
·l· "I intcllded th :1t wo rk t" 1"' 111y l1e,t," s;ii.! T ii.11 kn.ll' .
"bill I hav e failed. Nobody reads it."
5. "My co nsc ie nce ," said he," tells me th:1t 1 k11·e bl)ored
ho ncs tl y to dest roy th at which is ev il a nd build up tk1 t whi c h is
good."
6. J )r. Juh nson is report ed to hav e s:1 id: "Tr a liu y s:1ys lie
louked ollt of this win dow when he looked o ut of that one, whip
him. "
7. He said that he had o ften played unde r these trt'es when a
Loy, and that he felt a deg ree "r lilial reve re nce for th e m.
8. Dean Swift averred that he ne1·er knew a man ,·unic to
emi ne nce who lay in bed of a morning.
9. "The public," Goldsmith used to say, "will never du me
justice; wh e never I write anvthi ng, they make a po in t tu know
nothi ng about it."
10 . She said that she was gbd [ haJ come, and tk1t she.: had
been running down the lane looking for me.

177

COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.

VARIETY OF EXPRESS ION.

LESSON XXXIII.

The P araphrase . - R eproducing thought with g reater fulness
of detail or ill ustration is usually termeJ Paraphrasing .
Jn this exercise i. Do not merely substit ute one word for anoth er, or even one

SYNONYMS.

Vari ety of ex pressio n m:iy g enerall y be secun.:Ll by p lltting in
the p b cc o f th e noun s, ad jectives, ve rbs, and adver bs some of
th e ir synonyms. As no two words c onvey exac tl y th e same se nse,
there is alw:1ys o ne th at is th e most fitt ing to be used, while th ere
nn y be sc ve ral tha t are au miss iblc .
Rx,1111ple. - Ma ny goou, brave, and mou erate men, who disliked h is fo rm er cond llct, and who e nte rt ained doubts touching
hi s prese nt sin ce rity, es potlsed his call se unwillingly and with many
p::i infll l m isgivings, becau se, th ough th ey d readed his tyranny much,
th ey clre:icl ed d e mocratic violence more.
1Vit/1 Sy11 ti!IJ'm s. ·-A large number of noble, fearless, and
reaso nable persons, who disapp roved of his previolls course of
acti on, a nd wh o had th eir Sllspic ions conce rning his present honesty o f p urp ose, su pported his interests reluctantly and wi th much
distressing hesitatio n, becallse, thollgh they fc:ired his iron rul e
muc h, th ey fea red popular outrage more.
l'!l J ( ,\ ~ f': O J .nr;v .

Vari ety of expression m ay be secure d by recasting a se ntence,
parag raph, or wh ole sketch in entirely diffe ren t ph raseology. This
m:iy be d o ne either by way o f p:iraphrase or conJensat ion.
Example of So1/c11cr. - She di ed. She passed a way. She was
no more. She fell asleep fore,· er. She slept the sleep tint knows
no waking. Her di ssol ution took pbce. She breathed her last.
She departed this life. She sank into the g r::tvc. She closed
her eyes forever. Sh e term inated her e:irthly existence . She
drop ped off. He r d emise occurred. After a long and painful
illness, b orn e with true Christian resignati on, she passed away at
th e early age of twenty-six, beloved and lamented by all wh o knew
her.

sentence fo r another.
z. Stud y the passage to be transposed till you have thoroughly
mastered it in detail and as a whole .
3. If it is too long to be easily retained in the me mory, make a
brief li st of th e leading heads or parts, and arrange the m in the
order in which you internl to wr ite them out.
4. Th en la y aside the passage and express fre ely in your o'rn
language the seve ra l thoughts, facts, or statements it contai ns.
5. Criticise yo ur work, a. See that none of the ideas have been omitted or misu nderstood.
b. Be su re th at all you r words and expressions are new.
c. See that your words, sentences, and paragraphs are correct.
E x ample of Sketch. - Dam on and Py thias were in ti mate fr iends .
Damon being conde mned to d eath by th e tyr:int D ion ysius.
asked lilJcrty to go ho me for the purpose o f settin g his :i fhirs
in ord er ; and his friend offered to b e his surety, and to submit
to death if Damon shoul<l not retu rn. Eve ry one tho11 gh t he
kn ew wha t the end of th e affai r would be, and began to condem n
Py thias fo r so rash an act; but he, confiJent of th e integ ri ty of
hi~ fri end, awaiteJ the appo inted tim e with cheerfuln ess. D amo n,
strict to his engage ment, returned at th e tim e fix ed. l )io nysius
so m11 ch admireu th eir mutual fid elity th at he pardoned D amon,
and asked to be adm itted into the fri end ship of two such worthy
men .

R ecast. - Dam on an cl Pythias were very d ear frie nd s, :1n<l
thought a good deal of each other, as th e foll owing instan ce
shows. Damon, having in some way o r o th er transg resse d the hw
of Dionysius, w:is p ut into prison and condemned to d e:ith. Bein g
vrry desirous of going homr to bid his friend s good by, :ind to
put his affairs in orucr bdure his death, he beggeu Di onys ius to

178

COMPOSIT ION AND RHETORIC.

VARIETY OF EXPJ{ESS!ON .

allow him to go, promising to re turn on t he cby o f e xec ution.
Hut D io nys ius, fe arin g that it was a pl o t to get Uam o n out of his
hands, prom ised to le t him go o n conJ iti o n that he would get
som e o ne to act as s ur e ty for him. \V ith thi s l bmon's h eart
sa nk , for he never thought that any one woulJ l.Je willing to risk
his life for him . Hu t Uamon ll:ld a t leas t one tru e fri e n d, wh o
did n ot dese rt him in th is t ime of tro uble . This fri end was

179

:i:XERCISE LV.
DtREC'T lON. - In the fo llo\vin g se nte nces, cha nge the wo rding l_)y putt ing
in pl ace uf th e no uns, adi(·di\·es, verbs , a 11 d adv erlis , o ne of thei r sy1HH tyllls

that will e xpn.:ss as

r.
2.

11early

as may IJc.:

t l 1e sa1 11 c 111 c an i 11g.

Indolence is the cause of many ev ils.
W ea lth which is de s ire d by all is a ccompanied lJ)' u1:\lly

Pyt hi as . He free ly offcn;J to go se c ur itr, say in g that, if J >:1111011
di d nut re turn, h e would cheerfully die in his stead. So I la mon

t ro ubles.
3. In establishing his government he had to feel his way, tu

J\s the day o f

so und m e n' s di sposi t ions, a nd to cu n c ilia te different inte rests .
4. Th e Protec torate, with all its glories. was nut the c u11 c cJ• llu 11

w e nt tu his h o me, and Pythias went to p ri so n.

e xe cution drew n ea r, th e people began to ridi c ul e l'y thias for
running su c h a ri s k ; they s:i id th ey kn e w very well th at J >amon
l l o wc vcr , l'yt liias '"1i d that he could trust his
wo uld n o t return.
friend 's int.:grity; an d h e was not dc c ci 1·cd;

fur , trne to his

pro mi se, on the da y appo int e d, lla m on did re turn.

This so

o f a lciwly intellect, but the revu lutiunary e nngy of a mi .~hty 1uti u n
concentrated i11 a sin,;lc ch ief.
5. Atte m p ts have ofte n Lee n mad e , :rnd very rLT c1Hl y 11 :11L· ;,.>e11
ren e wed with much affirmat ion of success, tu pruv e tlut su, .i1 luw

p lease d th e k ing t hat he fre e ly fu rga\"(; Damon, an d :bkcd to l.Je

form s of life may originate spontaneously frum the ir 111:1k riab

a s ha rer in their fri e n d s hip, a friends hi p whi c h m ade th e m stand
by ea ch othe r in su c h a time of trial.

th e wa te r.
6 . Great gates of lJrass, richly :1ml Jt:iicatcly wro u.~ h t, t u m
h eziv ily upo n their hinges, as if pruudly rdu c tant t1) adlllit the

Condensation, o n th e other h:rnd, consists in express ing thought
wit h g reater brevity.

F .rn111ple. -

Th o ug h a man h as all oth e r pe rfec ti o ns and wants
d isc retio n, he will l.Je o f no g rea t consc (]ucn c e in the wo rld; but
if h e has th is si ngle tal e nt in perfe c ti o n, an d bu t a co mm o n sh are
o f othe rs , he may do what h e pleases in hi s pa rti c ular sta ti on o f life.
Co 11do1 ..-1·J - Jn <1llr i11 krco11rsc \\' ilh th e wurld, discretion i~
of more value tha n any o th er quality uf mind.

iii

fe et of com1non murtals int o this most gorg e ous of sep ulch res .
7. T h e more, howev e r, James presse d fur th e cons11 1rn 11:1t 1u11
of his projec ts, the m o re Spa111 held back ; but so bent was tiw
king on its reali zation that, afte r fruit less n ego ti at io ns, the prince
quitted England in di,gu isc, and app ea rnl with Bucki11 gha1 11 at
Madrid, to cla im his p rnrni sed liriile.
8. Human fat 1s fuel laid :1wav fur use.

it constitutes :1 J1,):1rd

of co mbustible rnatcri:d u p on which the owner rn:iy draw whenever his o nli n:uy supplie s :1rl' inter<TJ >lcd.
9. I th o ug ht te n th ousa nd swo rds m ust h a ve leaped from th ei r
scahli:mls to a ve nge C\·en a look th :it tlHcatened h e r with in sul t.
Bnt the age of c hiv alr\' is gone .

Th:it of scip hi st ers, ec o nomi s ts,

a nd calc1 ilat ors has succeed ed; and the g lory of Europe is extingu ish ed forev er.
10 . I t m ay wel l be JuuLted if any one uf the gre;it j><wls

w i 11l

hav e arisen during the hst half century h as so closely tou c hed t he
popular heart as Lung(clluw h :h .

180

COMPO SI TI ON A ND RllETO!UC.

EXERCISE LVI.
TRA NSPOSING.
.

DrnECT ION. -

Express in d iffe ren t p hraseology as illustrat ed in th e preced·

ing Lesson.

I Ie g ives his p:i rents no anxie ty.
Tru th , c ru shed to death, sh:tll rise aga in.
C radles rock us nea re r to the tomb.
H e hid es his own offences, and stri ps o th e rs ' ba re.
Th e gale h:it.l s ighed itself to rest.
W he n fai th is lost, whe n hono r dies, the m an is dead.
He wh o wuul d search for pearls m us t dive be lo w.
8. Th e evil that m en d o lives afte r th e m.
9· They n eve r p:i rdo n who have done the wron g .
1 o . Tha t life is long whi c h answ ers life 's gre:it e ncl.
x 1. Mammon wins his way wh ere seraph s mi g ht despai r.
12 . Whe re your treasure is, the re will you r he:trt be also.
13. lt is m ore l> lessed to gi\'e tha n to rece ive.
14. Th ey :tll with o ne conse nt began to make excuse.
15 . I t is an ill wind that blo ws nobody good.
1 G. I l o w ve ry much ha p p ier we shou ld all be if people at tend ed
to their own bu si ness, a nd le t th e ir nei ghbo rs at te nd to thei rs.
J 7· Th e Court of Eli zabe th was as imm o ral as th :lt of her successor, but its imm orali ty was shroud ed l;y a ve il of grace and
ch ival ry .
1.

z.
3.
4.
S.
6.
7.

18 . H e was a m ost seve re judge of hi msel f :is we ll as of others.

19. The re is sc:trce ly a man living who is not ac tuated by
ambitio n.
EXERCISE LVII.
TRAl\S POS tNG .
D 1HECT1u:-:. -

Rende r the foli owing in. di ffere nt ph raseology as illustrated

in th e Lesson.

r. Wha teve r 1 hrl\"e tri ed to do in life, I have tri ed with all my
hea rt to <lo well; whateve r I h:tve d evoted myself to, I have

VARIETY OF EXPRESSION.

1:) 1

devoted myself to comple tely.
In g reat aims a nd in sma ll, l
have al ways bee n th orot1ghly in ea rn est.
2. It was J. myste ry to m a ny peo ple why C overnor Briggs, of
Massac husetts, wore a cravat lrnt no c:01lar. Some peOJile t hought
it was a n absu rd eccentri c ity. T h is was the secret : i\bny p.:;1rs
before he w:is t:tlking wi th an in eb ri a te and telling him that his
hab it was unnecessary, and the ine briat e retorted upon him ;md
said, "\V e do a g reat many thin gs th at are not necessary . 1t j,
not n ecessary for you to wear that collar. "\Veil," said th e gLwe rn o r, "I will neve r wea r a colbr aga in if you won't d rink ."
"Ag reed," said the in ebria te . Gove rn o r Bri ggs nc,·c r wore a
collar. They both k e pt th e ir bargai n fo r twent y years . T hey
kept it to th e d ea th. That is th e reaso n Gove rn o r Hr isgs d id
n ot wea r a coll ar.
3. ' Vhen Syr:ict1se w:1s taken, Arc hime<les was describing math·
emat ical fi g ures t1po n th e enrth, and wh e n one of the enemy came
upo n him, a nd asked his name, he was so engrossed with the
desire o f prese rving the l1gures enti re , that he answe red only l>y
a n ea rn est request to th e sold ier to kee p off, and not lircak in
u pon hi s circl e. The so ldi e r, thinking himself sco rn ed, ran :\ rchimedcs through th e body, a nd the purple strea m of blood soon
ohscu rc rl all traces of the problem o n wh ic h he h:1d been S(J
inte nt. T hus fell th is illustrious man by the me re ncgkct tu tell
his na me, for th e general, ;\fa rcellu s, had give n ordc:rs to respect
th e li fe and person o f the phil oso ph e r.
4. Sir Cloudesley Slwv el, wh ose me lanc holy shipwreck o n the
rocks o f Sc ill y is well know n, was, wh e n a boy, o n linanl a ship
command ed by Sir J ohn N arhorou gh, wh o, dur ing an acti on, expressed a very earnest wish to have so me orders of cunsequcn«c
co nv eyed to a ship a t a consid e r:il>le distance . Shfn- el, he:iring
this, immediately 11nde rtuok to co nvey it ; a nd this he a ct ually
perfo rm ed, swimming throug h the ene my's line of tire wi th th e
d espatc hes in his muu th.

I••,

...

1 82

VAHIETY OF EXl ' l<ES SI ON.

CO MPO S ITION AND RHET OR IC .

EXERCISE LVIII.
EXPANSION.
DI RECTI O N. -

Expan<l ea ch o f th e follo wing int o a parag raph o f two

01

mo re sente nces.
I.
2.

3.
4.

5·
6.
7.
S.
9.
1 o.
r I.
1

z.

13.
1 4.

Co lumbu s di scovered America.
Brev ity is the soul o f wit.
Wisdo m is justified of he r c hildren .
l t is glo ri ous to die for one's country.
\\'ar is a g re at ev il.
Th e re is streng th in uni ty .
Th e amiable ga in many friends.
Party is the madness of many fo r the gai n o f a few.
Proc ras tin a tion is the th id o f time.
Th e re's noth ing eit her good or bad, b ut thi nking mak es it so.
\\' c kn o w ll'h at ll'e are , hu t kno w no t what we may be.
Th e re is a spec ia l p rovidence in th e fall of a sp:i rrow.
E ve ry o ne ca n m:iste r a. g ri e f but he that has it.
Th e g reat cloc k at Strasbu rg is a wond e rful piece of mech-

ani sm .
l>: 1u,,·n11 N. - Cnnrlc nsc th e su])s.tancc o f th", fo IIo w111g
·
paragraphs into
on e u r l \\'o

s e nt e n c e~ .

1. I was not, like His G rac e of Hedfn rd , swaddled a nd rocked
and dandl ed int o a legisla tor. "/\'it.•r in a rl;·<rs um" is the motto
fo r a man like m e. I p ossessed not one o f the <Jnalities, nor cultivated o ne o f th e arts, that reco mm e nd men to the fa i•or a nd
prote ction o f the g reat. I was no t made fo r ;i minion or a tool.
.
2. Malevolence lo th e cle rgy is se ldom at a g rea t distance from
irrev e re nc e of reli g io n, and I lrycle n afford s no exception to this
observance. His writings exhib it man y p:1ss:1ges, whi ch, with all
the allowance that can be m:.id e for c harac ter and occasions are
such as piety wo uld not have admi tted, and suc h as may vi~iate
li ght a nd un princ ipled mind s. But the re is no reaso n fo r suppos·
rng that he d1sbel1eved the religion whi c h he disobe yed. He for-

got his duty rathe r thall disown e d it. His te nden cy lo profaneness
is the effect o f le 1· ity, negl ige nce, a nd li ght conve rsati on, with a
desire of accommo dating himself to the c once ptio n of his tim es
by venturin g to be wi c ked as far as he durst .
3. "I'll k ll yo u a story, gen tl e men , which is as true as that this
pipe is made of clay. \Vh en I was delivered of my first book, I
o wed my t:1il o r for a suit of clo th es; but that is noth ing new, yoll
know, and ma y be :my man's case as well as 111ine . \V e il, owing
him for a suit: of clothes, and hearing th;it my boo k took Yery well,
he se n t for his money and insisted on be ing paid imm ediatel y.
Tho11gh I was :it th e time ri c h in fam e, for my book ran like wildfire, yet I was ve ry short in mone y, :llld being unable to s:itisfy
his d e m:rnd, prudently resolved to keep my c ham be r, p re ferring a
prison of my own choosi ng at hom e to one of my t:iilor's choosing
abroad . In va in the b:i iliffs used all th ei r arts to de co y me frn m
my citad e l; in \ ':\ Ill th ey sen t to let me kn ow that a ge ntleman
wanted to speak to me at th e next t<wern; in va in th ey came \\ith
an urge nt m essage from m y aunt in the count ry; in l'ain was I
to ld that a pa rticula r friend w:i s at th e po in t of <k a th and <ksirPri
to tak e his last f.1rewell. I was <lea f, inse nsibl e, ro ck, adamant :
th e bailiffs could make no impression on my hard hea rt_, for I
effec tuall y kept my liberty by ncvcr stirring out of my rou111."
4 . Write a paragraph o n "011r Sight," t:1ki 11g th e following a s
princ ipal ancl s11bord in :1 te subj ects: :\ general ~t:itcrnent a'.1011 t
"O m Sight" - The ple asme it afford s -- Cuntr«st these j>lcasmcs
with I hose re ceived through " the sense ut feel mg" -The id ,•,1s
it fmn1shes th e ima.i:;ination, and their nature - How much we
should va lue " Sight."
5. \\'rite a paragraph d esc ribing ":\ Mead ow suitable fo r a
Tournam e nt." Tak e the foll"win~ as he.id s : :\n intr,1d u<"tnn·
sente nce - The locat io n - Surface - - K ind n i e nclos11rc· - The
size - The form -The entrance and how giurd ed .
6. \\Trit e a paragraph on "Successive Steps to Prohibition ."
Hea ds: No sa le to mi nors - No sale to drunk:mi s - No sale of
adulterated liquors - High lice nse - Prohibition.

"'•;;

COMPOS ITION A ND RHETORIC.

VARIETY O F EX PRESSION.

r. Read and re- read the poem till yon unde rstand it pnfectly.
J\fake a li st of the leading and subo rdinat e th oughts.
3. L1y aside the poe m and express the thought:; in your own
la nguage.
4. 13e care ful not to leave out any of the th ough ts or sentime nts
o f th e original.
5. Be equally careful not to introd uce any no t conta ined in it.
6. Do not use poetic words ex e xpressions.
7. Br ing out as far as poss ible the full for ce of all figures, poe tic
epithets, and phrases.
8. Compa r e your version, se nte nce by se nte nce and th ough t hy
th ought , wi th the o ri gin al.
9. If you have nsc d any of th e la nguage of the poem put othe r
words in th eir stead.
1 0. Afte r you hav e severely c riti c ised your wo rk re write it.
Exa mple. 2 .

LESSON XXXIV.
VA RIETY OF

II.

E .'\ l'R l~SSIO '.'I .

POETRY TO PROSE.

Two Forms. - All th ought may be expressed either in the
form of poe try o r in th at of prose. Some times th ese two forms
a pp roach very c losel y, at othe rs t hey st and ve ry widely apart, bu t
they never coincide. J\loreover, the effect p roduced on th e mind
by a thought when dressed in the most artist ic garlJ of poetry is
very diffe re nt from th e effect produced liy the same thought when
c b d in th e commo np b ce habili me nts o f ord ina ry l• rosc; :rnd even
wh en clothed in th e hum blest poe ti c attire, tho11 g ht c1rri cs with it
a c h:nm tha t it docs not possess when co tu~ h ed in th e h ighes t fo rm
of prose . T he learne r should try to distinguis h betw ee n the effect
o f the naked th ought itself and that o f the language which gives it
exp ress io n. In this he will be aided by the exe rc ise o f transpositio n.
Methods. - Poe try ma r be trans posed into prose , eith er by a
change o f phraseology, or hy merel y cl imimt ing wh;1t is poe tic.
F I RST

~ I ETl l O I! .

T he first m e thod consists in wri tin g o ut in good prose th e general meaning of th e poe try un de r conside rati o n. This, if properly
carri ed out, is a pro fi table exerc ise fo r beginners in composition,
as it trains th e m in ex::unining closely the meaning of terse and
compac t language , an d in exp ress ing tho11ghts with ca re and exactness. This exe rc ise scarct·ly differs fro m tli:it in the bst Lesson,
wh e re prose is tra nsposed into o th er prnse hy c ha ng ing th e phraseology. Th e object in l•tltli is to reproduc e the sa me thought in
differe nt hnguage .
How to Paraphrase. - The fol!oll'ing direc ti o ns will assist in
paraphrasing : -

" Not enjoyment, and no t so rrow,
Is o ur d es tin ed e nd o r way ;
But to act that each to-morro w
F ind us farther tlJJ.n to-day.
":\rt is long, a nd tim e is fl ee ting,
And ou r hearts thoug h stout and brave,
Still, like muffied drums, a re beating
Funeral marc hes to the grave."

Paraphrased . - We are not placed in thi s world merely for th e
purpose of enjo yin g ou rselves, o r of dragg ing out our lives in so rrow, but we a rc se nt he re to im prove th e time in deveiopin_g t he
capabiliti es th a t are give n us . For this, ample o pportunity is
a ffo rclecl in the vast fi eld s of kn o wled ge, researrh, :rn d toi l th:i.t
lie sp rc:id ou t befo re us. T hough th e full inv esti g:ltion of tht"sc·
mi g ht employ ages, ye t but a few sho rt y«ars a rc g ranted 11 s. :\t
times, indecJ , we feel as if we mi gh t live for eve r, but we shnuld not
presum e o n life, for every throb of o ur hea rts reminds us that we
are rap id ly drawing neare r the close of our allotted time.

•• >

186

COM l 'O S !Tl 01' AND RHET O RI C .

SECOND

~IF.T l! O JI .

The seco nd meth od o f tra nsposing poe try in to prose , co nsists in
m ak ing v nly ~ uch cha nges as arc necessa ry to c ha nge th e o ne form
of e xpress io n into the o the r.
Where to Begin . - Th e p11pil must first o f a ll a cquire a d efi nik id ea of th e di s tinction l.cl \\' CC n th e fu rin "f puetry and that
o f prose . l le mt ht nu t fall in to th e e rror of ' 11ppos i11 g that fo rm
is ' l' iri t, th at m cas11rc and arr:rngc me nt a rc poe try. It is not cl iffi,·11IL to te ll whnc th e m cc h:rni c al strnc tmc of ve rse e nds a nd
that of pruse begins; h11t ap:ir t frum this . poetry a nd prose exist
in " ' g rc:it ,·a ri ny, :rnd a rc so gr:uli1a ll y shaded in to c::ic h othe r,
th :1 t tltc m ost expe rt c riti c is he fogged whe n he att em pts to d iscern the line hc t\\' een th e m . The truth is, we ha ve mu c h poe ti cal
prose, as well as an abu nda nce o f prosa ic poetry.
What is to be Done. - What p oe try is in its esse nce, we ne ed
nut attempt to dete rmine . If we co ukl de c id e , we shou ld not be
mat e ri ally ass isted in the ung rac io us tas k befo re us - th e task of
d es troying a n inlri 1bir. heauty we ca n ne ither c rea te nor define,
b11 L one that we ca n :di enjoy a nd adm ire. In tr:rnsposing poe try
in to p .·ose, tin t is, into th e prose fo rm, we need nut in every
":!SC' d ri ve o ut thC' li1·i11 g and pc r\';idin g poe ti c sp irit. 011r task is
~ im ply to c h:i ngc th e fo rt11 fn •111 th e poe ti c lo th e prns1·. 111 1irder
to do th is, we shall prot·eed to c:xarninc th e di ffe re nces between
t hesc two fn r rn s.
Differences. -The po ints o f diiTt' rL·nce to h e no ti ced a re includ ed un de r the heads o f R ltrm,., .l!m.mre, and Diction. Diction
cornprises :\ rr:rn g em e nt , Ex pedien ts for Brevity, Words, Concrete
and Pa rt ic ular Term s, an d Fig urati ve !.:111i;u:ige.
Rhyme. - As rh yme cann ,~ t in a ny case ente r into prose, it
p rrse nts no diffirnlty. I n tr:ul'ipos ing it is simply elim inated by
s11hs tit11tin g fo r o ne o f the rhyming \\" Ords so rn e sui t::1hle synonym.
Measure. - Of all th e ch:incteris ti ('s in wh ich poe try differs
fro m prose, th ere is hnt on e th:•t is pendi :1r to poet ry. That one
is rn e tr C'. (·om pos itio n th :it is writ te n in m : trc is p oe try, in form

VARIETY OF EXPRESS I ON.

at least, whi le th::1t which is no t is prose. So me poe try see m s to
be di sting uished from prose o nly by the possess io n of m etre.
How Transposed. - In poe try whi c h is exp re ssed in this plain
and simple sty le, all that is necessa ry to co nvert it into prose form
is m erely to. remov e the metre li y inse rtin g o r omitting wo rd s, ;i-;
in the ex::1 rnple foll o wing.
F:.1·a 111fle. " Pray, d o no t moc k m e,
I a m a very foo lis h, fu nd old ma n,
!;um -sco re a nd upwa rd s; a nd, to dra l pl a inl y,
f fc:ir I am no t in m y perfec t mind.
.M e think s I shouhl kno w you , and know thi s m an ;
Ve t I am d o ubtful; for I am mainly igno ra nt
\\'hat place th is is, and all th e skill I have
Remembers not th ese garme nts; nor l kn o w no t
Wh e re I did lodge last ni ght. - Do not laug h at m e,
Fo r, as I am a m an, I think this lad y
To h e my c hild Cordelia ! "
Tn this the re is not a wo rd , not a phrase, not an express io n, that
mi ght not he u ~e d in the plai nest and sim p lest prose, yet no person wh o se ea r is a ttun ed to the music o f ve rse can fail to disco,·e r
in it th:it sonwthing we ca nn ot d escribe , b11t wh ic h we call poet ry.
N o w, le t 11 s m:1kc a ch:inge th\' k :1st poss ible, l.11t still s11ftil' ie nt to
throw out th e m e tre, and we shall C1nd that the imp riso ne d sp ir it
has fled, tin t th e poe try has b eco me prose .
Tra11sp11uil. - I pray yo u do no t m oc k m e , 1 a m, ind eed , a
very foolish, fon<l o ld man o f four- sco re yea r• and u p wards : and.
to d eal plainly with you, I fea r I am not in my perfen m ind. l
think I should kn ow you, ancl this m:rn, also, but ye t I a m <loubtfnl ; for I :un q uit e ig norant what place this is. and all th e skil l l
have do es not re m embe r th ese garments, no r d o I know wh e re I
lo d ged b st ni ght. - n o no t laugh at me , for as surely as I am a
man, I think this lady is my c hil tl Co rd e lia.

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188

CO MPO S ITI OK AND RHETORIC.

EXERCISE LIX.
TRA NS POSIN1: ANU l'ARAPII RASING .
D 11<ECTI ON .

1. "

- Tran spvsc by re mo\'in g th e measure ; th en pa raphrase .

I m e t a little cottage gi rl ;
She was eight years old , she sai d ;
He r h a ir was thic k with many a curl
T hat cl uste red round he r head ."

VARIETY O F E XP RESS IO N.

7. "0 yet we trnst tha t so int:huw good"
Will be the linal go:.i l of ill ;
T h:1 t noth ing wal ks with aim it:ss fe et,
That no t on e life shall be destroyed,
Or cast as ru bbish to th e void,
When C od ha th mad e the p ile complete."

LESSON XXXV.
2.

"They go t into a h;ickney cnac h,
1\n d t rot ted d oll'n the stree t.
I saw them go; o ne horse was hli nd ,
T he ta ils o f bot h hun g down he hind ,
Th e ir shoes we re on th eir fee t."

3. "Tru e e:ise in writin g comes from art, not c hance,
As th ose m o\' e e:isicsl wh o ln ve lea rn ed to d:ince ."
4 . "Th e sou nd must be a n echo o f the sense.
Soft is tlH.: st rain when /,ephyr gently blo ws,
/\nd the sm ooth st ream in smoo the r num bers nows ;
Hut wh e n loud surges l:ish th e so1111ding shore,
T he l10a rs e, ro ugh verse , hould like th e torre nt roa r."
5. "Th e c rC' e ping ,·e rmin , loath some to th e sight,
And chaq:~e d, pe rha ps, with ,·e no m, tha t intrndes,
A visi to r 11111;Tlcome, into sce nes
Sac red to nea tn ess and repose . the alc ove ,
T he c h::i mhe r, o r refectory. may die J\ necessa ry ac t in curs 1w lJb mc ."
6. " D efe nd m e th erefore, Comm o n Se nse, say I,
From rev e ri es so airy, from th toil
Of drop pi ng hu ckc ts int o emptv 11·ells,
And g rowing old in drawing nothing up."

lJIFFEREl\C ES BET WEEN PO ETRY A'.'i lJ PROS E. - lJI C J'I cIN.

Poetic diction is a term e mployed to d e note the fo rm of exp ression pecul iar to poe try. It ha s alrc:idy bee n stat ed th:it nnh·
in a mo di fi ed sense ca n it be asse rt ed that poetry has a d iction c;f
its o wn . Th ere a re com p:irat ive ly fe w wo rds o r funns uf cxpn:ssio n used in poetry tha t may not also ]Jc e 111ploycd in some uf the
hig he r furm s o f prose, es peciall y in Orat o ry. But we m us t not
su p pose that in n:i rr:ll ive, dcsni j>t in~, o r e xpos ih> ry prose it is
be fittin g to :w a il o nesel f of th e d l'l icacy of wording a nd strnni:n:
that is qu ite in pla ce in poet ry, and that is o ne of its chief ornaments. Tn poetry, as in prose, th e re is g reat var iety of di c tion .
So meti mes, as we h:i 1·c just see n, the language is as phin ancl
simpl e :rnrl un ado rn ed as in th e humbl est prose; fr um th is it rises
throu gh all p oss ible g r:1 d a ti o ns o f elabora ti on, till it rca cl1es the
h ig hes t po int ·of poli shed spl endor.
/\ RRA N <; F~ l Ft'.T.

One of th e fea tures of poe ti c d ic ti o n is the use of less usual and
more i111·e rt ed co nstru cti ons th:in :i re co mmon ly fou nd in pru,c .
\Ve mu st never lose sight of th e fa c t th:it the obje c t of p oetry is,
prim:nil y, to please . Thi s it see ks to do liy man y :u ts. ;\ s ag ree able sound s, both th ose that are ac t ively :ind th ose that a re p:issively so. are a source o f p leasure, th e poet arranges hie line sv as

..

,.,,

VAIUETY OF EXl'IO::.SS IO N .
COMPOSITION AND RHETO RIC .

to secu re the higT1est dl'gree o f melody. Again, an unusual and
un expec ted order of wo rd s may g ive rise to an ag reeable surprise .
If, thcrdure, the m elody ca n Lie iucre;tsed and a pleasiug s11rl'rise
effecte d l>y th e same deviation, a double ple:<sure is affurrJed .
The atta inmen t of these objects, alung with th e requirements o f
nh·:ht tre, :tccoimts fo r t he inve rted cons tru c tion s o f poet ry. In
l'ru,c, on the other ha nd, as t he obje · t i:; to in for m th e undersLrnding, eve rythin g is mad e subservien t to clea rn ess, dire ct ness,
:rnd rur('e uf exp ress io n. No t that the prose writ e r has no. ear for
m elody o r n o eye fo r b ea uty . H e docs n ot disda in to cinbocly as
much uf musi c :i nd of all the o ther be:t utics of compos iti on :is is
consistent with th e n:itun: of th e subj ec t he is trea ting; li11t with
him the se are secon<l:iry obj ects.
P1 t: l'U1u :wu EN ESS.

Ma ny words d::irken spe ech. Poetry seeks to p rese nt cle::i r and
distinc t images to th e mind - its dictio n is p ictu resque. Long
sentences :iml involv ed con struc tion s whi ch c o nvey th e th oug ht in
such a m:rnnc r that it c:mnot lie grasp ed wit h 0ut an effo rt , req uire
a bbor th a t d es troys th e ple:isme- poetry is int e nd ed to impart;
hen ce it makes use of th e b riefest fo rm s of e xp ressio n co nsistent
with cka rnt'ss. JVl:in y , if not ;ill, <Jf th e opl'd il'n ts l' rnployed to
atta in brev ity in p oe try :i re also used in prose', 1>11t pol'lry, as will
he see n , m :1kes a sti ll bold er 11se o f th em.
!\mong the me a ns :id opkd to rende r th e language o f pol: try
picturesque may be me nti oned 1 . The omission of connectives ; :is, "The Je w was fallin g fas t ; the stars bega n to blink;
I h eard a voice ; it c ri ed : ' Drink, pre tty c rea ture, drink!'"
On th e other hand, the co nnectives are sometimes repeated in
poe try where they would he omitt.ed in pro se .
2 . Absolute cons tructions ; as,-

" T/1e !tour ronarrkd, and so rt111 r>k

!lit' /ta r,
Death still dra ws nea rer, ne ve r seeming near."

llJ i

3 . Adjec t ives instead of clauses. - -Tht• adject i1·e Lik e-; th <'
place ur :t \"ar iety uf kind s vf cLiuses t hat would vrdJ!l.ll ii; ' "'
expressed :it length in prose ; as, a11i11u1t(·d canv:tj ~tol e
The sleepy eye which spuke the: melting so ul."

" l ,cly un

1.e. , the ca nvas whi1 ·h :issumed life under hi s pen c il.
4.

Participial constructions, ; as, " JV(i;/1 .fi•111ulrrcd, o n li e far c·s ,
'J'u,1ilin.i; tlie c rntl e com.ist<: nn-, h:ilf un t"uut, h:1lf )Iring ."

" l\1 y sudde n kmtl
I'rn-rn/t',/, spares to tell th ee yet liy deeds what it in tc11ds."

5. Ellipses th:ll would n o t be permiss il.il e in 1,rusc :ire lre quently fuu nd in poe try ; as, a. Of the :i rti cle; as, -

) •.

''Th e why is plain :ts way tu parish c h urch. "
/1. or prvno uns; as, "It was a tall young g<'ntk m;tn lived lJ )' t he ri \·,: rside ."

r. o r tht: verb; as, "Swc·c:t the pk;.1s11r<-, ric ·h th e trea sure: ."

d. Of th e co njun ction and YCru; as, " By th ee I mi g ht co rrect, erroneous o ft,
The clock o f histo ry."
6. Poetic Grammar. - F o r th e sake o f a n agree:ible smpris e .
and for th e sa k e of bre vity, liberti es are taken with the r•iles or
g ra mm ar, a nd de via ti o ns fro m th e m mad e, under th e name of
Poetic I ,ice nse .
rr. Adjectives fo r adve rbs; as, "So s;eeet she sun g" ;
fu r "swec:t ly."
;~~~~.~;•
~ .l~J}.. j

VARIETY OF EXPRESSION.

COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.

/1. One conjunction for another; as, " 1\Tor 1hy no r ni g ht my heart has res t";

fur" Neithe r day nor ni ght my heart has res t."

9 . Epithet for Name. - The poe t often goes further, and pt1b
the epithet fur th e n ~tmc uf the thing, with a boldness th a t would
not be allowabl e in prose. Thus: "Below the c hestnut wh e n their bud s
We re glistening to the breezy b/1u:."

c. O ne case for a nother ; as, "So you must ride on horselx1ck after we."
d. One part of th e verb fur another; as, -

" B11 t saw her not

193

i.e., "The sky."
"The JeaJ <>as t of night."
i.e., "\Vaste."

Bdore his weary pilg rimage begun ."
\\TOR US.

e. One pronoun for anothe r ; as, -

"I will paint me with bi:J.ck."
j. l'leo nas ti c pronouns; :is, " i\ly banks t!uy ;tre furnish ed with bees."

7. Epithets. - :'\s poetry co mbines with the objec t o f g raphically presenting ideas and im ages, the still higher one of giving
pleasme, it mak es use o f language at once instrn ·ti1·e and pleasmg. 1n this w;1y, we find poe try coining ne w words, or co mbining
other words into epith ets in an o ri g inal and d e ligh tful mann er.
'l'li tesc epitht!ls often co nvey, in hricf, :t fulness of meaning that
could h e ex pressed o nl y by a whuk cb11 se or sentence in the
,·,nnm o n pn>s:t ic style. Thus : "Gri eving, if aug ht inanima te e'er grieves,
O'er th e 1111rel11n1i11.i,· brave."

i.e., "The brave who are destined i;e1·er to return."
" 1Vcw-lig!it1.· rl on a !1ww 11-!.:issi11g hill."

i.e., " 1'\ hill th a t reaches up to and ki sses the heavens."
8. Pictorial Epithets. - So mcti1 11 es epit hets :ire used , not beca use they are necessary tu the se nse. hnt because they suggest sonv
idea that helps to render th e pi c ture more co mplete. Thus: "Unde r a spr,·,1rli11,,; chestn ut -tree ."

Cert:iin words and word -forms are peculiar to poetry.
I. ·Poetic Words. L'uctry, espec ia lly poetry of the e l,~ vatcd
sty le, m akes use of ma ny words that may be called poetic. as they
are seldom, if ever, admi ssible in prose of any kind. They arc
such as stil/1·, ;•asly, bewefl, wdki11, wend, mad, 111ildi11g, q11ut/1.
Closely allied to th ese is anothe r cla.ss, ust•d in the hi g he r kind s
of prose. and also in poetry. They are such :is isk, mo1111t, /1rni'i.rt,

vak, 111/;lt, ire, yon:.
,\gain , wurds a rc ofte n used in poetry in an unusu ;il o r imp roper
sense; as, " ( "hill pe nury rep re ssed th ei r noble rage."
2. Altered Words.'-Tu su it the measure, words ~ir e fr c1111cntly
altc:red in form . This may be done by czutt ing off a syllable at the
beginning (Ap hze resis) , or :1t th e e ncl (Apocope), or by throwin g
out a syllable from the middle (Syncope). Thus: 'p/11i11!, '1:ai11st,
'g,111 ,· 111orn, t1Jt>, (Jpe, 71a111pt"re; ne'er, fav'rilt.
3. Old Words. - Beca11se old wo rds and archa ic forms add
dig nity to the style, and because they are shorter than the mod ern,
pu e try m:ik es fr equ e nt u'e of th e m, though they would no t he
allowed in prose. They arc such as ween, w/11lom, c/1>111/J, 111:~·!11,

) 'c!tp!, erst .

4. Proper Names. - Jn this co nnec ti on, it may be mentioned
that in the nam es uf places, cou ntri es, or persons, old na mes or

·'

194

CO~tl'OS I TIC!N

AND l'IIETORIC.

VARIETY OF EXPRESSION .

a ltered forms of modnn n~rnes arc very ofte n employed
s: ike uf elevati o n or euphony; as,Though th e last glimpse of Erin \l"ilii sorro w I see,
Yet whereve r th ou art shall seem Erin to llH.:.'"
In th e same way, instead of the n:1 rne o f a perso n, place, or
thing, is fournJ in poe lry some qua lity, c.h:1r:ll:teristic, or accom·
paniment that suggests it; as, " He loves th e Green h h ."

It has a lready bee n po in ted out that bo th Strength and Clear·
ness a re promoted by the use of concrete Le rm s instead of abstract,
and of lXtrticular instead of ge neri c. fo poet ry, wh e re pleasure is
the pmpose o f the language, it is natur:tl t hat eve ry word should as
far as pos~ible be adapted to call up some im age. So we find that
j)<Je trv even more th:1 11 prose: prefe rs spt'<' ific :rnd
tu gene ri c and abst ract. Thns: "The liaw tk1r11 /;1uli. with seats ue nea th th e shade."
"Th e hollow -so1111d ing /.i!krn g11:m ls its nes t;
Amidst t hy desert walks the !11pwi11g flies."

In the di c ti on of poe try spec ial atten ti o n
th e pmpose of he ig ht e nin g th _ music of th e lines, free use is made
of1 . Alliteration ; as, "Ba re headed , breat hl ess, and /;cs p rent with mire."
2. The most musical syliables an d
lie fou nd; as, -

~inbinations

" Oh 1 n1 :1ke her a g rave wher:: the su nbea ms rest
\Vh e n they p romise a g lv ri u us 111o rruw."

that

195

3 . Imitative harmony in words and mo veme nt; as, ' ' O'e r th e river, throu gh the brake,
On we hi e wi th screech and roar 1
Spla sh ing! flashing! c rashing! dashing'
Over ridges, gu lli es, bridges !
By th e bubbling rill, and mill Highways, byways,
Hollow hillJum ping - bumping - rocking - ro a ring
Like forty thou sa nd giants sno rin g 1 "
Som e times prope r na mes :ue cha ng ed or m od ified fur the sake
of euphony ; as, "Whi ch Albyn's hills have heard."
" U nde r th e Et/1iop line ."

Figurative language, li ke m ost of the other features uf poetic
diction, is not peculiar to poe try, but is comm on also to p rv,c ;
ye t th ere is a wid e distinction in its use in the se two dep:nt111 cn ts
of composition. In th e div is io ns of prose tlut fall under the heads
of Description, Na rrati on, and Fxposition, figures uf speech :ire
sparingly used, a nd "rarely fur any p~1rpose exce 1•t tlut of iilus,
trati o n o r ex planati o n; in O ra to ry, wh ose object is to inil uence
the will by appealing to th e feelings, the passio ns, or the p rej udices
of the listene rs, fi gu rative language is m ore fre ely e mployed . Th e
ora to r seeks to ingratiate himself with hi s hearers in order tktt his
opinions and views may find acceptance with th e m. Hence, he
m akes his language pleasing that he m ay first catch the e:t r and
afte rwa rd s win th e judg ment. In poetry, whose c hief ol 1ject is
to give pleasure, and wh ose grant! aim is missed if it does not,
the ado rnm en t of th e language is of the highest im portance. Yet
fi gures of speec h a re not the on!)', nor even th e chief hl' :ll1tv oi
poeti c dic ti o n; th ere is mu c h tru e poetry in whi c h th e Llllg 11age

I ~ ·•

.,

.• i.

•

.
~

.

'

:·

.. I

I 97

'O M POS ITI ON A ND RH E T OR IC .

VARIETY OF EXP RE S SION.

is as pbi n anJ simple as that of any prose.
In
pbinness, simplicity, and neatn ess are the choicest e mbellish·
mcnts. Bu t poet ry is al lowed ~ve ry va r iety of di ction from the
km·6t to the highest, accord ing to the nature of the subj ect and
the style of treatment requi red . Although there is no subject
dealt wi th in poetry that mi gh t not be treated in prose, yet tbe
conve rse is not true, fo r the materials of poetry a re confi ned to
1uturc and huma ni ty, while C\ ' Cll here the c ho ice of subjects is
li mi ted by th e laws of xst het ic feeli ng and by a consideration . _
of wl n t will g ive pleasu re. No w, it is evide nt that if the same '
subject is treated in poetry and in prose, as the , ' ·jec t is, in each_ case, d iffe re nt, so the s tyle, d iction, and effect mu st be dissimilar.
In Narrative and llesc riptive poetry, fo r example, there is dis·
tinct purpose to be a tt:iined; in thi:: one, to rel a te a story, and in
the other to prese nt a picture to the mind 's eye. In both cases
that purpose is to Le accomplis hed in such a ma nner that the
prncess :rn,J the result, the means and the e nd , shall be pleasing
apart fro m the int rinsic interest of the story or the bea uty of th«: ·
p ictu re.
The inst ru mentality by which each of these purpose#
is to Le effected is language.
H ence, as fig urative speech is
briefe r, more p leasing, and more s trikin g than literal, it is the chosen vchi\le of poetry .
111 t r:1 11s1 •o si ng, t he diflicul ty is to determine just what figures '
an.: to be allo wed to re mai n, and wh:it o nes ar.:! to be cast out.
This cannot be tau g ht by rul e, but mus t be left to the taste aod
judgment of the pupil.
.
The Limit . - Perhaps, afte r all, it is only the hum bler nnd
more indifferent kinds of poetry that can be rende red in prose.
It is true, as already stated, th at tho nghts o r fa ncies may be ex·
pressed eithe r in the prose or in the poet ic fo rm . But how mueb
is someti mes conveyed in the fo rm alone ! What richness Of
fancy, wha t sulil im e ha rm ony, what warmth of coloring, wbal
del icacy o f feel in g , what grandeur anJ loftiness of sentiment, '
o ften en11·r.'lpped in the ve ry language in wh ich poetry clothes the
thought ! Wh o, for example, could express in prose all the efl'e ct

of Milton 's desc ri ption of Satan's fli ght to this world , o r o f the
Garde n o f Ede n, or, in fact, any o f our sublime r poetry? The
lite ral m ea nin g of the words ma y, un doub tedl y, he writte n out i11
a pi t ifu l k ind of prose - prose that at its be:,t is ~ ca rct.:ly tit tu lie
consid e red a caric.t11Te of the o rigin:tl . I t may convey the s:i inc
ideas, but these ideas, so presented, do no t p roduce on the mi11d
th e same effer.t as they do in the form of poe try . 'Vords :ire not
all of language ; the manner in whi ch th ey are combined, and th e
way in whi c h they a re made to prese nt pic tmes to the mi nd, and,
above all, the powe r they have, in a maste r's ha nd , to suggest images, tho ugh ts, and fanc ies, to fill th c msl'lvcs, as it we re, wi th life,
and beaut y, an d pass ion, - this is th e hod y a nd sonl of bnguJi;c,
and without th is the word s the mselves a re bu t as the dry bones 111
E zeki el's valley.

EXERCISE LX ..
T RANSPOS ING ANJl PAR,\l'llRA SING .

DIRECn oN . - T ranspose by removing the measure and the poetic a rrange·
men t ; th en paraphrase.
x. " For co ntem plation he, and valo r, fo rm ed ;
Fo r softness sh e, and swee t attrac tive grace. "

z. "I !is stt.:p th a n the red-dee r's was fr ee r :rnd lighter ;
H is eye th an th e eagle 's was kee ne r a nd l1righter."
3 . " He re rests his head upon th e lap o f ea rth,
I\ youth to fo rtu ne a nd to fa me un k nown ."
4. " \Vhen Ajax strives some rock 's vas t we ight to throw,
T h e line too labo rs, a nd th e wo rds move slvw. "
5. " The po wer of music all OllT h earts allow,
And wha t Timoth eus was, is D ryd e n no w."

6. " How sleep the hrave that sin k to rest,
By all th eir co untry's wishes Llest ! "
....
....

CO ~!l 'O~ ITI ON

AND RHETORIC.

199

VA R IE TY OF EXr lH ,SS t ON.

7. "On Fame's etern al camp ing-ground
Th eir si le nt ten ts a rc spread ;
i\nd Glory g uards, with sole mn round,
The bivo uac of th e dead ."

5. "Th e c rawl ing glaciers pierce me with the sp ears

8. " I saw from the hc::ich whe n the mo rn ing was shi ning,

6.

" Know ye o t me,
The Tita n? He who nnde h is :1gony
Th e b:trri e r to your else all-co nqu .: rin g foe ?
Oh, rock -e mboso rn ed lawns, a id snow-:ed streams,
Now seen a thw:trt fr o re vapo rs, 0eep bel JW,
Throug h wh ose o\.: rshado wing woods l w:indereJ o nce
\\'ith .-\ sia , drinkin g life from h e r ovcd r·yes."

7.

"Thus end eel he, a nd both
Sat sil ent : for th e maid was very lot h
T o a nsw e r ; feeling well that lm.: :ithed words
Would all be lost, unheard, and ,·ain as swo rd s
Aga in st th e e ncased crocod ile, · ;f leaps
O f grassho ppers agains t the s11n."

O f th eir 1:11Hrn-frcning nystals , the 11ri ght c: hains
E:tt witi 1 their iJUrll1ng cold in to n1 y hones."

A bark o'e r the wa te rs move glo r iously on :
cam e, whc ll th e sun o'e r that Geach was dccli ning The bark was still there, but th e wa te rs we re go ne."

9. "'Mid scenes of co nfu sion and creature co m plaints,
How sweet to the soul is co mm union wi th Sa ints;
To find at the banquet of me rcy there's room,
And feel in the presence o f Jesus at ho me ! "

EXERCISE LXI.
TRA NS POS IN\ ; ANO PARAPHRJ\SlNG.
D 1Rf:CTt 1.1N. -

1~i ct inn;

I.

2.

Transpose by rcmo\·ing the rhyme, measure, and poetic

llt e n 11;uaphr~t~e .

" Si x frozen winte rs ~pe nt,
Re turn wi th welco me home from ha ni shment."

" The coc:k is c ro wi ng : the stream is flowing;
Th e s mall b ircis twitter: the lake doth glitter;
The g reen fi elds sleep in the sun."

EXERCISE LXII.

Di R J-:CT I ~ '1 '.'J ~. - rrr anspjlSC liy r e m vv i11g
rl idion; th en paraphrase.

lilt:

r li y 1rn~ ,

ll1 tas ur e , dt1 d

3. " T.ives o f great me n all re mind us
\ Ve can make our lives subl ime;
And, depart ing, leave behi nd us
Footprints on the sands of tim e."

1.

"Tke p in the shad y sadness of a vale
Far sunken fr om th e healthy breath of morn,
Far from the fie ry noon, a nd eve's lo ne star,
Sat gray -haired Satu rn , quiet as a sto ne ."

4 . " J\ nd as a hare, who m hounds and horns pursue,
Pants to the place fr om wh e nce a t first she fl ew,
I still had hopes, my long vexati o ns past,
Herc t o re turn - and die a t home at las t."

2.

"He hell! h im with hi; skinny lianJ;
'Th e re was :1 ship,' qu oth he.
' Hold off! unh :rnd me, g ray -heard loo n ! '
Eftsoons hi s hand dropt he ."

l "Jt:tii..:

~·

'.

200

VARI ETY OF EXPRESSION.

COMPOS ITI ON J\ND Rll l, TORlC.

3·

"Oh, lo ne :ind lo rn my lot !
To me the st1nshi ne is a joy unk no wn ;
ln vain earth 's lap with rarest flowe rs a re strown I c ru sh, bu t see th em not."

EXERCISE LXIII .
PARAPHRASING.
DIRECTIONS. -

R e vi e w.

4. "Thy converse drew \IS with delight,
The m a n of rathe and ri pe r years :
The feeb le sot1l a h:it1nt of fea rs,
Fo rgot his wc:1k1!ess in thy sigh t."
5. " \Ve il Twee n,. th e charm he held
The nobl e J .:1dye had soon dispelled
Ht1t she was deeply busied th e 11
To tend the ,,·01mded Uc lo rai ne."

6.

" \\'h o shall tempt with wandering fe e t
The dark, un bot tomed , infin ite abys-,
And throu gh the palpable obscure find out
His un couth way, o r sprear!' his ae ry flight,
Upbo rn e with i11clefatigahle wings,
Over the vast alJ rupt, ere he arrive
The happ y isle? "

7. "Fo r thu s it c ha11ced one morn wh e n all th e co urt,
Crcc n -s uit ed, hut \\'ith pl11 mcs th:it mocked the May,
I fad bee n, th e ir ,,·ont, a-maying and re turn'd,
Th:lt Modred still in g reen, :ill ca r and eye,
Climbed to the top uf the ga rd en wa ll
To spy soine sec ret scand:1 l if he mi g ht,
And saw th e Qt1cen, wh o s:1t h et \\'ixt he r hes t
.Enid, anci lissome Yi,·icn, of her Cot1rt
The wiliest and the worst."

201

\Vrite out in prusc the mea nin g of th e following poem .

See th at all you r wo rds arc p rupc rl y used , all yv ur St:lllc.:n c.:c::, cvr-

rec tly formed, and all yo ur paragraphs regularly co nstructed .

TIIE SOLDIE I\ OF TIIE R III NE.

A soldier of the I .egion lay dying in Algi e rs,
Th e re was lack of woman's nursing , there was dearth of \\'urnan's
tea rs ;
But a co mrade stood beside him, whil e h is life -bluoci ebbed away,
An d bent, with pitying glances, to hear what he migh t say.
The dyin g soldier falt ered, as he took that co mrad e's hand .
And he said: "I neve r more shall see m y O\\'n, my na tin· l:tnd;
Take a message and a tok e n to so me distant friends uf mine ,
For I was born a t Bingen, - a t Binge n o n the Rhin e.
"Te ll m y brothers a ml companions, whe n th ey meet aml c row d
around,
To hear my mo urnful story in the pleasant vineyard g round,
That we fuu g ht th e battle brave ly, a nd when the day was don e,
Fu ll many a co rpse lay ghastly pale beneath the setting s11n :
Anrl 'm id til e d ead and dying, were so me grown old in war,, The d eath- wo und on th e ir gallant b reasts, th e last o f m:rny scars,
Hut soi ne we re young, and st1ddenly be held life's rnurn de c line, And o ne had co me from Binge n, - fair Hinge n on th e Rhine.
"Tell my mother that her other sons sha ll co mfurt her old :ige,
For I w:1s aye a truant bird, that th o11 g ht his home a cage .
Fo r my father \\'as a sold ie r, and, e1Tn when a chi ld ,
My heart leaped forth to he::tr him tell o f ,truggles fi e rc e and wild ;
And when he di ed, and le ft us to div ide his scanty hoard ,
I let them take whate'er th ey would, bt1t kt'pt my father's sword ;

,,·

. ' ~

"

COM P OS ITION ANll I<ll"TORIC.

,\ml with b oy ish love I hung it where the bright li g ht used to
sh in e,
O n th e c ottage wa ll at Binge n, -

cal m Bin ge n o n the Rhine .

"Tt: ll my sister not to wee p fo r me, and sob with droop ing
h ead,
Wh e n the troops co m e marching h o me again, with gl::td and
galla nt tr ead,
1!1 1t to lovk upo n them pro11d ly, with a c airn and s tca<lfast eye,
F o r h e r brother was a soldier too, and n ot afrai<l to die;
An d if a co mrad e seek he r lo ve , f ask he r in m y name
To listen tv him kindly, with out regret o r s ham e,
J\ nd to han g the old s wo rd in its place (my fath e r's sword and
min e ),
P"o r the honor o f old Bin ge n, -

VARIETY OF EXPRESSlUN.

203

His trem b lin g vo ice g rew faint and hoarse; hi s g rasp was ch ildish
wea k,
His eyes put o n a dying look, - he sighed a nd ceased to s p eak.
His co mrad e L>ent to lift him, but th e spa rk o f life had fl ed The soldi er of the Legion in a fo reign land was dead 1
And t he soft moon rose up slowly, :rnd cal ml y s he looked dow n
On t he red sa nd o f t he battle-field, wi th bloody co rpses s trewn ;
Yes, calmly on that dreadful sce ne, he r pale lig ht seemed to sh in e,
As it shone on distant Bingen, - fair Binge n on th e Rhine.
-

"

1-l oN . M Rs. NoRToN.

EXERCISE LXIV.
PARAPHRASlNG .

cl ea r Binge n o n the Rhine .

"Th e re's anothe r, - not a siste r, - in the ha ppy days gon e by;
Yo 11'd h a ve kn o wn her by th e m e rrim e nt that sparkled in her eye;
T oo inn oce nt fur coq uet ry, - too fo nd fo r id le sc o rning, - <.> friend ! T fea r th e li ghte st heart nukes so m e t im es heavi es t
mournin g !
T e ll he r th e last night o f my li fe - (for ere the m oo n be rise n,
i\fy l>ud y wi ll b e 0 11 t of pain, my so11l he out of priso n) I dre:nnccl 1 stood with he r, :rnd saw th e yell ow su nlig ht shine
On the vine- c lad hills o f .Binge n , - fa ir Bingen on the Rhine.

" I saw the blu e .R h ine swee p alo ng; I hc:trcl, or seemed to hear,
T h e C e rm an songs we used to sin g , in cho rns sweet and clear ;
.'\ nr\ down th e pleasant r iv e r, and 11p th e slanti ng hill,
The ech o in g c horus sonnrl erl, through th e evenin g calm and still;
And lwr gbd blue ey es we re on me , as ll' C passed, with fri e ndly
talk,
l low·~ ~.-,an y a p a th beloved or yore, :111 cl well -remembe red walk;
And h<-r lit tl e hand la y li ght h-, confi clin glr in min e,But we' ll mee t n o m o re at Bi nge n, - lo1·ed Binge n o n the Rhine."

Drnv.crroN. - Foll ow t he D irec ti on of th e preceding Exe rcise.
TH ANATOPS!S.

To him wh o in the love of Natu re hol ds
Commun io n with h e r vi sibl e forms, she speaks
A various lan g u:1ge; for his gaye r homs
She has a vo ice o f glad ness, an d a smile
And clo(p1ence of beaut y; a nd she glides
Into h is da rk e r musings with a mild
!\nrl healin g sympathy tha t steals away
Their sharpn ess, e re he is awa re . \ Vhe n thoughts
Of th e last h itt e i: ho ur c:ome like a blight
Ove r thy spirit, and sad images
Of the st ern agony, and shroud, and pall ,
And brea thl ess darkne ss, and th e na rrow house,
Mak e thee t o s hudd e r, a nd grow sic k at h ear t ; G o fo rth unde r the open sk y, :md list
To N a tme 's teac:hings, wh ile from all a ro und Earth and h e r ll'~ter s, and th e d ep ths o f a ir -Comes a s till voice. - Yet a few day s , and thee
The all-behold ing s11n shall see no more

· .. \:i-·

".

204

COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.

Jn all his course; nor yet in th e col<l ground,
Whe re thy pale fo rm is laiu with many tear:;,
Nor in the embrace of ocean, shall exist
Thy im;i ge . Earth, that nourished th ee, shall claim
Thy growth, to be n.:solve<l to earth again,
/\nu, lost each human trace, su rren de ring up
Thine individual being, shalt th ou go
To mix for ever with the ekmcnts, To he a brother to the inse nsible rock,
And to the sluggish clod, whi ch th e rude swain
Turns with his share, and treads upon. The oak
Shall send his roots abro::i.d, a nd pierce thy mould .
Yet not to thine eternal resting-place
·Shalt thou retire alone: - nor couldst thou wish
C ouch mo re magn ificent. Thou slnlt lie down
\ \'i th patria rchs of the infant world - with kings,
Th e powerfu l of the earth - the 11·ise, the goo <l,
}'air forms, and hoary seers, of age' past,
All in one mighty sepu lc hre . -The hills
Ro ck- ribbed, '.tnd ::i.ncient as the sun; the \'ales
Stretching in pe n, ivc quie tness betwee n;
The venera hlc woods ; rivers that move
Tn maj esty, and the rnmpbining brooks
That make th e meadows green ; :ind, poured round all,
O ld ocea n's gray and melancholy waste,Are but the sol emn dec orati ons all
Of th e grea t tomb of man. The golde n sun,
The planets, all the infinite host of heave n,
Are sh ining on the sad aborlcs of d eath,
Through the still bpse of ages. All th at tread
The globe are but a lundful to the tribes
That --lumber in its boso m. -Take the wings
Of morning, and the lhrcan d ·snt pierce,
Or lose thyself in the c·ontinu ous "·oo.Js
Where rolls th e Oregon, and hears no sou nd

VARIETY OF EXPRESSION .

205

Save his own dash ings - yet the dead are there;
And millions in those solitudes, since first
The fl ight of years began, have laid th em Juwn
In their la:;t !:ileep - the dea<l there reign a lone.
So shalt thou res t ; and what if t hou withdraw
Unheeded by the living, :ind no friend
Take note of thy departure? All that breathe
Will share thy destiny. The gay will l::tugh
When thou art gone, the solemn brood of care
Plod on, and each one, as before, will chase
His favorite phantom ; yet all these shall le:ive ·
Tht:ir mirth and th t:i r t:rnpluyrnents, and shall come
And make their bed with thee. As the long train
Of ages gl i<les away, the sons of men,
The youth in life's g reen spring, and he wh o goes
In the full strength of years, matron a nd maid,
The liowecl with age, the infant in the smiles
And beauty o f its innocent age, r.u t off,
Shall one by one he ga th e red to thy sicie,
By those who in th eir turn shall follow the m.
So live th at wh en thy summons co mes to jo:n
The inn umerable carava n that moves
T o th at myste rious realm, wh ere each shall take
His c hamber in th e silent halls of death,
Thou go not, like the quarry-slave, at ni ght,
Scourged to his dungeo n, but, sustained and soothed
By an unfalt ering trust, approac h thy grave,
Like one th:it draws the drape ry o f his couch
About him, and lies clown to pleasant dreams.
-WILLIAM Cu L Ll!S BR\'ANT.

r-·

206

COM P OS ITJO N AND RHETORIC.

L ES SON XXXVI.
FIGURES OF SP EECH.

In preced ing Lesso ns we ha ve st11d icd so me of th e different
fo rm s in whi c h thoug ht ma y be expressed. \V e now come to consider othe r fo rms whic h a re of such im po rt ance th at they deserve
to lie exam in ed lJy th e111se h·es. Thest: a re usually called Figures
of Spt:ec h. T he y consist o f intentional d eviations fro m the ordinary app lica ti o n of wo rds or fro m the us11al forms of expression.
The pu r pose o f these d ev iatio ns is to in crease th e effect of lang uage - to p rese nt th ough t in a more attrac tive or more forcible
m:mn e r.
Exa mp/t's . - "H e is a lion ." l le re th e wo rd "li on" is turn ed
fro m its usual sig nification to de note " a ma n of stre ngth and
courage," a nd it expresses the idea in a mo re pleasing and
striki ng way t han do th e pb in wo rds.
" The si lve r moo n" is mu ch mo re beauti fu l than "Th e moon
which has a pale bright color."
Com pare further: "All is not gold that glit te rs."
" O ur heads arc in th e lion 's
mouth."
" T he a rrows fell li ke fh kcs
o f snow o n C hri stm as Day."

"A ppearances are often de cep ti ve. "
"We a re co mple tely in the
power of our e ne my, and he
m:ty des tro y us at any moment."
"The ar ro ws fell in countless
num bers."

Value and Use of F igures. - Fig nrcs of Speech pe rform a
ve ry im porta nt pa rt in la nguage . T hey are at o nce its ornament
and its stre ngth. .'\ mo ng the ir chie f uses a rc th ese : r. They give va ri ety l>y afforJ ing a n e ntirely different way of
e xpressing a th ought.

FIGURE S Ol' SPEECll.

207

2. They enable us to prese nt ideas so th at .lwy nuy Lie inure
easil y g rasped. This is espec ially tru e oi alJ, trac t ideas, :1 s they are
mad e easie r of compre he nsion l>y be ing assoc iated with conc rete
obj ec ts.
3. Til ey ad d to th e fo rce o f lang uage .
4 . Th ey enal>le us to ·e xp ress our tho ughts in a more a ttracti\'C'.
form.
5. They give elevat io n , d ign ity, and g race lo bnguage .
6. T hey inc rease the ca pab iliti es o f language by gi\·i ng the same
wo rd th e powe r uf prese nti ng di ffc: re nt idea s. 1-'v r L'x:1111ple, in
th e se nt e nce , "H e is a fo x, " th e wo rd "f.. x," whi1·h 11suaily
d e no tes a n a nimal, is here e m]Jluye d to d es ig nate the" 11•1:ili :y "f
c ra ftin ess. "
7. I n ge ne ral t e rm s, it m:1 y he s;1id that Fig ur es oi Spee1·h
inte nsi fy all th e qu aliti es o f styk.
Kinds of Figures. - T he F igures o f Speec h mos t com mo nly
used mav be cbssified th us : 1. Tl;ose b:1scd o n th e id ea o f rese mbla nce , th<.: ~iniilc. \kta ph o r, All ego ry, l'e rso nili cat io n.
2. Those based on cont igu ity o r th e la w of :b'< H·i.1tiun, -Syn ecdoc he, l\'f e tonymy, H ype rbole, 1\ postroph e, Vi sio n.
3. Th ose based on th e id ea of co nt ras t, -An tith esis, E pig ra m,
Euphemis m, Irony, Inte rroga tion, Climax .

TH E SIMILE.

A Simile is a fi gure whi c h ex presses th e liken ess o ne object
bears to a nother. The objects co mpared must di ffer i:1 kind :
tu a nother dues not
likening one man to a no t l1er or o ne l)ouoe
~
constitu te th e rh e tori cal fi gure.
The likeness is ge ne rally e xpressed by so me wo rd suc h as, likt' ,
as, comp a red to.
So me ti mes the sig n of com pa riso n is o mi tted, as, " W he n the
rising sun fell on Me mn o n' s statu e, it awa ke ned musi c in th at
breas t of sto ne . R eli gio n d ues th e sam e with hum an 1i;1 ture ."

.

~:

209

COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.

FIGURES OF SPEECH.

Rules. - In the use of similes, the following rules should be
observed : I. Similes should not be drawn from things whi ch have too
ne:n a resemblance to the object compared.
2. Si mil es shoukl not be drawn from objects in which the likeness is too faint or remote .
3· Similes should not be drawn from objects unfamiliar to
ordi nary readers.
.

;ittempting to describe to us the abode of the blest, speak of it :is
a "city." We know wh:it a city is and our knowl edge is at once
transferred to exp bin tl~e unknown. 2. It is also employed to
deepen the impression on our feelings by adding a force :ind
energy that could not be secured by plain language; as, "The
news w:is a dagge r to his heart." 3. Again, it may give an agreeable surprise and enable us to clothe abstract ideas with life, form,
color, and motion.
Rules for the use of Metaphors. - The ru les given fur
similes hold also for metaphors. The following additional ones
are also to be observed : ·
I. A metaphorical and a lit eral statement should not be used
in close connection ; as, "In peace thou art the gale of spring;
in war, a vali:int soldier."
z. Metaphors from different subjects should not Lie combined
in the s:ime expression; as, "His parents wished to pave his way
over the storm y sea of tempt~ tion." Such a coml.Jination is
usually called a Mixed Metaphor.
3. Metaphors should no t be carried too far; if too m:iny of
the minor points of rese 1)1blance are dwelt upon, the reade r feels
the pleasme begin to cloy.
4. Met:iphors should not be multiplied to excess .
S. J\1 ctaphors should be natmal and becoming and wort hy of
the subject. Thus th e inappropriateness of the following must
strike every one . "That wonderful old furnace (a volcano)
where the h:ind o f God works the bellows."
Metaphors Expanded. - Every simile may be compressed
into a metaphor, and every meta phor may be expanded into a
simile. The metaphor is a briefer, stronger, and more lively
fi gu re than th e simile. Hence, as poetry loves to dwell on the
pleasing, the simile is better adapted to it, while th e vigoro us and
animated comparison of the met,aphor is more suited to prose.
Examples. - METAPHOR : "The ship ploughs th e sea."
S1~111.r:: "/\s the plough turns up the land so the ship acts on
the sea."

208

4. Jn se ri ous discourse, similes should not Lie drawn from low
or mean olijects.
S· In describing what is low o r trivial, similes shou ld not be
drawn from great or sublime objects.
Rhetorical Value. -The simi le :iids the und erstanding in
illustr:i.ting the thought by a comparison to some thing already
known; it impresses th e feelings by the surprise of finding a likeness where none was expec ted; and it pleases by the beauty of
the comparison .
TH E METAPHOR.

The Metaphor is a figure of speech in which likeness between
two objects is im plied.
Of the two objects or thoughts, one is well known and the
other is unknown; and the fo rm er is applied to expla in the latter·
thus," The French Revolution w:is the whirlwind of the universe.';
Here tlH: well-known power and effects of the "whirlwind" are
used to g ive a vivid id ea of the terribly destructive effects of the
Fre nch R evolution.
Difference between Metaphor and Simile. -The metaphor
and the simile both contain a comparison, but in the latter the
rese mblance between the things compared is formally expressed
while in the former it is only implied. If we say" He uphold~
the st:i.te as the pilbr upholds the ed ilice," we make a comparison
by a simi le; but if we say "He is the pillar of the state," we make
a comparison by a metaphor.
Rhetorical Value. - I. The metapho r is often of great value
in explaining what is unknown . For example, the Scriptures in

,,

. 1: ·~

2[0

"]-fa rrowing care."
Ca re tha t affects the mind :i.s th e har ru w dues th e soil."
or referen ce to some well -know n fa ct, fab le, c ustom,
is ofte n embod ied in a m etaphor or a simile; as,
is an A11ge1111 st,1/Jlt of cor rupti on."

METAPHOR:

"
Allusion,
or incident,
"That bod y
S 1\JlLE:

FIGURES OF SP EECll.

COMPOSITION A;.;u RllETOJ{ JC.

1\ u.n :u1ff .

The Allegory consist s of a se ri es uf metap hors so connected
as to form a story, eac h step of whic h is sy mbolic of something
else. A well -kn own ex :11n plc is the "Pilg rim's Progress." In it
the difficulties of the Christ ian life :ue sy mboli zed :rnJ simplifi ed
by being dep icted under the fi gure of th e d iffic ulti es of a journey
from th e City of Des truct ion to the l'\ew Jerusalem .
T he P:1rable a nd Fable are fo rms of 1\ llego ry.
A Parable is a short allego ry in which so me r t lig ious or moral
tru th is taught o r ill11 str:ited . The incident o r event may be real
or supposed and is usually d rawn from nature or human life. For
exa m ples, see" T he Sower," o r the " T en Tal ents."
A Fable , or Apo logue, is a ki nd of allego ry in whi ch th e story
or incid ent tha t points or illu strates a moral, is supposed to be
spoken by some animal or in:inim:ite objec t.
Rhetorical Value. -As thes e figu res cont ain an incident or
story eac h possesses, in addition to the usu:il adv antages of a
metaphor, th e clearness of the conc rete and the interest of a plot.

3. Th e highest form co nsists in ascribing to the ubjects human
feelings and p mposes, an d wi th distinc ti on o f ge nder; as, " Earth
felt the wou nd." This form of personi fication is som et imes cum·
bined with apostrophe; as, " l'ut on thy Liea utiful ga rn1cnts , U
Jerusale m, the holy city ."
All Metaphors. - All form s of perso nification are metapho rs,
bu t th ey :i re call ed personifications ueca nse obj ects are raised to
or towards pe rsons.
Rhetorical Value. -The rh etori cal value of th e figure arises
from the fa c t that inanimate things arc invested with a greater
interest as they rise in dignity and become endowed with person:d
qualities th a t lead us to have a fellow-feeling wi(h them.

0

PERSONl FICATIUN .

Personification consists in attributing life and mind to inanimate things.
I. T he lowest form of personifi catio n is produced with adjectives, and consists in asc ribi ng the qu aliti es of li ving beings to
inan imate objects; as, " th e rag ing storm " ; "th e angry sea";
"th e hungry shore" ; "th e smiling land ."
2 . The next higher form of personi fica ti on is produced with
verbs, and consists in making in:rnimat c nhj ects perfor m the actions
of living beings; as, "The nrv wall s will c ry out :1gainst it."

•

:..! l I

i•

EXERCISE XLV.
S1~JILES .
DIRECTI0:-1. i.

2.

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
1 o.
1 1.

1 2.

13 .
14.
1 S.
16.
r 7.

Find rese mblances to cvm plet e the comparisons.

H e is as silent as . . .
His heart is as weak as
l I er life \v as as dull as . . .
H er tears Aowed like .. .
H e spoke with a voice like .
The tongue is like . ..
The ri ghteous shall flomish as
The horizon blazed like .. .
Th e huntsmen swept by like .
H is hounds were as fierce as
Their jaws were foaming like . ..
Her eyes we re as blu e as . . .
The muscle of hi s a rm was as strong as
The wou nded heart like . .. soon closes.
The people flew be fore the savage foe like
L ife p;isses by like .. .
Pleasures are like .. .

-~ .

212

COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.

FIGUl<ES OF SPEECH .

EXERCISE LXVI.

EXERCISE LXVII.

Sl~llLES.

METAPHORS.

DIREC:rION. -Substitute plain lan guage fur the iigurative and describe the
effec t.
1.

2.

3.
4.
5.
G.

Their eyes were like em be rs.
I will m ake thy seeLl as the dust of the earth.
Unstable as water, th on shalt not excel.
He fe ll as falls th e thund er-rive n oak.
Th ey shall be like a tre e planteJ liy ri1·e rs of water.
Li ke a bin! frightcncJ from its prey, :;he di:sappcared from

view.

7. Thy smile is as the dawn of vernal day.
8. Lakes :rnd riv ers are as refresh 111g to the imagination as to
the soil through which th ey pass.
9. Like the te mples of the gods, virtue b venerable even in
her ruins.
l o . The yello w perch looked like sunbeams in the water.
1 r. The foe retreated like a wolf untimely scared.
1 2. Th ese wonderful representations come and go like visions
in a dream .
r 3. The gushes of melody warble along the ro of like the pure
airs of heaven.
14 . His history is :t; a talc th:tt is told.
15. The hr:tnd s hot up lik e a streamer of th e northern sky.
1 6. The agony of their lam entati o n Wh like a wind tha t thrills
:.ill ni ght in a waste land.
1 7. 1.et thy voice rise like a fount:un fo r me night and clay.
13. The barge moveJ off like some full- breasted swan.
19. Jntdlect is to a wo man's nature what her watch-spring
skirt is to her dress.
20. \Vhatever comes fr om the brain carries the hue of the place
it came fr om, and whatever comes fr om the heart carries the heat
and color of ib birthplace.

213

D1KEc r1vN. -Name the two uhjects compared, state tlw p<>int of rcs•"m blance and t he rbd1)r1cal value of th e fi gu re; th e n ~x prcss the th ought in
p lain la nguage and estimate the loss.
1.

......

· ,··'· '~ -

ITe is a worthy pillar of the state.

z. He kn e w th at th e re were dark spats in l1is fam e.

The class are making rapid steps in knowled ge.
This qnarrel must he patched with cloth of any color.
The valiant taste death hut once.
What his b reast forges, that his to ng11c must vent.
Ferocity is the na tural weapon of th e conrnion people.
He was a cruel and iron-hearted ma n.
Caul may champ th e bit aml foa rn in fetters .
10. l'vly ch ild is a withered branch th a t will neve r bear the
print of g race.
1 1. The door tc success is always labelled "Push."
12. Procrastination is th
thief of tim e.
13. Death is a debt whi c h all are uonncl to pay.
14. He int encl ed to clothe himself with this po wer.
15. That deep and flowing sympathy comes from th e fc)llntains
of personal suffering.
16. He has sometimes smothe red the c hild-lik e simp lic ity of
Chaucer und e r the feather-beds of ve rbi age .
1 7. Ignorance is the curse of Goel, knowledge the wing wherewith we fl y to heaven.
13. But let th e c urtains of the future h:mg .
19. Some books a rc to be tasted, others to be sw:1 llowed. and
some fe w to be c hewed and di ges ted .
20. We stood togethe r beside the narrow house nude for :ill
living.
21. He dared to stem the title of tyranny.
22. He appeared to be but the step-son of fortun e .
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

t:. ••

CO MPo;; r T JON

FI GU IU•:s OF SPEE C H .

AN() J{llET<>RIC.

23 . The kirk was shorn of it 5 beams .

EXERCISE LXIX.

2-J . Th e most effi c ie nt weapo n with whi r h m e n c rn encounte r
fal se hood is t rnth.

25 . The Fre nc h shook th e tree of .'\n g lo -Sa xon in fle c ti ons so
rud e ly as to b r ing down all its fru it.

2 15

ivT1x ED
D1RECTI'' " · -

N[ETAPHOR C' .

In th e>c 111i '<:. l m etap hMs c han ge o n e o f the figures so as

to ma ke it 1..:c 1rres pvnd tu th e oth er.

r . To tak e a r ms against a sea o f troubles.
EXERCISE LXVIII.

2.

Be tho u a r"ck to them t hat a re afar upon the sea.

3 . Th e sharp scy the of conOict hovers o ve r the laml.
4 . ":\ly fri e nd," s:1i<l the professo r, " you are sa iling into danI 11RE1Tit 1N. - · E:-.pand th e meta11hnrs into si miles.
i.

l i e is a wolf.

-·

I bridle in m y struggl ing m11'e.

.3· J fe r disdain stung h im to th e hea rt.
4.

Th ey hav e passed happily t hrough th e sto rm s of life.

5. Th at schou l- roo 111 is a hi,·e of in d us try.
6.
i·
S.
9.

Th ey reaped a golden harves t.
'Tis the su nse t of life gives me mystical love.
The tabl e was garlanded with gues ts .
There was a lion in the path .
1 0 . Th e h ero\ ability was overs h :1 d uwed hy tli;1t of the h e roine.
1 1. Th e thought strnc k m y mind .

ge ro 11s gro und."
5. H e shall be m easured in th e govern m en t scales.

6. ( )t1r futur e is a se:il e d seed - plut.
i· T'i!L tr uf lire, th ;1 l didst gu l>c fv re m e to gu id e and q 11ickcn me .
8. Th e c h ariut of day p ee rs m·er th e mountain top.
9. J Te stooped t o such lengths o f m ea ni1 ess.
10 .

Th e re is a t ime wh en fa ctio ns, by the ve h eme nce of their

o wn fe rm e ntati o n, stun and di sable o ne a n o th e r.
11 . ..\
12.

•J

'

torre nt o f s11 pe rs titi o n co nsum e d the land.

1 .3·

Th ey labored hard to unravel thos e o bsc uriti es.
Th e ir knowledge was hasc< 1 o n th ese so11rces of infornnt iu n .
15 . The colo ni es are not yet ripe t o b id adieu to matc rn:1l
14.

co nn ec ti (l n .
16. C hrist is the an c hor of o ur Ii,ipe, which reac hes l1q«md

15. So t h e poor c hil d, in her so 11l 's hun ge r, beg an to nibble
at the thick- rin ded fruit o f the tree of knowled g e .

th e vale of d ea th.
1 7. 1\n immo rtal flame s we lls th e breas t of that man wh o adores

.16. The m oo n threw her sih·e r m:rnlle over the darkness.
1 7. \ Ve loose our dogs o f w:1r against our o wn countrymen.
18. The poet sh o uld live in th e country where he ca n hear the
he:irt of nature b eat.
r 9 . Th e army of I fyd c r swl'p t neryth ing h efu re it .
20. The clouds have dropped th e ir garnt.:re d fu ln ess d own.

and is adore d.
r S. There is not a view o f human na ture that 1s not sufficient

1 .3 ·

f_ ~

11 is s peec h c onveyed a d ee p imp ress io n to the mind.

The sta ndard s reel to and fro on the t oss in g sea of hayonets.
Heat1ty is t1nr ipe chi ldl wud 's 1·hcat.
14. Life's c t1p spa rkles nea r the hrim .

1 2.

i'•
1:.

to ex ti ng11ish th e seeds of pride .
19. \ \"h en the mu stang is ca11ght in a lasso, :ill his strngglc s
se n- e only tu riv e t his chains.
20. I bridle in m y st r11 gg lin g 1n 11st'. 111 va in that longs to l:iund 1
into a h o ld e r s t.rain.
21. I s m e ll a rat; I see it bre wing in th e distan ce ; and I shall

nip it in th e bud.

·,

FIGURES OF SPEECH .

COMPOSITION AN D RHETOR IC.

2 I6

EXERCISE 1xx:
l\lETM ' HORS.
.Urn EcTioN. -

E,pb in lh c allusi ons in the figures, a nd rewrite the sentences

in plain language .
1. These politi cians are after the loaves and fi shes.
-· He falls like Lucife r, neve r to hope again.
3. The sworJ of Damocles hangs 01· er hi s head .
4. He has not troubled the wat ers of phoneti c spelling of late.
5. He listened to the song of th e Sirens, ye t gli ded by the
fatal shore.
6. When a man is popular, p eople climb up into sycamore
trees to see him.
7. Before th is paper reaches its reade rs, Gladstone may have
c rossed the B.ubicon.
S. They a rc sim ply thro\\"ing a t11h to the wha le.
9. He followed the profess io n o f hw, but at a grea t distance.
1 o . Tre happy p ~uen t s ente rta in ed an angel unawares.
11. He went into th e hi ghways an d hedges of thought, and
compelled fig m es to come in.
i 2. Nature rl oes not require th ose who en te r her University to
subscribe to a ny T es t /\ c t.

9. Our body is so form ed that it is easily put o ut o f o rde r.
H e r brow was wrinkled.
11. Suspi c ion is a source of g reat un happ iness .
12. Th e sangu ine ma n sometimes finds that he is sadly dis appointed (dreams).
13. Guilt and misery a re inse parably jo ined (wt:d).
14 . Th e career o f ma ny a conqu e ro r has been m:irkt:d l;v
cruelty (pa th . . . stainecl . . . blood).
15. Th ey nobly gave up eve rything for th e sak e of th eir
country (altar) .
i 6. They have begu n a new business (em hark ) .
I 7. Afte r a few day's illness, he un e xpec ted ly died.
r 8. I slull not attempt to estimate the opposit ion th at is
( force . . . arrayed) against th e ministry.
r 9. Providence has wise ly orda ined th at we slull not kn o w the
future ( sealed).
20 . Cal umnious repo rts a re ofte n ci rc ulated about those whose
lives are pure (aim . . . a rrows).
10 .

EXERCISE LXXIL

·~

..

·'

·''

':.'.;

S I MILES AND METAPHORS.

Tn quirc int o the app ropriate n ess o f the simile~ a nd metaph ors . C ivc reaso ns fo r yo ur co nclusio ns, and substitute suitable figu res for
any yo u rejec t.
D rRECTI ON . -

EXERCISE LXXI.
METAl ' l IOHS .

T he storms of seventy winters have passed over his head .
/\ \Ves tern preac her, in paraphrasing the words, "The Lord
hath made bare his mi ghty arm," said, "The Lord rolJ ,~ cl up his
sleeves, and buckled into th e work."
3. The vessel tlut was launched to-day shot broadside into
th e water li ke a n arrow from a well-strun g b ow.
4. T he dew shall wee p thy fall to-ni ght, O F lower !
5. Some lay bre th ren think that the old rule o f paying yuur
money and taking your c hoice should hold in the matter of c lergymen as well as neckties .
1.

Drnt,CTION.

1.
2.

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

-

Express th e th oughts in metap hori cal la ng uage.

He is ve ry poor.
He is exceed ingly fo ol ish .
The school-room is a \;usy pbce.
He was a br:we man.
He tried to help hi s fr iends .
'"fhey have started a new proj ect.
He has failed in busi ness.
He is now enj oy ing th e result of his toil.

2.

,; .
·,. , r.;

218

C O M l'(JS IT I O N

A ND

H H E T O RI C.

6 . !-!er brow was ploughed by age a nJ sorrow.
i · l fa \·ing tasted th e foo d o f confiscat io n, th e fav o rites beca me
ravc no11s.
I>. .l\.l e th od is th e mothe r o f me mo ry.
9 . Had st t ho u rn lcd thy u nr easonabl e pa ssio n, th y fat he r woul d
not have been krt a solitary 0:1k th at th ro"·s i1s 'h a tle red and
11n protec ted b ran c he s agains t the full swee p of th e te m pes t.
1o . Th e thu nde r reve rbe rate d th rou gh the rul' ks like so me
g rea t o rgan pi pe .
1 1. ll is se r\ll u n w as :J. c razy q 11ilt of rhl'lu ril'.
1~ . Jn that s l'cech thnc we re fr ;1g m ent s wh e re th e nrn sndar
;1rrn sh<> wc'.! thro ugh the slce,·c.
13. Pulitic-; is us ually !nuked upo n as a caren whi ch m ea ns
m ud 11p to the kn ees an d filth u p to the elbo ws.

EXERCISE LXXIII.
J'ERC'O:"I FICAT I<l :-1 .
nrnEC:TI ON . -

<;ta lc what y o u t hi11J.. is gain " d i11 ea c h case h y the pe rso n i·

fica t io n.
i . T he mo unta ins sing toge thn, th e hi ll s rejo i<' e a nd c la p the ir
han ds.
2 . E \'e ry flo wer enjo:s the a ir it hrea thes.
3 . And F reedo m ~ bri cked wh en K osci usko fe ll.
4 . T he m o unta ins sa w T het:, () Lo rd , and tre m bled .
5. \V hat a il ed th ee, 0 sea , th at tho u ned est? a nd th ou, 0 Jordan, that thou wa st d ri ven ha r k?
6. The d epth sa ith, It is no t in m e : a nd th e se a sai th, It is
no t in m e .
7. Th e earth was laugh ing a ft e r the shower passed by.
8 . F ell thirst a nd fam ine sco \\' I.
9. Th e hun gry sea ,,·as roa rin g.
1 o. M o rning looked o n the d rea d ful sce ne .
1 1 . Pa in a nd pleasure \\' e re a t h is e lbow, te lling wh a t to do and
what to avo id .

F I G U R ES

1

or

2 19

SPEEC ll.

2. Na ture is sti ll contin u ing he r p:n ie nt edu catio n of us all 111

he r g rea t Univ e rsi ty .
13. T o ngu e was th e lawye r a nd arg ue d th e c:1se .
1 . [ . Blas vh e my's lo ud sc rea m strove with that s\\' ec t 111 11s ic o f
d eli ve ra nce .
l S; I fcr ei n fu rtun t: shows h t:rse lf mo re ki n.I th :111 is her c ustom
16. The ship ne w ov e r the a ng ry waves.
1 7. Th e co nscio us wa te r saw its 1.o rd :me! blushed .
18 . The aspe n hea rd them , a nd she t re mb led.
1') · \\' rite a se nte nce co nta in ing eac h o f th e fol lowin g ohje<' h
p e rso nifi ed.
J\ ship.
T he su n.
Spring .

Yo uth.
;\[ o rning .
.-\ ho rse .

Sleep.
E::i rt h.
:\ tree .

20. I ktai l po int hy po int the feat ures 1n th e life 0 1 m an that
a re d e pi c te d in th e Vi sio n o f l\[irza.
2 r . State wh at a dva n t;iges suc h a m e thod of pi c turi ng life has
ove r plai n description .
2 2. Na m e o the r 1\ lleg ori es that yo u ha ve read, a nd m:i ke nott>s
o n th e ir rh e to ri cal value.
z3 . Quote a l):Hahle fro m th e N ew '1'e, t;1me 11 t, :lll d s l;i lt: why
the Parable is an effective 11·ay u r teach ing mo ra l truth s.
2 4 . R ela te a ny F:.iblc yo u have read , and te ll " ·hy i1btriw tio11
m a y be forc ib ly g iven b y mea ns o f a F a ble.
25 . T>i stinguis h as clearly as yo u ca n b et wee n All ego ry a nd
P a rable, All ego ry a nd fa bl e, Parable a nd Fable .

...

Ii•.

i

'f

'.!20

COMPO S IT ION AND RHETORIC.

FIGURES OF SPEECH .

221

SYNECDOCHE .

LESSON XXXVII.
F IGURES OF SPEEC II. -

~!ETO N \'MY.

Metonymy is a fi gure of speech in which an object is presented
to the mind, n ot by naming it, bllt by naming something else that
read ily sllggests it.
Kinds of Metonymy. - Owing t o the va ri ed relations by which
things may be conn cc tecJ, th ere are many kin ds of this fi gure.
The most common relati ons that give ri se to metony my are : 1 . Cause and effect; as, " He writes a beautiful hand" (hand~
wri ting ).
2 . Effec t :rncl cause ; as," There j s death (something that causes
death ) in the pot. "
.3 · Container and th e th ing contained; as, "The kettle (the
water) boils."
4. Sign and thing signifi ed ; as, "Th e bllllet ( war ) is giving
place to the ballot" (the organ iza ti ons of peace ).
5 . Inst rum ent and ::i gc nt; as, " He scatte red pa rli aments with
th e breath o f his mouth" (powe rful influence).
6. l\Lltcrial and thing made out of it; as, "Th e marble (monument ) speaks."
7. An author and his wo rk ; as, "They have Moses and the
proph ets " (the ir wri tings ).
S. Abstract and concre te ; as, "Youth and beauty (the young
and th e b e:u1tiful) shall be laid in th e du st."
9. Proge nitor and poste rity ; as, " Hea r, 0 I srael" (descendan ts of Israel).
10. Name of an object and the object th at inspires it; as,
"That is my d eli ght" ( the c:rnsc of my d elight).
Rhetorical Value. - i\fcto nymy prese nts an obje(;t, not by
naming it, but hy suggest ing it th ro ugh some relation, and thus
adds viv idness, varie ty, anJ beau ty to style.

Syne.c doche is a fignre of speec h by which th e name o f a p:i•t
is applied to the wh ole, or that of the wh ole to a p:1rt.
The most common ancl useful kin<ls of sy necd oc he consist in
putting !. The part fo r the whole; as, " She has seen sixteen summers"
(years).
2 . The species for the ge nus; as," He is a CL1 t-throa t" (murd ere r).
3. An indiv id ual fo r the species ; as," H e is a Cru::sus" ( a very
rich ma n ). Putting a p roper name fo r a common, or a commv n
for a prope r, is called also A11 tono111a.ria.
4. One of the c h:u:icte ri sti c s of a pe rso n fo r th e ptrso n's name;
as, "The covenants of the Almighty."
5. The whole fvr the part; as," The arro w strnck me" (m y
arm ) .
6. The ge nu s for th e species; as, "He is a wretched c rea ture"
(ma n) .
7. A tk finit e numb..:r for an ind efinite ; as," Ten thousa nd tk ets
sweep over thee in vain."
Rhetorical V alue . -As we grns p a p:ut of a th ing more easily
th an th e whole, this fi gure enables us to pu t something th:1t we arc
famili a r with fo r somethin g that we do n ot kn ow so well , and
th e reby aci ds vividness, clearn ess, a nd force to the express ion.
Metonymy and Synecdoche. - In me tonymy, a n object 1s
suggested hy menti oning some promi nent prope rty, q ual ity, or
chara cteri stic ; in the synecdoche, by naming some part.
Metonymy and Metaphor. - Each o f these fi gu res presen ts
an objec t to th e mind by na ming somethin g else; but the mct:i.p hor implies a comp:iri son between what is said and what is
m ea nt, whil e th e metonymy d oes not, but m en tio ns someth ing
which is so related as readily to suggest the idea inten<led.

. i

,•.

,.

CU~ IP O S lTIOi\

HYPERBOLE.

Hype rbole is e x:igge ra ti o n. It represe nts things as g reat er or
less, L.l!lk r ur wo rse, th an th ey really are. T hus, "The waves rnn
muun t:i ins high."
APOSTROl 'll E.

Apostrophe is J. fi g ure o f speech in \\'hich the spe:iker turn s away
from his sulij ec t to :Hldress so m e objec t ht: im ag ines to be present.
If the object is somet hing in :mimatc it is pe rso nified by the
0tddress.

Fxamplr. - "0 thou b ri gh t moon ! th ou objec t of my first
i thou sh:ilt n o t e scape an inv ocatio n, alth u11gh perchance at
t~1 i s ve ry 1~om e nt so m e va rle t son nct ee r is pr:itin g o f 'th e boy
Lndy1111on and 'thy sih-er bow .'"
IO\' C

Personification and Apo s trophe . - W hen in:inim a tc ubj ec ts
are ad d ressed , th e y are, o f cu urse, p e rso nifi ed ; but th e difference
between t hese two fi g ures consists in the J.dd~ess . Objec ts perso rnfied :in: ca rri e d up tow:ml s, or to t he ra nk of perso ns, b ut they
:ire nut :i.Jd r essed ; objec ts :i. pos tro phized, wheth e r pe rso ns o r person ified things, are add re ssed .
Rh e tor ical Value . -The rheto ri cal \":J.luc of t he figme co nsists
in g iving v:iri cty J.nd s11rprise by the unexpected form , and a nimat iun by the vivid c0n cep ti o n o f the p re se nce u f so m e thing kn own
to be al>se nt .
For Vision, see p:i.ge

1 21 .

EXERCISE LXXIV.
MET(JND IY.
DIRECT ION . - State th e rdati un upon " hid 1 e a ch ,,f !he metonvrnies is
based . Express th e id ea in pla in lang uage and cbaracteri Le the e ffc~ t of 1he
change.

He drank only one bottle.
He ad d ressed the eh:i.ir.
3. The whole co untry w:i. s in :irms.
1.

2.

FIGUKES OF SPEEC H .

A N O R ll ETO IO C.

22 3

4. l'rinces ;tnJ lords a re but the b reath o f kings .
5. \ Vhat land so barb:1ruus as tu ::tlluw th is ?
6. M:i.gg ie was st ill p:i.nting fo r happi11 ess .
7. L iit you r th o ug ht s frnm earth tu he:i.ven.
S. It cus t mu ch liluod and trc:1si1re l0 ca rry the town.
9. H e r brain was busy with sc hemes o f tli gh t.
1 o . The s word :ind the purse support th e nation .
r L. I )o you fa\'Or the red rose o r t he wh ite?
1 ~- The farm e r ex c hanged the plough fo r the cuunter.
r 3. The co tta ge excels the paLi«e in pidy.
14.
l lis g ra y hairs S:J.\'ed hi m from death.
15 . \' uuth shuuld al wa ys rl'vere nce age.
1 (,, T he re is death in the c u p .
I 7· The hust "aw the mantlin g i;lbS go ruunu.
1 o. Th.: ::.: rave mingles the du st of enemies.
r 9. There is but a s tep from th e thron e to t he g r:i.ve.

EXERCISE LXXV.
~f 1. 1 < l:-.; \ .\!\' .
DiiU-X 'Tl(IN.-

R ec ast tl1e fulluwi11g sent ence s su as to introduce one-

w u re 11 H::-l• > l1 )' ll1H.'~ .

P11i11t

()f

11ut the rlwtonc<il f..:<ti11.

Why should mortal m:i.n be proud?
The su n is beg innin g to ado rn the mountain tops.
3. The hedges arc white with the fluwns of s pring .
4. He was e lll peror wh en Rome was most powerful.
5. ll e has dish o nored the j11d geship .
(>. ( Jld people seldom furm very ;inlc11t fricn,bhips .
1.
2.

7· .\ ll the witty people in ttl\; cit;· were rm·srnt.
X. Th e wc:1 lth y and the 1-!"rl·at :ire no t fre e from care.
9. Tke horseme n pl ied the whip and s word .
w . W e are tr ying to do wh at th e people of Holbnd h:i.Ye
fail ed to a cco mplish.
11 . I [e has read the wo rks of Josep hu s through a nd t nrough ·

COMPOS ITIO N AND RHETORIC.

r 2. The virtuous as well as the vic ious mu st suffe r the con·
sequences of foolis h acts .
13 . The m ost il lust rious men a re sometimes defeated at th(
polls thro ugh pa rty fee ling.
1 -l · No people are so barbarous as to allow suc h an injustice.
i 5. The bullets from the e nemy's guns fe ll in showers.
r G. The victuals are p repared.
1 7. The class are now reading Scott's works.
1 S. Old people should always be revere nced lJy th e young.
r 9. I-I is swo rd was the cause of terror to eve ry oppo nent.
20. By his powerful influence, he scattered a ll th e enemies ol
the Crown.

F IG URES OF SPEECH.

17. He is the Carlyle (Jf Ame ri ca.
1 8. Fo r snch a c rime th ey b ro ught the tyrant to the block.
19 . He is o ne of the most unh appy beings I know of.
20 . She had see n but six winters when she d ied.
2 r . /\ll thing; ::i re ope n to the vie w of th e Omnisc ient.
22 . Twenty s::til of th e line ente red the harbo r.
fuliy de:;e rved to be admitted into such a
2 3. 1-lasti i;gs

EXERCISE LXXVII.
SYNECIJOC HE.
1; 1 iu ·: CTION. 1.

SrNECDOCHE .

2.

DiRECTION. - Point out the relation 0 11 which the synec<loche is based.
Express the idea iu plain language; s late the loss.

3.

He is gone to tea.
2 . A hundred head of sheep.
3. The Assyrian ca me down like the wolf o n the fold.
4. A th ousand bosoms throbbed wi th del ight.
s. T he hand of the diligent maketh ri ch.
6 . He was a bd of sc:ucely eighteen summers.
7. The duke is the Levia th an among all th e creatures of the
Crown.
8. He left the protection of his fathe r's roof.
9. Milto n 's wife left his bed and board .
10. The commerce is c:uried on Ly America n bottoms.
1 r . He employs a score of hands.

5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

The boy had fewer su mm ers, but his heart had outgrown
his years.
I 2.

13. It is a village of five hundred chi mneys.
14. It is a city of spires.
r S. The harbo r was crowde d with masts.
i6. He is a Hercules at that work .

,,.,.,.,

Panthe(Jn.

EXERCISE LXXVI.

i .

225

4.

J O.
l J.

1 2.

13.
14.

15.

Recast th e se nt ences, using a l least one synectl oche.

The object of his ambitio n was money.
He bas a large number of cattle in th is yard.
She is an unhappy woman .
Immense num l>crs have made the attempt.
She was a maiden of sixteen years .
They lacked the necessaries of life.
l Ie was a man of great wisdom.
c;od always beh olds our acts.
His wealth was beyond computation .
l'he house protec ts us from the sto rm.
.:ihe is a very wic ked woman.
He is ve ry quick at all kinds o f wo rk.
Tell the members the queen is now prepared.
These murdere rs should all be execu ted .
In tha t instant years see med to roll over his mind.

D1 1n:cnvN. -

!;

. ;

~·

!>

State the rhetorical value of the fullowing hypcrlioleli.

You are musty chaff; a nd you are smelt above the moon.
On the battle -fi eld were riv ers of b lood and hills of shi n.
. The m ille r t ook th e g ri st and sent the farmer home with

1.

2.

3
th e toll .
4. The train fl e w at lightning speed.

!' ., .

226

5· They sent up a shout that tore hell's concave and beyond
fri gh ted chaos an cl old Night !
6. The waves ran mo untains high.
7· J\lak e or fi nd se ntences in eac h of whi c h une o f tli e foll o wing s ubj ec ts is apostrophi zed : home, slee p, 111o ncy, moo n, night,
flowers , sp ring, stars, mo rning , sun, avarice, wine.

LESSON

.x.xxvrrr.

Fl GU RES OF sru·:CI 1.-i\l\ T!TH ES ! S.

Antithesis consists in putt ing in juxtapositi on two things unlike,
so tlut eac h will appea r more st r iking by t he co ntrast.
Rhetorical Value. - The effect of this fi g ure ari ses chi efly
from the fa c t that :rn object or idea appears m os t st riking wh en
it stands s id e by side wi th its opposite. White appe::i rs \l'hiter
whe n Lo rd~ re d wi th black ; so tmd seems lou<le r wh e n fo llo wed Ly
s iie ll<:e. It, there fo re, we wis h to g i\'e a th oug ht sp ec ia l e mphasis,
we (';in employ n o more e ffe ct ive mcti}l)u th a n to place it in co ntrn st
with its opposi te.
E .1·amflc..· . - "To Le a blessing, and not a c urse ."
prodigal robs hi s h eir, t he mi ser rolJs him se lf."

227

FI G URES OF Sl-'EECH.

COMP OS ITION A ND RHETORIC.

EPI GRAM.

The Epigram is a fi g ure o f speec h in whi ch th e re is a co n flict
or contradi ct ion b e tw ee n the literal meanin g of th e word s and the
me a nin g re:tll y intend ed . Thus, " Th e c hild is father of thl· m:rn ."
Its Relation. - Th e epig ram is akin tu thv antit hes is on tl1e
one hand and to th e pu n o n th e o th e r. The ele ment of cun tr:u iet y
in th e epigram, h owever, differs from that in th c a ntithes is . ln the
fo rm er, it exists between the real and t he a ppa ren t meanin g n f th e
words, while in the latter, it is be tw ee n th e things th at are brought
toget h er.
Epigram oit en consists nuinly in tak ing wo rds in
different se nses; in this respect it resemlJles the p un , wh1d 1 t u rns
entirely u pon usin g wo rds in a double m ea ning. Thus, 1l orne
Tooke said o f the poo r poets: "We may wdl be called :i republic
of letters for there is not :i sove re ig n among us."
EUPHDl!SM.

by similar constructiuns; n ouns should b e co ntrasted with noun s
adj ec tiv es with adjectives, ve rbs wi th verbs, and so on ; and th~
arrangeme nt o f th e wo rd s in the co nt rasted c lauses should Le as
nea rl y alik e as possible ; as, "Flattery b rings fri ends; truth b rin gs fo es."
" Enemies in w:ir; in peace, friends. "
"Fo rewarned, for e:um ecl. "
" Fit the sam e in tellec t to a man, and it 1s a Lo w-string; to a
1vo111an, and it is a harp-st ri ng ."

.;

Euphemism is a softe n e(l w:1y o f s:tyin g what wo uld he <li,;agreeable o r offens ive if told in plain Lmgu::tge . Jt is usuall y lusnl
on so me o ther fi gure , as sy nec <l oc he, m eto ny111y, o r 1ndapho r.
Thus, "He fell aslee p," may be used for " l le died."

'•i:

I RONY.

"The

Rule . - In antith esis th e co ntr:tsted ideas should h e e xpressed

•·.

Irony is language whi ch ta ken litcrJlly ex pres~es th e comrary of
what is meant. Th e real drift of th e speak e r is see n in hi s tolle o r
m a nn er. Thus, Elijah said to th e prophets of Baal, "Cry aloud
:,

for he is a god ."

Rhetorical Value. -These fi gures by stating not wh at is m ea nt,
but something else whic h suggests it, produce a li velie r i1 111Hess ion
than docs the direc t stat e ment. Moreover, th e suq,ri se, :i ri sing
fr o m fin<ling that wo rds may convey a meaning so differe nt fro m
that whi ch they lite rall y b e:i r, or one so skilfully inte rwoven with
it, inte rests and d eli ghts the reader.
For Interrogat ion and C limax, see pages

1 20, 1 2 1.

'

;.

.

228

EXERCISE LXXVIII.
ANTITH F.SES.

J JWECrION. - Point out the words that denote the objects, activns, qualities,
o r circumstances cvntrasled; and rec ast t he sentences witho ut using the anti·
th eses .
1 . Sin k o r swim, iive or die, survive o r pe rish, I give my hand
and my heart to this vote .
2 . At hi s tou c h, crow ns c rumbled am! begge rs re igned.
3 . She is a help, not a hindrance to her mother.
4. As when a husba nd or a hp-dog dies.
5. Every man wou ld live lo ng, but no man would be old.
6. If yo u regulate you r desi res acco rd ing to the standard of
na ture, you will n ever be poor; if acco rding to the standard of
opinio n, yo u will never be rich.
7. The rich man complains aloud ; the poo r man rep in es in secret.
8. They that sow in tears shall reap in joy.
9. He loves the whole hu ma n family, a nd hates to see th e least
membe r of it injured.
1 0 . As we wax hot in faction, in battle we grow cold .

Po int uut :lny ,-i ul<1.ti1rns <1f tht.: rule give n for i\ ntith esis 1 and
re writ e the sen te nu.:s so as to makt.: the.: fi g ure as dirt.:rtcd.
D 1RECTJt)N, -

r. Better re ig n in hell, than be in the co ndition of a servant
heave n.
12. Fools ru sh wh ere angels would be :ifraicl to venture.
13. The battle of S::i.do11"a was won by the schoolmaster, and
the battle of Sedan was lost because the people a re not so well
educated (ig norance) .
I 4. If th e enJ br ings me out ri ght, wh a t is said agai nst me is of
n o accou nt; if in th e end I am wrong, ten angels swearing I was
ri g h t would make no differen ce.
15. l\ly p eople arc to tl o what they please, :mcl it is :igre ecl that
I shall do wh::i.t pleases me .
1

in

FIGURES OF SPEE CH.

COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.

16. I would rather die ::i.fter having spoke n after my mann e r,
than spe:ik in your m:i nner a1:d live.
17 . Kings will be tyrants from policy when those who ::i.re under
th em a re rebe lli vus fr o m princ iple.
18. If yon wish to m ake a man r ic h, study no t to increase his
stores, but that his d esires may be ll iminished .
19. If in the m orn o l life you remember C od, you will not Le
forg o tte n by flim in your btter days.
20. A blind man is a poor m:m, and blind a poor m:rn i,; , fu r
th e fo rm e r sees no man, and the latte r is not seen by any one.

EXERCISE LXXIX.
T HE Er1GRAM AND O'f'HFR F1CURES.

'" >··

D11<.ECTl•)N . - N ame lh c ligurcs, rewrile th e sente nc es in plai n lan gu;:i.gc,
and n ote th e e ffect.
1.
2.

3.
4.

5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

It was conspicuous by its absence.
neauty, wh en unadorn ed, is adorned the most.
Wh e n you have no th ing to say, say it.
Summer has se t in with its usual severi ty.
Words we re give n to hi de our th oughts.
He is a d isciple of Bacc hus .
That me rc han t prince has stopped payment.
You are labo ri ng unde r a mistake.
The t:11l o~tks reac h far up into the clouds.
He a ppropriated the money to h is own use.
No douut ye are the people and th::i.t wisdo m will die ll'ith

you.
12.

The obedient wife commands her husband.

i,-.

.:::30

CO~lf'OSITION

AND RHET O RI C.

EXERCISE LXXX.

DlKECl" I <•N.
.
- 1\'am
.. c. t i1~ rig'l~ rc or (j.1gu rcs in
each uf th e f1J ll owing sentences,
:111 .J th e n e'press the mea11111g 111 pl:un language . ,\ }so p ninl o ut and correc~
any e rrors m the use or f0rm o f the t igur~s .

The heavens a re veined with fire.
She was th e favorite hrnb of th e teac her's flo ck.
3· T ht: J.o nl is my roc k a nd my fo rtress.
·I· i\Ian is th e c rc:itmc of a <hv.
S· Noth ing succeeds lik e sur:c~·ss.
6. Rules :ire of no 11se till they a rc of no use.
7· He coul d ~c;1rce ly ca m enough to keep body and son]
toget he r.
T.

2.

8. She th o ug ht o f he r child as a flo we r of th e field cut down
a nd with ered in the m icbt of its sweetness .
9· :1,·hey d ied a mid the ir cou ntry's shouts of vic tory.
l o . 1 he o ld ma n leaned his silver head against th e breast of
youth.

Tr. My beloved woul d sh:unc th e full moon a nd cause the
even ing star to hide its fa ce .
1

~- T he keen m urnin g air b ites our fa c e and hands.
!\ c loud lay c radled near the setting su n.

1 ,) .

1-f. The m o untai ns a nd the qlkys thei r joyous voices ra ise.
1 5· T he sun s miled fa r ove r the s1111w1c r sea .

16. . Jn peace th e re 's no thing so licco mes a ma n as mild
behavio r a nd humility; bu t whe n th e blast o f wa r blows Jet us
he t ige rs in onr fierce d e po rtm e nt.
'
1

7· Fair l:rnghs th e m o rn and so ft the zep hyr blows.

18. His feet a re nearin g th e g rave.
19. I s:nv th e ir th ousand years o f sno w.
20. H e knoc ks d o wn a dinner with his gun twi ce or thrice
:1 week .

2 1.

Age shak es Athe na 's lo we r, bu t spa res g ray Marathon.

~

IGU RES OF S PEE C ll .

231

2 2. Solitude some ti mes is bes t soc ie ty.
23 . There is a tide in the aff.1.irs of me n, which, taken Jt the
flood, lead s on to fortune .
24. A fri e nd cannot be known Ill prospe rity, and an enemy
cann o t be hidd e n in adv e rsi ty.
25 . To spe nd too mu c h ti me in studies is sloth; to w;e them
too m uch for o rnam ent, is affectatio n.
26. Twould scald my tong11t~ to spit out yC!ur hated na me .
·:q . Yo11 r alise nce uf mind we have lJorne, till your pn·s e1wc ol
bod y ca me to bi.: call ed in fJU es tion by it.
28. I shal l watch yo11r pe n to see if it is co nsen:1ted to th e st:1tc.
29. Th e lege nd a ry age is a p :1st that was neve r !'resent.
30 . I love a cup o f ho t wine with no t a drup of a llaying T;bn
in it.
.1 I . This nobl e pa ssio n, ch ild of integ rity, hath from my so n!
wi ped the black sc rupl es.
3 2. T think o ur cou ntry sinks bene:ith th e yo ke.
33 . Uneasy lies the head that we:irs a crow n.
3-1· I le re main ed too lo ng und e r th e influ e nce of the views
whi c h he had imbibed fro m th e hoa rd.
35. An upri ght ministe r asks what reco mmends a man ; a corrupt ministe r, who.
36. Thi s pri o r. they say, love s th e wine -c up a nd the h11 g k horn better th a n be ll and book.
3 7. Wh at saw the winte r moo n that night as its beams sl rn ggkd
through th e rain?
38 . Till Love and Joy loo k round and call th e earth their own.
39. I am a you ng ma n wi th a ver y old pension ; he is an ol d
man with a. very young pe nsion : that is all.
40. /\ yell tha t re nt the fi rmament from ;111 the to wn arose.
4 1. That heart ne ver melted at th e co nc o urse of sweet ,;o un cls .
42. The credulous multitud e co nsi sted o f women of ],()th sexes .
43. If you ca n ge t alo ng with peopl e wh<> carry :1 ,·ntill1 ·: 1t e in
their fa ces that th e ir goodn ess is so g reat as to make th em mi :,e rable, your c hildren cannot.

.

~-

CO MPOSITION A ND RHETORIC.

44 · Th e wo rld is the chess-board, the pieces are th e phenomena
of the U niv e rse, th e rules of the game are th e laws of nature.
45. Love th ough de e p as the sea will wit!1 e r as a rose .
46 . His cup had been qt1 affed too q11ickly, and the dregs were
wormwood.
47 . The Countess of fl::trl ingto n was a cata rac t of tallow, wi th
eyehrows like a cart-wh eel, and dim, coaly d isks fo r eyes .
48. Choose an d eat; th ere is li fe in the one am! d eath in the
othe r.
49· He drank his ho use and lot, and no w his wife :rnd children
are o n the stree t.
so. F r:111ce w::ts torn by internal st r ife .
51 . \Vo rd s we re gi\'en us to conceal our th o ughts .
52 . Thus the successo rs of th e old Caval iers had tu rned demagogt1es ; the successo rs of th e old Rot1n d he.1 cls had tt1rned courtiers.
53 . /\n ass co1·e red with gold has more respec t than a horse
with a pack saddle .
S4 · C ud made man in his ow n im :ige; bt1 t the public is made
hy ne wsp:ipe rs.
SS . Th e spring sun was sett ing, and it flun g a c rim sc1n t1ush over
the blue waters and white houses .
5 6. Youth is a blunde r, manhood a strnggle, old age a regret.
5 7. Her g::iy spirits might revol t at th e da rk d o wnward path of
low humil ity sudden ly poi nt ed o ut be fore her, a nd might cling to
the su nn y reg ions in whi ch th ey had h ith erto rev ell ed .
58 . On a summ C' r's clay might he h ea rd th e ::ipp.1lling sound of
th e birch, as th e rn:i ste r urged so me ta rdy loitere r al o ng th e t1owery
path of k no\\'lctl ge.
59. Cu rn p::ircd with her fr iend she is a rnshli ght to the waning
s t:i r - a g lvwworm to Antares.
(io . Th ese boys will gruw I<> lll~ men, and \\'ill dr:1g th e heavy
arti llery alo ng the d usty ro:id s vf life.
G1 . l 1e knew not that a ph an tum of \ 1·l·al th ha( I thrown a golden
lw c 11 po n its water,;, nor that T.<1\' C h:1d si.c:h ed softl y to their murmur, no r th a t Death had threate ned to c rimso n th em with blood.

FIGURES OF SPEECH.

')11

- .).)

62 . Round thee the sea flings her steel- brigh t armor and sh ields
thee from the guile a nd hurt of thy foes.
63. The qu ic k eye of Clive soo n perceived that the head of the
· young voluntee r would be more useful than his arm.
64 . That means the re moval of h ind rances a nd the surmo unting
of obstacles broad as contine nts, high as the Himalayas.
65. It is no t th e crozier spear, but the sceptre.
66. J\nothe r morning came, and th ere they sat :mkle-deep 111
cards.
67 . H is purse was ever an assistance to the men of letters.
68. As the tall corn bends beneath the swee ping hurric:inc,
wave succeeding wave, so did the steel-c bd squad ro ns uf the
ene my b efo re the vi ctori o us to rrent of th e dashing cavalry .
69. Can a ny o ne study Shakespeare with out reaping benefit?
70. Their so uls rose on the ardor of prayer like Elijah ascending to heave n.
7i. S miles are the cha nn els of future tears.
72. Th e life of ma n is the path of an a rrow, which immediately
closes up .
73. Th e soft snow cam e; it seemed as if nature had let fall its
handkerc hi ef to hide the earth.
74 . D ili ge nce is the mo the r of good luck, and God gives ::ill
things to ind ustry.
75. We may be sme that confiden ce sat un d isturbed upon hi s
76. In th e best of Whitti e r's poems the pulse of human sym pathy heats more strongly than in any of Lo ngfellow's songs.
77. Tf I co uld shake off but one seven yea rs from these old
arms and legs, I would go with th ee eve ry f"o t.
78. Hi s heart's his mouth: what his b reast forges, that hi s
tong ue must ven t.
79. Time writes no wrinkles on thine azure brow.

r..;·'

.;r'.

•"·<..

234

CO~ll'O S ITIU:'\

AN!l RllETOJ{IC.

f...!VALITIES OF STYLE.

'.! 35

c.

LESSON XXXIX.
TJI E QU ALITIES 01' STYLE.

The properties o f SLylc studied in preceding I .essons are called
Elements of Style, because th ey belong prc-cmincnLly to Words,
Sentences, and l'aragraphs, whic h arc Lhe mec h;:inical elements of
J:rng uagc . Besides these, Style possesses other sul.Jller properties,
kno wn as the Qu;-ilities of SLylc . Among th ese 1p1alitics may be
m e ntioned Perspicuity, Picturesqueness, Force, P;:ithos, The Ludi crous, Melody, Harmony, Taste, and Beauty.
These qualities rnay, with some correctnes , be classified as
fol lows : 1. Intellectual: Perspicuity and Pict11resq11e ness;
2 . Emotional : 1:orce, l'athos, The L11clicrous;
3 . A:stheti c: Melody, Harmony, Taste, Beauty.
Perspicuity is th e quality of being easi ly understood . It appli es
to the gene ral form of expression, lo the way in which the th oughts
ar c p resented. Either s imple or al1strnse thou g hts may be placed
ch::irly befo re the reader; yet abstruse thoughts m ay sti ll be dif!i<' ult to app rehe nd , although clea rl y expressed ; anu simple th oughts
m :1 y he so expressed as to :1ppc: 1r co11f1 1sed or ambiguous .
l'crs p icuity may be gained by r. Simplic ity, a. In diction, (a) Familiar words convey irleas more clearly than do
those that :ire ~cl d o m hc:an.l.
(b) Concrete terms call up m o re d efinite ideas than do
abstract.
(c) T'artic ular te rm s, likewi se, a re always more st riking
than ge neral.
b. In st ru c ture , (a) or sentences, (/;) of parag raphs, (c) of the plan of
the d iscou rse .

In fig11 res of sp eech. Figur,·s whi ch are simJ>le a nd
hmil iar, but not trit e , arc uhject kssons to the lllind .
The folluwing senten ce illustr:1tes how obscurity :trises from
som e of these ca uses : " St:raph itc, the man·ellous creat11rc, whos e pass:1gc from Matter
to Spirit, from the S11ecialist to th e l )i\·ine condition s, tlll' t heme
o f Balzac's genius, in thi s case is intenckd to typify the lin :1l
functi o n of a long course of steadfast 11pward working 11y a S(J1il
which has, by man y re -in carnations, won its way past tlic i11>ti111 ·tive and ahstr:w t ive sp heres uf cx i ~ll"l wt-, and h:ts at length attained
that delicate 1Jal:l.1wc uf the m :1tcrial and spir it11 al which ii the
last possible manifestatiun on the e:uth ly f>lane."
2.
Precision in the 11se of language . This i~ indispcnsalile to
perspic uit y. The th ought 11111 st be ful ly and c learly gra-,ped l1y the
mind , and then words mu st be fou nd that faithfully reprodu ce it.
3. The e m ployment of a definite and apparent plan or 011tlinc.
The reade r' s a tt e nti on should be fixed 11pon "' 1m e ce ntr:il 1h o11ght
0(
uuld fram e wo rk on whi c h th e ent ire strnct mc is rn:idt: t()
depend.
4. The systematic arrangement of the subordinate pans.
For·
example, if :rny one wi ll take the pains to ex:unine n ilic::lliy the
ninet y- third paper o f th e "Spectato r, " he will find t hat it owL· s
its p erspi c uity in :1 gre :1t d eg ree to th e points m ention1·.J in 3
and 4.
T he fr:im c work is as below: Th e me: The proper e mploym ent of le isure .
1. Introduc tion, a . Quo tati on from Seneca.

b. i\fen arc a lso in cons istent in wishing tim e awav.
c. About nineteen parts out of twenty, of lcismc, 1s
2.

wasted .
Employm ents suggested, a. The practice of v irtue.
1. In acts o f benevol e nce .
In co mmuni o n with the Creator.

-·1

,.

C0~ 1 1'051TION

b.

Ai\D

HHETORIC.

Innoce nt amusements.
1. The stage .
2 . Co1we rsa tion.
3. Th e fin e arts.
4 . R ead ing.
5. /\ skilful use of the v:irious m ea ns of illustr:iti o n. This
may be11 . By example; :is, "Exclusiveness is deadly. Th e exclu;;i,·e in soci:i l life docs not sec that he excludes himself
from enjoyment in th e attempt to approp ri :1te it."
b. liy ,.ontrast; as, "n ra wing lo ts would be a prudent and
reasonable method o f ap po inting th e o ffi r.e rs o f state,
compa red to a late dispositio n of the se c reta ry's
office. "
c. ]ly an anecd ote or sto ry; this has the a d v:rn t:1ge of the
conc rete: and o f the parti c ubr. Tilli s : "Virt11c is its
ow n re wa rd. Cath e rine of l ,ivon i:i , a com 171o n peasant
girl, :ittracted, by her modest and virtuous condu ct,
the :ittention of l'etc r the ( ;re:i t ; became his wife;
and, :ifte r h is death, was procla imed his successo r in
th<.: Ru ssian Empire."
rl. By a pa r:1llcl case; as, ''I ha,·c see n eag les in a cage;
hut th e ir win gs showed 1:\e that nature neve r intended
them to be there . So I ha,·e see n m:in cove red with
the leprosy of sin and moral dis ease; but his aspirations
aft e r goodness told me that his C n.:atnr neve r d esigned
him fo r th e p es t-house. :\ nol.Jl<.:r de sti ny is his."
t:. 13y a j1 1c\ i1 ·ious use nf th e fi g mcs of sp("ech, espec ially
o f Simile, 1\lctaphnr, :111d 1\ ntith csis.
f. Hy e mpl oyi ng sc vn:t! o f these meth o d s in the same
case. For example, in the followi ng, th e idea is illustrat ed ( 1) by a co ntrast in the nature of the things;
( 2) by a con trast of their effects; (3) by figures.
" Mirth I consider as an act; c heerfulness, as a
habit of the mind.
1\lirth is short and transient ;

QUALITIES OF STYLE.

237

cheerfulness, fixed :rnd permanent. Those arc often
raised into the greatest tr:inspo rts of mirth, wh o are
subject to the greatest depression of m ebnc h uly .
Mirth is like a flash of ligh tnin g that bre:1ks thru11gli
a gloom of clouds and glitters fo r a m o ment ; ch ee rfulne ss keeps up a kind of daylight in the 111ind, and
fill:; it wi th a steauy and perpetual serenity. "
6. The ca refu l obse rvance of the s1 1ggcst ions made und er t 11e
h ead of Clearness. These, if followed, will e nabl e the \\"riter to
use lang uage in such a way as to secure ckarness of exp rcssiu n in
minor details.
P 1cTUR J·:s•;UENl·:ss.
\ Vhen a scene, ol>ject, or C\'ent is represented in language in
such a way as to pi c ture it to the mind as it a c tually is or wa,;,
th e sty le is said to lie p ictu resq ue.
This quality depend s chiefly o n the folluw ing con'>idcr:.tiuns: i . A clea r anJ co mprt:hcnsive view of th e scene, ol1jc' t, ur
event. The outline must IJe d e finite, and the p:trts mu st be
arranged in the orde r of tim e, pbce, and importanc e .
2 . Th e use o f app ropriate epithets and ph rases.
Th ese may
introd uce a . Some qual ity wh ose inc idental me ntion adds realit y; :is,
"Those tirdrH wheels wh ose /111.•y hum ne,·er rcascs ."
;,_ Some a ssoc iated c ircumstance th a t tends to gi,·c romj>leteness; as, " J\ huge sea of ve rdure that was tenanted by Docks and herds 10!11d1 J°t'l'l/leJ /,; 1ut1 11drr
11111t:s /n1i11 et! 11111! 1111/;01111ill'd //iro11_,;!t t!tt' rich f11s/11re ."
c. Sume pl e:tsin g feature; as, "Th e i11rit! lig htning lla,h<.:d
o,·cr the /t'm}ol-/ossoi ocean. " "The gigantic corpses
of dead trees, decaying on the le1if-strew11 soi l."
3. A sce ne may be presented more vividly by m e nti oning some
striking particulars instead of us ing a general statem e nt; as,
"They looked forth, they saw the riv er thi ck set wi th rocks,
wh e re pl1mgi11g (Jl!t r ln~t;t's, gurgling over tirift-logs . Jarli11,,· ali111,(

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CO:lll' OS I TION ANU H!IETOKJC.

de/1.1, a11rl boil/ng in c!tasms [instead of nu!1i11g madly 011], the
an g ry waters lilied the solitude with monotonous 1«wings ."
4. The descript ion of a scene or e\· e nt is rendered more picturesque by g ivin g th e exac t time and place.
5. Vividness is ga int.:d by view ing a scene as it appeared at
a givt.:11 point o f time . Thus, Niag:1 ra as see11 l.>v m oo 11 light.
6 . Figun:s o f speec h may intt.:n sify this <Jllality; :1s, " T he cavalry SWt'jJ/ JUSt the lnse of the hill." "The bl:1c ke11i11g wave is
edge d with whilt.:."
7. :\ ll th e a rts that co 11tri b11 te to jJerspicu it y aid in picturesq11t.: ness.
0. The Cl'.ntral fi gure or m ain line must l.>t'. kept \\'ell in th e
fu reground, and the tilling mu st be so rnanaged as tu b e clearly
the bac kground.
9 . Th e min d mu st be kept o n prorn i11 cnt features, :rnJ not burdene d wi th a multitud e of unimportant tkta il s.

QUALITIES 01" ST YLE.

of sce nery so beautiful, ye t so varied, - so exc itin g l.>y its intri cacy, and yet so subl im e , - is lighted up by th e tint s of 111 0rn ing
or of evenin g , and displa ys all that ,·ariety uf shadowy d e pth s,
exchanged with parti :d brillia1icy, whi ch g ives c harac te r C\'en
to th e t:11n t.:s t o f landscapes, th~ effect approac hes nea r to
encha nt m ent."
1. The placl'. is di stinctly located in the tir,t se n tencL·.
2. Th e outline is clearly defined in the secuntl seillcll<'L'.
3. T he suggestion of 3 is full\lwl'cl in "with its rue ks, i,!es,
distant sho res, a nd b ou ndary o f 11101 111t:tins ."
4. Notice th e effect of suc h epi thets and p hrases as "semicirc ular,"" cluse-bu ilt," "h igh-piled,"" di sta nt," " fertile ," ·' pic-

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tures4 ue." .
5. Observe the ga in of showing the sce ne when "lighted up

by th e tints o f morning o r of eve ning ."

The following extract ill ust rates so me o f the forego in g requirements: -

EXERCISE LXXXL

"If I we re to choose a spot fr o m which the ri s in g o r se tting
sun t.:otdd be see n to the g reatest possil.Je advant::ige, it would be
t ha t wi ld path windin g around the fout o f the hi gh be lt o f se mic ircular rocks, c:il k d Salisbury Cr:tg\ :rnd m:ir k in g th e verge of
tht: steep descent whi c h ok>pL·s d o wn into the gle n un th e sout heaste rn sid e of th e ci ty of Ldinliurg . T he prospect, in its ge neral
ou tlin e, co mm a nds :1 close-1>11ilt, hi gh -piled city, st retching itself
ottt be neath in a furrn, whi ch, to a romantic imag ination, m ay be
supp osed to r e prese nt that u f a drago n; n o w, a no ble a rm of the
sea, with its rocks , isles, distant shores, and b oundary o f mount:·tins j and now, a fair a nd fert ile champaign CO lllltry, va ried ' with
hill, dale, a nd rock, and s kirted by the p ic tur esriue ridge of the
Ventlancl ilfountains . But as the path gently c ircles a round the
:>ase o f the cl iffs, the pros pec t, co mp os\:<l as it is of th ese cnchantng and subl ime olJjects, ch:1 11gl'.s :it e\·cry step , an d prese nts th em
olended w ith, o r di\'id cd from. each uthc r, in e \·e ry possil.ile vari ety \\' hich ctn gr:nify th t: eye and the i111 ;1ginatio11. \\"he n a piece

239

Pi-:Rs r1cu1T \ ' AM> P1cruREsQUENESS .

DtR EC'l'l O~ . -

F~;1tninc the full o wing t:x trac ts w ith special rcft·rc nce tu the

qualities uf pc rspi u 1it y alld pi\.'.turesqucrn;s<.; . Pd int uut tl1 e variuus means l1\·
wlli l.'. h th ts1.: qu:l !itic:; have l>eC ll Scc urC d ur e nhan ced.

r. Oft e utin1es, as I hav e lain s11·ing ing o n tht: w;1tcr, in the
swe ll of th e Chelsea fe rry b oat s, in tha t long shar p-puintetl, l1lad:
craule in whi ch I love to let the great m other ruck lll l' , I ha\'C
seen a tall ship glid e by against the tide, as if drawn by su rne
invisible t o w-lin e, with a hundred st rong arrn s pullin g it. I ! er
sails hung unfilled, h e r st rt.:am e rs we re druo ping, she had nc it.hn
sid e -wh eel n o r ste rn -wheel; still she m oved on, stately in se rene
triumph, as if with h er own life_ But I kn..:w that on the uther
side o f the ship, hi dde n Lenc·:1th the great hulk tli :1t swam su
majesti cally, th ere was a little t.iiling ste:un -tug, with he:irt of fir e
and a rm s o f iron, tli:tt \\':JS lrng.~ in g it c losl', :111d dr:1~ g in g it
bra1·ely o n ; and I kn ew th;1t i1· the little ste:un -tu g untll'in ed ht: r

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QUALITIES OF STYLE. ·

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arms and left the tall ship, it would wallow and roll about and
dr ift hither :rnd thith e r, and go off with th e reflu e nt tiJ e, n; man
knows whith er. And so I have known more than one emius ·
hi g h-decked , full -frei ghte <l, wide- sailed , gay-pennuned, tb:t, bu;
for the bare toil ing arm s, and brave, warm, beating heart of the
faithfol little wife, that nestled close in his shadow, and clung to
him, so. that no wind ur wave could part them, and dragged him
on ;:igamst all th e tide of circumstance, would soon have gone
down th e strc:1111 and been heard of no more.
'.!. Woe no w to a ll body-guards, mercy is no ne for them! ·
J\Iiomau<lre de Sainte-l\farie p leads with soft worJs, o n the grand •'
st:.u rcase, descending four steps to the so:iri ng tornado. His com::Hlcs snatch him up !Jy the skirts and belts; lit e rally from the
pws of Destructi o n; a nd slam to thei r doo r. This, also will
st:rn~l fo.r few instants ; th e panels shive ring on lik e potsherds.
Rtrncad1ng serves not; fl y f.1st, ye body-guards! rabid Insurrection, like th e IIcli -!Jound Ch::lS<., :1prJaring a t your h ee ls!
3· The t error-struck body-_:,Jards fly, bo lting and barricading;
it follows. \Vhithcrw:ird? Thr ugh hall on hall; woe, now!
tow:uds the Qu e n's suite of rooms, in the fmthest roo m of which
the (luee_n is now asleep. fi1· sent in . ls throu gh th a t long suite;
th e y a rc m the ante-rooms knocking alo11d: "Save th e O ueen ! "
T re111liling women fall at th e ir (..:ct with ll::lrs; arc ar~wered:
"Yes, we will die; save ye the Quee n!"
4 · The coach stops here half an hour, gentlem en: d inner qui te
ready! 'Tis a delightful so und. And what a dinne r! What a
prof11sion of substantial delicacies! What mi ghty and iris-tinted
rounds of beef! What vast and marbl e-vei ned ribs! Wh ::t gelatmou s veal pies ! What colossal ham s 1 Those are ev id ently prize
cheeses ! J\nd how invigorating is the perfume or those various
and _v:uicgat ed pickles ! Then the bustle emulating th e plenty; the
n.ngmg o~ bells, the clash of thoroughfare, the summoning of ubiqmtous wa iters, and the all-pervadin g feeling of omn ipotence from
the guests, who orde r what th ey please, to the landlord, who can
produce and execute e1·erythi11g they ca n desire. 'Tis a wondrous

sight. Why shoulJ a m an go and see the pyramids 3.nd c ross th e
desert, when he lus not bthekl York Minste r, or travelled on the
road?

5. Like Wind sor Castle, the palace of the Alharnbra. i:; sit11:1tcd
upon the northern brow of 3. steep hill, commanding :tn extcnsi1·..:
prospect over a beautiful country, and towering with venicral>lc
aspect above the C ity of Crena<la. The sides toward, the ciudcl
are so dilapic.latecl, or encum bered with m ode rn buildings, th at
very f..:w traces are vis ible of the ancient external wall s. J:ut the
in terior re 1n:tins of the p::ilacc are in tulera!Jle pres..:n-ation , and
presen t 3. st riking p icture of th e roman ti c 111agn ificcnce of its
former king:;.
H.o w strange c.locs every object in this cdifin:
appea r ! how different from all that we arc accustomed to [;ei1uld 1
Yet, even in its present deserted state, we recog ni ze in architecture th e cond itiun of the ow ner, the se:it of power, an.J the gr:11·ity of the 1\ rabian ch::tracter. Bu t the splendor of the turb:rne.J
monarc h has vanished, and the throne of the son of Nasr is lilied
by bats and owls.
G. \Ve ca nn ot p:ut with our friends. \Ve cannot let onr :ingels
go. \Ve du not see th:tt they only go out, that :irc h:mgels ni:t y
com e 111. We are id olaters of the old. We do not believe in the
ri ches of the soul, in its proper ete rnity and omnipresence. \\'c
do not lic li e 1·e there is any fone in to-day lo rival or recreate tktt
beautiful yestenLty. We li nger in th e ruins of the old tent, where
o nce we had bread and she lter and organs, n o r bel ieve tli:u th e
spirit can feed, cover, and nerve us :igain. \V e cannot ag:1in find
aught so dear, so sweet, so graceiul. B 11t we sit and weep in vain.
The voice uf the Almi ghty saith, " Up and onward forevermore!"
V\fe cannot stay am;d the ruins. Neither will we rely on tl1c new;
an<l so we walk ever with rev erted eyes, like those monsters who
look b:tck wards.
7 . Nothing is more amiable than true modesty, and nothin g is
more contemptible than the false . The one gua rds virt11e, the
other betrays it. Tr11c modesty is ashamed to do :rnything that
is repugnant to the rules of ri ght reason : false modesty is ashamed

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COMJ>OSITlON A l\D R!IETORIC.

to <lo anything that is opposite tu the humor of th e company.
'J:'rue m o ue ty avoiJ:; everything th ::i t is c riminal, fabe 111uclesty
eve ry thing that is 11nfa,;h ionabl c. Th e bttn is u11ly a general
untleterminecl instinct; the fo rmt:r i:; that instinct, limite<l am!
circumscrilJecl by th e rnle,; o f pruden ce an<l religion.

o. On the other side he looked down intu :1 deep mountain
glen, wild, lo nely, and shagged, the lJottom filled ll'ith fragments
frum the impend ing cliff:;, and scir.. ely li,g htcd l;y th e rays of the
setting sun. Fo r ~ome time l\.ip by mus ing o n the scene; evening was g rad u:tily adv:111cing: the mo11 11tains beg:rn tu throw their
long blue shaclu ws t>\·er the \· alle \·s ; he s:i.w tlut it wo uld lie dark
k>ng lJefore he cuuld reach the \'ill:tge, and he hc:1ve d a s ig h when
he th ough t o f e n<'ountc r ing the terrors uf Danw \'an \\ 'inkl e.
9. i\Ltnne rs are jl.Htly fact iti uu-;; l111t, ma inl y, there must be
capacity fo r culture in the blood, else all c1tlture is v::iin. Every
man- mathematici:i.11, a rtist, soldier, o r m erc han t - luoks with
confidence for so m e traits and tal ents in his own c hild whi ch he
would not dare to presume in the c hild of a str:tnger. The
Urient::ilists are ve ry orthodo x on thi s point. "Take a thornlJush, " s:1id the Emir :\ bdcl- Kader,'· :md sp rinkle it fu r a whole
year with w::iter; it will yiekl noth ing hut thorns. Tak e a dati:tre e, leaye it wit hout cu lture, and it will produce dates."
ro. l le: issued frnm th e~ hut, f<J!ltl\\'l'd l1y little Jue, who kept
fast hold o f his father's ha nd . The ea rly sunshine was a lreadv
pouring its gold upon the mountain-top~; anJ th o ugh the valley's
were still in shado\\-, they smibl cheerfully in th e promise of th e
bright Jay that was hastening Oll \\\tnl. The village, co mplete ly
shut in by hill s, whi ch s\\· cllcd awav gently about it, loo kecl as if it
had rest ed peac,·f11lly in the hullow of th e g reat h:1 nd of Providence. Every dwellin g w :is distinctly \'i sible; th e littl e spires of
the two ch urc hes po int ed up ward s, :rnd c:1ug ht a fore-glimmering
of brightness from the s11 11-p;ilt skies upon th eir gilded wea thercoc ks . Scatte red likewise O\T r the h rea,; ts of the surroumling
rnount :1 in s there we re he:tps of hoarv mi st o r clo11d, hove ring in
t he gold raJi ance of th e upper atmo:;phne. Stepµing from one

QU ALITIE S O F ST YLE.

243

to a nothe r o f the clouds that rested on th e hills, and lf1 ence to the
loftier bro therhood th a t sa iled in the air, it see med almost as if a
mortal man might thus ascend into th e heavenly regions. Earth
was so mingle<l with the sky th at it was a Jay-dream to look at it.
I 1 . The figure of l.zebecca mi gh t, ind eed, have compa red with
the proudest beauties of Engla nd, eve n th oug h it had been judged
by as shrew<l a connoisseur as K ing John. Her furm was e x4uis ite h·
symmetri cal, and was shown to ::idvanta ge by a so rt o f l-'.:1stern
dress . I !er turban o f yellow silk suiteJ we ll with the darknc·ss uf
h e ~ co mpl ex io n.
Th e lJrilliancy of he r eyes, th e superb arch
of he r eyebrows, her well-formed aqu ilin e nose, her tee th as whit<:'
as p earl, and the profusion uf her salJ!e tresses whi ch, each arranged
in its own little spiral-twisted c urls, fell do wn upon as mu ch of a
lovely n eck and busom :is a sim:t rre of the richest Persia n silk,
exh ibiting Dowers in th e ir natur:t l colors embossed u pon a pur}'le
ground, permitted to be visible, - a ll these co ns tituted a combi nation of loveliness whic h yield ed not to the most lJeautiful of the
ma idens who surroundeJ her.

EXERCISE LXXXIl
RHE1\Jf(I CAL A N ALYSIS.
1.

Ex:un inc No. r of Exercise I..\.'\.'\ 1. under t li e followin g

a. The c hoice and use of wo rds: (a) Is every word used in its proper sense?
(b) Is every word the best that c an be found tu exp ress the
mea ning inte nded?
b. The formation of the sentences : (a) ls each of the se nte nces sn fo rm ed as to present ih
meaning read ily and c learly?
(b) Does each se ntence d eal with a s ingle id ea, o r dues it
gi ve p ro min e nce to its lead ing thuug ht?
( c) Ts due attention given to rnel ody :ind the ot her require ments of elegance?

COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.

c.

QUALITIES OF STYLE .

245

Construction of paragraphs : (a) Ts th e re a tupi c sentence?

LESSON XL.

( b) Are the sentences :trranged in logical o rder?

( r) A re the sentences smooth ly and prope rl y connected?
(d) Does the paragraph possess unity; that is, do all the

sente nces be:ir on the topi c?

(e) Is there due proportio n be tween the theme and the
illustr::itio n, or does the illustrati on o cc upy so much
space and attract so mu c h attention as to ove rshadow
th e main thought?
d. Figures o f sprcch .

Name the various fig ures of speech that
occ ur, and remark on the rhetori cal value of each.
. z_. Go through the Exercise, dealing with each of the parts in a
snrnbr manner.

EXERCISE LXXXIII.
REPRODUCTION.
L . Study No. 1 of th e preceding Exerc ise till you :ire thoroughly
familiar with its meanmg and sentiment.

2. Th e n close the book, and try to reproduce them
langu:ige .

111

other

3· Next compare you r work with the orig in:il, and if yours
suffers by the comparison, try again .
.
4· When you feel satisfied with the m a nn e r in which you h:tve
passc.ge, m ake a critical
exam111:it10n of your work, :is indicated in the preced ing Exercise.
5· Rewnte with emencbtions.
Note the sugges ti o ns m:trle in Lesson XXXIV.

brou~ht ~ut the sense and spirit . f th

6. Co through the Exercise, dealing with each part in a similar
ma.nner.

FORCE.

Force is a general name for th:it quality, or rather combination
of qualities, whi c h causes discou rse to m:.1ke a deep imp ress ion on
the mind . Force is therefore the cause of impressiveness .
This quality manifes ts itself in a great variety of form s or <le grees, :ind is therefore conveniently known by a variety of terms.
Those most c_o mmon ly used are, Strength, Energy, Vigor, Vivacity,
Liveliness, Anim::ition, Brilliancy, Grande ur, l\fagnificence, Loftiness, Sublimity.
Force app lies to language add ressed to the emotions as weli as
to that whi c h inform s the intell ec t; hence, partly, its comple xity.
In order th:it dis co urse m:iy be forc ible there must be 1 . i\ vigorous and skilful use of that p:ut of our vocabubry
which expresses power, physic:il, mor:il, inte llectual, or emotional.
2. i\ cl ear and full represent:ition of the objec t or thout:ht.
For example, a description of Niagara Falls mi ght fail to :iwaken
emotions of awe or sublimity if feebly or inadequ:itely gi ven .
3. While the central object or thought must be kept prominently before the mind, the supports and surround ings mn st be
made to ha rmonize.
4. Striking fe a tures or points must have prominence, and details
must be kept in due subordi natio n, o r omitted .
5. Young people are inclined to think that "big words" and
dazzling figures of speech are the great cause of force. At times
th ey m ay be, but simplicity in language and in the structure of
sentences is often most effec tive . If the mind labors to get the
m ea ning, it will be less impressed. What could be more effectiv e
th an, "A world of waters wide and deep"?
6. Force may be gai ned by divid ing a general term into its
chief parts, and stating, or, it may be, d esc ribing each p.ut separately; as, "1Veitlur love, sorrow, fiu11e, ambition, nor sirif« (for

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COMPOSITrON AND

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110 /<'dings) can cut his heart with the keen edge
end urance."

7. Impressiveness, the outcome of fo rce, is assured by build'
an arg t1mcnt o n a ge neral ly accepted basis ; t-l[., if a person bui
a logical arg ument on such a basis as "the fatherhood of God aj}ij
the brotherhood of man," he will be sure to carry strong convictlo:i:
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to the mmds of his rc:tdcrs.

s_. One somce of force is th e :iuthor's vivid conception
subject, acco mranied by strong and deep emotion. As an cxa
p!e, take this definition of history: " l J istory is a mighty dra
e nacted upon th e thea tn: of time, with suns for lamps and eterni1
for a lnc kgro u ncl."
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9. \Vhatever contribu tes to perspicu ity contributes likewise ,
force . Hence simpli city, concreteness, and transparent cleam •
of arran gem ent are of vital importance .
. ·>.·
1 o. Force may sometimes be given by the form of the sen ten ·'
F or example, vigor is sometimes ga.inecl by a number of shorts
tences, by inversion of th e order, or by turning the expression ·
the form of an exclamati on or an interrogation.
. r r .. Force may be obtained by a repetition of the same thought
111 various form s or und er various figures; as, "How soon man "j~
forgotten . History fades in to fab le; fact becomes clouded witi)
doubt and controversy; the inscri ption moulders from the tablet;
the statue falls from the ped estal."
~.

r z. One of th e most cffcct i~·c mc:ins of adding force is the
of approp riate and original ti g mes of speech. This has air
been seen in preceding Lessons .
·

13. As was shown in discussing Strength, there
of langu::ige many devices that increase the force
these may be employed to intensify the effect.
. 14 . . One great source of force is originality. This may
itse lf 111 the form, as in Carlyle; in the conception, as in Ne
15. For:=e, as well as other qualities of style, may be increa$
by co'.npanng the s11bjc~t with some other whose impressive g · ·
deur is well known. 1· or cx:tmple, a writer renders his portny

QUALITIES OF STYLE.

of the destruction done by the locusts more vivid by saying, "The
·locusts have clone what the winJ s and th e lightnings could not do ;
nnd the whole promise of the vintage, leaves and all, is gone."
PATHOS.

The quality of style that awak ens tender emotions is usually
called Pathos, or Feeling. It is the power of producing in the
mind by means of language an effect similar to that which the
scenes or inc idents would themselves have c reated .
Pathos is awakened by descriptions or relations of, I. The love of parents for their ch ildren, of children for their
itrents, or o f persons of one sex for those of the other.
2 • True fri endship or self.sac rific ing devotion to the interests
f others. See the story of Damon and Pythias.
3. Tend er sentiments, humane act ions, or whatever else tends
o increase human happiness o r lesse n human woe.
4, Scenes of suffering, misery, or distress. Those are all th e
'ore touching whe n pro min ence is given to the heroism, meekness, patience, or wh a teve r serves to exhiliit the nobility o f the
character of the suffe rer.
As style is only form of express ion, we should di stinguish clearly
between Pathos of subje ct and Pathos of style. Pathos of subj ect
's always the same, though it may arfec t different rerson s differently, or even the same persons differently at different tim es;
ut the pathos of style varies according to the manner in which
the subject is presented. In the statements that follow, patho'.;
of style only is consid ered.
Pathos may be increased I. By a clear and impressive presentation of the subject.
for
xample, a scene of distress ma y affect us but little if it is so
escribeJ as to give us but an imperfect id ea of it .
. Herc, then, is room for the employment of all the device.; that
ontrib11te to perspicu ity, picturesqueness, and force. Attention
ould be given to what has been sa d under each o f these heads;
our feelings are reached through our intellect.

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COMPOSITION A ND RHETORIC.
2. By g iving jud icious care to the choice of such language and
imagery as, by their own power or by means of association, most
effectually touch the tender cho rds of ou r common human nature.
3 . By h:iving the circum st:in ces and surroundings such as har·
moni1.e with the sce ne. This implies tint a. 1\11 disco rda nt matter mu st be kept out.
b. llistr::i c ting particulars are to be avoide d .
c. Only salient and esse ntial feature s are t\J be d ealt with.
d. All ove r-strain ing is to be eschcll'ed .
<'. Such particulars be chose n as really intensify th e effect.
/. The natural scene ry should be suitable.
g . O rators and poets often rep resen t nature as being in sympathy with the men and women of their story .
4. By introdncing such associated c ircumstances as tend to
heighten the effect. This may be clone a. By such epithets and phrases as tend to heighten the effect;
as, "That bN111tif11l child o f lmdrr years. "
b. Ry the inc idental mention of tou ching fe;i turcs .
c. By a fuller statement, or from view in g a ci rcumstance from
different standpoin h . For example, the p::iin o f pe rso nal bereavement is made more impressive by dwelling on the graces and
excellences of the departccl, the p:mg of sepa ration, th e void left
in the he:1rt o f the Jiving. the cliffi c11lty of forming new fri e ndship~
when the warmth of youth is gone, ur on the desolateness of life
without comp::inionship.

EXERCISE LXXXIV.
f'ORCF. A"1D i'A"l'llOS .

D11rnCTJON. - Examin e th ese pa ragraphs. Po iut o ut the various devices
on whi ch the fo rce o r path os o f the ~t\'lc depe nds.

I spoke boldly, freely, - in a word, I spoke with passion.
I concealed nothi ng - nothin g C\T n of my weakness.
2. Oh, hut, my friend! to :hink what a blow I am to give to
all her futur e prospects . How I am to strike her very soul to the
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QUALITIES OF STYLE.

earth, by tell ing her tha t her husband is a beggar ; th at she is to
forego all the degancies of life - all the ple:isures of socictyto shrink with me into indigence a nd obscu rity.
3 . The heart is woman's world; it is there her amhition strives
for empire; it is there her avarice seeb fo r hi dden tr e:1s ures .
She se nds forth her sympath ies on adventure; she ern];;uks hn
whole soul in the traffic o f ;iffection; and if shipwrecked, hn case
, is hopeless - for it is a bankruptcy of the heart.
4 . Wh e n I look upon th e tombs o f the great, ever y emotion of
envy dies in me; when I read the epitaphs of the bea11tiful , every
. inordinate desi re goes out; when I meet with the gr ief of parents
upo n a tombstone, my heart melts with comp:ission; wh en I ~ce
· the tomb of the p:irents the mselves, I conside r the vani ty of g rieving for those whom we must q uickly follow. When I sec kin gs
lying by those who deposed them, when I consid er ri val wits
placed sid e by side, or the holy men that divid ed the world "·ith
their contests a nd d ispu tes, I refl ec t with sorrow and astoni sh ment
on th e little competitions, factions, and debates of mankind .
When 1 read the several <la tes of the tombs, o f some th at died
yeste rd ay, and some six hundred years ago, I consider that gre:tt
clay when we shall all o f us be contempora ries, and make our
appearance togeth er.
5. If they had only tak en pictures then as th ey do now 1- he
said. -All gone! all gone ! No thing but her face as she leaned
on the arms of her great chair; and I would gi ve a h11ndred
pounds fo r the poorest little p icture of her, such as you can buy
for a sh illing of anybody that you do n't w:int to see . - Th e old
gentleman put his hand to hi s forehead so as to shade his eye~ .
I saw he was thinking f his mother.
6. But were I Brutus, and Brutus Antony, there were an Anton y
would ru ffle up you r spirits and put a tongue in every wound of
Cresar that should move the stones of Rome to r ise a nd mutiny.
7. Here the vast bed o f the waters, seamed and scarred into a
thou sand conflicting channels, burst suddenly into fr enzied convulsion - heaving, boiling, hissing - gyrating in gigantic and in-

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POSlTION AND RIIETORIC.

numerable vurt ices, aml all whirlin g and plunging
e:istwa rd with a r:1pidity which water nev e r elsewhe re assum
except in prec ipitous desce nts.
S. They had at thi s time attained
miles a nd a h:tlf, ha \·in g smrnounted the highest strata of clouds.
\\'hat a !'la ce fur two human beings tu fi nd th e m selves in, looking
upon sig hts never bt.:held but hy the sun and m oon, and by eye.
spiri t u:d ! \I.ho is to 11·o nder at :iny e nthu s iasm excited by them?
lt seems to me that if r h:ul bee n there I s hould have felt as if I
had no bus in ess in such a regi on till disembodied; life and death.
would have s.:·cmed to m ee t togt.:ther, and th e ir unit ed wonuers :"
o p pressL·d m e b eyo nd cndmanrc.
9. "I l e blenc hes no t I he iJlen··hcs n(>t 1" s:1 icl Rebe cca. "I
see him no w ; he lead s a ho \h' u f me n c lose under the outer
b:1rri er o f the b :t rl1i ca n. T hey p111l d o wn the piles and palisades;
the y he w d o 11·n the h:uriers \\'it h axes. 1-l is h ig h bl:u·k plume floats
ahro:i d o ver the thrung. like a r:l\'en 01-cr th e fi,·ld uf the slain.
-Tlwy kt\'C ma.de a breach in th e li:irriers - the y rn,.;h in - they
:ire thru s t \Jac k! Fn>nt -dc-lkcuf head.: the defe nders ; I see his
gigantic fo rm above the press. They throng agai n to th e breach,
:i.ml th e pass is disputed h:1ncl lo hand, an d man tn m:i.n. God of
.facob ! it is the m ee ting of two fierce tides -- the con nict of two
oceans l1l1>v e d hy adve r:<e winds ! "
Shf' turned her head fr o m the la t ti ce, :is if 1111 a l1le lo nger to
endure :t sight so tnril 1le.
1o . ,\ ncl th e king 11·as mu ch moved and went up "' the ch:i.mlic r over the g:ttc, a nd wept _: and as he went thus he said, "0 my
so n 1\ hsulDm , my so n, my so n .'\bsolo111 ! Would to Goel I had
di ed for th ee , 0 :\ bsolorn, my son, m:< son I "
11. But wh o arc those who rn:ikc the st reets th ei r couch, and
!l•Hl a sho rt rcp<>'L" fr nm \1TCl<"hed11L''S at the doors of the opulent?
· 1·11 es1: a r c str:rngns, wandcr<''Pi an d orph:rns, who se circum st:m ces
·ire ton hurnl1lc to cx 1w 1·1 redre ss, :mt! ll'hos e distresse s are too
~ reat e ve n for pity . The world h :1s di sc himed them ; society
tmns it s \i:wk upon th e ir dist1-c , s, and has give n th e m up to
n akedne ss and hunger.

QU ALITIE S OF STYLE.
12 . On the barbarians came like an :walanche, a mountain torent, shaking the solid ea rth, and sweeping away every obstacle in
its path . The little army of Spaniards opposed a bokl front to
the overwh elming mass. But n o strength cou ld w1thstaud it.
They falter ed, ga\· e way, were b o rne al o ng b e fore it'. and their
ranks wen..: broke n a nd thrown into disorder. It was m vain the
gene ral c all ed o n th e m to close again and rally. _His voice' was
drowned by the din 0f fight, and the fi e rce cnes ot th e ass:i11ernb.
For a mom e nt it seemed th:it all was lost. The tide of 1_1.tttle h a d
turn ed against th e m, and the fate of the Chri_stians w:ts sealed. ,
' · Th e n f oseph could not refra in him scl t liefore all them tnat
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fstood hy him; and he t"fll'd, ( a11se L'\·cry ni:rn tu gu out <1o>111
me. i\nti there s tn od nu nnn 11·1 th i11111, 11·1iik jusq1li 111:iol c· him -

self kno\\'n unto his brethren . i\ncl he wept aloud; and th e
Egyptians ;ind the hous e ?f l'har;wh h e:u~I. i\nd Jose ph ,;..1id
unto hi s h re!hren, I am j os,· ph; d oth my !:llhn yet li\'e 1 .-\nd
his brethren cuuld not a nswer him; for they ll'ere tro11bled :tt ),j ,,
presence . And J oseph said unto his brethre n, Corne nc:tr to nw, l
pray you. And they ca me n ea r. i\nd he s:11.J, I am .J osephyom
brother, wh o m ye sold into Egypt. Nu w, therefure, be not.gnc,· e< :
. nor angry \\'ith youN:: h-es, th:1t ye sold me hither: for ( ,od d1L1
send me b e fore yo u to preserve life.
r . \ approached the gr;we.
On the coftin was 111:<'"nhed
4
"George Someh, aged tw e nty -six ye.tr, .
The poor 111• •tii<"r harl
been assisted to kneel doll'n at the hc:id of 11. l kr withered
· hands were c bsped, as if in p rayer, hut l could pe rce ive by :i
.feeble rocking of the body, and a co nvulsi\· e motiun of the lij> >.
that she was gazing on the last reli cs o f h e r son , with the yearn-

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ings o f a m o t lier's he a rt.
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Prepar:ttions we re made to deposit the coftrn m the earth . I 11e
bustle around see m ed to 11·ake 11 the m oth n fro111:111rd c hcd r,·,·r-ri:'.
She raised her glazed eyes, arnl louked about with a faint wildn'~" ·
As th e ·men approached with cords to lower th e coffin 111to the
grave, she wrun g her hands, and broke into an ago ny of grief.
As they low ered the body into the ea rth, th e c n ·;t king of the

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CO~!POS I TJO:-i

AND RHETORIC.

cords seemed lo agonize her; but when, on some
obstruction, th e re was a ju st ling of the coffin, all th e tende rness
of th e mother bmst for th ; I co uld see no more - my hea rt swelled
into my th roat - my eyes filled with tears.

QU ALITIES OF l:;TYLE.

253

3. Co mp;:i re your vers ion with the orig ina l to see that )'<H I han:
'caught th e exact ineaning.
4. Criticise your wo rd s, sente nces, pa rag raph s, and figun:s of
speech.
5. Co through the Exerci s<:, de:iling wi1h each o f the parts

111 :1

EXERCISE LXXXV.
RHETOR ICAL ,\>:Ai . \' '.-, l ~ .

1. Jn No. 9 of the precedi ng Ex ercise, g i,·e yoll r
f1>llowing po ints : a . \ \/hat is th e effect o f repeating "hl e rwhes " ?
/1. Would it be a ga in or a lu ~,; to introdllcc a conj un ction
con nective phrase betwee n th e diffcn: nt sen tences?
c. " Close . . . barbican." i\light the mel ody be irnprmied?
rl. "They pllll . .. p::disaclcs." Is th e alliterat ion an advantage('
c. "Like .. . slain." What is the point of th e co mpa rison?
ls the si111ile llserl for ornament o r ill11stra tion) I >oes it make the.
"Ooating o f th e plume" more easily rornp rche nd ed?
f. To \\'hat is the an imat ion of the desc ri ption du e ?
K· " J\fcet.ing . . . \\'ind s." Relll a rk on th e 11 se and
the metaphors. :\ re they he cu min g in the mouth of the speaker ?
Do they su it the sce ne?
Ii. I-Tow d ocs the leng th of the sc nt e nres h::mnon ize with
nat u re of the scene?
i. ,\re the se n1·cnces ::irrangcd in nat nral orde r?
j. ls there a topic se nten ce ? floes suc h a paragraph
o f u ne ?
/.:. Wh:1t fjua li ties of style :uc prcql e nt in the passage?
I. By what devices arc th ese qllali tics brought o ut?

EXERCISE LXXXVI.
R E Pl«l l •l 'CT ION.
J. J\fake yourself fully maste r of the meaning of No. I
Lxe rc ise J.X X .\'.IV.
:z. R e produce the ideas in such language as you can command.

LESSON XLI.
T l! E L UU l ClzOUS.

The Ludicrous embraces those qualities of styl e that st ir the
comic o r minhf11l part of uu r nature. Th ey a ppeal to our fee lings,
bu t chiefly through the rn edi llm o f our intellec t.
Under the term" The Ludicrous" may be corn prised, - Vituperation, S:u irc, Sarcasm, R idicule, Derision, Ra illery, \\' it, I l umur.
Vituperation, whose chief feaLure is in tense , yet rest rained ,
.' denunc i:ttio n, do cs not necessarily provoke mirth. lt m:1y either
condemn its o\Jject to scorn o r hold it up to ridi c ul e.
Satire co nsists in suf'. h a descr iption of the acts ur cha racter of
a p e r,;<Jn as exposes his weak ncsses, fo lli es, or vices, ::tnd thcr<:b}'
lays h im o pe n tu ridi c ule. As its j•11rpose is to rdur rn 111 e 11, it
lays hue only what is rcprehcnsilile in th e manage me nt of liul>lic
· affairs, or what is hbm e worthy in p rivat e morals.
Sarcasm . - \\' hen sa ti re l1eco 111cs ,·indent and den o1 1n<'es with
de ris ion th e character, co ndu ct, o r views of men, it is called
Sarcasm.
Ridi cule consists in making th e failings, errors, or viu:s of men
the subject of good- n::ttnrecl raille ry.
· Derision differs from ridi cul e in Leing ill-nature(l <.nd scornful.
, It is angry d en un ciation un der th e d isgu ise of laughter.
R ai llery is ::t gent le r kind of ridicule, in which a person 1s
made the object of good-humored pleasa ntry o r of slight satire.

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CO~ ll' US I T I ON

ANIJ Rll E TORIC.

QU ALITIES OF ST YLE .

These qualities are rende red effective by, 1. A co mm a nd of suitable language.
,, A vigorous use of striking ti g ures, such as Ant ithesis,
cndo, Epig ra m, Irony.
3. Clearn ess, po intedn ess, a nd s implic ity of language.
4- J>l a usi l.J il ity in the c h:i rge.
5. Origi.nality.
6. \\'it a nd hum or.
\Vrr

A :\ 1• Tl l' ~l<H{.

Wit consists ch ie fly in the discovery o f inco ng ru o us

255
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\Vi t a nd hum o r, mo re, pe rh aps, than any oth er qua lities of style,
are natural gift,;. The y cann ot be a<..:<1u ired; but as th eir effe.:ti1'cness is increase J o r diminished L>y the form in which th ey :Ht,
exp res,;ed , attenti on to language an d to :lll the rul es of cu rr ect
expression ca nnot fai l to sweeten and smooth th e ,·h:111nd through
wh ic h hu11l o r ll uws, ur to point th e Ltngll :tge in whi ch wit <" Orll' cates. Tu l>e effect ive they must, like othn qu aliti es uf ;tyk . l>e
expressed in clc:1r; ch:iste, and suital.Jle language .
Amo ng the ki nds of composi ti o n in whi c h wit a nd hunw r p l: 11·

a prominent part an: : co mbina- ~

t. ions or r elati o ns, o r o f unexpected resembla nces. Two kind s of
wi t m ay l.Je noted : i. The first consists in discove ring :1 po int uf s imi la rit y between
id eas o r objects th at a re seldo m ;i:;suc ia ted , and that ap pear to
ordin~i ry obse rva ti on to be entire ly unlik e.
J\ g n::it part of the ple:tsure <kriv cd fro m su c h wo rks as Don
Q11i.wte arises fr om the lud icrous or absurd s ituatio ns in which
th e charac te rs :t re continually be ing place d .
2. The seco rH.l co nsists in th e discovery of a d ouble meaning
fo r a won.!, in find ing puns; :ts, "Wh e n the Ch ie f Ju sti ce threate ned to co mmit She rid an, t h:it ge ntleman re pli ed, 'It will he the
b est thing yu11 eve r co rnmitt cr l.'"
Jests a re mino r witti cisms, intend ed on ly to provo ke laughter.
The pleasure aris ing from wit is th:tt o f surprise acco mpanied
by :td mira ti o n.
H umor is th at t one wh ic h, ru nning thro ngh :t co m positi on, provokes in the reade r :1 good -natured fee li ng that breaks out in a
smile, so metimes a 1:111gh. 1t :irises from the joining of things that
are in cong ru ot1s, anrl from prese nti ng objec ts and ideas in an od(]
:md unu st1al ligh t. It d ocs n <>l , like wit , hreak o ut and spa rkle at
p oints, but pe rm eates ever v part of th e subj ec t with a ge nial glow
o f d elight. Humo r is always kindl y; it neve r attempts to injure
o r d est roy, but is eve r bathed in s nnpathy or te nd e rness. It
laugh s nut at rnen anJ thin gs, but wi th them.

J. P a rody, in which so me great or se ri o us subj ect is d egraded
by \.Je ing applied to so meth ing uf a li gh te r u r luwe r IL.ttur e . Th e
degratl :tti o n is effec ted by the c han ge of some uf th e wo n ls o f the
orig inal ; as, " To ma rry, or no t to marry, that is th e qu estiu n. "
2 . Trave s ty, whi c h co nsists in disto rting or misint e q ,ret ill ,'. .'.
cha racter o r ac ti o n by g iving it a garb th at disguise; it s re al

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nature.
3 . Mock-heroic, which treats lll t:ctn o r triv ial thi ngs :1s if tl-11·1·
we re o f vast illlpu rtan ce. Pope's R apr ,if ll1t· f11d: is a prul!lin cnt
example.
4. Burlesqu e , whi c h amuses \.Jy rep rese nting a pcrsun as :1 cting
a part that is unsuit ed to his c harac ter, or by plac ing hilll in situati o ns unbecoming !tis ac tual stat iOll in suc iety. Crea! me n m a 1·
\.Je re presented as ac ting base ly, ur base rn e n as ac tin g nobly.

.Jt'.STH ETI C QUALITIFS.

The .'E sth e ti c Q mlities o f styl e are th ose whi c h te lld to 111 ;1ke
discourse g ratifying to our se nse o f the beautiful. Th ey e1nln;1ce
M elody, I-brm ony, Ta ste, :tml Beauty.
1 . Melody, as we have alre:td y se<: n, co nsists in u-,in g th use
d ev ices th a t make language pleasing to th e ear. \\'h e n spoke n
of a whole co mp osit ion, it inc ludes, in add iti o n to th e melod y of
whi c h we h av e spok e n in Lesson XXVII., a <'.O nsitlnation of th"
ge neral cffed u f minu te me lody o n th e writing ta ken ots a whi)k.

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COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.

The melody of the several sentences must blend
anti must be adapted to the su bj ect.
2. Harmony h:1s a varie ty of applications,
important in co111pos ition.

a . It mean s, as p re viously stateu, the adaptation of sound to
se nse .
b. H a rm o ny rc'l uires that all the pa rts of a composition should
co rrespo nd ll'ith 0 11 1.; a noth e r.

(I) Th e Lu1g1iagc should be suitable to the suuj ect, and
expressive of the: feelin gs o f the spe.1ke r.
( 2) The scene should correspond with the ac tions that
pbce in it.

( 3) Th e tone of feeling should be suited to the thoughts ex·
pressed.
(4) The di ffe rent pa rts o f a picture should co rrespond with one
an oth er. It will not do to have a frozen riv e r running through a
ha rv est-fi eld.
See al so what is said o n page 135 .

3· Taste in rh e tori c means cultivated judg ment, a refined
se nsibili ty to the dfects of all th e e xpedi e nts of composition. A
wri te r wh o possesses taste will avoid ll'hatever is harsh and incong ruous. He will have everything c iaste and in keepinrr. His
prnd11 c ti o ns will nut hav~ e xc rescen r,e s un the one hand, ~r gaps
tln the other. Symmetry will be one o f his first excellences. His
dictio n will be c hoice a nd precise, lrnt wi ll be free from mannerism.
1{e .wi ll .not ca rry s tr iking artifi ces to ex cess. Everything coarse
or 111delic:1tc in fi g ure o r allu sio n will lie avoided. Figures of
speech, the adurnn1cnt o f lan1-ri1age, will be used sparingly and
grac efully; no tawdry finery wi ll be worked in; no straining after
effect will be indulged.
The word "t:i.ste" is :li)pli eJ also to compos1t1 on. Discourse
whic h. is s~ wri ~ten as to he pleas ing to a person o f refined lite rary
se ns1bil1ty is sa id to be in good taste.
Th e term " be:u1 ty" is, lik ell'ise, o ft e n used to indicate in a crene ral way the p ossess io n of those qualities that gra ti fy a cult~red
intellect :.rnd rdini:d fe elings.

Q UALITIES OF STYLE.

257

EXERCISE LXXXVII.
THE LUDICROUS.

Dnu:cn o N. - Nam e the featur e o f th <= ludicrous that is prevalent in ea ch
of the Colluwing se11t c nces. Analy ze ea ch feature, and show on what each

depends.

He d escribed a volcano as a mountain with a fir e place in it.
"It was probal.Jle," said th<.; Indian king, as th ey \·i c w1.;d
Westminster Abbe y," that whe n this gr1.;at work was begun, whi ch
. must have Leen many hundred years :igo, there was some religi on
among this peo pl e ; for they give it the name of a temple, and
have a tradition that it was designed for men to pay their dcvo·
tions in . And indeed there are several reasons whi c h make ns
think that th e natives of this country had formerly am ong th e m
some sort of worship; for they set apart every seventh day as
sacred: but upon my going into one of these holy houses o n
· that day, I could not observe any circ umstance of d evoti o n in
their b e havior: there was indeed a man in black who was mounted
above the rest, and see med to utter som ething with a gre:1 t deal
of vehem ence ; hut as for those und e rn eath him, instead o f payin g
their wo rship to the l >eity of the phce, they were most of th e m
bowing :111d courtesying to one another, and a consi1Lrable nu1nher
of th e m were fast aslee p."
3. All the time , l\fr. Winkle, with his fa ce and hand s blue wit h
the cold, harl bee n forc ing a gimlet in to the soles of his fe c:t, an d
putting his skates on with the points beh ind, .and ge ttin g the
straps into a very compli cated all(! entangled state, with the assistance o f Mr. Snodgrass, who knew rath er less about skates than a
Hindoo.
4 . His son was generally seen trooping like a colt at his mother's
heels, eq ui pped in a pair of his father's cast -off gallygaskins , which
he had mu ch a<lo to hold up with one hand, as a fine lady does
I.
2.

her train in bad weath er.
5. An :i.bse nt-mind ed professor, in going out of the gate of his
college, ran against a cow. In the confusion of the moment, he

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CO~IPO S ITJON

QUAL!T ll ·:S UF STYLE

AND !{JIET OR IC.

raised his hat and ex clairn etl, "I beg yom pan lun, madam."
Soon after, he stumbled against a lady in the stree t. In sudden
recollection of his former mi shap, he called o ut, "Is that you
again, yo u brute? "

G. Harrowgate i..; tl1e most hcav cn-fu rgut ten cou ntry under the
su n. \Vh e n I saw it, the re were only nine ma ngy lir-t rees th ere·
and even th ey all lea ne d :rn·ay fr o m it.
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7. . Cranm e r co uld vindi ca te him sc:Jr from the dange r of ue incr0 a
l ierel!c only by a rg11ments whi c h made him out to ]Je a murd erer.
8 . It is th e misfortun e of your life, :rn d orig inally the cause of
every re pro:11; h and di st ress which has attended yo m government,
that you should ne1·e r have Leen acqua inted with th e langu:ige of ,,
truth, until you heard it in the comp bints of yo ur people.
9. Two max ims of a ny great ma n at cou rt a re: alll'ays to keep
his coun ten a nce, :ind never to keep hi s wo rd.
10. "Every other chie f of a p:trty," says C:1r110t, "his found •·
apulugists: o ne set of men exalts the Cirundists, anothe r set
justifies Danton, a th ird Jeifies 1Zobespie rre; but Ba rl:re has
remained without a deft'llller. \\' e venture to sugges t a very
s im ple solu ti on of this phenomenon. :\ II th e o th er c hi efo of
p:irties had som e g11od qu alities; :ind Jfarl:re had none. The
ge niu s, comage, p:1tri oti s111, and h11111:1nity of th<.: Cirondists states111 e 11 more than ato11 e.! fo r wh at 11·;1s <"11 lp;11Jlt: in thl'ir condu ct, and
sh o uld have p rotected them from tht: in su lt of being compared
with suc h a man as H:1rcre . Danton a nd Robespi erre we re indeed
l>;1d me n; but in both uf th e m some i1npo rtant parts of the mind
re mained sound.' Danton was hr:we a ncl resol ut e, fond of pleasme, of powe r, :rnd o f distinction ; with vehem e nt passions, with
lax principles, but with some ki11rl and manly feeli ngs; capable
of great crim es, but capa lJlc also of fr it'nclsh ip and of compassion.
He, th e refore, naturally finds admirers :tmong persons of bold and
sanguine dispusitions. Robespie rre wa s a va in , envious, and suspi cious man, wi th a hard heart . weak ne rves, and a gloo my temper.
H11t we cannot with trnth d e ny that he ll'as disinterested, that his
private life was correct. ur th:H he w~,.; zealous for his own system

of politi cs ::ind morals. H e, therefore, nJt ur::tlly find s ad111ircr'
among hune,,t uut mood y a nd bitter denwc:rats. 1f nu cl:.tss ha,
taken th e reputation uf Jbr<:re trnder ib p~1tru11age, the reasrni i,
plain: Barere h:1d not a singl e virtue, nur even the sernLLrnce
of one."
1 1 . R ailrn.td travell in g is a delightfu l irn11rovt:111ent of hum an
life. ]\fan is become a \;i rd; he can Oy lunger and q11i1 kt:r th.111
a Sola n goose . The rn:unma ru shl's sixty miles in t"·o huurs. t<J
the aching fin ge rs of her cunj ug;ttin g and decli ning grammar h"Y·
The early Scotchman scratc hes !111n st:lf in th <.: mornin g mists of the
North, a nd has hi s po rri dge in l'iccc1dilly b1.:fo1·e th c se ttin g ,,111 1.
12 . "]) u yo u think l shall ha1·e j11stice Jo ne me?" said a culprit
to his cou nsel, a sh rewd Ke ntucky lawyer of th t· best class of that
eloque nt state. " I am a little afra id that yuu will no t," re pli ed the
othe r ; " I see two men on the jury who arc uppose<l to h;111 ging ."
1 3 . Some one threw a head of cabb:ige at a n Irish orJtur wli de
he was mak ing a speech. He paused a second. and s;1id . " ( :e11tlcmen, I asked o nl y fo r your ea rs; I don't care for your heads."
1 . Two sons o f the ( ;reen J.ik , tral'elling , et rne in sight of a
4
gibbe t, ur g~tlluws, in a lonel y lieltl. One of them said to the
other, "Where would yo11 ]Jc, if th:1t gaJJ,,ws had its du e?" "Oh :" he rc·pli ed, "I sho uld lil' tr;ivl'lling alone."
15. I !er f:1ce rc,emlJ!es a congress ;1t th e close uf :t gl'ncr:d
war whe re in al l the me mbers , evt:n to her e y•:s, app e:ir to li :1,·c :l
diff;rt:nt inte rest, and her nosl: and c hin are the on ly parties likt·ly
to join issue.
i6. J'lato kiving defined man to be a Lipetl without feathers,
Di oge nes plucked a rooster and ca rri ed it to PLttu's school, with
the remark, " Here's Plato's man ."
17. Conde :ulmired William III. ; li e also admired his Lip -du:;
18 . You are too seve re on the widow. It is not that she painh
so hadlv; ]>11l, when she has li11i,hcd her f.ttt', she Joins it un " '
badly ,~ith the neck, th a t ,,he lu"k' like a m<.:1Hled slat11e, i11 which
the connoissem may see a t once that the head is rnodt~rn and th e
trunk is antique .

.'

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260

QUALITIES OF STYLE.

EXERCISE LXXXYIII.

. The slanting ligh t of the setting sun quivers on the sea-like
7
expanse of the riv e r. The shivery canes and the tall dark cyp re ss,
hung with wreaths of <lark funereal moss, glow in the gc1lden ray,

i£STHETIC QUALlTIES.

Point out the <cst li etic qualities.
an d rc1nark on th e rhct nrical ga in.
DIRECrJON. -

261

cmIPOSITION AND RHETORIC.

as the h eav ily laden steamboat mar c hes onward.

.
.
.
8. These home scenes are the mothe r-tongue of our 1magmat1on,
the language that is laden with all the subtle inextrica ble assoria ·
tions the fleeting hours of our childhood le ft behmd th em. Om
delight in th e suns hine on the deep-bladed grass to-da y might be
no more than the faint percepti on of wea ried souls, if it were not
for the sunshine and grass of far-off years, whic h ~till live in 11s,
and transfo rm our perception into love . (Are tbe di c ti o n :ind
rhythm beyond the limits of prose? Give reasons for your

Stale to what each is due,

1 . Look not mournfully into the past.
It co mes not back. ·
Wi sely im prove the prese nt. It is thine. Go forth to meet the
shadowy futur e, witho11t fear and with a ma nly heart.
2. Sh e is dead.
l\o sleep so beaut iful :i.nJ cal m, so free from
tr:i.ce of pain, so fair to look upon. She seemed :1 creature fresh
from the h:i.nd o f Cod, and waiting for the breath of life, not one
who h:icl lived :111cl suffered de:\th.
3. The wood I walk in o n this mild May day, with the young
yellow-brown foliage of th e oaks between me and the blue sky,
the white star-flowers, and the blue-eyed speedwell, and the
ground j,·y at my feet, - what grove of tropic p:i.lrns, what strange
ferns, or splendid broad-pe taled blossoms could eve r thrill such
deep and delicate fibres wi th in me as the home sce ne?
4. As he h:tcl sometimes felt, gaz ing up from the deck at mid·
ni ght into the boundless starlit depths overhead, in a rapture o(
devout wond e r at that endless brightness :rnd beauty, - in some
suc h a w:1y now, the cleJ'th of this pure devotio n quite smote upon
him, and fi lled his heart with thanksgiving .
5. April advanced to i\Tay; :i. bright se rene May it was; clays
nf blue s ky, placid s11n shine, and soft western or southern gales
filled up its duration . Lo 1 \\'n od shoo k loose its tresses; it became
oil green, all fl owery; woodland pbnts sprang up profusely in its
re cesses, unnumbe red varieties o f moss filled its hollows, making
11 strange gro11nd-sunshine out of the wealth of its wild primrose
plants.

6. There was nothing to mar her delight in the whispers and
the dreamy silences, when she listened to the light dipping sounds
o f the rising fish and th e gentle ru stlin g, as if the willows and the
fCtds and the wate r had their hal'PY whisperings also.

answer.)
.
. "Willingly," saidst th ou? Ay, as willingly .as wh e n in the
9
Gulf of Lyons, I flung over my me rchandi se to lighte n th e slnp,
while she labored in the tempest -rolied th e seethmg lidlows in
my choice silks, perfumed their briny foam with myrrh :rnd aloes,
enriched their caverns with gold a nd silver work. (Are the figures

-.'•

too abundant?)
. When I married him, the bald spot on his he ad was not
10
much bigger than a silver dollar. Now the top of his head is. :is
sm oo th anrl dean as one of om Ch ina dinner-plates; and if a
/iorse -jockev was to try to judge of his age hy looking at his tuth,
he wo uld b~ baffled, not because he has no ne, but l.Jccau'e they
are like hen's teeth, few and far between. Hut still pure love tn umphs over lost te e th and vanished sandy hair. There is not ~ rn:m
reasons why the figures
on ear tl1 wn' 0 looks. so
. goocl to me · (Give
.
do or do not, meet your views of the requirements of taste.)
1
The winding river aleamed like silver far below, the sh:trlO\\'S
l l.
I:'>
•
l
o-athered over mountain and valley, ancl a solem n awe l1ilcd t ie
~oul. Down, clown as far as the eye co uld re:ich~ th e. mi ghty
·
t ·
) over "'«1gant1c
torren t rushed an<i. tum 11
J ccl ll1 grea JUl11] s
·
· rocks
that Juv e broken away from above, and settled in th e narrow he.J.
(Point out the cause of th e melody in the first sentence, and of
the harmony in the second.)

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262

CO~ ! POS I TION

L ET T ERS.

A:'\D R ll ETO R !C.

12. The D11ke o f Ticrlfo rd is the lc \·i :Hha n am o ng all the crea.
tmes
, .(If the
. <'ru
. ll'
. n · JI~'-' t um Ii les abu u t h .r,; u nwie ld y bulk . h .
pl:i}S .111d lrul1 cs Ill the oce:m of the roya l bou n ty
H
' he
IS .tlld ll' h iJc h, ]" , . "n
.
. uge ast C
'.
.
t: lt:s,
oat1ng mall}' a rood " he ,·s st1· 11 .
If
J . I · Ii
.
'
· ·
a crea ure.
is i 1 1s, its rn s, his wha le bon e, his l1lubbc r t he
. I
,
ve ry sp1rac es
ti ·
I I·
11m1;:: l w llC 11 1i e spo uts a tor rent of l>rin e ·w ·1i11•t 11 1· · - . .
d
· ·
II
.
· ,.,. ·•
s o n gm an
<"OV< r~ n_ie a over ll'1th th e spray, - e\·c ryt hing o f him and ~bout
hrn~ is ''.om the thru '.1c . (Inqui re whether the viwpe ra ti on oes
hq o n• I die bounds o f good t:i ste.)
g
I .)·
,
These
r
· ' Oil r ':l c: t ors, : 1 ~ r 1•Jrctolcl
1·o u were ~!! . · ·
d
I I ·
·
· '
" sp in ts an are
i~~. le< into ;ur, into t hin air. :\ 11d lik e th e base less fahr i;, of thi
'i,s1on, the clu11d -c a pped to ll'crs, the g•lrgc ous pa laces, th e

solem~

tem~l ~ s, th?. g r ea t_ g lobe itself, yea, all which it in he rit, shall clissol'\ ~ ' .rnd, 11ke this u nsubs tanti a l p:igc::int faded le:i.ve
t .
k
hen1nd
( I > ti
.
' ·
no a roe
1 h:i. r111on11.c
;,
o_ ie wons_
wit h t he tho ug ht?)
q.
Meth mk s I see rn my mind :i. noble :i.nd
...
.
rou s in;:: herself lik ,
.
·
p ui ssa nt nation,
. . '. , I I .
e a stro ng ma n afte r sl ee p, and shaki ng her
mvrnuu
c uc ks; methinks I .sce
..
Iic, r as. .1n eagle m ewmg
.
.
her
1
m1 g ity youth, a nd kindlin g he r u nd azzlcd eyes :i. t th " ~ II
. ·id
bc ·un· j>tlr•,·i
I
c ll
ll1i l ay
,
'
b 11 g anc uns eal ing he r lo 1w-· Liluse1 l s·1~ l i t . t ti
r
.
·l · If f I I
,.., · ·
· g . t 1e io untam
J sc
o t 1c ic:tven ly rarli :111 cc i wh ile the ll'h ole no ise oft.
and n ·k·
l · I
·
·
1rnorous
uc rng Jin s. \\'1 th those also th a t lo1·e t he twilig ht flutt
:1 I 1011t, am:i1.e d at what she mc·rns
~11 I lJ1
. tiie1.r e 1w 1o
. us ' gabbler
.• . ' " (
wo uld pr'.'g nostica te a ye:t r of sects an d sc hi sms."
th e lang11. ige h:mnun1zcs with t he thought.)

Show thae1
(

LESSO N XUI.
L E' lT ElZS.

A
•

Letter is a wri tte n co mmun icati o n sent h y o ne person to

anothe r.
Importance. - T o people in general the re is no part of com·
positio n so im por ta nt as lcttc r -ll' ri t ing. :\ lmus l cvery pe r~un ncL·ds
to m ak e use o f it at some t ime in his life . I n fact, it is the
only kind o f com p os ition that m ost peo ple evn wri te . It sho~1ld,
therefo re, recei 1·e a due sh:i. re of atte ntio n in a n y course uf instrw tion int e nded to fit yo ung peo ple fo r th e practi cal tl11ties of life .
Kinds. - Letters are ge n c r:1ll y c\asseLI und e r two heads, Famili:i.r T.etters a nd l111s iness Letters .
Form. - In the form of a lette r t h e following points rcq111 re
atte nt io n: t h e H ead ing , th e i\d.l res;;, t he Body o f the Letter, the
Co ncl usio n, a nd t he Supe rsc r iption.
t. The Heading con s i~ts o f tw o p:uts, ( r) the plac e, ( 2) the
elate .

a. In le tters wri tte n fro m a small t own, vill age , o r c:o un try
place , the na m e of t.he post-office :incl o f th e state i" suffici e nt :
but in writin g fro m a c it y, th e str ee t a nd th e .l oor-11 t1111l1er sho11lcl
be g ive n, as we ll as th e n am e o f the c it.y an d of th e stale . Som<>
tim es the name of a hote l o r pul1lic institut ion is used instead <)f
th e stree t and d oo r -n um be r.
b. The date co nsists o f the m o nth, th e cl ay o f t.h e m o nth, :' "'!< ~
th e yea r. J\ Lh re1·iations are com m o nly used; as D ec. i oth, 1889 ,
or 10th D ec ., 1 889 .
c. The h e:i.ding sl:rnd s at suc h a d ista n ce fr o m the top of the
pa ge, ::in cl fro m the ri ght edge , as good t::iste m ay dic tate . It m:iy
co ns ist o f one , two, or three lines. \\·he n 1he r c a re mo re tha n
one , the date occup ies o n e line, a n<l t h e lin es slo p e to t he righ L
(See ~peci1 11e n s. )

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c o~r rO<; JTr o :-.:

LETTEHS.

J\?\D HllETO R! C.

4. The conclusion consists o f ( 1) the Complime nt a ry Close,

2 . The Address h as fom pa rt s : ( r) the n :tnH.' ; ( 2 ) the title;
(3 ) the p lace o f bus111ess, or the resid rnce; (4) th e sa lutation.

( 2) the Signat ure .
a . Th e co nc lus ion begins on th e n e xt line b elow th e body of

a . Th e a ddress s tan ds o n the left, be ginn ing on th e next line
bel o w the heading.

the lette r, its parts slope to the right, and the last words st:tnd ::i
little di st:rn ce frvm the right edge of the she e t.
b. The co mpl im entary close co ns i; ts u f som e wo rds uf at tachment or of r e~ p c c t a nd sho uld always c orrt' spvnd with the s:tlu tati on . l 'o 11 n lr11()', T n rli· ..ro11 r s, Youn u spcrljit!l r, } ;!Irr Jn o1d,
Yours J1i//ifu!ly, Your obedient scn.v11I, anJ many vther s11 cli

/J. Th e first tw o parts :ire wri tte n on the first lin e , the thirJ part
o n the seco nd li ne , a nd the fourth o n the su n :ccd ing line. These
hnes may. a ll slo pe to th<: rig h t, o r th <: Ii rsl tw o 111:1y slope and the
th 1rd beg 1n 11 nder the Ii rst.
r . The tit le s houltl he a p prop ri:i.tc to th e pe rso n addressed.
Th ose co mm o nl y use d arc : T o th e na m e o f :i yo ung lady, Miu
is prcfi xe l ; o f :t m arri ed lady o r wid ow, Af rs . ; o f a lad , Alaster;
o f a man wi t ho ut spec ial title, 3/r. ( with its pli1ral A/essrs. for
more th:i.n o ne man) . In stead of .l/r., Esr;. a ft e r th e name is frequen tly used, an d is co nsid e red pre fera b le in :idd ressing men in
11be r::i.l p ro fessio ns. To the n:unc o f a cle rgy ma n is pre fixed Rro.
o r R ev. Ai r. ; if he is a D oc tor o f Di vi n it y o r o i llledic ine, R ro.
Dr. o r R ev. m ay be wr itt en be fo re the na me a nd D .D . or M .D.
a fte r it. Wh e n a pe rs o n has a profess io na l title
.
' a s Dr., Pres .,
C rj>I. , Col. , Prof , it sh ould h e used . .//011. st:rnds befo re the
nam e o f :i. cab inet office r, :i. me mbe r of Co ng ress, o r o f the state
legi,; J:i.ture , a judge, o r a m ayo r.
Jli .< R.1"u /ln1ry precedes the
name o f th e P resid e nt, a g ove rn or, o r an :i m bassa dor. The Preside nt of the U nit ed Sta tes is add re ssed si m ply , )fr. Prn i den t.
d . The salutation sho uld h e in kee ping with the title as well as
wi th the. write r's relation to the o ne aclclressecl. It may be Sir,
D,·11r ·'.""• fa.(I' dear .Sir, 1l!1rila 111 , .Do1r Jl f1u!a111, Jl.fy t!n tr Jlfarlam,
R n•. ::,,r, D,-ar Jlfr. 1l/o/1rr~1· , .Ill)' dea r Jl/r. Afoberly, Dear
Afil!J', e tc .

. '°.· 1n bus iness lette rs
m chca tecl in (11 ) , but in
usua ll y s tands al o ne at
:1dd ress is pb c ed belo w

the who le add ress is ge nerally written as ,
fa rnili:ir and ufli, ial le tt e rs the salutation
the beginning, and th e remainder of the "
th e co1H:l11 sio n o n the left side .

3 · The Body of the Lette r foll o""s at th e encl of the salutat ion, a nd o n the sa me lin e , if th e :i d dre ss occ upies three or four
iines; o th e rwise, o n the lin e be low it.

0

term s are used.
c. Th e sig na ture co nsists of the full na me of th e write r. \\'i th
friend s, the initials oi th e C hris t ian na me may be ust: d . In wri ting to
a strange r, a lady sho uld pl:tce (M/_;;·) or ( J'd n-. ) befo re her sign.1t11re .
5. The superscripti0n 1 or add ress o n the env e lope, Ins thre e
parts: (1) the name; ( 2) the title ; (3 ) th e place of l> usi ness, or
th e resid e nc e.
a. Th ese sho uld b e th e same as in the :1ddress, with such add itional particulars as to the st re e t, d oo r-numbe r, c ity, sta te , as wi ll
ensure the safe d e live ry of the le tt e r.
b. T he nam e should be wr itte n abo ut the mi ddle of the e nvel o pe ,
and th e ot he r ite ms shou ld slo pe to th e ri ght a s in th e ad dress, so
th a t th e last word e nd s nea r the right c orner. Thus: -

. ...

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Jl (f,'();JI/ :J,_

Jc11 EJ, V- r!lo.,
7.} !i't>bJ, c'li.
/37_,0{'l:l71'J/
I

I

of .

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266

co~rPO S ITI ON

AND RHETORIC .

Familiar

LETTE RS.

· Mrs. Smith reques ts the pleasre of Mr. and Mrs . Gamb le's
ompany on n e xt Tuesd ay eve ng at eight o 'clock .
''· 38 Pin e St reet, :\u g . 5t h .

M r. and Mrs. Gam ble accep t
with pleasure Mrs. S mith's kin d
invitation for next Tu esday
eve nin g.
1 07

Maple Street, Aug. 5th.

busin ess le tt e rs, th e chief rcq ui ,;it cs
As few words as poss ible
ould he used , and a ll irre leva nt matte r om itted . :\ re ply to a
tter sh ould follo w the orde r therein, and should disc 11 ss ea c h
ibj ec t separately. C:::i re mu st be taken to word eve ry se nt ence
th a t th ere can be no possi bility of mistaking th e m ea nin g .
Capitals and Punctuation. - Th e gene ral rnl es are th at
every im po rta nt word begins with a ca p ita l, all it e ms a re fo ll o wed
· y commas, and th e whole of each p a rt is closcll by a pe riod .
he salutati o n is, h oweve r, follo wed by a comma and a dash,

re clearness, n e atn ess, arnl brevity .

co nversation, the lang uage sho ul d be clear, vigorous, and collo·
quial. i\ll str;iining aft er effec t, all elaboration o f diction, all far· '
fetched o rn a me n ts a rc ou t o f plac e a nd lesse n th e reader's pleas.
ure by leaving the impressio n tlut th e letle r was not sent simply
out of fri endsh ip, as is professed, bu t for some other obje<: t, pre·
'su mahly the g lorificat io n o f the wr ite r. All suc h manifestations
o f self-inte rest fr eeze th e fl ow of trnc fr ie nd sh ip, and tra nsform·
le tte rs int o co ld and fo rmal ess;1ys. A s essay,; th ey may possess
all the excellences of sup e ri o r co mp ositio n ; ye t th ey lack the
touc h of natme th at h in ds heart to h ea rt. In say ing this, it is not
meant th ::i t th e style shou ld lie ca reless a nd slove nly, that no
attentio n is to he g in~ n to nl":tt nc,;s and b eauty, th a t all wit, hum or,
and lil' cl in css are to he e xc l11dcol. On th e co ntrary , let there be
:i ll o f th ese q11:di ties :ind c h:u actcr isti cs possibl e, hut let the m be
s11c h :i.s 11:1t11r;1ll y s11ggcs t thcmsch-es ; not t he rcs11lt o f effort, but
the spo nt a neo us 011Lilo w of sy mpa thy, a nd th e promptings of a
wa rm a nd :1ffectio n:tte nat ure . In le tt e rs o f true fri e ndshi p the
hear! is the han d ma id, not the mistress, o f th e h eart. Lastly, let •
it be ohs<:rvcd th:tt tl1 o ug h the predominant fea tnre of the style
of famil iar lette rs is 1nt11 ra lness and ease, ye t from th e varie ty of
subjects tint nny he in trud uced. t h e general rnl es o f composition
ap ply a nd should in rlue suhonlin:1t io n exe rt th e ir prope r influ ence.
Notes of Invita ti on. - Form :1l n otes a re writte n in the third
perso n, a n<l are without hca <ling, introdu c ti o n, o r conclusion.
The nam e o f th e plaC(' :i nd th e d:1te arc writt l" n a t th e bottom at
the le ft sid e of the p:ige . T he a nswe r s ho uld be as nearly as
possible in the sa me form as th e o rigina l n o te, thus: -

ome tim es hy a colon.

493 J effe rson Ave .,
Detroit, l\lich.,
Au g . 8 1 1 793.

I a m, my <l ear Sir,
Eve r most a ffe c tionate ly yo urs,

GEO.

C ANNI NG.

hilip T o wl e r, Esq.,
Findlay, 0 .

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268

-.:OMPOS ITION AJllJ) J{HETOIUC.

LETTERS.

r 62 S. C lark St.,
Chicago, I ll.,
May 5, i 889.

3 8 2 Pe nnsy h'ania St.,
Buffa lo, N. Y.,
May r r, r8II.
D earest E dward, -

I a m, yo ur k indes t bro ther,
J O HN \VII .SON.

E . H. Black, Esci.,
C hi cago Th eo. Se minary,
45 Warren Ave.,
Ch icago, Ill.

-------M essrs. Ha re & Smith,
Pit tsbu rg, Pa.
Ge ntl e men, - .

297 Washington St.,
Bu ffal o, N.Y.,
May 9, 1889.

essrs. J ones & Co.,
D en ve r, C ul.
G entleme n, - H aving set up in business here wit h prospec ts of good ~uccess, I des ire tu ope n an ac count with your house,
:and tru st it wi ll be to our mu tual advantage . With this vie w, I
enclose o rd e r to be fill ed with th e least poss il1le d ela y, ~ nd on
your lowes t te rms. /\ s thi s is a first transac ti o n, upo n th e rece ipt
· of th e in vo ice, less the discount for cas h, l will se nd my c hec k fo r
the a m o unt.
Referring yo u to l\iessrs. H ende rso n & Co ., o f this place,
I a m, gentleme n,
Yours respectfully,

w.

L.

ST E V EN~ .

EXERCISE LXXXIX.
L E"ITERS.

\Ve re m ain ,
Yo ur obedi ent servants, ·
' 1'11 n~ 1 s() N & Co.

300

J.C.

lfamburg Ave.,
Pat erso n, N .J.,
June 8, 1888.

Sel ove r, Esq.,
75 N ew St., Ne w Yo rk .
I )ear Sir, - .

I am,
Yours truly,
A. L. L EWIS.

Drn Ecn oN . - \Vrite th e fPll uwi ng in th e pro per form of a lett er as illus. l{aktl in th e spec im ens. t;i"e attentiu n tu th e pusitiun ui the parts, to
. capit als, pu nctu atiu n, an d all oth er pu ints.
1. 249 n ass~ m st. ha rnilto n o a ugus t 10 th 1891 messrs moss
james & co rich mond n y gentle me n .. .. . . . . . . we renn in gentl emen y() urs resp ec tfu lly harpe r he ncl e rso n & co.
2. was hin g to n d c marc h r 4th r 890 my clea r son .... . . .. . . .
your fath e r he nry j::i meso n san111 el ja meson 97 fifth st c inc inn a ti.
3. brookl yn april 21 st 189 r gentle me n .. . ... . ... you rs obedientl y mill s & tilton to messrs c m oore & co roo 45th n y.
4. Write a lette r to a supposed cousin, And rew Ki ng, a t 169
Jeffe rson Ave nu e, D e troit. Date th e le tter at your own ho me.
5 . Illustra te th e fo rm o f a letter to Mess rs. J o nes, Sm ith, & Co.,
.T ole d o , O hi o, remitting a chec k. Date th e le tt e r a t your p lace
of business.

I

(

COMPOSITION AND IOiETO!<IC.

THE PLAN.

271

from point to point 111 the s11bject. Ample time shoul.\ l><' g 11cn
to making a simple, clea r, and logical framework.
LESSON XLIII.
\Vhen the material is all under the <.:ye in the form o f notes,
search it carefully for the leading thoughts. lk su re you do not
rank as princ ipal, an y of th e thoughts that may be classilieJ und e r
some one of the general heads . See th a t no point is allowt:d L"
Invention means finding out wh:it to
appear twi c e, di sg uised under different wo rd s. If yo11 lind any
which to a rrange what is said.
points that at first seem relevant, \Jut o n furthe r co nsidera ti on, an;
The Difficulty. - In the former pa rt of this work, we haye
not so, throw them out without hesitation .
spoken chielly o f th e dress in whi c h our thoug hts a re clothed, now
In every kind of discourse the question of ordt:r is vital. l\ci
we come to spea k of the thoughb themselves and o f the methods
. subjec t can Le written out clt:arly u nless the fra1!lework is n:gub r
o f d isc ou rse. \\"ith you ng writers, this is th e m ost <lifficnlt and
and symmetri\' al. There is :ilways one orde r that is superior to
discouraging_ pa rt of co mp osi ti o n. \\"hen tht:y han: th oughts, as
all others. Study your material till yo u find it.
111 co nve rsati on o r m Ietter-\\'riting, they c: 111 al ll':i ys manage to
Amplification. - W hen the 1naterial has been arra ngt:d undn
exp ress them 111 so me way. JJ11t how to get tht: thuughts? how
the
diffne nt heads, the next thing tu he done is t1J tre:it c·;11 ii
lo t eH what tu s:ty? that is th e rea l ditti c ulty. The following
head
as a separate s11l1ject, \Jut also as funning part of a whuie.
hm ts, 1f ca ref11lly atte nd ed to, ""ill affo rJ so mt: assis ta nce.
In
thinking
thest: ove r, nu te dull"n caref11lly, as befure , a ll tl1 .:
How · to begin . - \\' hen a s11hject has been selected, the
thoughts that a rise; seek for illu strations of the ma in idea in
stud e nt mu st set to work to think o,·cr it. :\s thoughts come into
the topi c, and of each tho ught or ,·iew that it co nta ins. Find
the mind he should nott: them d own. It is not necessa ry to
also, if you ca n, some apt quotation by whi c h your puint nn y
wntt: them out 111 full, b1 1t merely to ma kt: s11t"h a nott: of them
be enforced. \\'h e n all the thou g hts and illu strations that G lll lie
as will enabic him to recall them when need ed.
obtailled a re no ted down, begin to arrange th em in log ical urder.
How to_ get Thoughts. - \\'he n thoughts do not come, they
Th e n in lh <"1 g ht rc\" iew the whol e :1 g:1in and :1 g~ i11, till tlw mind
ca n somet1mes be drawn out by :is king H ow? \\'h en? Why?
has mastered every pa rt o f it and is in a nunncr filled wi1h it.
Where? Then, :igain, ideas may lie found by co nversing with
When this is done, all is ready to l1egin the labor o f \\"riting out.
µeople who know sonwth in!{ of the subjec t; they may also be
Form. - Every th e me, when complete, co nsists of three parts
gathered fr om th e wo rks uf th ose who h:l\"e written on the same
- the Introdu ct ion, the Discussion, and the Conclusion.
or on similar subjects. Th e learner should always think over
Th e Introduction usually consists of two parts. Th e first part
what is acquired in this w:iy ancl try to make th e though ts his
contains one or more sentences th:it prt:pare the w:1y for the
own, so th:it when he comes to express them, he may be able to
do so in his o wn language.
second part. This cons ists of a statement of the proposition u r
Construction. - Aft e r all ~,·:iil:1l>le nntcrial has Leen col- ~ subject to h e di scusse d. S n rnetirn c ~ tl1c two parts arc c01nb i11cd,
kc~ed, and th e s1d1jcct has been thought o ve r till it is fairly
. or the fir~ t part is omitted altogether.
The I liscussion is the mt:th odical development of th<.: propusiunoerstood, the next thi ng tu do is lo :1 rran ge the matter un der
ti on . This ~h u uld grow n: 1t11 rally fr o m th e leadin g thu11 ght, "nd
distin c t heads'. Usua lly it is "'e ll to have L11t fe w divisions; they
~hould proceed o n a well arrang_
e d plan.
sho uld lie <.:n tm.:ly- ":p:tratc, :rnd should kad nat11rally and easily

272

The Conclusio n is that part of discourse by which it is prop
erly compl e ted. It may be use d to repeat the chief points, ttr
1·emove d o ubts, to explain difficulties, to enlist sympathies, or
to strengt he n conv ictions. In it the most elaborate expressions
may be used ; t he last se ntence should be one of such finished
beauty that it will linger in the hearer's mind.
Writing out. - It h:1s bee n said tha t teac hers never can be
gooJ writers, l1cca11 sc their mind is so much set on correctness
of funn, th a t th e warmth of feeling is ch illed, and the flow of ideas
is cramped. There is rn11 c h truth in thi s, :is a ge ne ra l proposition:
lf the mind is trammelled with rnl es and formulas, it does not acf
with fr eedom, but \Yit h a stiffn ess that mars th e beauty of the
producti on. In vie w of thi s fact, it will be found best to wri te on
as freely :rnd rap idly as the th oug hts come to th e mind , without
paying mu c h a ttention to the words used , to the rhetorical form
of the sentences , to g rammati ca l rul es, or to anything except the
exp res:1io n of the th ought. It is a good p lan to write the lines
some di st:tnce apa rt, so as to allow space for interlining.
Review. - J\fter the whole essay, or any one of th e parts, has '
been written out, read it ove r care fully to see if all the thoughts
have been expressed, and expressed in the prope r place, as well
as in the most suitable ma nn e r. If th e first writing seems generally 11nsatisforto ry, re write th e whole again, and even a third time.
Suc h labor will be ampl y re paid.
Crit icism. -After th e wri ting 011t has bee n fini shed, the work
o f c riti cis m should begin. In this pa rt of the task, the following
points sho uld receive du e attention: i. The speiling and the grammatical structure of the sentences
should be c:i refull y examined .
2 . The words employed should be examined under the rules
la id down fo r Dicti on.
3. The se nt ences should be closely consid e red, to see whether
they conform to a.ll the princ iples that gove rn the Forma tion of
Sentences.
4. The fi g ures of speec h sho uld lie examined to see th:it they
:ire well co nce ived and :1pprnpriate .

273

THE PLAN .

COMPOSI TION AND RllETORIC.

5. In c riticising the illustrations and qu otations, one should
·inquire whe th er they uring out or enforce the exact points that
are to ue made clear or prominent.
6. Nu wo rd or form of expression should Lie repeated so frequently as to m:.ike the style stiff or mon o tonous.
7. Th e se nte nces must 1.Je smooth ly a nd log icallv connected
with one anoth e r, :rnd pro perly mark ed off into par:1g raphs.
S. The paragraphs must ]Jc joined so as not to break up the
continui ty of the writing .
.;

LES SO :N XLIV.
l'H.AC rI CE l N

CO ~!l'OSIT!O>i.-A

l'ARAC:RAl' l L

As we ha ve pre\·iously seen, the para g r ~tph is a complete co mposition. No w, all discourse consists only of a number of p:u:tgraphs, prope rly arranged and co nn ected ; hence, whe n a person
has learned to wri te one paragraph correctly, he has in some sense
mastered th e :irt of composition.
Since the p:iragraph is the n ext brge r division of d iscourse after
the sentence, it follow s that, wh en one has learned ho w to wri te a
sentence, the next st e p is to learn how to fo rm a par:1gr<lJih.
In orde r to make thi s part of the su bj l'.ct as pr;tct ical as puss ible, it is pro posed to go through the co nstru ct ion of a num ber of
paragraphs, as produced in the ordin:try course of school work .
FIRST

EXAMPLE.

The cbss are requ es ted to write a paragraph o f four or fi,· e se ntences on "The Importance of Farming." To assist th em the
folluwing hints are given : -1. Th e p:ir:igraph is to consist of three p:irts: a topic sentenc e.
reaso ns why " farmi ng is important, " a nll a conclusion.
z. As th e fi r,;t sentence contains the ge ne ral statement, the

; .

274

COMl'O S!TION ;\;-;]) 1-a!ET OJU C.

TllE !'LAN.

thought h::is n ot to be sought fur; th e form of expression
th at is nece ssa ry to fin J .

is all .

SECOND PARAGRAP H.

F'an11i11g is A 11 lmporld 11 I /11il1tsltJ'·

th

3. The b oJy of tht• paragraph will co nta in the statements
gu t o es t:i.blish the topic, tu il lus trate, ur to enforce it.

Fanning is an important ind ust ry n o t on ly
t o th e far111 e r, but to the whole cu1 1rn111nity.
The farmer not o nly wurks fur himsell :ts Sdme

w

4. Tu find the ,e :1 s k yours c ll, To whom is it im porta nt?
1s it im po rt:.tnt? \\.hy is it i1np0Tt:1nt? How c:in I illustrate eac

p

o r any of the se points?

5. J .astly will come a refle c tion funning the con c lu sion.
After :i.11 the exi:rciscs :i re brought in, re:.td , a nJ mark ed, two
se lec te d, pla cd o n the Ll:i cklio:iril , and c riticised with the as.'I'
:.tnce o .f the class. Th e n these tll'O parag raph s are given to
w hole class to stu dy, co rrect, and re turn.

lbei

p

n

p

I)

Cap

The m::irks o n the margin arc rnaJc to indic:ite the
for improvem e nt.

Tl
}'

• C::ip

p

};;1rmi11g if An l 111por/1111 / i11tl11stry

D
\\'

D

.

emp loyment for the j)OOr laboring tne!'I ·
during the year. It increases navigation
much by shipp ing gr::ii n to o ther coun~
where they grow n o n e. It prov id es food and
I S a1:

veif

D
K

Ex

St
I)

Cap

(;r

\\I

p

othe r thin g' that are necessa ry to keep u~ 1 ,
it w:i' not for the far mers h ow would the cit. ' ;. .
or tu11·11 people I i1·e. Since farming is th e~

u

\V

indu st ry g() ing the p eop le that are n ot fnrmett

c

should help th e farme rs as mu c h as

\V

st in gy men do who clt:sp ise the f:irmer , l•ut he
works for the lienefit of o thers . lt Ii.is l;tTn
well s::i id t hat the farmer is ~• sl::tve :ind :1lso a
patr io t tu his co11 ntry. T h e farmer is t he chief
m ember of business :rnd as th e rnarn s11n ng of
a watch keeps the uther members J[) 1n o tiun
so the farmer l.Jy his incessant toil keep s the
1.iu sin ess world Ill rn o tion. Thu -; ll'C sec, ir it

~:

i~ i

was n ot for the farmer th e world would soon
l.Je in a sad cond iti o n.

1:;

..

The following are two of those re turne e!.

It is w ell known to eve ry perso n that farmins:
is one of the licst indust ri es in the world. h.

\V

275

they could.

*For explan ation of th t: symlJols used , st.·c "Correct ing Compos itions.'' belolr, -:.

Ji:1r111i11g is a11 l111por/a11/ lnilustry.
Farming is one o f th e ch ie f indu stries in th e world.

l t fur -

nishe s employment for l::tboring men. It inc r eases th e cominerce,
the wealth, and the pow e r of a co untry. For example, the ship-

..

i :

ping t rade exists c hi efly tu ca rry produce fr o m one co11ntry tu
another. lly it, food and other necessa ri es of life arc supplied.

If it were not for the farme r h o w would the c ity people I i1 e?
Since farming is so imp o rtant, it sh o uld r ece iv e eve ry enco u ragement fr o m the State.

f

i

!

i

S1·:C01'D PARA CR APH R E\\'R l"lTEN .

Fanllillg is 1111 l111por/a11/ l11 d11st1y .
Farming is an important indust ry n o t o nl y to th e fan.-1er, b11t to
' the ent ire cornmuni ty. T he farmer works h o th for himse lf and
His is the fo undati on of :dmust evt'rV other industry.

'•;

1,.,

'I

!

''-1'

, '

CO ~l POS ITI ON

TllE !'LAN.

AND RHETOIUC .

1\ s the m :ii nspring o f a watch keeps the other pa rts in rn ocion,

so th e farm e r by his incessa nt toil keeps th e business world
moving. Indeed , it h:ls Leen we ll said, "The farmer is a slave
and a pa triot to hi;; country ." So we see, if it we re not for the
fa rm e r, :11l othe r industries wot1IJ soon come to a stand -s till.

.In this instance the them e, " \\'hy is I .:1bor Necessa ry ?" is
g ive n to th e c lass with the same ge neral instruc ti o ns. The questi o n, What shall for m the subo rdinate head s of th e paragraph?
is then disct1sscd. It is asked, Why is labo r nc cc ss:i ry? Va rious
a nswers are give n. These :tre all written d o wn, :1nd from among
them the follo win g are selec te d as subo rdinate heaJs : 1.

In orde r to obta in a living.

2.

For th e prom otion of health.

3. To bri ng forth the frnih o f the e:uth .
4 . T o develop manufactures and arts.

Of the paragraphs written, one is he re selected. Tt is marked
:1s in the marg in, and retu rn ed to Le rewritte n. Below are the
original and th e improved copy.

~'for,"

Cle. , not:\ reason.

Already indu Jed S

I,
l\t ak c bo th parts

w

of s;lm e c~ tr.

W

S

Inc

in c rease, for manufac tures :md agricultnre ca nnot. be c arri e d o n with out the constant c mplr1y ment of iarge numbe rs of men. Thu s it wo1il d
be impossible to live were it not fo r th e Li bo r
of so m e , and impossible to enjoy life nn lcss we
ourselves do a certain amount of work .
REWRITrFN .

IVltJ' La/Joris i Veccssa1y.
The re are vations reaso ns why eve ry one must labor. In the
fir st place, m ost people are depend e nt on th e ir own exe rti u ns fu r
a livelihood ; to them idleness m ea ns po verty, a nd pe rh .11,,; ,1.trvati o n. Further, our Loclies are so fo rm ed that they c11111ut be
v igorous 1mless e mploy e d in labor, e it her vo luntary or cnf\lrn·d .
La!Jor is, therefore, essential to hc:ilth, the great source or happiness ; ind eed, the idl e are the most miserable, both in l>< Hly :rnrl
in mind.
Besides, mu c h labor must be pe rform e d hl'fu rc the
earth will yie.kl her inc rease; no r can manufactures, or, in short,
any industry b e carried on without the co ntinued toil o f large
numLers of men. Thus, it would ]Je impossible to live with out th e
lahor of the many, and equally impossible to enjoy life with out
doing some kind of work.

i V!1y La/Jor i.I' l\'cressmy.

\V
P

Th ere arc many re:1sons why e very one must
do a cert:iin amount of labor. In the first
C
place there :ue :i great many people who could
Trt
not oLtain a livelihood were it not for the work
Jl P W
Cr we do, :ind to th ese idleness wo uld mean povSt P
crty and pcrh:ips sta rvation. In the next place
T oo formal
P Ind it is essent ial to good health and happiness,
HaJ'piness is tie·
for the m os t miserable pe rsons are generally
veu<le nt 0 11 J, c" hh.
fo un d to he th ose who are must mchned to
.. Fl' r," e tc ., is 11ot .

• reaso n ror wlu•
precedes.

EXERCISE XC.

St

ll
\V

f
l

.

.

.

lazmess.
B esi d es tl11 s, much labor must be
pe rfo rm ed lJefo re the ea rth gives forth her

\V RJT ING PARAGRAl'll S.
DIR l'.C l'loN. - Note the directions g ive n in th e prec eding Lesson, and th e n
write a paragraph on each of th e fullowing sulije cts. Lay your exercise asid~,

and the 1it.:x t day c rit ic ise it cltiscly und e r Diction, Formation of ~ c ntt: nc c ~,
Const ruc tio n of Paragraphs.

Aft e r this is done, write it ove r, inse rting y11u r

em e ndatio ns.

Pleasures of Spring.
The Ev il of War.
3. Unity is Strength.
• 4 . The Importance of the Period of Youth .
1.

2.

';;"

TllE P LA N.

COMl'O S ITI ON A NO I<ll ETO J<I C.

5.
6.
7.
8.

Th e Diffe re n ce between Labo r a nd Exerc ise .
\\' e n e ed Rest.
T he Ben e fit of Adversity.
!'la lle ry i:; :\ g ree:1blc.
9. i\folll:y is a good Fr iend.
1 0. Virtu e is its o wn R e ward.
I 1 . :\ II the \\ .u rld is a Priso n.
l 2 . Si len ce is (;olden .

13. Time is l\ lon ey.
q . T he stu d y o f l·:n.!.;lish.

279

Read a n ythin g yo u can find that in a ny wa y bears upon th e subNote d o wn any though ts as soon as you ge t th e m.
Aft e r t he th oug hts a re note d d o wn , se le c t suc h as you thin k
suitabl e , and a rrange them in ord e r.
The fu !low ing is o ne of th e frameworks bro ug ht in.
Theme : Clu:o/11/n1·s.1 is Pror/11/°/iw of ll11j>j>i11ess.
F ' RA\ 11-'. \\'t)RK .

f. l :-: rno 1> U<.: rI •>N: Th e ge ne ra l s ta tem e nt.

15 . Cha rac ter is th e Val uabl e Possess io n .

l r.

D 1 sn1 s~ 10:--i

:-

R t:ason s : 1.

2.

/\. ch ee rful m ~m expects to find othe rs c h eerful.
Th e hea rl becom es li g ht.

3. I t fi ts o ne fo r soc ial life .

LESSON XLV.
PRACT !Cl·: IN

C<J:llPO~ ITl O:\ . -:\

4 . Tt tend s to m ake ot h e rs h a pp y .
T llJ-: ~ I E.

H av ing in the pn.:ceding Lesso n ob tai ned an id e a of how lo construc t a paragraph, we may no w atte mpt a co mpl e te th e me , or
co.11ec tion o f pa r:1g raphs . l n doing so, we fo ll o w a c la:;s through
th is g re ate r effo rt. Th e su bjt: <"t c hfJse n is "Chee rfuln ess is product ive o f l f:tppincss." T o :1 s ~i s t in n1:1ki11g the frame wo rk, the
following s11ggcstiu ns arc rnad c : Th e essay, lik e th l' paragrap hs :1lrcacly writt e n, co nsists o f
three parts : I n trod uc tio n, J)i sc uss ion, ( ·onc lu s io n.
1.

The fi r st and last pa rt may be o ne s ho rt paragraph eac h, the
seco nd m ay con s ist o f se\·e r:il p:1ragraph s.
2.

:l· Th e Introd uc tio n a nd Co nc lu s io n may he writt e n as suggeste d in T . e s~o n XL.
·I · Th e propos iti o n is s11h 111it1t~ tl to he v' t.1hl is hn l b y reaso ns.
\ Ve 11111s t , th c rt'fore, se:in- h for s11c h as will s11pport the slate me1; t.
Th e «hi e f q11esti o n to keep l•efo rl' th e mind is, H u w ?

5_- T o find reason ~, t11rn th r s uhjcct o\·e r a nd ove r in your mind ,
asking yourself, " How is chee r fnln css co ndu c ive to h a~p in ess?"

5. So rrow is hanishrd .
6. Thought of slights o r in su lts in m e re j "kes is expell e d .
C0Nc 1.us10N: I.e t u s e ndea\·o r to b e c h ee rful.
This fra m e wo rk is plac e d o n th e b lackl>o;i nl :ind c:nef11lly examined wit h th e :issistanc:e
th e class . Il is lhc n give n t o th e cla,s
to study a nd b rin g back im prove d .
He low a rc the sugges ti o ns fo r improv e m e nt.
,
1 . l >ivid e th e fntroduc:ti o n intu tw o. parts, a n in trod uc tory se nten ce and a f11lle r state m e nt of the theme.
2. ]~eason No. 1 .
"\Vhat ;i m:t n expects to find" is not a

nr

rea son why "Ch ee rfuln ess is produ c tive o f hap p inc :;s. "
3. No. 2. Thi s, a lthough poorly exp resse d , is :1 good reason.
4. N o.:;. As the pl easu res o f so.-ial l ife arc am o ng th e chief
st,.urces of o m h::ippin ess, wha teve r tit s us for that life, enh ances
our happiness. J•: xpress thi s " reaso n " bette r.
5 . No. 4 mi g ht he use d in showing how c h eerfuln ess indir e.-tly
contributes to happi ness.

;··
I

~

'· t

280

COMPOSITI ON AND RllE TOJU C.

6. No. 5 may be worked in with No . 2 .
7. No. 6 will have to be th ro wn ou t, :is it does not bear directly
on the theme. It may perh aps be used somewhe re as an illustration .
From th e complete fr:irn eworks retu rn ed the follow ing is selected
and g ive n to th e class to be written ou t.

Theme : C/1 coj11!11ess is Pr"d11r" tin of liappi11css.
FRAM F\\'OR K .

I. l NTR Onucri oN : 1. 1\n int roducto ry se nte nce .
2 . A full er sta te ment of the suLject.

II.

D rscussroN : -

Reasons : 1. Cheerfulness fits 11s fo r the enjoyme nt of social life.
2 . It tends to lighten the sorrows of life.
.1· It pro motes health.
III. C ONCLUSION : Let us ende:ivor to be chee rful.

\ \' Rl"ITFN OUT.

C/1roj11!11r·ss fr Prod11clin (If /f,1ppi11css .

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Cheeriulness is like a sunny day, it
its l1rightness on every thing rou nd about us. ·
No trait of ch:irac te r is more v:ilu:iule or more
productive of hap pin ess than c hee rfuln ess. It
lighte ns ou r burde ns, mak es fri e nds and promo tes ou r health.
l k c hcnful, fo r it is tl1 e o nl y way to live a
happy life . Tim es m:iy be b:id but it will make
th em no e;1sie r to wea r a gloomy and sad counte na nce . It is not th e clouds, b11t sunsh ine that
makes th e noll'ers . \\' e a ll h:tve troubles and
pcrlt:1ps it is 11Tl l th:it we sho uld, for it gives
us powe r :ind inc reases our courage if we chee r-

THE PLAN.

fully grapple with eve ry obstacle that m:iy come
in our way . It is a dull sea that makes un·
skilled sailors . It is th e refo re th e duty of eve ry
man to extrac t a ll th e happin ess and ~njoymen,t
from life he can. To meet thi s end anti pur{ pose he must no t go a Lout h:rn g ing his hc;1ci,
but cultivate a wa rm and genial d isposition.)
There a re some men who a re in c lined to
look always o n the gloo my side of e,·erything,
searchin g all the troubles they can find, while
on the o ther han d there are some n:1turcs so
constituted th at they ca n find good in C\'erything. The latter considered in the r ela ti on
to his fellow-men wi th wh o m he co m es in d :1ily
contact, is productive o f love a nd good will
to wa rds al l. The man who is possessed of
this excellent frame of mind is not on ly free
a nd easy in h is co nversat io n an d th o ught , hut
his imaginatio n :i nd judgment arc always t;le:i r
and undisturbe d, causing every person to court
his company. A cheerful man is not only d is·
p osed to be polite and obliging bu t it rai ses
the same good hum or i; th ose who come under
his influ ence; his companions feel d raw n towa rds him they know not why. Like the soft
rain gently pene trating the soil his influence
finds its way to his associates.
Cheerfulness not only casts off gloom, but
it helps to promote health.
It is seldom
found wh e re th e re is no t a certain degree of
health, but very often it is found 'vhcre there
is no t a gre at degre e o f hea lth. There i,; no
use of re pining and m ourning ove r our condi tion in time of affiictions, for if we give away
to our feelings we encourage the m :t LHh·, while

.;
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COM !'OSITION AND RllETOT\IC .

if we brace up we ba ni sh all those discontented
passions and soothe our spirits. Chee riuln
hears the same effect on the mind as to the
body .
co ntin ually ha rbo r th e m in o m mind, we cause
our mental c.:il ibre to beco m e languid and

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hoth parts of the
the same fo rm.

l>odan cc

d111l j so if we ke ep in mirn I om bodily affiic·
lio ns we cause a jar to th e del icate fibres o(
whi ch 0 11r body is ctJmposcd . O n the contrary if we banish all tho11 g ht s of our ailments
o r t ro ubles, we ra ise our spirits an<l promote
011r health .
Seeing that cheerfuln ess is productive
mu ch happi ness, Jct us a ll e nd eavor, no matter.
how dark the gloom may b e, to help at least to _
brighten it by our sm iles and c heerfulness.

R EWRrITEN.

Cheerfulness is like a su nn y day; it sheds brightness on everything around us. No tra it of characte r is more valuable or more
produc tive of hap pi ness than is che e rf11lness; it li ghtens
hmdens, multiplies our fri ends, a nd prom otes ou r health.
First, c heerfulness m:iy d o m uch to li g hte n o ur bu rdens
th e re by m a ke life happy. Times may be hard , but wearing a sad
and g loomy co un te nance will make them no easier. It is not
clouds, but sun shine th:it brings ou t th e flow ers. Sorrows will
surely co me, but, brigh tened h y th e hopefu l views of a cheerful
dispositio n, they appe ar less fea rfu l and dep ress in g. Cheerfulness
m akes the air see m m o re kil my, t h e sky c leare r, and even the ~
sunsh in e more beautifu l ; whil e gloo miness is a mild ew that blights
our talents, blasts our happiness, and beclouds our life.
Agai n, social intercourse is o ne o f th e chief sources of our
earthl y hap pin ess; :rnd n othin g so well fits us fo r the enjoyment
of that interco urse as c hee rful ness. The possessor of this frame of

TI-rn PLAN.

is no t only free and easy in hi s conv e rsati o n and mann er,
but has hi s imaginatio n clear an d his jud g m e nt undisturbe<l. I le
is disposed tu be polite and obligi ng, and naturally awakens ~ i111ibr
feelin gs in th ose with whom he comes in co ntact. As the soft
rain, falling ge ntly on the earth, pen e trates the su il and end11es all
_,nature with freshness a nd beauty, so the inlluence of hi s genial
dispos itio n per m ea tes all hc:trl s a nti fill s them with joy and ghlness. In th is atmosphere o f hap pin ess that he has c reated he
breathes th e sweetest joys of life .
Cheerfuln ess no t only li g ht e n s the burd ens of Iii.:: and incre:1scs
social p!e:J.sures, but it also promotes health . C he e rf11 lncss affens
ben e fi c ially not th e m ind alo ne, b11t lik ewise the body .
lf in
. ill-healt h, we g ive way to repini ng, we encourage th e malady;
whil e if we brace up, we banish ou r fn:tful passio ns and with th em
a large part of our tro11 b le . H we continually wo rry O\'ef u 11 r
sorrows, we ca 11se our m e ntal faculties to heccnne dull a nd lan guid; so, if we keep in mind 0 11r bodily afili ction s, we irn pe rcq•tibly injure th e delicate fibres o f whi c h our bodies are co m posed.
On the contrary, if we banish all th o11g ht s o f 011r ::iilrnents, o r
troubl es, we raise our spirits ::ind promote our h eJ !th.
Seeing, then, that c h ee rfuln ess is produ c tive of so n111rh hap piness, Jct us all ende:wor, no matte r how cl:uk the g loo m m:J.y be,
to h elp to brighten it by our smiles.

EXERCISE XCI.
T!-lf:~II·~<; .

DIRECTIO N. - Make a fram e work o n the f,1lluwing to1•i cs, as illustrated in
the pre...:e rl in g Lesson; revise it; write out ; revise y1>ur comp(Jsitiu1 1 th11rnughl y ;
writ e in be t wee n th e lines all th e e m e ndati o ns yu u c2.n; iinally, rew rit e the
whole.

The benefits of gardening.
The use of the m in .
3 . The pleasmes of a well inform ed mind.
4. Why we should r es ist the l1eg innings of evil.
T.

2.

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28.J.

5.
6.
7.
S.
9.
10.

CO~!POSITIO:\

A NO RJJETORIC.

\\" hy the wealthy :ire influential.
Th e aJvantages of sh rewdness.
Why we shoul d not kill little birds.
\Y e sho11ld not waste time.
The schoolmaste r's place in socie ty.
It is more profitable to p 1blish books than to write them.

LESSON XLVI.
Kl0D S OF l>ISCOURS I·:.

Prose e mbraces all kinds of compositi o n not in vnse.
Juve al rcaJ y se\: n, the gr.md fo rmal distinction Letween
;rnd prose is metre. J\ktric :tl a rrange ment is effected l:ugely by
inve rsion of the na tura l or g r:.1mmatical orde r of th t; words and
othe r parts o f the sentence . As in\·ers io n is the c haracte ristic of
poeti c o rd e r, so directness is the ch ief feature of prose arrangement. Prose, howe\·cr. is not confined to the strict gra mmatical
order, but is :tllowecl to clevi;.;te fro m it for the sake of clearness,
for ce, or beauty .
Varie ties . - Th e \hi cf \·:1ridi es of r.ompos itio n are, -Narrati on, Desc ription, Exposition, Arg11mentati o11, Oratory, and Poetry.
NAHll AT JON .

Narration presents a s11ccession of even ts in the order of time,
or with speci:i l reference to t iIlle. The aim of the narrative writer
should be to make the reader an eye -witness, as it we re, of the
events narrated .
Unclc r Narratio n nu y he classed , - Il istory, An nab, Chronidcs,
Memoirs, Hiogr:1phy. J)i:1n·, 'l'r:i\·cb, News, and l'iction.
Kinds of Narration. -- i. lll;;ToRY, in its broadest accepta·
tion , is a forma l am! conn ected ::iccount of the life of a nation. ·'
l~ very age has had its th eory of what history should be . This has

NARRATION .

vari ed from :i mere catalogue of eve nts to the mode rn ii..lea that
hi stur\' shou ld contain not only a na rrative of eve nts, 11ut also a
philu~op hic an alys is uf motivt; and actiuu, as well as a clea r interpretatio n of cau se and effect.
2. A NNAJ _-; are a bare record of public , ve nts, written clown fr om
year to year.
3. C 1rno:--1 1cLES arc also :t primitive kind o f history. They consist of a na rrative of affai rs of state, some wha t more ex tensive than
annals, but with strict attention to chronological order.
4. MEMOIRS is a term :ipplied ch iefly to th e rel:ition o f events
th at have co me wi thi n th e writer's personal knowled ge. In the
hi ghe r forms it deals with topics th a t b elong to the provin ce of
histo ry. It does not, howeve r, prete nd to be a syste matic record,
but rather a conversational account of matters of greater o r less
im po rtance.
5. B1 0l a-tAJ>HV is th e histo ry of an individual life . Wilen written
by th e pe rson hi msel f, it is c::i lled ;\utobi og raphy. T he hiogr:q•hy
of prominent men often e ntails muc h of th e history of their times.
A short biography is called a Memoir.
6. DIARY is a d ai ly re cord of a person's life. It resembles
Autobiograph y, but differs from it in that it deals with the events
of on ly one clay at a time. Mo reover, it is not inte nded to be
seen by a ny one except the writn.
7. TRAVEJ.S conta in an account of wh:it a person sees or karns
fr om day to day on his journey throu g h foreign countri es . They
consist largely of description, and oughl to be clear and accur:ite.
8 . N Ews, a n account of events of all kinds from all p:lrts of the
wo rld , is at present one of the most commo n kind s of writing.
Though it may not stric tly deserve the name of literat ure, yet
muc h skiil and expe rience are required to write it with the n ecessary cl earn ess, brevity, and accuracy.
9. FH..TIUN resembles biography, but differs from it in that the
m atter is inve nted by the writer. Though the incidents it narrates ne ver actually occurred, and th e persons whose lives and
characters it desc ribes neve r lived, yet th e y are types of wh:it did

•,

',
''

·~

.

286

NARRATION.

COC.IPOSITION AND HJIETORIC .

exist a t the time and under the circumstances indicated.
tru e to na ture .

It is

Fic tion may be di vid ed into the R o mance :rnd th e Nove l.
The Rom ance is a kind of Fiction in whi c h the incidents arc
of an extravagant and im probable c harac ter.
The Novel is of tw o kin ds, - the Hi sto ri cal Novel and the
Domestic N o\·el. In the former, histo ri cal ch:u :icters are made to
tak e part in th e snpposed incide nts. Scott's novels are a good
ex:imple. In the latter domestic life :rnd c harac te r are depicted
rn m1nut_e <letail. . There is alw:iys a plo t, :i nd in its development
th e passwns, part1cubrly 10\·e, play :in important part.
. _T he purpose o f _Fiction is m:rnifold. It may aim at teaching
h1 s_tmy, at_ co nveymg so me doctrine, enforcing some moral or
reltg1 o us views, making th e read e r acqua inted with th e c ustoms
and moues_ o f life of hy-go ne days, or of mnely g iving pleasure
by th e excitement of plot, th e beauty of lang uage, and the charm
of desc ri ption .
Principles. - ln Narration th e re are ce rta in principles that
should be observed .
1 · The e \· en ts should be placed before th e reade r as he would
have seen them had he been present.

_2 . Every fact or e\·cnt shoulu be made to grow out of someth111g p revio us. Jn fi c tion th is p ri nciple is often violated for the
purpo:~ of c reating a more intense interC'st in th e plot.
3· I he en tire narration should ce ntre in one prin cipal action or
eve nt. . Wh e re this is not possible for the wh ole, ::is in history, then
each d 1st111ct part should be formed on this p rin ciple .
4· \Vh e re th e re arc simultaneous trains of actio n, there should
ge ne ra lly, be a p ri ncipal one, and such subo rdinate ones as are nat~
ur~lly c~nn ected with it :is causes, conseq uen ces, or circ umstances.
. J · \\h en there are sc \·e ral st rea ms of e ve nts of nearly equal
im po rt a nce, the ordinary method is to carry one up to a certain
po111t, and th e n return to bring up the o th ers, one by one to the
same date. This mu st be rq1c~1t C'd to the end of the' whole.
Every reader uf ficti on will have nut ice<l this me thod .

6. The scene am! th e actors should be changed as se ld o m as
poss ibl e; and wh en such a change is m:ide, attention should be
called to the fact. This rule does not hold in fi cti o n.
7. In addi ti on to the general rules laid down above, th e foll ow..
ing points may be noted respecting histo ry : a. As many features have to be det:iiled, suc h as th e progress
of the arts and sciences, the development of lite rature, the advan cement of morality, and the d elineatio n of c harac te r, the wr ite r is compelleu to ta ke up th ese various topics one by one and co mp lete
each singly, o r, at least, carry it through a cerLain period.
b. History must be systematic :ind complete; th e plan m ust
show th e unity of the whole and at the same time give every part
its proper setting.
c. It is esse ntial that the order of time be clearl y fo ll o wed , and
that the dates should be so interwoven with th e narra tive as to
form a definite framework on whi c h to h.1ng the events.
ti. To give the reader a clear insight into th e situation of affairs,
the historian often goes backwaru and recou nts the pre cedin g circumsta nces.
e. Again, for clearness anu fo r aid to the mem ory, he makes
frequent summaries of the eve nts which he has related in detail.
By these succinct and compre hensive views, the mind is assisted
in g rasping the subject as a wh ole.
j. In th e delin eation of characte r the histo ria n has an opport11nity to vary the narrative by word-pictures of th e men who have
fixed th e d estiny of the nation .
S. The narrator should not attempt to relate eve ry thing. He
shou ld give the salient points, and leave the rest to the reader to
sup ply.
Style . - The topics of na rration are so varied th at no absolu te
rul es can be laid clown as to th e la ng uage to be e m p loyed . It
inust, however, always be suited to the subject in ha nd. In general, it should be plain, simple, anu perspicuous. In history it
must be calm and dignified; while its elegance and beauty are
amon g the most engaging charms of fi c ti o n. When the ~ul>ject

.i

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' t

288

COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.

will a llow, the style may rise to the gr;iceful, the flowing, or ev ·
to the elegan t, bu t should never be pompous or stilted, or in an
way adapted to draw off the attention from th e subject to itself.
The Parts. -The Introduction should contain such particulal$
about the time, pbce, and actors or events, as are necessary to
place the subject clearly before the reader and to awaken bis
interest in it. This may occupy one or more paragraphs.
The Discussion contains the events arranged in their order cit
occurrence.
In the Conclu sion will come the result, detailed to suit the special
circum stances o f the case.
Sometimes no formal conclus ion is requ ired;
mary oi events is a valuable aid to the memo ry.
The Paragraphs should, as far as possible, deal each with a
separ.:1tc part of the relation, and should be so connected as to
carry on th e story in a clear and con nected manner.
Framework. - As Narration consists merely in a presentation of
known events or facts, there is nothing to be <lone in the way of inven·
tion (except in Fiction) but to devise the method, form, and style.
Practice in Narration. - In order to secure practice in Narration, a story may be selected from which to draw up a frame~ .
work. In this exercise special care must be taken to distinguish.
between the leading thoughts and the subordinate ones. The fol·,
ing is an example from Scott's 7/rlisman .
Theme: Tlie C(7m/Jat.
FRAMEWORK.

I.

INTRO r>UCTION : -

r. Ti me, Third Crusade.

Place, The Diamond of the Desert.
3. Persons, Sir Kenneth and Conrad.
2.

II.

DISCUSSION : -

r. The preparations.
a. Arming.
b. The herald's proclamation.

NARRATION.

289

c. Taking positions.
rl. The invocation.
2.

The combat proper.
a. The sign::tl.
h. The start.
c. In career.
d. The shock at mee ting.
e. Its result.

III. CoNcI.USION: The effect in settling the dispute.
As a more difficult exercise, a framework may be constructed
on some event that has come unde r the learner's notice and that
has not yet been committed to writing. Take the following as an
example: Theme: H ow I spent t/1e H tilidays.
FRAMEWOR K.

J.

INTRODUCl'ION : 1.
2.

Where.
With whom.

II. D1scus:;roN: How we spent the tirrfe.
r. In boating.
Incident - an upset.
2. Trout-fishing.
One big fish.
3. Riding.
4. In th e woods.
Inc ident with a friendly Indian.
CONCLUSION : \.\'hat I learned, and how much my health was
improved .
Writing out. - In writing out these outlines, the lntrocluction,
the Conclusion, and the several divisions of the Discussion may
each form a paragraph ; or, when it is desired to be more minute,
each o( these may form several paragraphs.

f.

COMPOSITION A.l'\ D R llETOl<I C.

EXERCISE XCII.
NARRATION.

D11<ECrl 0 1' . -

Con5l ruct a framewo rk o f a theme'"' each u f th e follow ing

tu p i.. ; s; write o ut each th eme in full.
1.

2.

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

First \\"ee k at High School.
H ow we spent In depe ndence Day.
Our Expe ri e nc e of Camping Out.
A Fish ing l·:xc ursion.
The Crossing of t he R ed Sea .
Ou r Visi t to a l'rin ti ng Office .
II ow the Sp ring came on.
Histo ry of St. l'aul.
The Story of a Shi ll ing.
!\ Sail do wn the ?llississippi.

LES:iON XLVII.
DFSC l\ IPT! ON.
I -

Description . - The a im of the desc riptive writer is to present
to the mind by means o f lang uage suc h an id ea of an object or
scene as the reade r would have conceived had he viewed it him·
se lf. Description is word ·paim ing.
Kinds of Description. - Three kinds of Description may be
n oted : ( 1) of external objects, ( 2) of character, (3) of feelings
and inte llectual processes.
Principles . - In the descript io n of external scenes or objects,'
the followin g rul es will be found useful : r. It is important to pbce at, or near, the beginning a comprehensive statement or general plan. Thi s o utline should be clear
and sim ple . for example, Vi cto r Hugo . in describing the battle
of \\':lterloo, says, "It was frn1 ght on a pi ece of gro und resembling , ·

DE SC RIPTI ON.

a capital A. The Engl ish were at th e apex, the F re nc h at the
feet, and the battle was decided a Lou t the centre."
a. T he idea uf the gene ral plan may b e furnish ed by indi ca ting
'the form or by stating the size .
b. It may be shown by arrang ing the parts as rad iati ng from a
common centre, or as branching out from a main trunk .
2 • A description should be made fro m a favorable point of
a. Some times th e whole object or scene may be described fr om
one stand point, as the painte r draws his picture.
b. Sometimes the sc ene may be presented in a succession of
aspects, as it would appear to a person if he were moving along

through it.
E x ample. - lf one is to describe a town he may fi rst take up
his position at the central square, or at the head of th e principal
stree t. Thence, he pictures th e direction of the main street or
stree ts, and gives an outli ne of the whole. Next, he ma y locate
the parks and chie f public Luildings . Having thus established a
luc id outline, he may adopt th e travelle r's meth od , and, starti ng
from the ce ntre or fr o m the main street, he ma y go alo ng each
street, desc ri bing its buildings in detail.
3 . In describin g a person, the form may first be outlined, then
th e features may be descri bed, lastly the dress and ornaments.
See th e descrip tion of "Rebecca" on page 243.
4. In delineating character, some general or comprehensive
statements may first be man e. Then the various qualities of the
character may be taken up separately; the moral, the intellectual,
the social. In a public man his capacity for performing c ivi c or
national functions, as that of general o r statesman, will fo rm parts
of the description.
5 . Our feelings and intell ec tual operations are less easil y de scribed than objects oC sense . The former 111ay be described by
likenesses, comparisons, analogies. " His wrath broke fo rth like
flames fr om a furnace. " "I .ove though d ee p as th e sea, sh:il l fad e
away like autumn leaves." They ma y :.il-;o be s11 ggested hy their

q:

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J; i;
~ ~:

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I

i

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·. '

I

DESCRIPTION.

COMPOSITION A!\D J{ ll ETORJC.

vi sible mani festa tio ns. Ange r may lx: inJicated Ly "the curling
lip" ::md "tlic fr owni ng brow," Ly vi o lence o f language, or by
rashness of ac ti on.

In desc ribing '
external objects, t hey may be :1 rrang ed one afLer anothe r as they
ap pe:.u in n::i.ture, or they m::i.y be grouped about some central
point. In Jclin eat ing ch:iracte r, in sketc hi ng me ntal operations
.
I
.
I
o r m t 1e exp ress io n of feeling, th ey mus t Le placed according to
im po rtance or effect .
Jn fillin g in the d e tail s, the wri te r should atte mpt to form a
clear co ncepti o n of eac h part, and the n to selec t th e most striking
o r interesting features. l t is a mistake to try to tell eve rything.
7. l k~c ri ptinn is made mo re strik ing and reali sti c by being individualized, that is, gi ven at a parti cula r time and und er the circu mstances o f a stated mo ment. If not so mad e, it is as sure to
Le con fnsed as the photog raph of a m ov ing oLjec t taken by the
old process. For example, a desc ription of Spring mig ht be taken
in the mornin g, when the su n is well up, wh e n the birds are singing, an d wh en a ll nature has on its richest garb.
8. A still fur the r gain is made by introducing such associated
circ um sta nces as mak e the pic ture complete without overcrowding
it. See page 237.
T his ga in is still g reater whe n the assoc iated ideas consist in
att riLutin g h uman fee lings to n:1tu ral objec ts. \V e are more inter·
ested in anything th at is supposed to Le of "like passions with
ourselves," th a n in objct"ts tint appt'a r to tally unlik e us.
·
9. l\L11d1 of th e so-ca ll ed expos iti o n in th e Sciences might more
co rre c tl y be c lassed as des cri pt ion. Its special feature is that it
makes us acqu a int ed wi th a n objec t by a nal yz ing it, by d escribing
eac h part min utel y, by showi ng 11s the co nn ec ti o n of the parts,
and the result of their uni o n. For e xample, Botany describes a
flowe r Ly taking it to pieces, a nd showing .us th e delicate formati o n of eac h part, it s co nn ec ti o n wi t h ot hers, and its place and
fun ction in the co m plete Oowcr.
1 0. Poetry ad opts a method of <ksc ri pti o n different from that

6. The d etails mu st be sys tem:iticall y gro uped .

29 3

pursued in prose. As its object is n o t to co nv ey exact information, but to please, scenes and obj ects are no t described with
mathe mati cal prec isio n, but are p rese nted by a few Lo ld ~trokes,
pictorial e pithets, or fertile suggestions. For exam pk, Long fello w,
·in d esc ri bing th e situatio n o f th e "little village," pub the landscape Lefore the read er by a pic turesq ue presentatio n of a few
prom in ent features : "vast meado ws," " fl ocks wi thout nt1 1nher,"
" dikes raised with labo r incessant," a nd so o n. Wh e n he is telling the num be rs tha t cime a t th e com ma nd of the Engl ish ge nera l,
he suggests it by suc h stro kes as" E\·e ry h ous e was a n inn."
1 r. U nder the head o f l'icturesq ue ness will be fou nd ~ n · n al
suggest ions th at indi cate ho w de~ c ri ptio n ma y Le made de ar,
striking, and co mpl e te.
Style . -As descr ipti o n forms a large pa rt of all compositio n,
and emb races so great a diversity o f suLj ec ts, it ad11 1its of alinust
every variety of la ng uage a nrl. style, and allows th e wid est scope
for o rnam e nt and beauty. If th e object treated is hum Llc, the
language may be fa mil iar; if it is g rand , the language may be eleva ted ; if it is c haracte riz ed Ly g reat b eaut y, then the langmge
may assume its rich est garb. The styl e must be adapted to the
nature o f the object desc ribed .
Framework. - Thoug h the fr:tm ework n;ay consist o f three
dist inct parh, yet the disc ussion will va ry acco nling to th e nature
of th e suLject. It shou ld be clea rly and systematically arranged
before writing is Legun.
Theme : Tlie Tli cr111ometer.
FRAME.WOR K.

I.

I NTRODUCTION : -

r. All suLstances produce the se nsati o n of hea t o r cold .
I I eat and cold vary- wate r.
3. Our se nse o f feeling does n ot g ive true or acc urat e info rmati on abo ut temp erature.
4. Hence the need of an exact measure; this furni shed
by the th erm omete r
2.

,·
··,:

I,

294
II .

COM POS ITI ON AND RHET O RIC.

EXPOSITION .

29 5

D isn:o:;~ 1nl\" : -

r . Im·e nti on.

a. Th e expanding and shrinking of bodies had Jong
been noti c ed.
b. T his suggeste d the thermomete r.
~. Constructio n.
a . i\ hollo w tu be with bulh.
b. The lm lh is fi lled with me rc ury.
c. A vac uum is le fl above.
d. H ow th e measuring is d one.
(a) T he tu be is fix ed in :i marked plate.
(h) Th e d egrees a re co unt ed upwards.
c. H o w th e scale is mad e.
(a) The t11 be is imme rsed in melting ice for
th e freezin g- point.
(/1 ) Plu nged in ste:im for th e boiling- point.
(r) T he inte rve ning space divided into equal
spaces.
III. CONCLUSION : Its uses .
a. To c om pare the h eat of different climates.
b. In th e a rts.

EXERCISE XCIII.
D i::.<;CRJIYfl ON.
DIRf:CT IO N. - Co n, tru ct the fram e wo rk o f a theme o n each of the following
topics, and then write uut tach theme in full.
I.

Your School-ho use .

z. A Snow-sto rm.
The Tho usand Isla nds.
T he Fa lls of N i:igara.
J\ l\fodern Ne wspaper.
A Railway.
7. Yo ur o wn T own.
8. \' our 011·11 Sl:l tc .

3·
4.
5·
6.

9· The Alhambra.
An Evening Sunset.
I I. The Mic roscope.
12. A Wedding.
13. A Country Fair.
14. A Game of Cricket.
15 . A Steamship.
16. :\ Canary-Bird.
IO.

LESSON XLVIII .
EXPOS ITI ON.

Exposition consists in se ttin g forth the attribu tes of an y subjec t,
in prese nt ing d octrin es, princ iples, o r vi ews, fo r th e in stru ctio n of
othe rs. The subjec ts o f whic h it treats may be divid ed into, Scie ntifi c and Mo r:il. Sc ie ntific Exposition expou n<is truth wit hout refere nce to ri g ht o r wrong; Moral Expositio n deals with
hum :i n ac ti o ns and d uti es.
The c hi ef kinds o f Expositio n m:iy \.Je classed under ( 1) Essays,
( 2) Treatises.
A N E ·sAv is a mod est atte mpt to s tate th e a uthor's vi ews o n a
' subj ect. It does not pa rti cularl y aim at be ing form al or com ple te,
but ra th e r a t giving the write r's general thoughts in an easy, but
intel lige nt :ind interesting ma nn er.
Edito rial s, Revi ews, Criticisms, are spec ies of the Essa y.
AN E o rn>R IA L is a short essay on any su bjec t. It contains the
opinion o f th e editor of a newspaper on some c urre nt topic.
REVIEWS resemble Editorials, but . they d eal with a subject a t
mu c h greate r length. Th ey ge nerally contain a pretty e xhausti ve
examinatio n o f th e opinions or statements of th e articles consi de red .
CR n1 u s~ 1 s d iffer fr o m Revi e ws in being written for th e purpose
of d e te rmining how far a wo rk follows th e princ iples on which it
p resume s to be constrncted . They exh_ibit alike defects and excell ences.
The Thoughts. - In Narration and Desc ription th e ma te ri als
'.I re obtained chiefly thro11gh the five senses, but in E xpositio n
th ey are the p roduc t of the reasoning faculty. H e nce, in a composition of this class, the c hie f difficulty with b eginne rs is to fin d
th e thou g hts. In seeking for and arran ging th e m, the mea ns
indicated in th e 1,esson on T he mes a re to be p ursued .
The Parts. - 1n the Introdu cti on is placed th e fo rmal sta te
m e nt o f th e princ iples or views to be unfolded ; th e Discussi o11,

i'

'

I

EXPO SITION.

COMPO SITION AND RHETORIC.
or bod y of th e co mpos ition, contains the me th od ical develop·
rnent of tlH: subject; and th e Conclusio n, a summary of the
wh o le.
Method . - l t is not to be expec ted th a t youn g persons, such ·
as those wh o study thes e pages, a re attem pting to master all the .
principles upo n which the various sc iences are expounded; but
th at they may be mov ing on ri gh t lines so far as th ey go, a few
points in the method o f expositio n are here me ntio ned.
1. ln expou nding a subj ect it is necessary to divide
parts. The div isions must be a . D ist inct, so that they cl o not ove rlap each oth e r.
/J. E xh a11 sti ve, so th at the y e mbrace the wh ole subject.
E ssay this is not esse nti zd.
2 . Afte r th e pl:i.n of disc ussion has bee n ske tc hed, the subject
must be expounded p:ut l>y part.
3. If it is necessary to subd ivide any pa rt, th e rul es above
mu st be obse rved.
4. T he p rinciple, o r leading th oug ht, of each part or subordi·
n a te pa rt must be clearl y stated.
5. In ex po undin g the ge neral principles und e r each head the
following de vi ces ass ist : a. Repeating them in oth er words, in other forms, or under
othe r fi gu res of speech .
b. O bve rse ite rati on, that is, express ing th e same idea from the
opposite point o f vie w : as, "Th e clay is bright" ; "The day is
n ot g loo my."
c. T he vari ous m eans of ill11strat ion mentioned on page 236.
ti. D ra wing infe rences to show th e effect o f the principles when
carrie d to th ei r logical concl11 sio ns .
e. Appl ying the vie ws expou nded to particul ar cases so as to
illu strate th e ir prac ti cal effect.
Style. - As clea rn ess is the c hief object to be attained, the
language should he plai n a nd th e sty le neat and concise. Each '
point should , when pract icable, be illustrated by examples, and
st r<~ n gt h e ncd by qu otat ions.

297

Theme: Anger.
FRAMEWORK.

I.

lNTROoucrroN :

The mind

is

subject to various ebullitions

of fee ling.
D ISCUSS ION : 1.

2.

What Anger is .
a. A feeling of displeasure against wrong.
b. A feeling that desi res ve ngeance on its objec t.
c. In its intensity it resembles madness.
What Ange r does.
a. It carries th e mind beyo nd the control o f reason.
b. It leads a person to say and Jo u nreaso nable
things. Illustrations.
c. It may cause a ma n to 111JLire his own cause, or
even himself. Exa m ples .

CONCLUSION : As all feel ings grow if uncurbed , we should
keep our tem per unde r the control of reason.

EXERCISE XCIV.
EXPOSITION.
D1rrncn nN. -

I.

2.

3·
4.

S·
6.
7,

Con stru ct th e fr:>m ewo rk of a th e me o n each o f th e following

H ope .
An ge r.
Candor.
T aste.
Modesty.
Free,Jom .
Courage.

8. Idleness .

9· l-Iumility.
Contemplation.
Passion fo r Dress.
I 2. Evils of Wa r.
13. Blessings of Liberty.
14. Decision of Character.
Advantages
of Railroads.
15 .
IO.

I I.

!

~-·

CO~ll'OS ITI ON

AN D

RllET O l<IC.

ARGU M EN TATI ON.
2. rt g ives happiness und e r all cundi tions.
3 . Its po wer does not grow old .
4. l t wi ns th e approbation of our fe llows.
5. l t meets with th e app roval o f H eaven.

LESSON XLIX.
AR GU~ l

El\'TATJ ON.

C ONCLUSION:

Arg umenta t ivt:. com pos ition is th at in which the aim
modifv or indu ce beii ef by m eans of a rgu men t. The body of
composi~io n of th is class consists of two parts, - the Proposition,
or that wh ich is to be proved , :rnJ th e Argum ents, or Proof.
Two M e thod s . - Two me thods may be employed in Argumen ta tive Compositio n, - the Ucduc tive an d th e Ind uc tive. In
the first, the line of th ought pro rc cds from th e subject to the
predicate of the propositio n to be proved; and in th e second,
from the p red ica te to the subject.
Parts . - Whe n the propositi on is stated at the outset, it should ,
be sta ted in th e cle:irest and briefest man ne r poss ible. After the
lntroduction foll ow the Arguments. T hey should be so arranged
that th e weakest come in the m idJlc and the strongest last. The
connec ti on between the argu ments :rnd the co nclusion mus t be
made c lear in c;ach case . T he Concl11sio n consists of a re-state·
me nt of the propos it ion as .en force d hy the co mbined strength o( ·
a ll th e a rguments.
S t yle . - Clea rn e. s and force are here th e chief requisites;
little or 110 o rn:1 ment is required ; the style shoul d be neat, but
suffic iently diffuse to nu k e the poin ts easil y see n. Every argumen t should ha1·e ill11 stratio ns, exa mples, quota ti ons, or instances,
to ma ke its fo rce an d meaning perfec tl y clear.
Theme : 7iJ /;,, C t1od is to l•r llafpy .
FKA~I F\\'• lR K .

I.

lI.

TNT ROli ULT ION:

G ood ness leads to hap pin ess because It gives a good co nsc ie nce, one of th e conditions
happin e,s . Example.

D 1scUS.S ION:
1..

Exph in (' !ea rl y goodn ess and happiness.

299

We sho ul d make goud ness our highest aim.

EXERCISE XCV.
A RGUMENTATION.
DI RECTI ON. -Co nstruc t th e rrn me wo rk o f a th em e o n eac h o f th e following
topics; writ e ou t the the me in full.
1.

~

3.
4.

5.
6.
- 7.
8.
9.
IO.
I I.

I 2.
i

3.

14 .

15.
16.
1 7.
18.
19.
20.

21.
2 2.

23 .

Whatever is, is R ight.
H onesty is th e Best Policy.
Sho uld Jud ges be elected ?
O ur Antagonist is our H elper.
K nowledge is Power.
Labor is a Blessing.
J. ife is a School.
Wisdom leads to Happ iness.
Contrivance proves Design.
Ma nhood Suffrage is I Jes irab le.
lt is E xpedie nt to wear l\Iou rning Ap parel.
Compulsory Edu c;i tio n is a Be nefi t to the State.
I s E xecutio n by Electri city advisab le?
Self-praise is n o Commend ation.
Exa mple is more Powe rful than Prece pt.
W e should resist th e Begin nings o f E vi l.
l\fa th ema ti cs is a use fu l Stu d y.
EJu cat ion leads to Virtue .
Ex pee tat ion excels Re;i li za ti on.
Pa rt y C:overnm ent is injurious tu th e Sta te.
T.ady T eachers shoul d r eceive th e same Wages as <;ent kme n.
O ne shou ld no t he ::ibove O ne's Business .
E xtre mes should he avo ided .

I!'

I'

I

I

300

C O~t l'OS IT! ON

AND RI-IET O l{I C.

LESSON L.
PERSUASION.

Persuasion, o r Oratory, is that kind of co mposition
object is to move th e wi ll hy presenting mo ti ves for actio n.
The Ends of Oratory. - In Exposition and Argumentation .
we appeal entirely to man's int ellectual nature; we seek to inform
his unders tanding, an d then all ow him to act as he pleases. Oratory
goes furth er: it woul d not only co 1ll"inr.e the judgment, but change
th e will a nd rouse to act. ion. It presupposes an opposition between
the speake r and his audience, and th en se ts to work to remove
this op pos iti on, to induce the latter to accept th e views of the
form e r and to act up on them.
Classification. - Th e usual for ms of persuas ion are, - Orations, !\cld resses, Lectur es, Ser mo ns.
i. 01-:.ATJ ONS arc ornate formal composition s, elaborately
pared for spec ial occasions . Their objec t is not to persu ade, but
to pronoun ce a pan egyri c on some pe rson or event. They are
elcv;:i.tnl, forcibl e, brilli ant, and <l im at pleasing the imagination ;·,
:iml st irring th e pass ions.
2 • .'\ uuR Ess1-:s arc less form ;:il th a n orations.
almost any length anrl on almost any subject.
l>c labored examinati ons of any subject, but must be clear, and
adapted to th e cha rac ter and c ircum stances of the persons addressed.
3. SPEECHES are st ill less fo rm al than addresses. They
almost unlimited in vari ety; th ey ma y he on the gravest questio ns o f public policy o r on the co mm onest affairs in social life. In
th e hig her sense th ey consist of an anal ytical investigation of some ·
grt::tt political, soc ial, o r cco no n1i c 1111c;;tion; while in th e humbler
1·iC'w they may l >e m:1< lc on th e nn lin:iry concerns of everyday
life. Spee ch e ~ should l>e read y, fluent , and pleasing. The object '

PERSUASION.

301

is Ly explanation, argument, or illustration tu lead th e hearer to
acce pt th e views of th e speaker.
4 . A L1·.CTU RE is a learned discuss ion of some subjec t of im po rtan ce or interest. The lecturer is expected to lnve a speciai
acquaintance with his suLject, and to Le able to expl:tin it in a
clear and methodical manner, so that his hearers may be able to
comprehend the meaning.
5. SERill tJ:\S are carefully prepared expositions of religious truths.
Th ey are generally based on texts o f Scripture, anJ, l.iesid cs their
expository qualities, usually contain app eals to th e liste ner to
acce J>t t11 e vi ews enunc iated or to act on the admonitions gi ven .
Means of Persuasion. - Among the means e mplo yed to rn m-.~
the will and rouse to action are : a . To la y before the mind a full arnl clt.:ar Jesc:ri ptiun uf the
obj ect, c ircum stances, or scene . See pages 237 and 245.
b. To narrate in a vivid manner the incid ent or story that is
intend ed to induce the will to act. Such an explanation as enables
one clearly to und erstand a case or situation may move him to
sympathy.
These may be called the pictorial methods of persuasion.
c. To present coge nt reasons to convince the judgment and
th en to :lpply th e m to prove to th e listener his advantage, or tu
move him by th e higher motives o f duty. Such argurn enls m u>t
be simpl e and direct. Every point must be fully illustrated. Sec
page 236.
d. To state objections fa irly and th en answer them fully and
convincingly. Omission or weakness here is fatal.
e. To appeal direc tly to the feelings by dwelling o n the points
likely to arouse sympathy, or by infusing the hearer with th e
speaker's own enthusiasm.
Style. - In Or~tory, th e r.hief qualities of style required are
clearness anJ force, but the other qualities are sc;:ircely less requ isite. H en.: all th <: bea11tics o f prose composition <\re in place, and
nothing low or trivial should be admitted . The l:rn g11age should
always, be elevated and rdirn.:J. Illustrations ~lH; ul<l l>e fr eely

·-' 'j

,,
'·

.

302

CO~!l'OStTI01'

A:'\ll

PE RSUASION .

Kl l ETO l<IC.

introdu ced, and when possible the main idea should be clothed ~
in original imagery .
In orato ry there is mo re than l:ing uage; the speaker is present
with hi s personal influence to weak en u r ~t re ngth e n the effect of
his wo rds. The mm·cme nts of the body, the exp ression of the
countenance, th e lla~h of the eye, the wh o le uea ring, may be made
to tell in fa,·or of the speaker's ,·ic.:ws. T o rou se.: h is audience, he
11111st himself be dcc.:ply impressed with his subj ect.
He need not
sho w all h is fe elings; indeed, if they seem to ove rco me him and
break o ut against h is wil l, they a rc a ll t he mo re likely to touch the
lis te ne rs.
The speaker must know his audience and must adapt his subject, style, and language to thei r capacity.
W ith un educated
people, he mu st be plain, pathetic, :ind lrnmoro us; wi th a cultured
assembly. he should appeal mure to the judgme nt and sympathy,
:rnd should c111pl0y only such language as is gratefu l to their ear.
T h eme : l Vork wlule y1111

11/tl)'.

FKA~I E\\'ORK.

I. INTRUllULTION: \Ve arc :1ll disposed to procrastinate.
trate.

iI. D1scuss10N: \Ve should se ize the present because 1 . Life is shurt and un certain.
lllus trate.
2. Opportunities do not stay .
Amplify by q uotations and
examples.
3. If opportunities do present themselves in the fut ure, we
111:1)' not be in a position to embrace th e m. Illustrate.
Support by quo tations and incide nts.
III. CoNcLus10:-.-: A summing up a nd exhort ation'.

303

EXERCISE XCVI.

iJll<.ECT10N. -

wrik uul
1.
2.

3.
4.

S·
6.
7.

S.
9.
T U.

11 .
J 2.

13.
14.

IS·
16.

17.
I ~.

20.
2 I.
22.

23.
24.

25.
26.
27.

Construct th e fnuucwurk vf a tl1eme un ead1 vf tl1c: fv llu'.'. i 11i-•

<.:::tt: h

tl1t.'lll c in

full.

Silent Inlluence.
The Habi t of Re:lding.
The Value o f Characte r.
The Power of Kindness.
T he Power of Habit.
No Place like H ome .
The Vanity of Ri c hes.
Do no t despise l\.>Verty.
Live with in you r Mea ns.
Th e I )ress is not the Man .
Influ ence of Cuod Manners.
The Baseness of Ing ratitude.
Poverty d evelops th e Char:lcter be tte r th a n Riches
He is R ic h who desires Nothing.
A Coad Conscience is bett1.:r than Wealt h._
We sho uld hav1: an Object in L ife .
No Pains, nu Cains.
Forgiveness is the Noblest Revenge .
Keep y0nr l lono r Bright.
Yo uth is th e Time fo r Prepara tio n.
We should be Cour teous.
You ng People should lc:-.rn to be Punctual.
\ Ve must obey the Laws of ou r Count ry.
\Ve should value the good Opini o n o f O th ers.
Youth should reverence 1\ ge.
We should cultivate Self-Re liance.
We mus t prac tise Hones ty.

,.

'.l

CO~!PO S IT!ON

AND RHETORIC .

LES SON LI.
POETRY.

Poetry d iffers from p rose in fo rm, diction, and object.
1o nn is Ve r:;e - th a t is, co mpositio n ::i rra nge<l in lines of a fixed
nu m ber of reg11 l:irly rec urring ac cent ed and unac c ented syllables;
its d ic ti on, as we hav e alread y see n, is usually more "archaic, .,.
p ic t uresri ue, a nd eup ho nious" than that o f p rose; while its object
is lo plc;1se rathe r th a n to instruc t. Of th e se, th e fir st only is
esse nt ia l. T he d ic tio n o f poet ry a nd that o f p rose shade off insens ibly int o eac h o ther so that it is im possible to draw any distinct line of se paratio n; and th ough the primary object of poetry
m ay Le to g ive plc:lsure, ye t mu c h th a t l.iea rs the name and
assum es the form d oes no t hesitate to attempt othe r ends.
l\fAT F. R! ALS Of P OETRY.

Since poe try h:1s the d e finite obj ec t of g iving pleasure, chiefly ·
by g ra tifying our fin e-ar t e mot io ns, it is restri c ted to such subjects an d to suc h a m:rnn e r of ha ndling as will sec ure that end.
Th e c hi e f sources fr o m whic h the poe t draws his materials, that
is, h is subjec ts an d hi s ill ustr:i ti ons, are: I. External N a ture . It s majesty- mountain and forest,
va ulte d sk y a nd pc:1li ng tli1 1nd n ; its move m e nts - the flowing river
and the purlin g broo k, th e ht::wing ocea n and th e foaming cataract, th e bo un d in g st:1g :ind thi.: p ursu ing hound ; its sounds - the
so ng o f the bi rd , th e mo:rni ng of the win d, the rag ing of the tempest, the roa ri ng o f the waterfall; its colo rs - th e plumage of the
b ird , t he t ints o f th e rose , the b rown he:ith, th e green sward, the
fl us h of h ea lt h, th e purpling c:1st and the glowing west, the silver
m oo n a nd th e go ld e n st: 1rs, - all th ese, with ten thousand other
h ea nti e s, de tec ted by th e po e t's eye and ea r, supply material for
his so ng.

POETRY .

305

:z. Humanity. -The life of man abounds 111 ma te rials fo r
p oe try. l\fa n's physical stre ngth and dazzling de eds; his intel lec tual powe rs and th e wond e rs they have achi e ved ; his a c ts u f
courage, of k indness, and o f se lf-sac riii c e; Lut, e spec ia ll y, his
emo ti onal nature, his di splays of te nd e rn ess, o f sy mpa th y, o f
affe ction, o r of love; his m o ral and religious sentim ents, - all
these ma y be th e th e m e of p oetry.
3. Imagination. - No t th e real wo rld al o ne , but the id c:a l, the
world c reated :111d peopled by th e imag ination, is avail:tblc fo r tht:
purposes o f poetry. l'l o t, inc ide n t, c ha racte r, all that springs from
th c fc:rt ilc fa ncy of the po ct, 111 ay be e mpl oyed by hi m to cha rm
an d deli g ht the m ind , e ven to insp ire hope a nd to inflll e nce con du c t by lo fty ideals.
Whi le the poet lays th ese vast fi elds untlcr co n tributi o n, he
mus t selec t in eac h with due reg:ird to the demands o f our :esth eti c na ture. \Vh a tever is di sgusting, offensive , o r eve n indifferent, m us t Le rejec ted .
In th e selec ti on and trea t me nt of subjec ts, th e fo llo wing po ints
may be observed : I. Poe try c hooses for its them es and illustra tions th e conc rete
rather th :i n the abstract, and the partic ular rath er than th e g ene ra l.
2. Poe try collec ts together a g realt:r numbe r o f bea u ties a nd
e xc ell e nces , m ore li ve ly in cidents, mo re spa rkli ng wi t, mo re
c harm ing fig ures o f speec h, than are c o mpressed wit h in th e sa me
limits in p rose . l'rose is a meado w with he re and th ere a d a isy
or a primrose; poe try is a fl o we r ga rd en c lustering wit h lovely
forms and c ol ors, and fra g rant with swee t odo rs.
3. Continu ing this process of c o mbin:ttio n, poe try incl11lges
m o re o r less in ide alizing its object. I ts sce nes nre m ore be:tutiful th an the actu al; its h eroes are more vali ant a nd nobl e , its
c harac te rs m o re virt uous and lo fty than th ose m e t with in life ;
while its justice gratifies our feelings rather than satisfies our sense
of ri ght.
4 . P oetry does n ot a lways reject p ;1in.flll suLje c ts. T he y rn~y
become themes of p oetry when the di stressing e fk c ts th e y ]1rud uc e

< :.·•

I

;

.''

.'

l'

.

'

,

:"'

306

CO ~ll' OSIT IO:\

A:\U JOl1'TOH. l C.

are full y redee med by the beauty of the language o r imagery, by
vivid desc ripti o ns of the nobility of fo rtitud e under su ffering, or
by the pleasurable em oti o ns of th e sy mpa th y th ey arouse.
5. In its trea trn cnt of subj ects, poet ry stuui es to embody
the elegances and :ill the attractio ns of style. In th e story, in
th e inc ide nts, in the scenes, in the cha rac ters, and in the expres·
sion of emotio n, it pays a stricte r a tte ntion to the demands of
Harmony than does prose in its lofti est strain.
DtVISlllNS

O F P OETRY.

P oetry is usually cl::l.ssili ed into Fpi " Dramati c, Lyric, and
Didactic .
The fi rst tw o o f these divisi ons are the same in matter, - the
essential eleme nt of each is a sto ry, - but th ey Jiffer in the manner o f J>rC:,e nting tht:i r subjcn. In the Drama, th e au th or never
a ppe:trs; hi-; characters speak :md :ict fo r th e mse lves. In the
Epic th e write r is always present, tel ling us of th e act ions and .
speedi..es of othe rs.
1. Epic , or Narrative, l'oetry must co ntain a story.
It is
subdivided in to a. THE GR EAT EP1 c. This must have ( a ) A great :rncl noble subject.
(b) Grave and d ig nifi ed treatment.
( c) A hero and othe r in1po n a nt acto rs.
(d) A co mplete and com plicated I lot or story.
(.r) The eve nts c hieO y or wholly und e r superhuman
control.
Exa mp!t?s . - l\1ilton 's Paradise Lost; Pollock's Couru
o.f Time; B emt'111j.
b. TH E METR ICAL RCl~IA NC E . As comp::ired with the Great
Epic, ( i) th e subjec t is less lofty and important; ( 2) the
treatment is 111 l1 re easy :ind fami liar; (3) the control of
events is pa rti :1 lly or wh ol ly human; (4) more promine nce is g ive n to Love; ( 5) the metre is lighter.

POETl{Y.

Examp les. - Spe nse r's Faerie Queene; Scott's Lady uj
tlie Lake; Moore's L oves of the Angels.
c. THI·: T.4.u: is still less forma l th an the Rom a nce, and its treat ment a<lmits of g reater ease a nd variety .
Examples. - Chaucer's Ca11/erb11ry 7"'ules; Byron's Corsair; Tennyso n's E11 uc/1 A nlen; Long fello w's E i•a 11gdine.
It sometimes tak es th e fvrm of a metrical history ; as
Dryden's A11n11s Jl1ira/Ji!is.
d. THE BALLAD co ntains a simple and rapi d relati o n of some
incident of war, love, o r d aily li fe.
E x amp lts. - Cl1e11y Chase; Robin J-Jood; j oli 11 Gi!pi11;
Macaulay's Lays of A 11cie11t R ome.
e. T11E MIXED EP IC is a p oe m tha t contains a s to ry with which
is inte rmingled mo re or less of retlecti on and description .
Examples. - Byron's C!ti/de llaroM. Sometimes th e
sto ry is no t co ntinuou s, as in Wordswo rth's Exw rsion.
/
PASTORALS, I1w 1.1.<;, e tc . Th ese poe ms, whi c h are o f a mix ed
c ha rac ter, retlec tiv e, desc riptiv e, and emotional, may be
classed as Epic, since th ey co nta in a story more or less
contin uous.
Examfles. - Tenn yson's I dylls of the King; Keats's
E11tl)'111io11; and Thomson's Seasons.
2 . The Drama e mbraces all that part o f poe try which, thou gh
narrative in its matte r, ye t does not present its subject in t.he form
o f a rel::l.tion, but allows its characters to appear a nd speak and
act for themselves. It is div ide d into a. TRAGE DY. This deal s with sole mn, seri o us, and grave top ics ;
and is intended to move the deepes t feelings of pity,
admiration, a nd awe.
There must be (a) A plot more or less complicated a nd im po rtant.
(b) A leading c haracter, or charac te rs, and"several less in
importance.
(c) Unity of subjec t and of ac tion.
Examples. - rlarnltl ; Macbeth; Romeo and ]11/ie!.

308

P OETRY.

COMPOSITION AND RHET O RI C.

b. COMEDY is designed to provoke m irth, o r, at leas t, pleasurable

emot io n, and co nseque n tly c hooses its subj ec ts from the
fo lli es, acc idents, o r humors of life . J\s in th e tragedy ·
the re must l>e a plut, a nd much of th e in teres t oft en arises
from the skill ll'i th wh ich it is wove n an<l de veloped, as
well as from the ridiculous si tua ti o ns in whi ch the char • ..
act ers are placed .
, T he Comedy is divided into the Co medy p rope r, the
Luce, the Ope ra, the l\kludr:una, a nd the Mask .
A 1:,\RCE is a short co rned y, and consis ts of ex travagant
acts and ridicul ous situations .
AN

OPERA

is a k ind of co medy in wh ich th e ac tors ~ing

th ei r pa rts.

A :M ELO DRA MA is partly spo ken and partl y sung.
A J\ L1sK is a roma n tic sce ne wi th superna tu ral characters.

3· Lyric P oe try. - In Epic and in D ramatic poe try the poet
vo ices the ac ts, wo rd >, and thoughts o f o the rs; in Ly ric poetry
he expresses his o wn thou g hts and feelings .
Lyric poet ry may be classified as follo ws : -

d. T1-n: S(>NNrT is a poem o f fourtee n lines. I t m ay t.leal wi th
a ny subject, a nt.I is a lways o f the sa me m etre, iambi c pen tam e ter. Sh:ikespeare, l\Ii lton, a nd \ Vorclsworth are the
great names in this species o f poet ry.
e. Tm: Snl!'u: L YRIC. l\fany m ino r ].yric p oe ms cannot be
said to possess the charartcri sti cs o f any uf these classes .
They arc such as \ Vord swonh' s C11d:u ,1; Rosctti 's ("/,111J
Confines; :\! rs. Browni ng's A .Dc:ll,/ R ofr· ; ( ). \ \'. l [oi 1ll cs's
Co11 !<11/m ,;11/.

4 . D idact ic

Poetry attempts to combine instnwti0n with
pleasure . As its object is p.1 rtia lly the same as th:i t u t" l'c rs11:1•io n, it employs most o f the 1neans m entioned u nd er tint head.
E .:ra111plc.f. - Pope's Jl/,1r,d F srnys; Cowpe r's J;u/:.
Nearly al li e d to D ilbc ti c Poet ry is Satiric Poetry, l>ut it d cp:1rts
still furthe r fro m the trne p urpose of g iving plc:1surc. Jndel'il ,
it s impl y a ss umes the form of poetry to i11creas1; ib ,·en1 )111 . 1\ s
its object is similar to that of prose co m pos iti uns of the sati ric
class, it uses the methods named o n pages 25 3, 254.
Examples. - D ryden's A/>salom anti A/1itopl1e/; ] uhnsun 's
L ond1111; ] .uwell's Biglow P apers.

t ,.
~-

,,

a. OnEs.

These exp ress a wide ra nge o f feeling, reaching
from the gay and tho ughtfu l to the nobles t and most
sublime .

Rxa mp!t-s . - K eats's Orie lo a Nigh lin.r;ale ; Collins's
Ode 011 1111' Pa ssi(l1u : Milton's /iy 11111 011 t/1e JVativily .
b. So:-<cs. Th ese embrace a vast va riety of subjects, sacred
and secu Jar.

(a) Sac red so ngs comprise psal ms, hymns, anthems,
choru ses. etc.

( b) Secular songs m:iy be patrio ti c, co mic, sentimental,
c.

mo ral, of love. of war, etc.
co nt:i ins reflect ions o n so me mournful subj ect,
perso nal or ge ner:il.

T HE El'.EGY

E .xi1111pks. -1\1 iiton "s Lycidas; G ray's E lt:gy w niten in
a Country C!111rcl1yar1!.

EXERCISE XCVII.
J'O J·:TRY .

I [ow does p oe try differ fr o m prose?
Wha t d o you unde rst:tnd by the ma ter i:1b o f poe try ?
3. Whe re d oes poe try se lect its m a te ri:tls?
4. Ilow is th e cho ice of the subjects o f poe try limited?
5. What met hocb o f treatmen t are pecu lia r to poet ry?
6. Na m e th e lead ing d ivisions of poe try.
7. Na m e th e classes o f e pi c _poet ry, and g ive t he cha ract eristi c s o f eac h.
S. Na m e a n exa m ple o f eac h class of epic poe try.
9. G i,·e a m in ute account of the struc ture of any ep ic poe m
yo u have read .
1.

2.

i'

!!

i'

:'
j

I

310

CO~ ll ' O .'i lTI ON ; \ l\ Il l{ H ETORIC.

r u. Classify all the epic poe m s you ha ve read.
I r.
~ Iow d oes dra1natic poetry differ fro m epic?
r z. State the pro mine nt features of each k . J
111
p ue try .
r J·
t I1e

Poin t out ck:uly the dist' t.
1.
: me io n uet we e n th e tragedy and

14 . Clas,, ify all lhe dr:una s vou h·1\·c re·1 I 'ti
r [ow does I ·ri . . . . , . . ' ' w1 1 reasons.
.
) c pot.try differ fr om dramatic and epic?
16. !Jcscnbeeach class of lyric poe try.
.
i 7. .J\l akc a li ne of t he cl :isscs of lnic
p oet ry, and write down
·
11nder rts Jlr"l't:r ch,,
· ·..~, tlic
• n:une of each
o f th e lyr ic p oems you
ca n recullcct reading.
1

S. Describe didacti<: poetry.

HJ. \\' hat r elat io n d ues sat iri c poetry bear lo what
.d
true poe try ?
you cons1 er

zo. \\ 'hat is poe try?
2 1·

Desc ribe th e sonnet.

22.

W ha l arc th e kJd ing cha ra cte ri st ics o f poe ti c di c ti on?

t h · 2tJ. f J l o w <~ oes th e meth od of poe ti c d esc ri p ti o n differ from
.1 o prose r
24. \\'. hy does poetry c hoose the concre te and
the partic ubr ?
5· \\ hat is m ea nt l1y say ing th at
" the bnguage c-f poetry is
arc ha ic "? fllustratc.
~
2

26. Inust rate wh at is meant bv t he rnu sic o f poe try.

tl~e w;e of figura tive lang uage in p oe try limited?
I [ow d o So ngs diffe r fr o m other lyri c poe try?
29 . Describe :rn Ode.
30 . \ \'ln. t .·urr
· 1·
"u m en t s· rn
a vo r o ft he e xisten ce o f 1·d
.
· ·
t 1. ac t1 c poetry?
27. How i,

z.'\ .

LESSON

I

LII.

VERS!FIC:\TIO, .

comedy.

15.

3:

VER!:; l l' JCATJUN.

Versification is that part of Rh e toric whi c h treats of ve rsem aking. [ts leading fea tures may be st1H li ed under ( 1) Metre,

( 2) Rhyme, (3) Stanza.
MET RE .

Rhythm . - All well -writte n cornrosi ti o n h as a smooth and
g race ful flo w kn o wn by th e nam e of d1rtlu11 . H. hythm ,·aries in
prose fr om the quiet len'.l, o r harsh ab rnptn ess, in '"hi ch the
mu sic o f m o ti o n is scarcely p e rcept il1le, to a m eas11red l11)w
close ly apprna ch in g t he r egula rity of ve rse .
This rhythm :trises frum suc h a choice and arrangement of syllab les as cause the voice to fali at inte rvals that knrl to produce
a pleasing and effec tiv e cad e nce. \\'h en t hese cadences occur at
r egul a r di stan ces, we have m etre; in fa c t, m e tre is rhythm redu ced
to re~ularity .
Accent. - Fro m this it a ppears that met re is based on :wc,.n t ,
whi c h is a stress of the voi ce hid o n a certain syll:tble or ,,·Jlahl es
of a wo rd o r of a collect ion of wo r• Is. \Vh en it falls on one o ft :1c
syllables of a wo rd of tw o o r m o re sylla bles it is call ed iCr•nl
a cant, and wh e n o n a m o no syl lable it is called 1111'/ricllf a r an/.

E x ample: -

,,,.

,,,,

,;

,;

" 1\ vcngcr of his kin sman's death ."
1 I e re th e accent on aungr r and o n /.:i11s111a n's are of the former
kind, while th e accent on tf and on dm!IL are o f the !:tttc r. Thcv
have the same value in scans ion .
Feet. - The reg ul a r rec urren ce u f the accent naturally di,·idcs
th e lin e intn pa rts . Th ese parts are cal led fr·!'/. A fo o t, therefo re, co nsists of a co mbination of two or m o re sylla bles, one of
which is accented.

312

COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.

The syllables comp rised in a foot do not necessarily
single word, but may be any parts. Thus : -

I the re i~ / conce;lecl / from vt;i fgar eie,
ca.:e I of pC:Vierty I and poletr/"

"One c;ll
The

Kinds of Feet. - In prose two :iccentecl syllables may follow
in successio n ; as, "divi;e p r;v idence." In poetry one or two
unacce nted syllabics must in terve ne between the accents; except
in the c:-tse of a substituted foot, or of pauses taking the place of
the unaccented sy llable or syllables; as, ~

/

/

This gives rise to two k inds of basal feet. But, as the unaccent ed syllabic or sylhhles may come on either side of the
accented one, fom v:irieties of feet are produ ced. Thus, if '
denotes an accented syl l:tbl c, and v de notes an unaccented one,
we have v ' or v v ' ; or if th e accented syllable comes
first, we get ' v or ' v v, named as follows : -

v

Anapzest,

,
v

v

D:ictyl ,

,
,

v

,

v

;

"
"

Iambic monometer: v

,

"Farewell,
v

,

Sweet dell."
Iambic di meter: v

...

v

" I feel

...

I like one

Who tre;ds

J

?i'1on'e."

v

...

,,.

v

...

"The viJl!agc sm ith ly stands."
Iamhic te trameter: -

vv

V,,.

as, mo11rnfully.

A iine of one iaml>ic foot is called
"
two
feet
"
"
thrr·e "
"
"
fom "
"
"
"
,,
fi1·e
se1·cn ·'

v

v

i:1mbic
iamb ic
iambic
iambic
iamb ic
iamhic
i:i m bic

The other three kinds arc si mil arly named .

V

I and

"Sow peace,

A Verse, or lin e of poe try, is a roml>inatio n of fee t.
Kinds of Verse. - - i\kt rc is d n11l1ly n:1111ed : first, from the kind
of foot ; secondly, from the number of feet in the line. Thus: -

SIX

,

Examples : -

v

as, sing ing.

;

,

v

v

' ; as, intermingled.
,

Trochee,

v

as, "receiving."

Iambic trime te r: -

as, beheld.

v

An iambic hexameter is sometimes called an Alexan dr ine, be :cause in the Middle Ages poems about Alexander the Great were
written in this measure.
Other Feet. - Other combinations of accented and nnaccented syllables may be made, 1J11t they are unnece5sary. One is

IAMDIC !l'lEASURE.

" Her all had a me;ning, her 1i10'vements a gr.:C:e."

lambus,

An iam bic pentameter is often called heroic measure, because

it is used in heroic or epic poems.

/

"A little angel unawa res ."

v

VERSIFICATION.

monometer.
dirnete r.
trimeter.
tet rarneter.
pentameter.
hexameter.
heptameter.

,,.

V""V

reap

I its

'

"'

l.'

harlvest bright."

'

Iambic pentameter: \..J

v

...

" Know well

,

v

I thyself; I presume

v

,,,.

r

v~

not God

to scan."

,_

Iambic ha.'Camete r: V,,.

"The frost

\:

V

,,.

V""

I nipped sha rp I without,

V

"

V

,,.

j
i

within ."
Iambic hcptameter: ...

v

,,.

"Yon is:land strength
,

will

v

I you

,

in? "

~ g11~nl'.c';'1 wen.

\..I

..

?f,, J

;

the can ;ker preyed

v

v

j

v

s:iy, broth er> ,

I

!

i'
''

c"
~
r

~;

l

COMl'U::;JT JON

Al\O

RIIETOR I C.

VERS I F JCA TJON .

Dactylic tetrameter: -

i\'f E1\ SURE.

TROC H AIC

T rochaic monomete r : ,

....

v

v

"' '-' v

....

v

v

,,.

v

I desolate r li gh t of the I straying."

"Joy or the

v

'· Sweetest."
Dactylic hexameter: -

Trochai c dirn etcr: " , ....

v

...

k1 ch th e
,

v

..-v

v

...

v

\J

the

I pleasure."

Swee t the

Troc haic trim eter: ...

v

,. v

...

v

Troc hai c tetramete r : ,,..

v

,,,.

,

v

v

,,.

v

...

v

v

,

v

,,.

v

,,.

sad, un ;ce rtain

v

,,.

I rustling I of

I curtain."

purpl e

J\NAP:l·~<.;TI C ]\'f EASU RE.

J\nap<esti c dimeter: v

v

,,.

v

"Th ere is s111oke
t\napa::stic trim cte r: v

v

...

v

in the fi:un c."

J

vv

...

v v

...

"Of th e be:i11 :tift1l 1\nn alicl Lee."
Anapres ti c tetrameter: v

,,.

v

v

,,.

v

v

Dactylic monom eter : ,

,,.

v

,,.

v

"' '-'

,,.

v

,,.

the liv iing ligh t[ ning from

v

v

v

.. v

v

,...

her eyes."

i\1EASURE.

Th e acce nt of words of more th a n one syllable is fixed by the
dictionary; th e accent of monosyllables varies :icconli ng to th e
reqL~rem e nts of the line.
It is not always possible to determine
the measure with out ex:imining a number of the lines to find 011t
what is the prevailing foot. In trying to scan a pi eu, fir~t mark
th e accenb that are known ; that is, the accents o f the words of
mo re than one syll:iule ; th en arran ge the accents of the monosyllables to suit th ese .
Substituted Feet. - One foot is frequ ently substituted for
anoth er for the sake of convenience, or to give variety o r ri chn ess
to the musi c of th e line . Thus: A tro chee for an iambus; as, -

,,.

An anap<.est for an iambus ; as, "I stood on tlze bridge at midnight."

"Man)' a gallant gay domestic."

"One more un , fortunate."

v

pines and

v

A d actyl fo r a trochee ; as, -

Dac tyli c dimeter:

,

. '-'

murmurin g

vv

"Tenderly."
,,..

'-''-'

" :\ gold en clasp, cla.rping a shred of gold ."
,, v v

"Have 11·ak !ened thy fonct ;est thy lovepiest thrill."
DA CTYi.i C

"'

v

ge ntly."
v

I sil ke n,

"And the
,,.

,,.

,

'-'

prijrneval the

I hemlocks. "

"Then flashed

"In her I ear he I whispers
Trochaic oc tometer : -

""'-'

I forest

Scanning is dividing a line into the fe e t of whi ch it is composed. Thus : -

v

I glo ry I w:iits thee. "

"Go where

v

"This is the

treasure,

J

An iambus for :m anaprest; as, v

...

vv

,,,.

vv,,,.

"King Phil [ip had vaunt!ed his claims."

. ·-~,
t-o•_

1'r1iii

I·-'

316

CO~ Il' O S !TION

AND HflETOlU C.

Elision. - In the substit uti on o f a longe r foo t for a shorter, the
add iti o nal syllab les are sometimes sa id to lJe elided or slurred
ove r. It is better to regard the fo ot as substituted .
At the End. - \Vhen the substitut io n takes place at the end of th e line, special names have unn ec essarily bee n used . If a line has more th an th e regular number o f syllab les, it is said to be
lnpercalalecl/c; if just the nu mbe r, aca la/atic; if less, calalectic.
Th11s:Hype rcatalcctic, -

"If th e pulse

of the p;t;riot

s~l '. die r

or

J ~v/er."

Aca talec ti c, --

" I would
So

fa~t

I the ho; se I drive
I must stop I and sta; e."

not have
/ that folks

Catal ectic, -

l do~vn

"Slat;ghte red

,
blad e."

by / heath en

Incomplete Feet. - Not infreq uently th e unaccented syllable
or syllaiJles are omitted, and th e omi ss ion supplied by a pause.
Thus: v

v

VV

, I h;:(:ak
l gray stones,
V

On thy cold
,,..

v

-

,,. v

v

, / lireak
V

v

~.

0 sea."

v

" Rashly im po rtunate,
1

,,.

v

v

Cone to her

,,..

I deat h

v

v

Mixed Verse. - It is 11 sual to find o ne kind o f feet
throu ghout th e same poem . So metimes, however, several kinds
are e mployed in the same line or in d iffere nt lines. This is especially the case in th e od e. in songs, in tal es, and in romances.
Emphasis is a s pecial stress of the voice laid on a word to give
its meani ng prominence . If th e 111etrical acce nt fall s on an unemphatic wo rd, a harsh ness is produced; as, - "An d

~

sm all

s~al,

317

!~'
i;1·r.

Quantity. - T houg h E nglish metre d epends on accent, yet

!1·
\·1

V E RSIFICATION.

her moth er's legacy."

quanti ty, or th e lengt h of time req uired to pronounce a syllable, is
n ot with out its effec t in the music of the line. One or mo re
naturally long syllables may give the line that slowness, solemnity,
or stateliness of move ment that suits the subject. Thus : "And breathless darkness and the narrow house."
"The vales
Stretching in pensive quietness betwee n."
O n the oth er hand , short, ligh t syllables make the rh ythm qui ck
a nd lively. Thus : -

q.1

I

I

ij_\

· r:t

i\It.'I
fl

i[ ..

I"'~·'
l ~.f!

,.,

""·
~ '

'.I

:1:

~I

I

1»1

" Last, cam e Joy's ecstatic trial."

;.;

"First to the lively pipe his hand addressed ."

1:!

I

Pauses. - Tlcsidcs the pause which occurs at the end of every
line of poetry, the re are usually one or mo re pau ses in the bod y
of th e line . Th e chi ef pau se, called cresu ra, may fa ll after any
syllable; but seldom at th e same place in any tw o contiguous
Jin es. Th e mino r pauses, call ed se mi -cxsuras, may likewise occur
at any p oint in th e line . Som etim es several pauses of equal value
are found in th e same verse .
Examples: " The lights arc out, 11 and gone I a re all th e guests,
That thronging came / with merriment and jests
T o celebrate I th e Ha nging of the Crane
In th e new house, - II into the night / are gone;
But still / th e fir e upon the hearth / burns on,
And I alone I remain."

·: iii
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RHYME.

Rhyme is a co rrespondence of sound . Its m ost fa mil ia r use is
at the end of the line, but it may occur at various points wi thin
the line .

318

COMPO S ITION ANO RHETORIC.

VER S IFI C ATION.

A similari ty of ·sou nd in
· t l1e consonan ts is called All't
·
Rhyme, o r Alliteration . It may occu r 1 erat1ve
r.

a. At th e begi nning of the words; as,_
" As ships drift r/arkling down the tide."
b. At the end of th e wo rd within the wor·' o .

'ti .
'
u, i w1 11n one word
and at the beginning or end of anoth e r wo r<.l; as, "And thistles, and nett/es, :rnd dame/-; rank ."
"And th e night sha// be filled with mu sic ."
"Thus we walk with her and keep unl.Jroken."

,·. In consecutive lines; as, -

Thus song, tlwng; laid, s/uule, form perfect rhymes; but 1·om e,
liome, are imperfec t.
This rh yme usually occ urs at the e nd of the: lin e, and is fvr that
reason call ed Terminal; it may, ho wever, appea r within th e line .
Single H.hymc consists of one rhyming sy llab le, as soul/{l,/uunr/;
Dou b le Rhyme, of two, as shaken, waken; Tripk Rhyme, uf
thre e, as toull'rly , slenderly. The syllables that form the rhym es
are not n ecessarily contain ed in o ne word.
Blank Verse is ve rse without rh yme . It is generally used in
d ea ling with loft y and di gnifi ed sul.Jjects, as they could not lie suL>jected to the cramping restraint of rhyme.

"Tl1e mo d est stranger /owly be nds,
And follo ws to the eel/."
cl. The all iterated syllables may l.Je arranged

111

various order i

"Anti the rlork, and /1enb:lIJ e, and /1 em lork rlark. "
"As blood to the /1eart that will beat no mure."
" But w/10 wo uld soar th e solar /ieight."
"And Mamm o n w ins his way whe re Seraphs might despair."
"Sh a// fo ld thei r ten ts like the Aral.is."

" Tlt e foun ta in o/ perpetual peace flows th ere."
z . . A c~rrespondence in the sound of th e vowels at the close of
two Imes is called Asso nantal Rhyme; as, _

I

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" It fortifies my soul to know
That, tho ugh I perish, truth is so."
. 3· Consona ntal Rhyme, wh e n. perfect, has th e 11roll o1v1'n
t1ons fulfilled : _
g condi-

a. The vowel soun ds are the same .

b. :nie consonants after th e vowels are similar in sound.
c. , fh e consonants be fore the vowels are diffe rent in sound.
d. fhe rhymmg syl bbles are similarly accented.

A Stanza is a combi nation of two o r more verses.
1. !\ D isti c h, or Co upl e t, co ntains two or more rhyming lin es.
2. A Triplet con tains three lines that rh yme together.
Ex:unple, T e nnyson's li'agle. A t ripl et does no t alw:iys rhym e.
3. Q uatrain co ntains four verses ; th ese usuall y rl>yme alte rnately.
When this stanza consists of four iambic pe ntame ters with al ternate rhyme, it is called E legiac Stanza; when of four iambi c
tetram e te rs, Long Metre; when of four iambic trim eters, wi th an
additional foot in the third lin e, Sh o rt Metre ; when of fou r iaml.Jic
te tramete rs alternating with three, Common Metr~. T hus : v / Iv
v -Iv
v /Iv
v / Iv

/Iv
-Iv
/Iv
/ Iv

/Iv
/Iv
/ Iv
/ Iv

/

/

v
v
/Iv
v

/Iv
/Iv
/Iv
/Iv

/I v
/Iv
/Iv
/ Iv

/

/

,,

/Iv / I v
.__, / Iv
v / I v /Iv
/Iv

"'

/ Iv
-Iv
/ Iv
-Iv

/

/

Common Metre is call ed also Ba/!.11! Metre, from its being
muc h us ed in that class of poetry.
4. The stanza of five lines is occasion;i,lly used, as in Shelley's
Orie / tJ a Sky/ark .
5. Six-line stanzas are much ll)Ore common, as in Lo ngfellow's
Tlie Village Blacksmith.

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TH E STANZA .

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320

VERSIFICATION.

6. Th e seven -line stanza of iambi c pe ntameter bears the name
of Rh yme Roy:iL In th is the first fo ur lines form an alternately ·
rhyming qu a trarn, the fifth lrne rhymes with the fourth, and the
last two fo rm a couplet.
7. The eight-line stanza of iambic pentameter is the famous
oltava rima. Here the first six lines rhym e alte rnately, and
the last two rhyme toge ther. Byron's Dun J11 a11 furnishes an
ex:11nple .

10. Arran ge in five trochaic tetr;une te rs: "Round about lii1n
spun the Ltndscape, sky and forest ree led wgethcr, and his stru ng
hea rt leaped within him, as the sturgeon leaps and struggles in a
net to break its meshes."
1 1 • Bring in four lines uf each of the following metres, with the
scansion marked : Iambic tetramet er, iambic hexameter; trochai c
trim ete r, trochaic pentameter; dac tylic hexameter; anapxstic
tetra mete r. Point out clearly any varia ti ons that occur.
1 2. Arrange in two troc haic lines: "\Vomen, I am but a gi rl,
but heroes' blood is in my ve ins, and I will shed it drop by drop,
before I see rriy Janel in c hains."
13. Scan 12 in another measure.
14 . Illustrate the effect of pauses.
1 5. Expla in what you und e rstand by alliteration.
16. Quote lines that show various methods of alliteration.
17 . Quote Jines in whic h you consiLler the alliteration excessive.
18. Stale the rer1uire me nts o f common metre, short metre,
long met re, elegiac stanza.
19. Describe rhyme royal and Spenserian stanza. Name poems
in th ese measures.
20. What is blank verse?
2 r. Arrange in six iaml.Jic lines, making the third and sixth lines
trimeters: " Faith overleaps the co nfin es of our reaso n , and if by
faith, as in old times was said, women rece ived th eir dead raised
up to life, then only for a season our partings a re, nor shall we
wait in vain until we meet again. "
22. Explain a nd illustrate the terms, hypercatalectic, acatalect ic,
and catalect ic.
23 . Q uote a line to illu strate what is meant by unem])hatic
accent.
24. 1\rrange in iambic lines: "Time, as he passes us, has ~
dove's win g, un so iled and swift and of a silke n sound. But the
world's time is time in masquerade."

. S. __The Spenserian stanza consists of nine Jines; the first eight
a1e 1amb1c_ pentameters, an<l the ninth an Alexnn<lrine. The first
and third Imes rhym e together; also the second, fourth, fifth, and
sevent h, as well as the sixth, eighth, and ninth. The Faerie
Q1ra11e, The Castle o/ l111!0/e11ce, a11cl Cltilt!e .Jf,;ro/t! are in this
st:nza.
771e . Vision of Don .Rodt'rick affords a n example of
d11ferent rhymmg .

EXERCISE XCVIII.
V1·: RSIFICATION .

Explain the differen ce between metre and rhythm .
Explam wh y ll is that t here are only fou r kinds o f basal feet
1n English.
I.

.

32r

COMPOSITION AND RHETOR IC.

2.

3. Dist ing1 1i sh between quantity and accent.
4· Name and describe the various kinds of verse.
5. Name and illus trate the various kinds of rhyme.
6 .. Explain _the term stanza, and quote a n example of each of
the different km<ls of stanza.
7· Expl:tin and illustr.1te each of the following te rms: Verse,
foot, accent, emphasis, scansion, blank verse, elision, substituted
feet, incomple te fe et.
8. Arrange the following in four ia mbic te tra meters: "The
bitter-sweet, th e haunting air creepe th, blowe th eve rywnere; it '
preys on all, all prey on it, blooms in beauty, thinks in evil."
9· Arrange in three iamb ic pentameters: "Seek him in rising
vapo rs, and 111 clouds of c rimson or dun, and ofteu on the edge
of the gray mo rning and of tawn y eve."

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COi\! POS JTIO X A ND R HET OR IC.

PROOF-READING ANU MARK IN G.

CORRECTING UH ll 'OS ITI ONS.

PROOF-1\.EADING AND MARKING.

322

THE labo r of correcting compositi ons, espec: ially in large classes,
is very g re at; ye t minute corre ction i ~ tl 1e I.Jest ":ay of showing
the pupil how to avo id errors a nd ::ittain exce ll ence. General
remarks arc of little a\·ail. The be::i11ty anJ su itabili ty of the
various parts constitute the beauty of the whole. Hence it is
necessary to c:i.ll the lea rn er 's :i.ttenti on to th e exact points in
which he has failed, tint he may kno w j1 1st what to avoid in
fnture. Th e toil of c riti cising m:iy be lighten ed l1y u ~;i n g a system
of :i.hbreviated marks, suc h as those g iven lit.:l(lw. (These are
t:i.ken chiefly from Huffcul's En.l{lish in th e .l'u para tmy S chools.)

0

s

Cap

Orth ogra phy .
Capitali L:ttiun.

p

P n11 ct untion.

Corn
Tr

Cr

Had g rnm m ~r.

<ll1.

\V

W o rdin g.
\Vant of d earness.
\Va nt o f :t rcngth.
Lack of unity.
Inelegant.

x

Cl
St

u
II
Cn
A

1ncJ.
Sim .

I. e.

v
?

~l'r :.\n s p u st.:.

<l hscur ity.
Calls attentio n to errors not
spe ..: il ied.

Ac

\ Vant uf accuracy.

c

Co n 1l ~ nse.

Ccl

Co nfused stateme nt.

Sente nc t.:s nut wdl con nected.

!)

~ tril.:c o ut.

Am big uity.
Tnddin ite.
Want of simpl icity.
N o capital.
V ague .
Questio ns th e truth of a state-

T
K

A wk ward ~onst ruc tion.

mcnt.

Inc

Chan ge construction.
Incumpkteness of statement.

ln co nseq uent.

T rt
Ex

,

noir
Ms

I.a c k of taste.

Trite.
Expan tl.
Paragraph require d.
No parag raph required.
Manuscript la cks neatness.

1

BEFORE a manuscript is b rought to th e pr in te r it ought to be as
p erfec t as the author can m:i.ke it. The compositor is_ bou nd to
"follow the copy," in word a nd sent iment, unl ess, 111d ee<l 1 he
meets with instan ces o f \\'rong pu nctu atio n o r fal se gr:u nm ar (and
such instances :i.re not rare), whic h his intelligence enables him
to amend. After th e m:i.tter has bee n read a nd co rrected in the
office, a proof is sent to th e :i.uthor, and if it corresponds wi th the
copy the compositor's responsibility is at an e nd. He has d one
all he is p:i.id for; and sho uld th e auth or desire any changes made
in his m:i.tter, of cou rse he must pay fo r them .
Se nt iments in print look marvellously different fr om the same
ideas in manuscript; and we are n ot surpri sed th at writers sh oul d
wish to polish a little; no r do we object to th eir natural d esire of
a mending or beautifying th eir mental products. But let them not
torget that pay-time will comc,-when the item for alterati ons will
ioom out wi th a startlin g d istinc tn ess in the bill. They founJ it
easy in the proof t0 erase :i. word or two he re and insert a word
or two th e re, without dreaming, perhaps, that in consequence of
th ese little er:i.sures and inse rti ons the co mpositor would be compelled to alter an d reconstruct much of his work . W e know of J.
volume on whi ch the al teratio ns alone have consumed time equal
to one man's work fo: nearly two and a half years . H ow unreasonable _ nay, how· transp::irently unjust - th e expectation that
l This chapter is based on tile chapter o n Proof-readi ng in .. Th~ J\m eri con
Prin1<:r."' pllblislwd liv The Mac K ellar, S miths. & Jun.I a n Co ., Phil adelphia. ant.I ts

uset.1 by their perm ission.

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COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC.

the prin te r should gi1·c gratuitously the time and trouble requisite .
for the radical changes in th e type which an author's whim or '
taste may clem:rnd !
An authority on this subject says: "It may not be im proper, in
this place, just to take notice of th e grea{' da nger to the correctness of a work which :irises from the practice, too common with. ·
some authors, of keeping their proof-sheets too long in th eir hands
before they are re turned to the printe r. The impatience of authors
to see their works in a fit state for publicati on is :ilmost proverbial.
The pleasure arising from beholding, as it were, the 'form and
tex tu re ' o f one's thou ghts is a sens:ition much eas ier felt than
desc ri bed . That authors, therefore, may partake of this pleasure
in a speedy an<l regubr succession, they sho ukl make a point of
forward ing their proof-sheets to the p rinter as quickly as possible,
not only that they may the sooner be got ready fo r the p ress, but
that the work may proceed in a regular manner, without being
interrupted by the forwarding of other works in lieu of theirs.
"Authors are very apt to make alterations, and to correct and
ame nd the style or argu ments of their works, when they first see them in print. This is certainly the worst time fo r this labor, as
it is necessarily attended with an expense which, in large works,
will imperceptibly swell to a serious sum; when, however, this
m ethod of alteration is adopted by an au thor, th e reader must
always be careful to read the whole sheet over once more with
ve ry great attention befo re it is finally put to press.
"A proof-sheet, hav ing duly un dergone this routine of purgation, may be supposed to IJe as free from errata as the nature of
the thing will admit, and the word 'Press ' may be written at the
t op of the first pJge if to b e printed from type, and ' Cast' if to be
electrotyped. These :ire importmt words to every proof-reader;
if he have sulTered his :ittention to be d raw n aside from the nature
of his prop er business, and errors should be discovered when it is
too late to have them co rrected , these words are as the signature
of the dcath -\\·arra nt of his rep utation. /I. proof- read er, therefore,
should be a man of one business, always upon the alert, all eye,

i.Fl

PROOF-READING AND MARKING.

"l

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mi

all attention. Possessing a becoming reliance on his ow'.1 powers,
h e should never be too confident of success. Im perfect10n cli ngs
everv s;de Errors and mistakes assail him from every
.
to h un on
, • ·
.
1
quarter. His business is of a nature that may rend_er h1 111 Ounox .
to blame but can hardly be said to bring !um Ill any very
lOUS
•
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· · . 1
b
nJarge stock of praise. If errors escape him, he is iust1y to e ce
sured . fo r perfection is h is duty. If his labors are wholly free
from :Uistake, - which is, alas ! a very rare case,~ he has done
no more than he ought, and, consequently, can ment only a comparative dearee of comm endation, in that he had the good fo rtu ne
~o ~e more ,,successful in his labors afte r perfection than some of

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his breth ren in the same employment."

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C0;11 l'O S ITION AND J<III-:TOR JC.

'al.

Tlf nt rr, 11

TYPOGRAPll lCA L MARK S EXEMPLIFIED.

THOUGH sev~ral d iffe ri ng opi nio n s exist as to

se\'erfl dil kr ing o pini u 11s e xis t as to
2

th e 111 d 1\'1J ual by '?(om the ar t o f p rinting was

CJ}

the in divid ual by whom th e art of printing \\'as

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admitting

fi rst disco ve red; yet all auth orities concu r in
admitti11;.:- -~e_t e~h oeff: r~ to be th e perso n
who 11n·e nt c t! cast 111e/aL
5

:/

•711
•

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~1pes,

first discovered ; ye t all authorities concur in
1

~

ha vin g learn ed

learned the art of mtting the lette rs from the

tt:nbc rgy lie is al so supposed to have bee n

Gutenbc rgs: he is also supposed to have been

the Jirs t \\'h r~c n gra\'ed 0 11 coppe r pl;itc-s . Th e 1 /-/
~•>IIo w111
. g- t estimony
'·
f\
is prese\·ed in
t he fa mi ly • /

th e first who e ngraved on copper-plates.

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by Jo. Fred. Faustus, of Asch effenburg:

\/ lits 111.1'l c r J clll ~ h deo> tg-11, anJ h" 111 ;.: himsdf

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"ci_( J es iru us \_ :'\rdt:-11t lJ

to

irn prm·c the art, found

ou t (by

characters "Jt'el.
H e pri- "tt.

vately cut matrice-1_ fo r tl1e whol e alp habet:
Faus t was so pl eased with th e co nt ri,·an

-~t

he promised J'ete r t o g ive him 1i ·

-daughter Christi11<1 in

marriage,

,

only

prom ise

-\vbich he soon aft e r perfo rmed.

.•aJ---r-·-- --I
But the re \\'ne
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with th es e ld(!_ rs, as

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.

---ifliSI\culti es

many

the good providence of God)

the

method of cutting (incidendi) the characters in

cast, instead of being cut. He privately cut
matrices for th e whole alphabe t : and when he

•s

"u/
1

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.

at first no 1

iere had bee n before

of Gernsh e im, perce iv-

a matri:c, that the letters migh t easily be singly

in a matrix, th a t the let te rs mi g ht eas ily be

'.J / sin g ly cast/ instead of b~_~ng c111.

• l'ETEI\ S c 11 0EFFER,

ing his mas ter Faust's d es ign, a nd bei ng himself ardently d es irous to improve the a rt, fo und

out (by the good prov idence o f God) the
m et hod of cutting (•::'..'/'.':¥".'. .~'.) t he

T he

following testimony is preserved in the family,

·:.~ ~ · f'.c tc r_ S~ h o~fl\: r, 7 vf _G e rnsh c im , . p c 1-c_eiv in g ~~hd

·•

person wh o invented cast mt/al types, having

th e ar t -&f. of wff in.r; th e letters fr o m the Gu -

1 by 1 Jn. I J·'rcd. 1 Faust us, I / of I Asc hc Oc nburg·:

'• 1

PETER SCHOEFFER to be the

3

/()'lfJ

Vl/Jo'ln

showed his m aste r the letters cast from these
matr ices, f;i,ust was so pleased with the contri va nce, tha t he promised l'eter to gi ve him
his

on ly da11g htcr

Christina

in

ma rri age . a

promise whi ch he soon after pe rformed.
there were as many

diffi culti es at first

Hut
with

th ese le tters, as there had been before with

with wood en on(' . the m e tal he ing too soft ' a;r, /
+
----- Jlcu.
to suppo rt th force of th e impress io n : bu t ,,,......._
·

wooden (l!l t s, the metal b ein g too soit to su p-

thi s dcfc

port the force of the im press ion : but this defect

S() I · d c ned

was soo n remedi eJ. by mixin g

y ~{t12 ~'-~ '! whi c h sufficient ly "a.
.;{,! Jh o1vea! h ,) vut ,1/e t
/~wi t'heoe ,mat'trtN!<J~

----- an.r/ ·w hen

/ctklJ C' l.JI

tho

was soon remedied , by mixing th e metal with
a ~ub s tance which suffi ciently hardened it.'

328

EXPLANATION OF THE CORRE CTI ON S .
COMPOSITION AND RHETO RI C.

"

EXPLANATION OF THE CORRECTIONS.
A wrong let ter in a word is noted by dra wing a short perpendicular
li ne through i t, a n d making another shor t line in th e m argin, beh ind
which the ri gh t le tter is placed. (Sec N o. 1.) So with wh ole word s
also, a line be ing drawn acro ss the wrong word and the right o ne written in th e m argin opposite.
/\ tur ned kttcr is noted by drawing a lin e through it, and writing the
mark No. 2 in the m a rg in.
If letters or words require to be altered to make t he m m ore co nspicuous, a parall e l line o r li nes mu st be m ade un dernea th the word or
lett e r, -viz. fo r cap itals, th ree li nes; s mall capitals , two lines; and
Italic, one li ne; and, in the m a rg in opposite the line where the a lteration occurs, Caps , Small Caps, o r ital. must be writte n. (See No . 3.)
\ ;o,,' he n let te rs or words are set double, o r arc required to be take n out,
a line is Jrawn thro ug h the s uperfluo us word or lett e r , anJ the mark
No. 4 placed opposite in the margin.
vVh ere t he p unc tuation req uires alterat io n, the co rrec t poi nt s hould
be wri tten in the marg in. (See No. 5.)
Wh e n a space has bee n omitted bet ween two w o rd s , a ca re t must be
made where the separation ought to be , a nd the s ig n No. 6 placed opposi te in th e m argi n.
\ Vh c n a word s hou ld fo rm a com pou nd with a no ther, it is denoted as
in No . 7.
vVh en a letter has bee n omitted, a care t is put a t the pl:.ice o f omission, a nd th e le tter mark ed as No. 3.
Where a lin e is too wide ly spaced . the ma rk No . 9 mu st be placed
betwee n the word s and also in the nurgin .
Where a n ew paragraph is requ ired. a q uad ra ng le is drawn in th e
marg in , a n d a ca r e t placed at the begi nning of th e se nte nce. (See
No. ro .)
No. 11 s hows t he way in which the apos tro p he, inver ted commas ,
the s ta r and other refere nces . a nd s uperior lett e rs ;u1d figu res, are
marked.

\Vh erc two word s are transposed, a line is drawn over one word and
b e low the other, and th e mark No. 12 placed in the m argi n; but whe re
several words require to b e trans posed , the ir ri g ht order is sign ifi ed by
a fi"ure pl aced over eac h word, and th e mark No . 1 2 111 th e m a rg in.
Where words have bee n struck o ut that have afterward been approv ed
of, dots should b e marked under the m, a nd stet writte n in th e m arg in.
(S ee No . 13.)
.
.
.
\ ;o,,'here a space s ticks u p between tw o w ord s , a hon zo nt:tl lin e ts
draw n und e r it, a nd th e mark No. 14 p laced opposite, in th e_ oi;1rg 1n.
\Vh e re seve ral wor d s have been left ou t, th ey a re transcribed at the
bottom of th e page, and a li ne drawn fr om th e place of omissiun to the
written wo rd s (see No. 15 ); b ut if the om itted m all~ r is. too extens ive to b e cop ied at th e fool o f the p:tge, Out, see l<JjJ)'. ts written 111 the
m a rg in, and th e missi ng lines a re en closed be twee n bracke ts, and th e
w ord ()u t is inserted in th e marg in of the copy.
\Vh ere lette rs s ta nd crooked, th ey are n oted by a lin e see (No . 1(•);
b ut wh e re a pa"e hanrrs, li nes are drawn a c ross the entire part affected.
When a s m aller or''1arger lette r, o f a d iffe rent fou nt, is i1~1prope rly
introduced into the page, it is noted by th e mark No. 17, wh ic h s 1gm·

fi es wron" fo un t.
lf a p~~ag raph is improperly made, a line is dra1_v n from t he brokenoff m a tte r to the next paragraph, a nd No ~f writt en 111 t he margrn .
(Sec No . 18.)
\ Vhe re a word has bee n left o ut or is to 1.Je ad ded, a caret mu st be
made in th e place wh e re it s hould come in, and the word written in the
m a rg in . (See No. 19. )
.
Vvhere a fau lty lette r appears; i t is de note d b y makin g a cross under
it , and plac ing a s imilar m ark in the margi n ( s_e e No . ~ o); though
some p refer to d raw a perpe ndicu lar line throug h 1t, as rn th e case ol a
wrong letter.
. .
\;o,,'h e re a word has been accic.le n tally sepa rated by a space, 1t ts marke d
as in No. 21 .

1

r

INDEX .

A.
Apostrophe, rules for, 33·
exercise o n, 34.

Auxiliari es, 55 ·
!\rljecti,·cs, tv ith one noun , 56.
Adjectives ancl adverbs, 56.
Adapt, t1'e of, 63.
App r u iatt, use o i, 64.
A1 ocntio11, use of, 64.
Alttntr1/i11t, use of, 64.
Alfow, use of, 64.
Aggi·m,a te, use of, 65.
.-It lmgtli, use of, 65.
Adjective clause, 6.
cha nged , I 62.
Adverbial cl ause, 7.
1

Arrangeme nt,

of arlverhs, 82.
of aclverbial ph rases, 82.
of aclv erhial clauses, 82.
parti cipial clauses, 82.
misleading arrangement, 83.
exercises on, 84, 85, 86, 87.
euphonious, I 34·
of sentences in paragraph , 147.
poeti c , 189, 190.
Anti-climax, I 13.
Alliteration, 194.
Allegory, 210.
rhetorical value, 210.
questions on, 219 .

Apostrophe, 222.
compared with personification,
rhetorical value, 222.

222.

Antithesis, defined , 226.
rhetorical value of, 226.
rule of, 226.
exercise o n, 228, 229.
/ Esthctic qualities, 255.
exercise on, 26o, 262.
Amplification, 271.
Annals, 285 .
1\ rgumentalion, 298, 299.
methods, 298.
parts, 298.
style, 298.
theme, 298 .
exercise o n, 299.
Addresses, 300.
Acce11t, 314.
Anaprestic measure,
examples of, 314.
Acatalectic line, 316.

''

!''I

•i

B.
Biography, 285.

c.
Composition, defined, I.
Copula, 2.
Complement,
of simple predicate, 2.
of incomplete verb, 2.
Complex se ntence, 6.
exercise on, 7, 8.
Clauses, kinds, 6.
substantive clanse, 6.
what it may be, 6.

33 1

I'

'

f;

Clau ses, a djec tive cbu se, 6 .
its Yalu c, (,.
huw a ttach ed , 6, 7.
a dve r bial cla use , 7.
i ts valu e , 7.
h o w co n nec ted, 7.
Com pro mi se, th e , 1 2.

Cont inu ity, ho w allaincd, 147.
Conn ect ives, 147.
Ch a nge o f orde r o f words, 16 1.
exercise on, 16 2 .
Co nstru ction, va riety, 16 2, 163 .
exerc ises o n, 164- 168.
varied by co mbinin g, co ntracting,
expa ndi ng se nk uces, 168, 17~.
Con dc nsatiun, defin e d, 17S .

Capi cali1.a tion, 20 , 2 1.

exercises o n, 2 I, 2 2.
Con1ma , ru les fo r, 23- z5 , 3 1, 3 2, 34.
exer cises on, 25, 26.
Co lo n, rul.:s fo r, 27.
ex ercises 0 11, 28, 29.
Ca ret , rul e fo r, 33.
Ci1ptio11, use or, 63 .
Co n dig n , use o f, 64.
Citizen , use o f, 65.
C(}/1/i111u1!, syno nym uf, 69 .

exe rci se o n, 1Xz, 18 3.
Chrn11 idcs, 28 5.
( :ri t iei ·ms, 295.
Com ed y, 308.
l'atalcc tic lin e, 3 16.
Correctin g co mposi tio n, 3i 2.
proof, 324-32 7.
ll .

C r i 1111\ sy non y1n of, 69.
Cl) u rngt., sy nonym of, 70.
l 'onsrious, sy honym of, iO .

Dash, rul es for, 29, 30.
exercise o n, 31, 32.
Dic ti o n, d efi ned, 39.
qualiti es o f. 39.
gc ni.: rul cxer.. : ise o n, 76-8o .
p oetic, 189.

Co"fl<', sy n ony m of, 70 .
Clu1ra rter , syn o nym of, 70.

Cle a rnc;s, 8 1- I05.
wha t it req uires, 8r.

ho w p ro m o ted , 81.

]Ji,·idc<l usage, 4 I.
fr 1>1 u r e fer en ce o f p ro n ou11s, S7 .
f ) t11u u 11, use o f, 6.i.
fr u m posit io n or em p hat ic words, Dock , use o r, 65.
92.
/.Jturip tion, use or, 65 .
Inst by im p roper ellipses , 97.
/ )iJ/ tl/,\Yl(lJlt , sy no nym o r, 70.
lost hy lo ng se nten ces, 98.
f )c/nc, sy nonym o r, 70.
ge n e ral exe rc ise o n, 10 1- 106.
/ ) um b, sy n onym o r, 70.
Co m p a ra ti ve , use o f, 56.
!ic/ect, sy nony m o f, 70.
Co mbin ing- se nte nce , 15.
l luc proporti o n, 149.
Com pound se nte nces,
D ire c t cli.sco urse, 170.
defi ned , 9.
t• xcrc1sc on, 175.
rela t ion o r parts, 9.
D~ris i o n , d e fin ed, 25 3.
exe rcise on, 9, 10 .
Disco urse, kind s ., f, 284- 310.
Constru ct ion, th e sam e, 93.
Di ary, 285.
exercises o n, 95-9 7.
Descr iption , 290.
Closin g , how d o n e, 1 12.
kind s o r, 290.
Climax, 1 I 2 .
princ iples o r, 2')0- 29J.
Conn ec ti on, \\'Ords or, 11 6.
style o r, 293.
Ch a nge o r sn hjcc t, I 27.
fram e work , 293 , 294 .
Co nt inuity, 14 7.
exe rcise o n, 294.

I

333

INDEX .

I NDEX.

Ep ic poe tr y, 306, 307.
divisio ns, 306, 30 7·
E kgy, th e, 308.
Elision, in the lin e, 31 6.
at t he enJ, 316.
Emphasis, 316.

Dram a, the, 30 7, 308 .
Di dac ti c p oet ry, JO<) .
Dactyli c mcasun:,
exa mpl es of, 3 14.
Disti ch, 3 t 9.
E.

Exdamo.t ion po int , rul es f<J r, 32 .
exercise u n, 34·
F xput, use u r, 63.
Fli 111 i11<1le, use uf, 65 .
Exte n d, use of, 65.
Fxcite, syno nym o f, 70.
Elli pses, i111 pro pe r, 9 7.
e xe rc ise on , 99 , 100.
E pith e ts, prose, 10 7.
poet ic, 192.
Excla m ation, 1 2 1.
E leg an ce , defi ned , 133.
ho w attain ed , I 33·
b y m elody o r lang uage , 133.
by ha rm o ny, 135.

hy avoiding fine wr iti ng, 133.
by keepin g, 139 .
gc ni:ral exe rcis e o n, 14 3- 145.
Euph o ni ous word s, 133.

F.
F ore ign words, 40 .
Fem ale, use of, 6+
J·:111ll, sy nonym uf, 70.
Fewer, synonym o f, 70.
Fftcli , sy non ym o r, 71.
Fo rm ation o f se n te nct'S , 8 1- 145 .
general exc: rcist.: un , l s-i- 160.
F orcible worJ s, 1 16.
ex e rcise o n, 1 17 - 11 9.
Fin e writing , 138.
exe rcise o n, 140, 14 1.
Figurative lan g uage, 195- 19 7.
Fig ur es o f sp eec h, 20&--23}
defi n ed , 206.
value and use v f, 2ofi, 20 7.
kin ds of fi gu res, 20 7.

I

gi..: 1a::ral e.\e r<.: i :sc v n, 230- 23 3.

Fo rce , ddi ned, 245 .
v ari eti t.: s of, 24 5 .

arrangeme nt, 134.

endin gs, 135.

Eu pho nio us ness, 194.
Epi gr:i m, dctin ed, 227 .
relati on lo othe r figu res, 227.
rh e to rical valu e o f, 227.
exerc ise o n, 22 9 .
Eu phe mis m, Lleti ncJ , 227.
rh etorical value o f, 227.
e xe rcise o n, 2 2 9.
Expositio n, 295- 297.
d iv isions, 295.
p arts, 29 5.
m ethod, 296.
sty le, 296.
the m e, 297.
exercise on, 297.
Essay, 295 .
Edit urials, 295.

•

r eqt1ire ments of, 245-247.
exer c ise o n, 248-25 1.
Fable, clefm ed, 21 0 .
rhetoric al value , 2 10 .
questi ons o n, 21 9.
Framewo rk, 279.
Fi cti on, d efi ned, 285.
divisions, 286.
F orce, 308.
Feet, defin ed, 3 I I.
kind s or, 3 12 .
substituted, 3 15 .
incomplete, 316.

G.
G ood usage , 39·
h ow t u t'1nd, 4 !.

I

~

;

' !

335

INDEX.

IND EX.

334
Grammatical p urity, 39, 41 .
Cet, use of, 64.

L.
J.uw word s, 40.
L ouse sentt"nces, cJe fi neJ,
exerc ise u n, 13- 15.
Less, synony m oC 70.
l .onr, synony m o f, 71.

Gram mar, poetic, i91 .

Great epic, 306.

IL

Lo ng sen te nc es may lea d to obscurity,

11 yphen, rules fur, 33.

9~.

exen.: is c ~o n, 34.

l/ea!tliy, synonym uf, 70.
/Jabil, synonym uf, 70.
J-larnw11 y, 135, 256.
exe rcise on , 136, 137.
imitative, 195.
II yperbole, defined, 222.
exerc ise on, 225, 226.

cxcn.:isc on,

I

I.
I.

exercise on , 269.

Int errogation poi nt, rules for, 32.

Leet ure, 30 1.
Lyric poetry, 308, 309.

exerc ise on, 34.

I mprop ri ety, 63.
Id io ms, 116.
Int e rrogatio n,

M.

1 2 1.

di~c ourse ," 170.
J 75.
I ro ny, defined, 227.
rh etori ca l " alu e o f, 227.

Indirect

exercise on ,

Im agi natio n, 305 .
Id ylls, 30 7.
Ia mbic measure, 3 1 3.
examples uf, 3 I 3.
Ind ex, 323, 331.

J.
Jests, defined, 254 .

K.
Keeping. 139, 140.
exercise on ,

100, 101.

Lud.icrous, the, detined , 253.
kind s of, 253 .
exercise o n, 25 7- 259.
Letters, 263-269.
k inds, 263.
fo rm, 263.
heading, 263.
address, 264.
\Jody of, 264.
conclusion, 265.
supe rsc riptio n, 265.
style of, 266.
business, 267.
<:xa mples o f, 267 , 269.

I

l l umor, defi ned, 254.
Histo ry, 284, 285 .
poin ts respecting, 2S7.
Humanity, 305.
H ypercatal ec tic line, 316.

In ventio n,

11.

142, 1 4 3.

I

ll"!in or points, u f syntax, 55, 56.
exe rc ise o n, 56, Si·
MooJs, sy ntax o f, 52.
1J!isl11km , use uf, 65.
1l/,111ntrJ, synony m of, 71.
~ l clody, 133, 255.
exercise"'" 136, 137.
Methods o f tran spos ing poetry, 184187 .
1'!easure, 186.
111 etaph or, 208-2 IO.
tlefi netl , 208.
compared with simile, 208.
rh etorical value o f, 208, 209.
rules fu r, 2()().
expand ed , 20<)-2 10.

I
I
I

t:xer~ises on, 212-218.

Metonymy, detined, 220.
kinds of, 220.
rh etori cal value of, 220.
exe rc ise on, 222, 224.
lllock·heroic, 255.
;\lernvi rs, 285.
Metrical romance , 3o6, 307 .
Mixed epic, 307.
~1ask, the, 308.
i\leloJrama, 308.
Metre, 311-317 .
lung, short, conunun, 319.

N.
N ew words, 40.
Nouns, syntax o f, 4 5.
No uns, exerc ise on, 47 ·
Nia, use of, 65.
Neg/at, syno nym of, 6<).
N umiJer of words, 106.
exe rcise on, 108 -110.
Narrati o n, 284- 29 1.
kinds of, 284-286.
style o f, 287, 288.
parts, 288.
framework, 288.
practice in, 288 -290.
exe rcise in, 2 9 0 .
News , 28 5.
Novel, kinds, 286.
principles.of, 286, 287.

o.
Obsolete words, 40.
O rd er of words, 11 I .
exercise on, I 13-115.
Oratory, 300.
Orations, 300.
Opera, an, 308.
Odes, 308.

P.
Parable, defined,
Y. uestions o n,

210.
219.

Persp icuity, 234- 23 7.
ddmed, 234.
liuw gained, 234-2 37.
ex.ercise on, 239-243.
Picturesqueness, 237-239.

defined, 237.
on what it depcn<l s, 23 7- 2_)9.
exercise v u, 239-243.
Pa thus, J.dined, 247 .
bow awake ned, 24 7.
to what it applies, 247.
huw in c reased , 247, 248.
ext rcisc un, 248- 25 1..

Parody, 255.
plan, the, 270-284.
pr actice in compusition, 273-284.
Persu.\stun, 300-303.
end>, 300
dassificat1on, 300, 301 .
\
means of, 301.
style, 301.
th eme, 302 .
exerc ise, 303.
Pastorals, 30 7.
Puetry, 304-3 10.
Pauses, 317.
Proof, correct in g. 324 , 327.
Predicate, what it consists uf, 3.
its modifiers, 3.

I
1

position u r, 92.
varyin~ o f, I ()S.
exercise on, 170.

Punctuatiun, 23-36.
general cx en..:isc on, 35-37.

Period, rules for, 30.
exercise on, 31, 32 .
Parentheses, rul es fo r, 33 ·
exercise o n, 34.
Purit y, rhetorical. wbat it consists in , 39·
standan l of, 39.
e rro rs in, 39.
exe rcises on , 42-44.
Purity, grammatical , 45 ·
of no un s and pronouns, 45 ·
,, f prono uns, 46, 4 7.

INUE X.

l 'urity, g ra 111 mati ca1, exe rc ise o n,

4 7, / l'oc_try, its ma terials, 304 , 305 .
its me thod of treatm ent ' ..)05' j"o6 .
.
!ls d ivisi ons, 306-309.
q uesti ons on, 309, 3 i o.
~icturesq ucn ess, pue try, 190-193.
Plcun asm, 10 7 .
l uet1c cpllhcts, 19 2 .
l 'rovcrLs, 11 6.
words, 193, 194 .
Pa re ntheses, I 28.
ll esc ripti on, 29 3.
l'a ragraphs, co11structi on of, 14&-1 54 .
P erso nifi ca tio n, dt tined, 210, 211.
exercise o n, 151-15 4 .
rh e tori ca l value of, 211.
writi11 g of, 273-2 78.
exercise on, 2 18 , 2 19 .
l'<irnllcl co11structi on, l 50.
48.
o f vc rLs, agree ment , 49 .
Periodic scn t...: 11 ces , dc::1i ned , 11.
exe rcise 011 , 1 3 - 1 5.

l'hrascs o r t:l nuses,

adj ec tival; c han ged, 162, 163 .
exerc ise on , 164, 165.
adverbial, changed, l 63.
exerc ise un, 165 , 166.
nuu n, chang ed,

J 63.

exercise o n, 167, 168.
l 'ron o uns, syn tax of, 46.

c'ercise o n, 47, 48.
l'ast tense and past pa rticiple, 56.
Prt.>pric ty, 63.

d cli ncd, 63.
importa nce of, 63.
e xam p les of, (,3-66.
exe rcise on, 66-68.
Frw limle, use of, 63.
Fdl-md/, use of, 64.
I '/01/y, use of, 65 .

337

I NDE X.

0

I

I

Q.
Q ual ifi ers of the snhj cc t, 2.
<2u otati oJJ ma rks, rul es fur, 32,

exercise on, 34·
Q11ile, use of, 64.
Quota ti ons, 116.
<J ualit ie, uf style, 234.
d clin ed , 234 .
classi fied , 234.
quantity, 3 17.

<J untrain, 31 9.

IC
1~c vi c ws , 295.

I0 1ctori c, de lin ed, r.
I.:csulving se nte ncc·s, 17, 18.
l{ hc lorica l purity, 39.
!.'estive, use o f, 64.
Ptc<.: isio n, d efi ned , 68.
l.'e n dilio11, use of, 64.
exa mple s of, 68-71.
!.'rplnre, use of, 65 .
how attained , 69.
!.'m1t111ba, synonym of, 69.
e xercise on , 72-7 5.
Red unda ncy , defi ned , 107.
P ro nouns, refe rence to ant ecede nts, 87.
wh e n permissible, 107.
relative p ronouns, use of, SS.
Rhyme, 11:>6.
exe rcise u n refer ence uf, 89-9:.
ki nds of, 3 17-319.
Ph raseology, 176.
Rhe toric al a nalysis, 243, 252.
Para p hrase , d irections, 172, 178.
R.:p rod uction, 244, 252, 253.
exe rcise o n, 182.
l\i d icul e, cle lin ed, 253.
poe try, I 84-205.
re nd ered effect ive by, 25 4 .
how done, 184, 185.
Ra ill ery, de fin ·d , 253.
exercise on, 188, 189, 19 7-205.
rendered effective by, 254.
Poetry, how differs from 1irosc, rS6, Roma nce, 286.
197, 304.
Rhythm, 31 1.

· Style, its qualities, 23.;..
Soc ial mean ings, 41.
Slang, 4 1.
Style, 1.
Se nte nce , g ra rnmatical d ass illc ati on , J . Solec ism, 41.
Subjun ctive mood, 52.
kin ds of, 1 .
sim ple ~L· 1 1tc n ce , I .
Short sente nces, 12.

s.

subjects o f,

exercise on,

2.

5, 16.

Subject, position uf, 9~ .
Strength, defined , J06.
exercise o n, 4 , 5·
combined , co ntracted , an c.l e xwhere d es irable, 106.
how promoted, 106.
pa nded, 168, 169.
exe rcise un, 171, 173.
co1n pl cx se nte nces, 6.

its clauses, 6.

33.

·i

its qual ifi ers, 2.

fr om vari ety, I 2 0 , 1 2 1.

exercise on, 7, S.

co ntracted, 170.
exe rcise on, 174, 175.
compoun d se ntences, 9.
what they consist uf, 9.
rela tion bet wee n parts, h ow
made , 9.
what members a re, 9.
one me mbe r may be aLlJre viate<l , 9.
exerc ise o n, 9,

10.

con tracted , I 70.
exercise on, l 73, I 74.
Sentence, rhetorical, 11.
dassili cati o n,

I I.

ki nds o f rhe tori cal se ntences, 11.
pe riodi c scn lc nce, 11.
loose sen te nce, I 1.
co m pro mi se s e nte nce,

fr orn nu1nbe r o f wo rd s, Jo6.
from ord er of words, I 11- 1 I 3.
from forcible words, 11 6, 117.

general exercise on, 124- 127.
S uspense, I I 2.
Supplementary clauses, I 29.
Sy nony1ns, l 76.
exercise on, 179 .
Syntax,
of nouns a nd p ronouns, 45-4 7.
of verbs, 49-52.
of moods, 5 2.
uf tense , 52, 53.
of au xiliari es, 55.
of min or pui nts, 55 , 56.
general exe rcise on, 5~6 2.
Simi le, th e, defined, 207.
rules fo r, 208.
rh etorical valu e of, :?OS.
exerc ises on, 2 11, 2 1 2 , 217.

12 .

balanced se nt ence, 12.
defin ed , 12.
exercise o n, I 9.

short sentences defi ned , 12.
long senten ces, 12.
topi c se nt ence, I 46.
Semi·culon, rules fo r, 26, 27.
exercise on, 28, 29.
:;tyl c, de fined, JS.
its elements, 38.
its importan ce, 38.
means of attaining, 38.

Syn ecdoche, defi ned, 22 1.
rh etorical value of, 221.
co mpared with metonymy an d
metaph or, 221.
exercise on, 224-226.
Satire, de lin ed , 25 3.
rend ered effective by, 254.
Sa rcasm , defi ned, 253.
rende red effe ctive by, 254.
Speech es, 300.
Sermons, 30 1.
Songs, 308.
So nnet, the, 309.

I
!'

'.

i

I
I

IND EX.

Simple lyric, 309.
Sati ric poe try, 309.
Sca uning, dciineJ , 315.
Stanza, the, uelined, 3 19 .
elegiac, 319.

uf paragrap h, 149 .

ENGL/SJ-I.

V.

auxiliaries, 55 .

B y ANNA B. u ..\Dl. A t>I ,

Vcrsi licatiun, 3 11 - 32 1 .

its parts, 3 2 I.
exerc ise on, 320, 32 1 •

Verse, a, defi ned, 31 2 .
kinds of, 312.
mixed, 3 16.

w.
IV"itness, use o f, 64 .
\\'ords to use f., r clearness, 8 i.

placing of, 83.
CXtTCise on, 83, 84.
emphati c, place of, 92, 93 , 111 .
exercise on, 9 4 , 9 5.
number of, 106.
\ \lit, defined, 254.
consists in, 25 4 .

z11

Language.

J--' rin cipal of Lewis ton Practice Sdiuol, :vtaine; ft>rmerl.:r ot

the Ri ce Trainin g- School, Boston. L eath erette.

9

I

u.

Su.gf[estive L essons

I "iJ itor, sy no nym o f, 6 .

Variety , strength fr om, 1 20 , 12 r.
Tenses, 52, 53.
exerc ise un, 121-J 23 .
'/'h is and that, 55 .
To, of the in fin itive, 56.
in paragraphs, 150.
Visi o n, 121, 20 7.
Transpire, use of, 65 .
Va riety of expression, 1 00- 205 .
To a rlegru, use oi, 65.
Tnilh , synonym of, 70 .
of prose, 16o- 18J.
'l'autology, deiineJ, 10 7.
of poe try, 183- 205 .
exp lannti v n, J 6o.
when permissi ble, 107.
Tran sition, I 16.
kinds, li uw attain ed, 16o.
uf cons tru c tio n, 162.
Things unconnect ed, 128.
Topic sentence, 146.
h v w sc:cu red, 162.
poetry ti 1 prose, 1 s4 .
Transposing, prose, 177.
mclh t>ds, 184- 187.
exe rcise on . 180, 18 1.
Vituperatiun, dchncd, 253 .
poetry, 1S4, 205 .
rend ered effec tive by , 254.
exercises on, 188, 189, 197 _

Uller, synonym of, 69.
Un ity, defined, 12 7.
how attained, 127.

..1

Ii!

exe rcise o n, 5 1 •
m o ~lUs, ten ses, 52, 53.
C:'H:rc ise on, 53, 54 .

T.

205.

!

Verbs, agreement, 49, 50.

o f five lines, uf s ix lin es, 319 .
o f seven lines, uf eight, 3zo.
!:ipenserian , 320.

Terms, co ncrete, spec ifi c, 194 .
Travesty, 255.
Tast e, delin ctl, 256.
Themes, general, 2/o- 273 .
Theme, a, 278-284 .
Travels, 285.
Tale, the, 307.
TrageJ y, the, 307.
Troc haic :neasure, examples of, 314.
Triplet, 319.

!

U nity, e xe rc ise un, 1 30- 132 .

10 4

pag t:s . 1'.etai\ pri c1.::, 50 cents .

l-I IS Look includes outline lessons for oral wor k , specimens of
stories told by ch ildre n who had had the work, a collection of
simple fables fo r reproduc tion by th e pupil, and a series of m iscellaneous exercises in oral language.
Jt forms an excell ent introduction to J-fyde's Fin·/ Book (see below)

T

Practical Lessons zn t!te · Use of Eng!islt.
For Prim a ry and Gramma r Schools. By MARY F . HYDE, Teacher of Compo·
sition in the Sta t e Normal School, Albany, N. \'. First Book. For P rim ary
ard Intermediate S choo ls. C lol h. 1 c:; 2 pages. )>rice by mail, 40 cents. l n·
trod ucti on price, 35 cents . Second ·'Book, with supp!cmt: nt,. fo r Gramm. ot r
gradt::s . 36 2 pages. Price b)' 111,.,il, 70 cents. lntrodu ctiun price, Go cents .
The Second 13ook may be had wi th" Advanced Lessons" (sec page 52) bound
with it. 438 pages. Introduction price, 70 cents. Price by mail , So cents .

H ESE Looks are des igned to give the pupil practical aid in
sparking an d in w riting English. The First Book con tains
such exercises as are n eeded by pupils when they begin to write
English. It includes graded lesso ns in the forms and us es of words
and sent ences, dictation exercises, reprodu ct ion exe rcis es, pi c ture
lessons, cho ice selecti o ns for memorizing, practice in letter-writing,
etc.
The Second Book is in tended for pupils in grammar schools . It
covers such technical g rammar as is essential to a co rrec t us e of tlte
language, g ives many selections for study from the best write rs, the
mos t common uses of capital letters and of marks of punctuation,
practical exercises in compos iti on, and special instruction in writing
let te rs, invitations, advertisement s, public notices, etc.
The S uppleme nt provid e s for a thorough review of all the gram·
mati cal princ iples t aught in the preceding parts and also for a more
extended application of those principles.
[Su next par.

T

50

52

Advanced L esso/ls

i1t

Eng!isk

By MA R\' F. llYU E, formerly T c.ichcr of Composition in the State Normal
S chool. Alban y, N. Y. Clo th . 2 10 pag<"s. Int roduct io n price, 50 c~ nts. Price
by m ail , ?5 ct·11ts . T hi.., b no k may be had bou nd with Seco nd Boo k (see page
50). 438 p a~c s. Jntru<luc ti o n price, 70 cent:s . Price by mail, So cents,

l!I S bouk is dt.:sign ed fo r arkrnced c hsses in gram ma r sch ools, or
for pu pils in h igh s chools, acarlt.:m ics, o r ung raded schools , who
desi re a b rie f, practica l, progress ive cou rse in Englis h Grammar.
Th e spec i.tl aim of the boo k is to g ive th e pupil a mastery of the
leading g ra mm a ti ca l prin ciples. No attempt has bee n made to multiply exceptional points. but rather to in cite the pu pil to observe and
ap ply cssent i:d facts.
The work docs not cons ist of a mere statement of abs tract defini~
li ons and rul es . Examples of good English fr om standard writers are
giv<.:n in co nn ect ion with eve ry pri nc iple s tated, and th e pupil is led to
a clear underst a nding o f the lead ing gramma tical forms and construct ions, th roug h the study of t hese exam ples.
J t contains a progressive se ries of oral and writt e n exercises, which
test and fix th e pupil's knowledge of th e prin c ipl es studied, and give
him readi ness and skill in the use of language. These exercises are
adapted, -

T

I. To give the pupil such a mast ery of the parts of speech, th a t he
will recognize read ily th e oflice of each word in any ordinary sentence .
2. T o give him a pra ctical knowledge o f grammatical forms .
3. To mak e him famil iar with the lead ing constructions in English.
4. T o make him famili a r with th e leading grammatical terms .
5. To g ive him a Jii-m grasp of the lead ing g rammati cal p rinciples.
6. To g i\'e him the al.Jili ty to a nalyze a n y o rdinary sentence.
7. T o give him the ability to comprehend readily and fully the
meanin g o f a writer or speake r.
8 . To a id him in exp ress ing his own thoughts intellige ntly and accura te ly.
9. To help him to g ain knowl edg e by his own effo rts .
1 o . To furnish h im th e !Jest possible p reparation for higher Englisb
st uuies or for th e study of other lang uages.

53

ENGLISH.

ENCJJSI!.

Englis!t Grammar.
. /; G
ar with Contin u ou s ..\'dtc!iM~S J~ r !'racfic~- Bv
Out lints of E111:-l1s' , ;nmm . f Fn r \ i~ h G ra mmar in th e Sta te N11n!l'.ti ~c h onl,
H AHRIET

MATHE\~S. ' 11 each6e6r o rr~·sg ,lntro<luction price,

T renton , N · J ·
maii 80 cents .

Clot

l.

2

p•bc ·

70

cents.

Price by

Hi ~

b ok is designed to furnish a full course in Engli sh g ramm,a r
~l chsses exce pt thos e pu rsuing spe1:ia l :tdvan ced \\'nrk. 111c
or a
.
'I . .
. th e su l.Jjcl"l rn conbook is devo ted to g ra mm a u cal won.: an c presents
'_ . .. - .
..
.
. ti ch oice selec ti o ns and extracts as well as sclc ctcd Sc,,_
nect ion wi . l
· I
( t1 •
.
f ti
vork is to teach from the ma tcn.1 s n
l~
tc nces. The a im o
te '
.
English language the principles of its g rammar as a scie nce .

T i

Isabel W . Pierce, Stal t ,V,1r111 rrl
J. M . Green, Prin . Sta le Normal
S(/z .;ol, l/i i~o, Ca l . : I t has ernhodi cd t he
School, Trent on, N. f. : l t is m y opw1on
th at this grammar has gone a lon g way
to v.·ard advan ci n g " th e lea rn ing of Engli sh by using it " in the proper sense . l
have seen the b ook used in both. normal
and p ublic scliools with very sa ll sfactory
results .

Louis F. Galbraith, Sir.le N orm al
Sch ool, ~Vi1iona, ,1/inn.: lts ~cw fea tures arc pe Jagog: ica\ly attract 1v ~ . an d
so und. I a m of the opinion that it I ~ o n
the right line.
/
Bertha B a.es, State Normal Schou ,
ce, R . I . : The book ought tu
P r •111·d,11
..,
...
f
teach tl1e be auties a s well a s the us es o

ri ght plan of teac hin g gra mm ar .

Elias Fraunfelter , Su/ I. Pu blic
Sclzools Akron. O . : it i-; ce rtain ly a very
excelle~t work. T he met ho d fu \io wed hr
the au th o r h as bc~n u ~ed in th e..:. c schoo l">
s ince last Septembe ri a n d t he res u lt
secu red is ver y sa ti sfactory indeed.
Oscar S. Burdick,

""'"J'

S d1 ool.
J am mu ch p\ c:\..:.e? w 1U1
th e plan o f th e buok as we ll a-. W t lh it s
cx~cutio n. Th e iJca of c o r ~ ~ 111 u( r th st: lt•c tions for use in class 1 c,nv"id ~~ r a most
, .
excellent one, an <l the au : h o r h :1s cer ,;un 1~'.
l
I .
'
dis1)la yed good judgme nt i n ie r c w 1ce o i
,
~
th ose t o be used . I t ru st i L 1nay ni ce ~
English.
with th at h ear t y re ce ption f ro m sc hnnl
Sa.rah Alice Glisan, State Normal officers and teach ers wh ich it ce rt ainly t.kSdiool, Gredy 1 Ctilo. · J\ n el~ vat ed and se rv es .

Stam/vrd, Ct .

refined sentiment pervades th e e xtracts ,
London Literary World : 5 o f:ir
thu s an et hical eleme nt is added to t~1e as ou r k nowl edge extend s, the bno k .1"
·
,
1·1tar·
1
an
one.
It
see
ms
well
adapled
to
. I Th
Ut
am o ng the best of its kin r . .
e r rin ·
its purpose of leading children to compre- ciple th e auth or s tarts fr~1m , like a:l
liend and use th e m o th er-tongu e .
1
1 t 1o re s1m1" e
principles, is simp e, an c. fl (J n
.
Mrs. Ida Wall Lewis, Slate Nor- than sound, both lo r: ically and psycho lugi ma/ School, Yp silanti, ,l{ic/1igan: Miss cally.
was
Matthews iias seen exactly
·
. what
- d . , bl
Public Scho o l Journal , I II .· 1I.
ecd d and h e r g ra mm ar 1s ,t mtra y
I ·11
·1 .i :._
n ,e '
.
d I fou nd it would be a );n; ;\t Dun n t u c. 11 t H'''. 1 .,i.
designed t o suppl) th at n ee · . h
b k ould be widely introrh1ced into tho
superior in plan to any other wh1c 1 ever
oo c
cxa.mined.
schools.

h7r

I

.,

f'.'N Gf./SH.

Tlz c E ng !is!t L a11g uage.
l.ts Gr1ammar , I.li s tory, and Li te r~tu re, w ith chap ters on Composition, Versifi ca·
By f. ~1 . D. M ElKL EJOHN, Pro f~sor of

t;on, I ~1 r<tpl~ras m g, an ~ ! l' u.n c t 11a t1 o~l.

f,eda;<ngy in the U 111 v•'rsi ty of S t.. An ,frews . Scotla nd. Cloth . 396 pages.
l n ee by m:11 l, $ 1. 30. ln trocl uct1 on p n cc red uced fr o m 'f. 1. 30 to $ 1. 2o .

'T

l-H S boo k , whic h trea ts of t he Grammar, H is t o ry a nd Literature
of the E nglish L a ng uage , is dis t ing ui s hed throug hout by clear,
b r ief a nd comp rehe nsi\'e statemen t an d illu s trati o n. Ins ig nificant d etails a rc o mi tted, but a ll s a lient fe atures a re treated with th e utmost
clea rn ess. A co m plete in de x is add ed fo r con ve ni e n c e o f r eference.
It is espec ially suitable fo r c lasses needing a schola rl y , y et c le a r and
in te res tin g s u mm ary, a n d for t e:ich ers wh o wa nt a br ief t e xt for their
o wn in s tru c ti o n. l t is a co m pac t a n d r eliau le s ta te ment of a ll the
ess e nt ials o f th e su bj ect.
[See the f ollowing.

E nglish Grammar.
Par ts I and l J of" T he En~ l i,h Language " (described a bove). Ry { · M. D .
M H. I KLRJO ll N, _Profcsso1: 111 th e U niversity nf St. A ndrews, Scotlanc. C loth.
!'nee by mail , 90 cents. Introdu ction price , 80 cent !>.

236 pag'es.

pi\

RT I co nt ai n: a conci se and a cc u ra te ds11~11tf of th e prin c iple s

and r u les of E nglis h Grammar, wit h s o 111 e in ter es t ing c hapters
o n w ord-b u ild in g and deriva ti o n, including a hi s to ri c al d ic tionary of
root s an d bra n ches of wo rds cl e ri \'ed fro m n a m es of perso ns or of
places, and of w o rds d isguised in form , and word s g r e atly chang ed in
m eanin g .
Par t l l co n tain s 30 page s of p r ac ti cal instructi o n in C omposition,
Pa r a p hra s ing, Ve r ~ili c at i o n an d Pu n ct u a ti on . Th e book concludes
wit h 36 pages of exe rc ise s o n P a rt l. It is suit ed to A cademies, High
S chools and C olleges.
Examin ation Pap e rs cover ing t hi s boo k are p ubli s h e d in convenie nt fo rm for cut t in g 11p and di st ri b uti ng am ong tbe pupils. Price, ro
ce nt s .

E11g !is!t L£tcrat11rc.
!~ar t s I l l ant! I V, of, '_' _Th e. l':ug!i,I'. L.rn~uaKe" (descri bed a lJO':'.c). By J.M. D.
Mll l KL l·. J O ll ~ , .1 ro1C:i :;0 1. Ill th e l: lll\'Cr:--1ty of St. A ndrcws l !'Scotland. Cloth.
1 9.~ pages . P ri ce hy m ail, 85 ce nts . Introduct io n price. So cents .

P AR T S I I I a n d JV ~f " 'l~h e E nglish L a n g u age " which comprise
this book are des c ri bed

111

full on th e n ext page.

FNCL!SH

E xercises in Eng !isk
Selected and classifi ed for c ri ticism o r cnrrectir n. By H . i . STRANr., l i ead
Master Goderich ll ig h Sc huol , Onta rio. ( Revb ed, with addi tions . hy G. [{. C:\K 1
l'ENTE P. , Assoc iate l ro fessor of En i;: li ~ h in th e Massac hu set ts l11 ~t i t 11t c 0f T ech ·
no logy .) C lo th . 14 6 page ~. Introdm: ti on pri ce , 45 ce nts . Price by mail , 50
ce11 b .

M

ANY p u p il s who have a read y command o f g rammati cal rnks and
d e ti n it i" ns , a n d wh o are f. 1irl y p ro l.1 c ic n t in an.li ys is and p:t rsing ,

a re yet seem ingl y 11n;1ble t<> d<:tec t co mm O•I a n d undou !Jtc•l c1-r•>r.s in
se n te nces o f t hei r ow n wri ting . Acc us to m e d a s t he m:tjo r ity of o u r
pu11ils are fro m childhood to h ea ri ng inco rrec t forms of spe l' c h used by
those :iro un d th e n1 , s pec ia l :ind s yst e m a ti c d r ill is n ecessa ry lo tc:ich
th e m to n o ti ce a nd guard aga in s t th ese wro ng for m s ; and thi,; drill
s ho uld be o ra l as well as writt e n , in o rde r th:it bo th th e car and the e ye
m ay be e nlist e d in th e ca use of good Eng li s h , and tra ined to assist the

.''

s tud e nt.
This b ook is a n a tt e mpt n o t o nly to s upply e xactly this ne1:essary
d r ill fo r s t uden ts who pursue th e ir studi es no furthe r than the l li.~h
School, bu t to prnvi d c a 111 plc a nd ad equate d ri ll fur t he 1·ery brgc class
o f pup ils w ho arc p repa rin g fo r co ll ege .

At alm o,;t .di th e N e w E ng- -

land colleges and sc ient ifi c sc h ools, a n d in c e rta in others of the ,'lii ddle
and 'vVcst e rn States as well , th e candid a te is required " t o co1rrcd
speci m ens of bad l :-11g lisil. "

It is t o m ee t th<.! requ irement,; of this impo r ta nt exa min a ti o n t hat thi s ho,)k h as bee n r eccn tlv carefully achptcd
by th e add iti n n o f co n s id e rabl e mat i.: r in th e bod y of th e hoo k an d of
an a ppe nd ix co n tainin g e ig h tee n ty pi ca l coll ege e xamin a ti o ns .
U lfr s/•1Y i11 I cir clflar 011 t ltis boo/; gi11es tlb1111d a 11/ c71!dou t: of Il.1·

.t·,·.

ji1r sdwo! 11 11-J w ll,:i;e a nd for all i 11/r:r r:st ed i n careful 1vni·
I 1 ·c q 110/ e a j i:w opi11io11s: -

11sef/f/J1c.u ·
i11g .

Jam e s R . Truax, Prof. of R hct .,

Geo . E . MacLean. Prof. of Fn,,-..

.F:ng l .. r1 11g . and l.it . 1 Uni(l ll Co!/. 1 f\.'. V .
Univ. of ,l /i11 n . J\Jmi rabl y :«elected and
:\n c min e n!l y sen s ible mode · o ( teac hing arran ged. Sh ou Id be:! u:-1 ed in every I [ igli
a vital subjec t. It should be honored by School, to supple ment th e g ra mmar and
extens iv e use in th e schools.
co mpositi on .

J. A. Tufts , T eacher ~( F.nglish,
En~. , Lela nd Sta nford U11i11.: It is Plrilif s E xd er Academy : I have fo und
• <l mirable, ancl J l<o pe to fi n d use fo r it it valu able in prepar in g: l)oys for: college .
As revised it is vastly impro ved.
with my Freshmen .

Melvill e B . And e rson , Prof. of

,.

..

~

ENGLISI-1 LITERATURE.
Hawthorne and Lemmon's American Literature .
~

and a ca<le rni e-;,

A manu a l for hig h sch ools

1.15.

Meiklejohn' s History of English Lan guag e and Literature.
and co llep,, e !i.

For hig h schools

A CClmpa c t and r i.>: li a ble !\t;'lte mc nt (J I 1h c e~e ntial s ; a l!to in cluded in

McikJe jo lin's Englis h Lang uage ( ~c unde r E. nr;li!'l h Language).

Meiklejohn' s History of English Literature.
Li teratu re, abo ve .

, 16

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pa ges.

Par t IV o f Eug lish

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Ho dgkins' Studies in English Literature.

Give• lull lists of aids !or laboratory
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Sco tt , Lamb, \V ords wo rth , Cole ridge . :Ryro11 Shell ey . Keat s , M aca ul ay '
Dickens, Thacke ra y , R obl'r t l:hown ing, M rs . Ur o wn in,:;:, C.i.rlyle, George Eliot, T e nnyson . Ro!'setti, Arnold, Ru ~ k in, I rvin~ , Br yan t, Hawthorne , Longiellow, E merson,
\ Vhit1i c r, Holme-. , an<l L owel l. A separat e pa m phle t on ea ch author. P ri ce 5 cts . eac h,
o r per hun d red, '1 3.ct0 ; co mp le te i n clot h (:1<lju:s tabl e file co ve r, $ 1 .50). 1'1.00.
Wi th introducti ~n and copious

Scuddcr's S helley's Prometheus Unbound .
note s .

70 eta.

Geor ge's W ordsworth' s Prelude.

A nnota ted !or h ig h school an d college.

George ' s Selections from Wordsworth.
the g ro wth o{ the poet's mind ;rncl art.

, 68 voems ch ose n wit h a view to illustra te

$ 1.50.

George' s Wordsworth's Prefaces and Essays on Poetry.
\Vords wo rth':s pro se .

f10

Cont ains the bes t of

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George's Webster's Speeches. Niue ~elec t .s peech es with n otes .
George's Burke's American Orations. Cl o th . 6 5 ct<.
George's Syllabus of English Literature and History.
c olumn s , the prog rc :s!'\. uf ll i:i to ry and Lit er;llurc.

Corson's Introduction t o Browning.
A lao has JJ poctns with noti:!I.

~1.so.

Sh ows in pa rallel

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A gu ide to the s tudy o f Browning', Poe try.

S 1. 50. -

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A uiti cal • tu <ly oi

~ 1. 50.

Corson's Introd uction to the S tudy of Milton. 1,,prm .
Corson's Introd uct ion to the S t udy of Cha ucer. 1'1 press.
Cook's Judith. The 01d En~:li sh epi c poe m, wit h introd u ct io n , tr;u 1 ~bt io n ,
fac· s 1rnilc p a ge .

$t .6o.

S tu1lc 11t ...." ccl1tio n wii h u ul tran :-. la. tion.

Cook' s The Bible a nd Eng lish Prose S tyl e.
from th e litc r .iry sid e.
o{

gl o:;~ ar y a nd

3 5 c t s.

1\ pproachc s th e st udy of th e Bible

6o c ts .

Simonds' Sir Thomas Wyatt and his Poems.
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h is poe m s.

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from th e

ch o ices t Engli&h literature.

Phillips's History and Literature in Grammar Grades .
in ti1n a 1e re la tion o f the tw u s ubjects.

A" e;say oh o wing th e

15 els.

Su n l.w nm · l ist •if l•ot1/,; s /o r //z.r. si tu!)' o/ the Enrl ish Lanru,11;e.

D. C. HE AT H & CO. , PUBLISHERS .
BOSTON.

NEW YORK.

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·~ ·.~

